Lva1 App6891

CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
The word lime refers only to manufactured forms of lime/quicklime (CaO) and hydrated
lime (Ca(OH)2 , though it is sometimes erroneously used to refer to a wide range of
calcareous materials including fine ground limestone and dolomite.
Lime is a versatile material and has a wide variety of uses. It is used as an alkaline
reagent in the chemical industry, a flux in the iron and steel manufacturing industry, a
binder in the pharmaceutical industry, and for making mortar in the building and
construction industry. There are also numerous minor applications in diverse fields of
science. The shear importance of lime can be deduced from the fact that the United
States Geological survey yearbook estimates the total world production of quicklime
and hydrated lime, including dead-burned dolomite for 2009 at 280 million metric
tonnes (Miller, 2010).
The demand for lime in so many diverse industries, some of which are situated here in
Ghana, makes the establishment of a lime producing plant a potentially profitable
venture. Presently there is only one plant for the production of lime. It is owned by
Carmeuse Limestone Products Limited with a production rate of 100,000 t of lime per
year. However with the markets low saturation there is still an opportunity for a lime
production company here. Thus this plant design for the production of lime is relevant
to the Ghanaian market at this time.
Main objective
The main objective of this project is to design a plant for the production of 90,000 t of
lime (CaO) per year.
1.2 Specific objectives
The specific objectives of this project are as follows:
i.
to conduct literature review,
ii.
to select and describe a process for producing lime,
iii.
to calculate material and energy balances of the process,
iv.
to specify all equipments,
v.
to design selected process equipment,
vi.
to select a location for the plant,
vii.
to select relevant safety and pollution controls for the plant,
viii.
to select the relevant instrumentation and process control scheme and
ix.
to conduct an economic analysis of the plant.
CHAPTER TWO
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 History of lime production and use
Lime (CaO) is one of the oldest materials known to humans. It was probably discovered
in prehistoric times when limestone, which was used in the construction of fireplaces
and hearths, broke down into lime and carbon dioxide. Hydration by rainwater produced
a simple type of putty that prehistoric humans put to use principally as a binding agent.
Evidence from eastern Turkey reveals that lime mortar was used in terrazzo floors at an
archaeological site dated from 5,000 - 12,000 BC. Firm evidence exists for the early use
of lime from 6,000 BC in the Near East, as well as in the Balkans where lime mortar
was used in the construction of a floor. The ancient Egyptians used lime for plaster in
the construction of the pyramids, while the Chinese added lime to mortar for the Great
Wall of China. 5,000 years ago in Tibet, lime served to stabilize soil. Other ancient
civilizations that used lime for various applications include the Greeks, Romans, Incas,
Mayans and Mughal Indians (Graymont.com, 2007)
A lime kiln was excavated in Mesopotamia and dated at about 2450 BC. The formula
for lime cement was lost in time but rediscovered in 1756 when John Smeaton, a British
engineer, patented it. Lime was employed in the ancient world in a variety of processes
including bleaching fabric, tanning hides, agricultural soil amending, glassmaking,
painting (whitewashing), and in making putties and glues when combined with certain
organic or inorganic substances. Aboriginal people as well as ancient Roman physicians

used lime in different medical treatments.
Up to the 20th century, lime kiln design was relatively simple. The easiest method of
production was to dig a shallow pit, fill it with firewood and limestone, and set it ablaze.
Since ancient times, kilns were either a beehive oven design or a simple vertical shaft
kiln. Limestone was quarried from a local deposit, and stones of 10 cm in diameter were
placed in the shaft with alternating layers of firewood. The fuel and limestone burned
for several days. When the fire stopped and the kiln cooled to an appropriate
temperature, the lime was removed out of the shaft from the draft tunnel at the bottom
of the kiln. The product was then shipped in baskets or barrels to the site. (Kogal et al.,
2006)
2.2 Limestone
Limestone is a fine grained calcareous rock of sedimentary nature made up of the
mineral calcite and aragonite which have the same composition, calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) but slightly different crystal structures (Kesler, 1994). It is formed either by
biogenic precipitation from water (usually seawater) or by mechanical transport and
deposition. Pure calcite is clear and white; however with a variety of impurities the
limestone may assume different colours. Limestone is easily weathered and eroded.
Limestone can undergo metamorphosis to marble and if it contains other materials such
as clay or sand, the calcite will react with them. Limestone is mined with the use of
explosives to break up large underground or surface deposits. (Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 2009)
In nature, the limestone bed is found to occur in varying purity. Generally a part of the
calcium molecules being replaced by magnesium tends towards magnesium limestone
or dolomitic limestone. Limestone with more than 10% of mineral dolomite is termed
4
dolomite limestone and that with 5-10%, magnesium limestone. The rock which
contains more than 95% of CaCO3 is known as high-calcium limestone and if clastic
(composed of fragments of other rocks) silicate impurities dominate, the rock is marl
(Mineralzone.com, 2007).
All limestone contains impurities. These can be small particles of quartz, feldspar, clay
minerals, pyrite, siderite and other minerals. It can also contain large nodules of chert (a
brittle microcrystalline quartz), pyrite or siderite. The CaCO 3 content of limestone gives
it a property that is often used in rock identification - it effervesces (gives off gas in tiny
bubbles) in contact with a cold solution of 5% hydrochloric acid (Geology.com, 2006).
In addition to its use in the manufacture of lime, limestone can be used together with
clay to produce cement and can also be crushed and used as an aggregate in concrete. It
is used as a road base, railroad ballast and also as an aggregate in concrete. Powdered
limestone is used as filler in paper, paint, rubber, plastics and as a sorbent (a substance
that absorbs pollutants) at many coal-burning facilities. Calcium oxide is mainly used in
the gold industry for maintaining the pH of gold-cyanide solution (Geology.com, 2006)
Some of the physical properties and chemical composition of limestone are shown in
Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 respectively.
Table 2.1: Physical properties of limestone
Physical property
Value
Hardness
3 4 on Mohs scale
Density
2500 2700 kg/m3
Compressive strength
60 170 Mpa
Water absorption
Less than 1%
Porosity
Quite low
Weather impact
Resistant
(Source: Mineralszone.com, 2007)
Table 2.2: Typical chemical composition of limestone

Chemical constituent
Lime, CaO
Silica, SiO2
Alumina, Al2O3
Magnesium oxide, MgO
FeO + Fe2O3
Alkalis
Loss on ignition, LOI
(Source: Mineralszone.com, 2007)
Amount, %
38 42
15 18
35
0.5 3
1 1.5
1 1.5
30 32
2.2.1 Occurrence of limestone in Ghana

Limestone has been noted in many parts of Ghana. Deposits of any appreciable extent
are known to occur in six regions. There are however only two major limestone deposits
in Ghana suitable for the production of lime and these are at Buipe in the Northern
Region and Nauli in the Western Region.
Buipe limestone deposit

The Buipe limestone deposit covers an area of approximately 110 km 2 (Kesse, 1985).
Out of the total area, only the southern tip, representing between 10 - 15% of the deposit
has been investigated in detail (Ail-ghana.com, 2006).
The total reserves are 6 million tonnes of limestone and 138 million tonnes of dolomite
(Kesse, 1985). They have a strike length of about 22 km and a width of about 5 km. The
dolomite is considered as suitable refractory material and as flux. The dolomitic
limestone is suitable for the manufacture of lime. The results of the chemical analysis of
horizons in the Buipe limestone deposit are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Results of chemical analyses of horizons in the Buipe limestones
Mineral
Limestone
Dolomitic limestone
Dolomite
Mudstone (marl)
CaO, %
48.60
45.55
30.15
24.90
MgO, %
1.35
15.25
17.1
3.65
6
SiO2, %
6.55
8.1
5.85
31.15
Al2O3, %
2.40
3.1
2.8
10.55
Fe2O3, %
0.55
2.85
(Source: Kesse, 1985)

The results of the analyses of chemical composition of limestone prospected extensively
are presented in Table 2.4 for comparison.
Table 2.4: Chemical analyses (average) of Buipe limestones prospected

Area
CaO, %
MgO, %
SiO2, %
Al2O3, %
A
42.69
1.40
14.20
3.68
B
41.86
2.12
13.56
3.48
C
42.50
1.41
14.00
3.40
(Source: Geological Survey Department Russian Team, 1990)
Fe2O3, %
2.12
2.05
1.85
LOI, %
35.81
34.86
35.54
Fe2O3,%
2.74
2.08
2.36
LOI,%
34.98
35.44
34.11
Table 2.5: Chemical analyses for measured resource

Area
CaO,%
MgO,%
A
42.41
1.00
B
42.10
1.46
C
41.52
1.26
(Source: Addo and Birla, 1995)
SiO2,%
13.42
13.81
14.54
Al2O3,%
3.39
3.36
4.20
Nauli limestone deposit

The Nauli limestone deposit stretches from Kegan, a coastal village, which is to the
south-southeast and runs in the west-northwest direction through Nauli and Edu to the
Tano River at the Ghana-Ivory Coast border. Kesse (1985) states that about 400 million
tonnes of proven reserves have been estimated at depths of 24 - 120 m from recent bore
hole tests, out of which about 23 million tonnes could be exploited by open-cast mining.
The Nauli limestone has been determined to be suitable for the manufacture of Portland
cement and lime production. The summary of chemical analysis done on Nauli
limestone is given in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Summary of chemical analysis of Nauli limestone
7
Area
SiO2, %
East (E)
3.97
West (W) 3.24
E+W
3.60
Al2O3, %
2.19
1.94
2.07
Fe2O3, %
1.57
1.29
1.43
MgO, %
0.86
1.22
1.04
CaO, %
48.87
48.85
48.86
S, %
0.61
0.64
0.63
LOI, %
39.63
39.75
39.69
2.2.2 Calcination reaction of limestone

The chemical process of producing lime (CaO) from limestone (CaCO 3) is termed
calcination. It involves heating of the limestone to a temperature of 900-1100C at
which it dissociates into CaO and carbon dioxide (CO2).
CaCO3(s)
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Gilchrist (1989) relates the Gibbs free energy (G) of the process to temperature as
G = 177,100 158T
where G = standard Gibbs free energy, J/mol
T = temperature, K
The Gibbs free energy is zero at 1121 K or 848C. At this temperature the equilibrium
pressure of CO2 is 51 kPa (Lide, 2005). This pressure is however too low, since it is
necessary that the equilibrium pressure should greatly exceed that of the partial pressure
of CO2 in the kiln atmosphere for the process to be economically viable. The optimum
temperature range for viability is 900-1100C as the equilibrium pressure at 900C is
101 kPa which greatly surpasses that of the partial pressure of CO 2 in the air directly in
contact with the limestone lumps. The temperature range is also suitable because it is
not so high as to lead to the production of dead burnt lime. The equilibrium conversion
at 900C is calculated to be about 95.5%. Kamalu and Osoba. (2010) determined that
the calcining reaction is a zero order reaction based on the equation;
CA0 - CA = kt
where CA0= initial amount of CaCO3, t
CA = amount of CaCO3 at time t, t
k = reaction rate constant=1.41275 t/min
8
t = time, min
The total heat for calcining is the sum of the sensible heat to achieve the calcination
temperature of 900-1100C and the latent heat of calcination. The practical heat
requirement is usually about 4 GJ/t, with 40% of this amount being sensible heat and
the rest being latent heat (Austin, 1985).
2.3 Lime
There are three distinct types of quicklime that may be produced. The different types of
quicklime are defined by their magnesium oxide (MgO) content. High-calcium
quicklime contains less than 5% MgO and is the most common type of lime produced.
Magnesium quicklime contains 5 - 35% MgO and dolomitic quicklime (also referred to
as do-lime) contains 35 - 45% MgO. Each has its uses and applications, however only
high-calcium limestone and dolomitic limestone are discussed here as these two
products dominate the lime market (Graymont.com, 2007).
2.3.1 Properties of lime

Chemical properties
The success of calcination is measured by the available CaO content of the lime. In the
case of dolomitic lime, this is expressed as total oxide. Available lime is a measure of
the CaO in lime which is the amount available to combine with water to form calcium
hydroxide. It is in effect a measure of the purity of the lime. Available lime is typically 3
- 5% less than total lime which is the total amount of CaO present in the product of the
calcination.
This disparity between total lime and available lime occurs because some raw material
remains uncalcined as limestone core or combines with other impurities in the kiln to
form other compounds such as silicates, aluminates, and ferrites. Thus a chemical
9
analysis may show a certain amount of lime and yet only a fraction of that is truly
available to react with water.
Consequently, even the purest high calcium limes have less than 95% in available lime,
usually a small percentage less than total oxide content. The overall purity of lime
depends on the level of impurity of the limestone and its mode of manufacture. Results
from a typical chemical analysis of quicklime are presented in Table 2.7. The values
given in Table 2.7 do not necessarily represent minima and maxima percentages.
Table 2.7: Chemical analysis of commercial quicklime

Component
High-Calcium Quicklimes
CaO, %
93.25 98.00
MgO, %
0.30 2.50
SiO2, %
0.20 1.50
Fe2O3, %
0.10 0.40
Al2O3, %
0.10 0.40
H2O, %
0.10 0.90
CO2, %
0.40 1.50
(Source: Kogal et al, 2006)
Dolomitic Quicklimes
55.5 57.50
37.60 40.80
0.10 1.50
0.05 0.40
0.05 0.40
0.10 0.90
0.40 1.50
Lime is very reactive and the reactivity of quicklime is defined as the measure of the
rate at which CaO will react with water or the rate of release of the heat of hydration.
The heat of hydration or slaking is the amount of heat liberated when quicklime reacts
with water; 1140 kJ/kg of CaO and 886 kJ/kg of dolomitic lime. This strong exothermic
reaction will boil water easily and under certain hydration conditions, temperatures of
290 - 315oC have been reached causing dehydration of freshly slaked lime. Quicklime
can be so reactive that it explodes on contact with water. Impurities and uncalcined
limestone core affect hydration by decreasing the amount of total lime. The finer
10
fraction of run-of-kiln tends to have a higher content of these impurities. Fuels such as
coal also contribute to total amount of impurity. If dolomite is present in the stone feed,
it also can inhibit hydration, resulting in a slower reaction nearly three orders of
magnitude slower than that of pure CaO. (Kogal et al, 2006)
Quicklime has a high affinity for water, this causes quicklime to air slake, which may
reduce its reactivity significantly. After partial hydration it also has a high affinity for
CO2 and tends then to combine with low levels of CO2 in the air to form CaCO3.
On slaking into a slurry, or milk-of-lime, the saturated solution ionizes immediately into
Ca2+, Mg2+ and OH- ions, creating one of the strongest bases. Even a trace of lime will
yield a pH of 11.2 and up to nearly pH 13 at saturated solution and low temperature.
Dolomitic quicklime has 16% greater neutralizing power than CaO because of its MgO
content. Trace elements, such as lead, arsenic, molybdenum, and chromium, which are
considered toxic, can make the quicklime unsuitable for certain applications such as
water treatment if such impurities are observed (Kogal et al, 2006).
Physical properties
Important physical properties of lime are listed in Table 2.8. Lime is typically white
with varying intensities of brightness, although depending on the presence of particular
impurities, it may have a light cream, buff, or grey cast. Lime has either no odour or a
slightly earthly odour. Although its texture is earthy, appearing amorphous, lime is
actually microcrystalline, having a rock salt cubic crystal structure.
Porosity of commercial quicklime is dependent in part on the original porosity of the
original limestone and on the decomposition process in the kiln. The severity of
calcinations (temperature and time) affects both the porosity and chemical reactivity of
lime. When lime is soft-burned (slightly sintered and calcined at relatively low
temperatures of 900 - 1200C), very little or no shrinkage occurs, and a porous, softer,
11
very reactive lime is produced. Lightly burned lime can have porosities up to 55% by
volume.
When lime is hard burned (sintered at relatively high temperatures of 1300 - 1600C and
over burned) a denser, physically stronger, and less reactive lime is the result. In either
case, the lime will readily hydrate in water, although rapidity of hydration is much
greater with soft burned lime than hard burned lime. Associated with the reaction of
quicklime with water is a corresponding increase of 2.5 times its original volume.
Table 2.8: Physical properties of typical commercial lime products
Quicklimes
Property
High Calcium
Primary constituents
CaO
Specific gravity
3.2 - 3.4
Bulk density (pebble lime), kg/m3 880 950
Specific heat at 38oC, kJ/kgC
0.4
Hydrates
Property
High calcium
Primary components
CaO
Specific gravity
2.3-2.4
3
Bulk density, kg/m
400 560
Specific heat at 38oC, kJ/kgC 0.62
Dolomitic
CaO and MgO
3.2 - 3.4
880 960
0.94
Dolomitic
Ca(OH)2MgO
2.7-2.9
400 560
0.62
(Source: Kogal et al, 2006)
2.3.2 Uses of lime

Lime is one of those usually unseen products that have a profound effect on our daily
lives. It is used in many important sectors such as: construction and materials,
environmental, agricultura and industrial applications.
Construction and materials uses
In the construction and materials industry lime currently plays an important part in the
drying, improvement and stabilisation of soils to provide a platform for heavy
construction. It is used as a component of mortars, exterior rendering and interior
12
plasters. It is also used as an anti-stripping agent in the production of asphalt and tarmac
for road construction and as a binder in the productions of bricks, aerated concrete
blocks, fire resistant boards and lime concrete.
Environmental and agricultural uses
Within the environmental and agricultural fields, lime is used in effluent treatment to
adjust the pH of harmful acidic effluents and in sewage works to treat sewage that
contains suspended solids, dissolved organic matter, nutrients (phosphate and ammonia)
and heavy metals. It is also used in soil stabilisation so as to increase the suitability for
agricultural use and adjust pH for improved crop yield. Lime is also used in producing
chicken feed supplements and in fish farming to raise and control the pH of acidic
ponds. In fruit farming, it is used to forestall premature ripening. It can also be used to
manufacture inorganic salts such as Ca(PO4)2 used in other products and in the
manufacture of sugar from sugar beet (Britishlime.org, 2008)
Industrial and other uses

Industrially, lime is also used in the manufacture of steel for removing impurities and in
the manufacture of plastics to remove unwanted water. In the production of aluminium,
it is used as a continuous casting lubricant in the leather industry for de-hairing of hides
tanning. It is also used as an oil additive that acts as a detergent and improves the life of
engines (Britishlime.org, 2008).
2.3.3 World lime production

In 2008, 296 million metric tonnes of lime were produced and an estimate of 280
million tonnes produced in 2009 on worldwide basis (Miller, 2010). The largest
producer of lime products is China, followed by the United States. The steel industry is
13
the largest user of lime in the industrialized nations (Miller, 2010). However, the gold
mining industry is the major lime consumer in Ghana. As of 2006, annual consumption
was at 60,000 metric tonnes per year (Ghana-mining.org, 2006).
2.3.4 Packaging and Transportation

Lime can be lump, pebble, or pelletized. These large particle size limes are rarely
handled in bags. However, in the U.S. when packaged in bags, these bags are made of
multi-wall paper with polyethylene liners to protect the lime from moisture and
capacities of 22.7 or 36.4 kg, and bulk bags up to 1.8 t. The finer sizes of quicklime
(fine, granular, and pulverized) are shipped in bulk or in bags as well (Miller, 2003).
Lime can also be packaged in barrels or sheet iron drums, usually in about 80 or 120 kg
amounts per barrel or drum (Austin, 1985).
Lime can conveniently be transported by land or by sea. Shipping bulk lime is done
using pneumatic tank carriers that can provide both an enclosed container and a safe
handling system such that the operator can avoid direct contact with the product. Larger
amounts can be moved by barge on inland waterways.
Lime is considered a perishable product because of its affinity for water, and because it
may slake by absorbing moisture from ambient humidity (air slaking). It is therefore
recommended that quicklime should not be stored in bags for more than 3 months. To
protect quicklime from moisture, storage containers and transport media must be water
tight (Miller, 2003).
14
2.3.5 Product pricing

Lime is considered a commodity mineral that has low to moderate unit value and high
place value. The cost of lime depends on many factors such as the cost of raw material,
cost of production (including fuel cost), labour, transportation, demand and supply,
competition from substitute goods, packaging and government policies. The average
prices of various types of lime are composed in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9: Lime prices1
2007
2008
$/ tonne
$/ tonne
Quicklime
84.60
89.90
Hydrate
102.40
107.20
Average all types2
87.10
92.40
High-calcium quicklime
81.80
87.80
Dolomitic quicklime
90.80
98.50
Average quicklime
83.10
89.20
High-calcium hydrate
97.50
103.90
Dolomitic hydrate
133.70
126.40
Average hydrate
102.40
107.20
Average all types2
85.90
91.70
Type
Sold and used
Sold
15
(Source: Miller 2008)

1
Average value per tonne, on free-on-board-plant basis, including cost of containers.
Includes dead-burned dolomite.
CHAPTER THREE
3 PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Lime kilns
The most important aspect of a lime production plant is the kiln. This is because the kiln
requires the highest energy input and its feed size determines the sizing of other
equipment in the plant. There are three main categories of lime kilns. They are: shaft
kilns, rotary kilns and parallel flow regenerative kilns. However, newer kilns have been
developed and are also briefly included herein.
3.1.1 Shaft kilns

The acceptable feed size ranges from a minimum of 20 mm to a top size of 175 mm and
in rare cases up to 350 mm. The long term net heat usage at design output for this type
of kilns generally lies in the range of 3800 - 4800 kJ/kg. Shaft kilns can have output
within a range of 25 - 200 t/day. Shaft kilns are suitable for operation on gaseous, liquid
and pulverized solid fuels, while the options for others are more restricted. In a shaft
kiln, the limestone moves counter flow to the hot gases in the shaft. This gives shaft
kilns the lowest fuel consumption of any type of kiln. However, because of the weight
of the bed of material in the shaft, there are limits on the size and strength of the type of
16
limestone that can be calcined. The main benefits of shaft kiln include higher efficiency,
less breaking of lime due to handling, control systems for entire facility, capable of
installation anywhere in world and its ability to efficiently calcine feed of large particle.
Table 3.1 shows the different types of shaft kilns, fuels used and feed sizes.
Table 3.1: Shaft kiln characteristics
Kiln type
Fuels used
Output range, t/day
Feed size range, mm
Double-inclined kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
10 - 160
20 200
Multi-chamber kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
40 - 225
20 150
Annular shaft kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
80 - 600
10 250
Solid
60 - 200
20 200
Central burner
Gas, Solid
40 - 80
40 150
External chambers
Gas, Liquid
40 - 120
80 350
Gas, Liquid, Solid

Gas, Liquid, Solid
50 - 800
15 - 250
20 175
25 120
Mixed-feed shaft kiln
Beam burner
Internal arch
(Source: Agniezka, 2005)

3.1.2 Rotary kiln
The traditional rotary kiln consists of a rotating cylinder usually 110 - 140 m long
inclined at an angle of 3 - 4 to the horizontal. Limestone is fed into the upper end and
fuel and combustion air are fired into the lower end. Quicklime is discharged from the
kiln into a lime cooler, where it is used to preheat the combustion air. Many kilns have
internal features to recover heat from the kiln gases and to preheat the limestone, while
permitting the passage of air. Rotary kiln can accept a wide range of sizes from 60 mm
down to dust. An interesting feature of the tumbling bed in the kiln is that larger stones
migrate towards the outside of the bed, while smaller ones concentrate at the centre of
the bed. This results in the larger stones being exposed to higher temperatures and
avoids over-calcination of the finer fractions. Because of the ease with which they can
17
be controlled, rotary kilns can produce a wider range of reactivities and lower CaCO 3
levels than shaft kilns. Relatively soft feed, such as shell deposits, and limestone that
decrepitates (crackles when heated), are unsuitable as feed to shaft kilns but may prove
to be acceptable for rotary kilns. Rotary kilns can be fired with a wide range of fuels.
Heat transfer in the calcining zone is largely by radiation. The infra-red emissivity
increases in the sequence gas, oil and solid fuel. Rotary kiln characteristics are shown in
Table 3.2
Table 3.2: Rotary kiln Characteristics
Kiln type
Long
Pre-heater
Fuels used
Gas, Liquid, Solid
Gas, Liquid, Solid
Output range, t/day Feed size range, mm

160-1500
Dust-60
150-1500
0-60

3.1.3 Parallel-flow regenerative kiln
This kiln type is characterized by two vertical shafts connected to each other by a crossover channel. This allows for parallel flow heating, i.e. the parallel flow of the feedstock
and combustion gases in one shaft and the regenerative preheating of the feedstock by
the mixture of combustion gases and cooling air in the second shaft. The parallel flow
principle is ideal for producing highly reactive quicklime and burnt dolomite. The
operation of the kiln consists of two equal stages, of 8 - 15 min duration at full output.
In the first stage fuel is injected through the lances in shaft 1 and burns in the
combustion air blown down that shaft. The heat released is partly absorbed the
calcination of limestone in shaft 1. Air is then blown into the base of each shaft to cool
the lime. The cooling air in shaft 1, together with the combustion gases and CO 2 from
calcination, pass through the interconnecting cross-duct into shaft 2 at about 1050C. In
shaft 2, the gases from shaft 1 mix with the cooling air blown into the base of shaft 2
and pass upwards. This then heats the stone in the preheating zone of that shaft. After
18
8 - 15 min, the second stage commences. The fuel and air flows to shaft 1 are stopped,
and reversal occurs. After charging limestone to shaft 1, fuel and air are injected to
shaft 2 and the exhaust gases are vented from the top of shaft 1.
Figure 3.1 Parallel flow regenerative kiln

The standard kiln can be designed to accept feed-stones in the range of 25 - 200 mm. It
can be fired with gas, oil or solid fuel. Heat consumption in this type of kiln is
approximately 3600 kJ/kg (Agniezka, 2005). These kilns are used at production rates of
between 100 - 850 t/day. The kilns are designed to operate with a high level of excess
air (none of the cooling air is required for combustion), thus the level of CO 2 in the
exhaust gases is low at 20% by volume (dry).
In conclusion, the annular shaft kiln is the best since the kiln accepts a feed-stone with a
top size in the range 30-250 mm and a bottom size as low as 10 mm. Also, it has a
19
greater output range of 80- 600 t/day. It also has a relatively cool burning zone as
compared to other kilns which prevents over burning.
Other types of kilns are shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Characteristics of other types of kilns

Kiln type
Travelling grate
Top shaped
Fluidised bed
Flash calciner
Rotating hearth
Fuels used
Output range, t/day
Feed size range, mm
Gas, Liquid, Solid

Gas, Liquid, Solid
Gas, Liquid
Gas, Liquid
Gas, Liquid, Solid
80 - 130
30 - 100
30 - 150
300 1500
100 300
15mm
- 45
5 - 40
<2
0-2
10 - 40
The specific energy usage of the different types of kilns is shown in table 3.4
Table 3.4: Specific energy usage of different types of kilns
Kiln type
9
Energy usage (10 J / t CaO)
Rotary
5.8-5.9
Shaft
4.1-4.2
Annular
3.9-4.1
Parallel Flow Regenerative
3.6-3.7
3.2 Description of selected process for the production of lime

20
The processes chosen for this production are both batch and continuous. The crushing
and hydration processes are both batch processes. The calcination of the limestone,
however, is a continuous process. The limestone is obtained from the Eastern portion of
the Nauli limestone deposit. The feed range size is between 10 - 1000 mm. This feed
size is within the recommended feed size range for a jaw crusher (Walas, 1990). The
average composition of the limestone is shown in Table 3.5
Table 3.5: Average composition of Nauli limestone

Component
Amount, %
CaCO3
87.3
MgCO3
1.8
Fe2O3
1.6
Al2O3
2.2
SiO2
4.0
S
0.6
Others
2.5
Total
100.0
When the limestone is received from the quarry, some of the limestone is stored under a
shed since not all of the supply can be crushed at once. The flowsheet shows the flow
diagram of the production process. The limestone is transported from the shed by
excavator to the crushing section of the plant. The limestone as large as 1000 mm is
poured in the jaw crusher to be crushed. The limestone is poured onto a grizzly and the
oversize (100 - 1000 mm) is sent to the crusher by a conveyor. The oversize of the
grizzly is crushed in a jaw crusher to the desired size (50 125 mm). The undersize of
the grizzly (d < 100 mm) is sent straight to the conveyor belt transporting the crushed
limestone. The crushed limestone is screened on a vibrating screen of which the
oversize from the screen (50 d 125 mm) is sent on a conveyor and into a hopper.
This size range of 50 125 mm from the screen serves as the kiln feed which is the
optimum feed size for rapid calcination while forestalling over-burning. The undersize
from the screen (d <50 mm) is sent to a storage tank. The limestone is then sent to a
21
hammer mill on demand to be milled into powdered limestone to be sold for agricultural
use.
The crushed and screened limestone is transported via a conveyor belt to a hopper,
which feeds a bucket elevator that transports the limestone to the kiln. The feed enters
the kiln at the top and the kiln is fired at two points on the side. Fuel oil is used in the
burners. The fuel oil is stored in a heated tank at 40C, transported at 50C and
introduced into the burners at 100C. The principal air stream for combustion enters at
the lower burner at about 300C. It is pre-heated in a heat exchanger before being
introduced, using 20.5% of the flue gas which leaves the kiln at 700C and leaves the
heat exchanger at 400C. The flue gas leaves the kiln at the relatively low temperature
of 700 because as it rises from the burning zone it loses heat by preheating the
incoming limestone. Cooling air which enters at the bottom into the cooling zone is
recycled from above the upper burners back into the kiln at about 300C. 79.5% of the
flue gas exits at the top of the kiln and moves to a filter, then dispersed through a
chimney by a blower and released to the atmosphere. The filter is cleaned from time-totime to remove the dust particles. Air is blown in at the bottom of the kiln by a
centrifugal fan; the air is for cooling the lime exiting the kiln. The cooled lime is
withdrawn from the bottom of the kiln.
The lime is then transported to a hopper by a pneumatic conveyor and then transferred
to the hammer mill when the hydration process is to start. When the lime is milled it is
sent through a pneumatic conveyor into another hopper. This hopper is initially filled
and the lime is then regulated and then dispersed into a hydrator at 27C where it is
hydrated by mixing with water. The water temperature is kept at 65C, because too low
a temperature of water leads to drowning which will produce coarse product and
affects the reactivity of the lime. Also too high a water temperature will cause the water
22
to boil off excessively during the hydration reaction. The steam produced from the
hydration process escapes from the top of the hydrator (Indachem.com, 2006).
The hydrated lime leaves the hydrator at 100C and is passed through a pneumatic
conveyor into an air classifier where it is separated from the coarser and denser
impurities. The classifier has a fan which blows the feed upwards. The denser particles
in the mixture are heavy enough to fall into the inner chamber but the fines fly over the
top of the inner chamber and into the outer chamber under the influence of the draft
created by the fan. The coarse fraction exits the classifier through the side since it is not
blown up, and is transported into a waste bin. The hydrated lime recovered is then
conveyed into a storage silo by a pneumatic conveyor. After the hydration process for
each day, the hydrated lime is then sent for packaging and sales. When the waste bin is
full with coarse fraction, it is emptied in a landfill.
CHAPTER FOUR
4 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES
4.1 Material balance
The plant has the capacity to produce 90000 tonnes of lime per year. This translates into
a production of 119000 tonnes of hydrate lime per year. The plant attainment is
23
expected to 300 days/yr. The kiln will be operated for 24 h/day. All other units will
operate for 16 h/day.
Conditions everywhere are ambient temperature assumed to be 25 oC and atmospheric
pressure of 1 atm unless otherwise stated.
Jaw crusher
Screen
24
25
Hammer mill
26
Limestone
Component
CaCO3
Mass, kg/h
24554
MgCO3
506
Sulphates as S 422
SiO2
619
HeatedAl
Fresh
Combustion
1125Air
2O3
Component
Mass,
kg/h
Fe2O3
169 %
N2
LOI 14674
731 77
O2
4383
23
Total
28126
Total
19057
100
Cooling Air
Componen Mass, kg/h
%
t
N2
13751 77
Fuel
O2
19894108
kg/h 23
Total
10
100C
%
87.
3
1.8
1.5
2.2
3.9
0.6
2.7
100
KILN
Temperature: 300
Flue gas to Recuperator
Componen Mass, Kg/h
t
CO2
5632
SO2
244
N2
7965
O2
551
H2O
603
NO2
6
CaO
470
CaCO3
19
MgO
8
SiO2
39
Al2O3
22
Fe2O3
16
Total
15575
Temperature: 700C
Lime
Componen
t
CaO
Mass, kg/h
12,500
82.
3
2.9
1.5
6.8
3.8
2.7
100
CaCO3
450
MgO
220
Flue gas to ESP
SiO2
1,040
Componen Al
Mass,
Kg/h 570
%
2O3
t
Fe2O3
410
CO2
14445
36.17
Total
15,190
SO2
627
1.57
Temperature:
80
N2
20428
51.15
O2
1414
3.54
H2O
1546
3.87
NO2
16
0.04
CaO
1206
3.02
CaCO3
48
0.12
MgO
20
0.05
SiO2
100
0.25
Al2O3
56
0.14
Fe2O3
40
0.10
Total
39945
100
Temperature: 300C
%
36.17
1.57
51.15
3.54
3.87
0.04
3.02
0.12
0.05
0.25
0.14
0.10
100
27
Flue gas to ESP

Componen Mass, kg/h
t
CO2
20078
SO2
871
N2
28393
O2
1965
H2O
2148
NO2
22
CaO
1676
CaCO3
67
MgO
28
SiO2
139
ESP
Al2O3
78
Fe2O3
56
Total
55520
Temperature: 300C
Flue gas to stack
Component Mass, kg/h
CO2
20078
SO2
871
N2
28393
O2
1965
H2O
2148
NO2
22
Total
53477
Temperature: 300C
28
%
36.17
1.57
51.15
3.54
3.87
0.04
3.02
0.12
0.05
0.25
0.14
0.10
100
Mass, %
37.55
1.63
53.09
3.67
4.02
0.04
100
Recuperator
29
Flue gas to HWHE

Component Mass, kg/h
CO2
20078
SO2
871
N2
28393
O2
1965
H2O
2148
NO2
22
Total
21475
Temperature:300C
Flue gas from HWHE

Componen Mass, kg/h
t
CO2
20078
SO2
871
N2
28393
O2
1965
H2O
2148
NO2
22
Total
21475
Temperature: 200
Water
%
Componen
37.55
t
1.63
H2O
53.09
3.67
4.02
0.04
100
Heat exchanger
Mass, kg/h
13,974
100
Water
%
Componen
t
H2O
37.55
1.63
53.09
3.67
4.02
0.04
100
Mass, kg/h
13,974
100
Temperature: 65C
30
Lime
Componen
t
CaO
MgO
CaCO3
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Total
Mass, kg/h
18771
339
684
863
1529
236
22451
83.7
1.5
3.1
3.8
6.8
1.1
100
Water
Componen
t
H2O
Mass, kg/h
13,974
10
0
Temperature: 65C
Hydrator
Hydrated lime
Componen Mass, kg/h
t
Ca(OH)2
24,794
MgO
339
CaCO3
684
SiO2
863
Al2O3
1529
Fe2O3
236
Total
28,445
Temperature:100C
%
87.2
1.2
2.4
3.0
5.4
0.8
100
Hydrated lime
Componen Mass, kg/h
t
Ca(OH)2
24,794
MgO
339
CaCO3
684
SiO2
863
Al2O3
1529
Fe2O3
236
Total
28,445
Air classifier
Steam
Componen
t
H2O
Mass,kg/h
7951
100
Temperature:100C
Mass, %
87.2
1.2
2.4
3.0
5.4
0.8
100
Hydrated lime (overflow )

Waste (underflow)
Componen Mass, kg/h %
Componen Mass, kg/h
t
t
Ca(OH)2
24,794
99.70
MgO
332
MgO
7
0.03
CaCO3
670
CaCO3
14
0.06
SiO2
846
SiO2
17
0.07
Al2O3
1498
Al2O3
31
0.12
Fe2O3
231
31
Fe2O3
5
0.02
Total
3,577
Total
24,868
100
%
9.28
18.73
23.65
41.88
6.46
100
32
4.2 Energy balance
33
Flue gas to Recuperator

Componen Enthalpy, kJ/h %
t
CO2
4106053 35.31
SO2
125420 1.08
N2
5860362 50.40
O2
375817 3.23
H2O
833906 7.17
NO2
4457 0.04
CaO
269823 2.32
CaCO
12235 0.11
Flue
gas3to ESP
MgO
Componen Enthalpy, 5466
% 0.05
21022 0.18
t SiO2
kJ/h
Al
O
CO2 2 3
1672721 6181
35.310.05
O
SOFe
51162 7042
1.08 0.06
2 2 3
Total
11627784
N2
2387572 50.40100
O2Temperature: 700C
153013 3.23
H2O
339660 7.17
NO2
1895 0.04
CaO
109904 2.32
CaCO3
5211 0.11
MgO
2369 0.05
SiO2
8527 0.18
Al2O3
2369 0.05
Fe2O3
2842 0.06
Total
4737245 100
Temperature: 300C
Fresh Combustion Air

Component Enthalpy,
kJ/h
N2
O2
Total
-
%
-
Heated Fresh Combustion Air

Component
Enthalpy, kJ/h
Recuperator
N2
5422854
O2
1467685
Total
6890539
Temperature: 300
34
%
78.7
21.3
100
Flue gas
Componen
t
CO2
SO2
N2
O2
H2O
NO2
Total
Enthalpy, kJ/h
Componen
t
H2O
Enthalpy, kJ/h
-
2281943.70 37.55
69796.07
1.63
3257149.89 53.09
208741.95
3.67
463368.35
4.02
2585.04
0.04
6283585 100Heat exchanger
Flue gas from heat exchanger

Componen Enthalpy, kJ/h %
t
CO2
1431408.86
37.55
SO2
43781.41
1.63
N2
2043132.44
53.09
O2
130938.84
3.67
H2O
290659.91
4.02
NO2
1621.53
0.04
Total
3941543
100
Temperature: 200
Water
Component
Enthalpy, kJ/h
H2O
2,342,042
Temperature:65C
35
Lime from kiln

Component
Enthalpy, kJ /h
CaO
MgO
CaCO3
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Total
-
Water
Component
Enthalpy, kJ/h
H2O
2,342,042
Temperature:65C
Hydrator
Steam
Component
Enthalpy, kJ/h
H2O
21,277,671
Temperature: 100C
Hydrated lime
Component Enthalpy, kJ/h
Ca(OH)2
2231460
MgO
24408
CaCO3
43092
SiO2
51780
Al2O3
48163.5
Fe2O3
11859
Total
2410762.5
Temperature:100C
36
%
92.6
1.0
1.8
2.1
2.0
0.5
100.
0
CHAPTER FIVE
5 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
Function
Capacity
Reduction ratio
Feed size
Number required
Power consumption
Material of construction
Function
Capacity
Screen deck area
Mesh size
Number required
Power consumption
Jaw crusher
To reduce limestone size from 1000 125 mm
70315 kg/h
8
1000 mm
1
120 kW
Cast iron steel
Screen
To separate limestone of (50 125 mm) from size less than
50 mm
70315 kg/h
1.8 m2
50 mm
1
11 kW
Carbon steel
Storage bin
Function
To store limestone for sale
Capacity
187.5 m3
Height
4m
Number required
4
Material of construction Carbon steel
Function
Capacity
Number required
Diameter
Air classifier
To separate impurities from hydrated lime
28445 kg/h
1
1m
Carbon steel
Function
Capacity
Height
Number required
Waste bin
To store solid waste obtained from the classifier
121.43 m3
3m
1
Carbon steel
37
Function
Capacity
Height
Number required
Hopper
For temporary storage of limestone, lime
and hydrated lime.
260 m3
13 m
4
Carbon steel
Hammer mill
Function
To grind limestone and lime
Capacity
30 t/h, 16 t/h
Reduction ratio
400
Feed size
50 mm
Number required
2
Power consumption
305.7 kW
Material of construction Cast iron steel
Function
Capacity
Height
Bucket size
Number required
Power consumption
Bucket elevator
To transport limestone (50 125 mm) to kiln
28126 kg/h
13 m
50 20 cm
1
1.1 kW
Mild steel
Belt conveyor
Function
To convey limestone and lime
Capacity
70315 kg/h
Width
800 mm
Speed
19.8 m/min
Number required
3
Power consumption
8.5 kW
Material of construction Wire beads
Function
Capacity
Length
Pipe diameter
Pneumatic conveyor 1
To transport lime from hammer mill to hopper and from
hopper to the hydrator
16 t/h
45 m
102 mm
38
Number required
Power consumption
Function
Capacity
Length
Pipe diameter
Number required
Power consumption
2
39.27 kW
Stainless steel
Pneumatic conveyor 2
To transport hydrated lime from hydrator to the air classifier
and from air classifier to hopper for bagging
21 t/h
45 m
122 mm
2
51.89 kW
Stainless steel
Blower 1
Function
To blow air to recuperator
Capacity
370 m3/min
Type
centrifugal blower
Operating pressure
1 atm
Number required
1
Material of construction Carbon steel
Power consumption
38 W
Function
Capacity
Type
Operating pressure
Number required
Power consumption
Blower 2
To blow flue gas to electrostatic precipitator
1304 m3/min
centrifugal blower
1 atm
1
134 W
Carbon steel
Burner
Function
To burn fuel for calcination
Capacity
332 kg/h
Number required
4
Power delivery
4081 kW
Material of construction Stainless steel
Function
Capacity
Type
Fan
To blow air to cool lime at the bottom of
kiln
18 t/h
axial flow fan
39
Width
Number required
Power consumption
Function
Capacity
Type
Area
Number required
Function
Capacity
Number required
Type
Area
Function
Capacity
Operating pressure
Number required
Function
Capacity
Number required
Power consumption
1.59 m
1
44 W
Carbon steel
Recuperator
Medium for exchange of heat between flue gas and air for
combustion
16 t/h, 19 t/h
Cellular
4 m2
1
Stainless steel
Heat exchanger
Medium for exchange of heat between steam and water for
hydration
22 t/h, 14 t/h
1
shell and tube
93 m2
Carbon steel
Boiler
To supply steam for heating fuel storage tank
1200 kg/h
10 bar
1
Carbon steel
Feeder, Rotary table
To feed and discharge limestone and lime
respectively from the kiln
27 t/h, 16 t/h
1
8.8 kW
Carbon steel
Pipes specification
Pipeline 1
Location: from fuel storage tank to kiln.
Assuming turbulent flow,
D opt =3.9 q 0.36 0.13
40
Where
Dopt
q
= optimum pipe diameter, in

= volumetric flow rate of fluid (fuel oil) = 6 10-4 m3/s = 0.021 ft3/s
= fluid density (fuel oil) = 900 kg/m3 = 56.18 lb/ft3

0.36
0.13
D opt =3.9 ( 0.021 ) ( 56.18 ) =1.64 41.66 mm
From steel pipe size table,
Inside diameter = 1.61 in = 40.89 mm
Outside diameter = 1.9 in = 48.26 mm
Nominal pipe size = 1.5 in
Inside cross-sectional area = 13.13 10-4 m2
Schedule number = 40 S
Wall thickness = 3.68 mm
(Geankoplis, 1993)
Pipeline 2
Location: from water line to hydrator.
D opt =3.9 q 0.36 0.13
Where q
= fluid volumetric flow rate of water = 3.88 10-4 m3/s = 0.137 ft3/s
= density of water = 1000 kg/m3 = 62.43 lb/ft3

0.36
0.13
D opt =3.9 ( 0.137 ) ( 62.43 ) =3.26 82.8 mm
From steel pipe size table,
Inside diameter = 3.364 in = 85.45 mm
Outside diameter = 4.00 in = 101.6 mm
Nominal pipe size = 3.5 in
Inside cross-sectional area = 57.35 10-4 m2
Schedule number = 80 S
Wall thickness = 8.08 mm
(Geankoplis, 1993)
Pipeline
Fluid
Mass flow
Nominal
Location
transported rate, kg/h
pipe size, in
From fuel
storage tank
to kiln
From water
line to
hydrator
Schedule
number
Fuel oil
1989
1.5
40 S
Water
13974
3.5
80 S
Pump specification
Sample calculation
Location of pump: Between water pipe line and hydrator.
Mass flow rate = 13958 kg/h
Density of water () into hydrator = 980.53 kg/m3
m
Q=
Where Q=volumetric flow of water, m3/s

41
Material of
constructio
n
Stainless
steel
Stainless
steel
m
= mass flow of water=13958 kg/h=3.877 kg/s
Q=
3.877
m
m3
=
=3.95 103
980.53
s
Internal diameter of the pipe (di) = 85.45 mm=0.08545 m

2
d i 0.085452
A=
=
=6.23 103 m2
Cross sectional area of the pipe;
4
4
Velocity of water in the pipe (v) is given by
Q 0.00395
m
v= =
=0.634
A 0.00623
s
Using the mechanical energy balance equation to calculate the shaft work done by the
pump;
P 1 v 12
P2 v 22
+ + z 1 gW s = + + z 2 g+ F
2
2
Assumptions;
P1 = P2, v1= 0, z1= 0
v22
W s=z 2 gz 1 g+ + F
2
From calculation using necessary data, F = 0.00082 J/kg
W s=z 2 gz 1 g+
v22
0.6342
J
+ F=7 9.81+
+0.00082=68.87
2
2
kg
Actual power of the pump (brake power) is given as;

W s m
P a=
1000
Where Pa = actual power, kW
= the fractional efficiency of the pump = 0.77
W s m
68.87 3.877
P a=
=
=0.35 kW
1000
1000 0.77
The rotational speed of the selected pump (Ns) = 1750
Specific speed of the pump is given by the relation;
N Q
N= s 0.75
H
Where N= the specific speed of the pump, rpm
Q= volumetric flow rate = 0.237 m3/s = 62.6 gal/min
H= head developed by the pump, m
W s 68.87
H=
=
=7.02 m
g
9.81
N=
Pump
N s Q 1750 62.6
=
=3210.5 rpm
H 0.75
7.020.75
Summary of pump specification

Pump
Fluid
Capacity
Efficiency
42
Speed Pump
Material
of
Location
Type
From
storage tank
to kiln
From water
line
to
hydrator
Centrifugal
pump
Centrifugal
pump
(m3/hr)
(%)
(rpm)
Fuel oil
2.21
77
1266.5
7
water
14.24
77
3210.5
Power
(kW)
0.05
Construction
0.35
304 Stainless
Steel
CHAPTER SIX
6 DESIGN OF A FUEL STORAGE TANK
6.1 Problem statement
To design a 2000 m3 storage tank to store fuel oil at 40C, prior to the supply of fuel for
the operation of the shaft kiln during the calcination process.
6.2 Introduction
The calcination process in the kiln needs a high amount of energy to achieve complete
calcination of the limestone. This can be obtained from the fuel oil which has a heating
value of 44,313.3 kJ/kg (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010). Thus a storage tank, as a
means to store the fuel, and safety consideration is relevant, prior to the plant operation.
Storage tanks are widely used in many industries. They are used to store a myriad of
liquid products, being organic or non-organic. The geometry of the tank, type of roofing
and shape of the tank depend on the properties of the material stored and environmental
factors (Long and Garner, 2004).
Risks and environmental hazards are associated with fuel oil storage tanks. Reported
cases of explosion and fire from fuel storage tanks have been at an increase (Kuan,
43
2009), and these accidents cause injuries and fatalities. Spills and tank fires cause
environmental pollution. There are also severe financial loses and economical upset of
the company as a result of spills and explosions from storage tanks. Safety and
environmental factors are paramount to the design of storage tanks. Thus there are lay
down codes and standards that must be adhered to when designing a storage tank.
6.3 Fuel storage tanks
Storage tanks for fuel can be categorized according to the following: orientation of the
tank (vertical or horizontal), positioning of the tank (above-ground or underground),
shape of the tank (cylindrical or spherical/rectangular) and type of tank roof (fixed roof
or floating roof). Fuel oil storage tanks are classified mainly into two types according to
the type of tank roof used. They are fixed roof tanks and floating roof tanks. Floating
roof tanks are further classified into internal floating roof tanks and external floating
roof tanks. (astanks.com, 2006)
6.3.1 Fixed roof storage tank
Fixed roof storage tanks are generally used for storing non-volatile liquids (liquids with
flash point greater than 38C), example, heavy fuel oil, water and bitumen (Perry,
2008). A vertical fixed-roof tank consists of a cylindrical metal shell with a permanently
attached roof that can be flat, conical or dome shaped, among other styles. They are
constructed for above-ground services. Horizontal fixed roof tanks are constructed for
both above-ground and underground service and are usually constructed of steel, steel
with a fiberglass overlay, or fiberglass-reinforced polyester. They are generally small
storage tanks with capacities of less than 150 m3. Horizontal tanks are constructed such
that the length of the tank is not greater than six times the diameter to ensure structural
integrity. They are usually equipped with pressure-vacuum vents, gauge hatches and
sample wells, and manholes to provide access to these tanks. Of current tank designs,
the fixed roof tank is the least expensive to construct. (epa.gov, 2006)
44
6.3.2 Floating roof storage tank

Liquids stored at near atmospheric pressure are subject to breathing losses. As the tank
cools during the night air is drawn in, then vaporization occurs to saturation, and the
vapor mixture is expelled as the tank warms up during the day. Volatile liquids such as
gasoline consequently suffer a material loss and also a change in composition because
of the selective loss of lighter constituents. In order to minimize such effects, floating
roof tanks are used. A floating roof is a deck which floats on the surface of the stored
liquid with a diameter of about 300 mm less than that of the tank. The annular space
between the float and the shell may be sealed by one of several available methods
(Walas, 1990). There are two types of floating roof tanks, namely, external floating roof
tanks and internal floating roof tanks (Perry, 2008).
External floating roof tanks
An external floating roof tank consists of an open-topped cylindrical steel shell
equipped with a roof that floats on the surface of the stored liquid. The floating roof
consists of a deck, fittings, and rim seal system. Floating decks that are currently in use
are constructed of welded steel plate and are of two general types: single-deck (pontoon
type) and double-deck. With all types of external floating roof tanks, the roof rises and
falls with the liquid level in the tank. The overall diameter of the roof is normally 400
mm smaller than the inside diameter of the tank, which has about 200 mm gap on each
side between the roof and the inside tank wall. The purpose of the floating roof and rim
seal system is to reduce evaporative loss of the stored liquid. The seal system slides
against the tank wall as the roof is raised and lowered. The external floating roof design
is such that evaporative losses from the stored liquid are limited to losses from the rim
seal system and deck fittings (standing storage loss) and any exposed liquid on the tank
walls (withdrawal loss). (kolmetz.com, 2010)
Internal floating roof tanks
45
An internal floating roof tank has both a permanent fixed roof and a floating roof inside.
The deck in internal floating roof tanks rises and falls with the liquid level and either
floats directly on the liquid surface (contact deck) or rests on pontoons several inches
above the liquid surface (noncontact deck). Contact decks can be aluminum sandwich
panels that are bolted together with a honeycomb aluminum core floating in contact
with the liquid; or pan steel decks floating in contact with the liquid with or without
pontoons; or a resin-coated fiberglass reinforced polyester with buoyant panels floating
in contact with the liquid. The majority of internal contact floating decks currently in
service is aluminum sandwich panel-type or pan steel-type. The fiberglass reinforced
polyester decks are less common. The panels of pan steel decks are usually welded
together. Noncontact decks are the most common type currently in use. Typical
noncontact decks are constructed of an aluminum deck and an aluminum grid
framework supported above the liquid surface by tubular aluminum pontoons or some
other buoyant structure. The noncontact decks usually have bolted deck seams.
(epa.gov, 2006)
The internal floating roof physically occupies a finite volume of space that reduces the
maximum liquid storage capacity of the tank. When the tank is completely full, the
floating roof touches or nearly touches the fixed roof. Consequently, the effective height
of the tank decreases, thus limiting the storage capacity. The reduction in the effective
height varies from about 15 - 60 cm, depending on the type and design of the floating
roof employed. (kolmetz.com, 2010)
All types of internal floating roofs, like external floating roofs, commonly incorporate
rim seals that slide against the tank wall as the roof moves up and down. Circulation
vents and an open vent at the top of the fixed roof are generally provided to minimize
46
the accumulation of hydrocarbon vapors in concentrations approaching the flammable

range. Flame arresters are an option that can be used to protect the vessel from fire or
explosion. When these are used, circulation vents are not provided. Tank venting occurs
through a pressure-vacuum vent and flame arrestor. (kolmetz.com, 2010)
6.4 Equipment selection
A vertically cylindrical fixed roof tank with a cone shaped roof is chosen for the
following reasons: Firstly the liquid to be stored (industrial fuel oil) is non-volatile,
since it has a flash point of 61.5C (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010). Secondly,
economically the fixed roof tank is the least expensive to construct and to undertake
maintenance, and it also has a high level of safety. An above-ground service is required,
and vertical fixed roof tanks are constructed for above-ground services. As a rule of
thumb, vertical tanks mounted on concrete foundation are used for liquid storage tanks
of capacity beyond 38 m3. (Walas, 1990)
6.5 Chemical engineering design
Volumetric flow rate
m
Q=
Where Q = volumetric flow rate of fuel oil

= density of fuel oil = 900 kg/m3 (engineering toolbox.com, 2010)
m
= mass flow rate of fuel oil = 1989 kg/h
1989
3
Q=
=2.21 m /h
900
Tank capacity
Basis: 33 days of storage for operation.
3
V =2.2124 33=1750.32m
Where V = volume of fuel oil to be stored, m3
As a rule of thumb, freeboard (ullage) of 10% is used. This accounts for the overfill
protection capacity (Walas, 1990).
Freeboard volume 0.1 1750.32=175.03 m
V T =V +V fb
Where
VT
= design capacity of tank, m3
V = volume of fuel oil to be stored = 1750.32 m3

47
V fb
= freeboard volume = 175.03 m3
V T =1750.32+ 175.03=1925.35 m3 2000 m3

For a 2000 m3 storage tank, the internal diameter is 15.3 m, and the height is 10.8 m
(API 650 standard, 2003).
Shell course and actual tank volume
The cylindrical shell is made up of a number of courses. Each course is made up of a
number of rectangular plates, which have the same width as the course belt, usually 2 m
high (Long and Garner, 2004). Therefore each course has a height of 2 m.
Number of courses required=
10.8
=5.4 6
2
For design purpose, 6 course belts will be used.

C = D
Circumference of course belt ( c )
where D = diameter of tank = 15.3 m
C c = 15.3=48.07 m
Length of rectangular shell plate (Lp) is given by 2.5 (BS 2654, 1998).
LP =2.5 =7.85 m 8 m
Number of rectangular plates for each course (Np) is
N p=
C c 48.07
=
=6.12 6
LP 7.85
Thus 6 rectangular shell plates will be used for each course.

Actual tank height = number of courses course height = 6 2 = 12 m
Actual tank volume is
V TK =
Where
( D)2 H TK
4
V TK
= Actual tank volume, m3

48
D = diameter of tank = 15.3 m

H TK
V TK =
= Actual tank height = 12 m
(15.3)2 12
=2206.25 m3
4
Design pressure
Design pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure. (Sinnott, 2003)
Hydrostatic pressure gH
Where
= density of the fuel oil = 900 kg/m3 (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)

g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
H=
= liquid head, m
4V
D i2
Where V = volume of fuel oil = 1750.32 m3

Di
H=
= tank internal diameter = 15.3 m
4 1750.32
=9.52 m
2
(15.3)
Hydrostatic pressure 900 9.81 9.52=84.05 kPa
Atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa

Design pressure 84.05+101.325=185.375 kPa 190 kPa
Tank conical roof
The slope of self-supported cone roofs shall be within the range of 9.5 - 37 (BS 2654,
1989). Hence, a slope of 20 will be used.
L
49
20
h
15.3
Figure 6.1: A diagrammatic representation of tank conical roof.

Where L = length of the conical roof slope, m
h = height of the conical roof, m
h=7.65 tan 20 =2.78 m
L=
7.65
=8.14 m
cos 20
Volume of tank conical roof is given by

1
V r = r2 h
3
Vr
Where
= volume of tank conical roof, m3
r = radius of the tank conical roof = 7.65 m

h = height of conical roof = 2.78 m
1
V r = (7.65)2 2.78=170.37 m3
3
Inlet and outlet line diameters
The inlet line diameter is calculated based on the need to offload a standard 34 m 3 tank
truck in 15 minutes. As a precaution, flow velocity at tank inlet should not exceed 1 m/s
until the inlet is completely submerged (Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD), 2005).
Inlet line flow rate (Qi),

Qi=
volume
34
=
=0.038 m3 /s
time
15 60
A i=
Qi
vi
Where
Ai
= area of the inlet, m2

50
A i=
vi
= inlet flow velocity = 1 m/s (assumed)
Qi
= inlet line flow rate = 0.038 m3/s
0.038
=0.038 m2
1
4 Ai
Where
di
= inlet diameter,
Ai
= area of the inlet = 0.038 m2
d i=
d i=
4 0.038
=0.220 m=220 mm
Assuming an outlet flow velocity of half the inlet flow velocity, (OISD, 2005)
Ao=
Qo
vo
Ao
Where
= area of the outlet, m2
vo
= outlet flow velocity = 0.5 m/s (assumed)
Qo
= inlet line flow rate = 2.21 m3/h = 6.14 10-4 m3/s
Ao =
6.14 104
=1.228 103 m2
0.5
Outlet diameter (do),

d o=
4 Ao
4 1.038 103
=
=0.0395 m 40 mm
Tank internal fittings
51
Internal heating coil will be used in heating the content of the tank. Baffles and an
agitator will be used to enhance evenly distribution of the heat.
Baffle design
Usually four baffles are used (Geankoplis, 1993).
Bw
Dt
12
(Geankoplis, 1993)
Bw
Where
= width of baffle, m
Dt
Bw =
= tank diameter = 15.3 m
15.3
=1.3 m
12
Gap between baffles and tank wall is usually 0.1 0.15
Bw
(Geankoplis, 1993)
Gap between baffles and tank wall = 0.1 1.3 = 0.13 m = 130 mm
Agitator design
The viscosity of the fuel oil is 9.9 10 -3 Pa.s (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010). Propeller
agitators are used for liquids of low viscosity (less than 3 Pa.s). (Geankoplis, 1993).
Side-entering agitators are used for blending low viscosity liquids in large tanks, where
it is impractical to use conventional agitators supported from the top of the tank
(Sinnott, 2003). Thus a three-blade propeller agitator will be used.
Da=0.2 Dt
Where
for tank height to diameter ratio less than one (Nagata, 1975)
Da
= agitator diameter, m
Dt
= tank diameter = 15.3 m
Da=0.2 15.3=3 m=300 cm

Agitator power (P),
52
The power required is obtained from the correlation graph of power number against
Reynolds number for a given type of agitator (Nagata, 1975).
Da2 N
N Re
(Nagata, 1975)
N Re
Where
= Reynolds number
Da
= agitator diameter = 3 m
= liquid density = 900 kg/m3
= liquid viscosity = 9.9 10-3 Pa.s

N
= agitator rotational speed = 200 rpm = 3 rev/s (assumed)
( 3 )2 3 900
=2.5 106
3
9.9 10
From the correlation graph for propeller agitator,
N Re
2.5 106
N
power number ( p ) = 0.15 (Nagata, 1975). Also,
Np
N 3 Da5
(Nagata, 1975)
J
3
5
3
5
P=N p N ( Da ) =0.15 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) 900=885,735 885 kW
s
Heating coil design
Spiral coil will be used. Coil pipe diameter is given by;
Dcp
Dv
30
(Sinnott, 2003)
53
corresponds to
Dcp
Where
= coil pipe diameter, m
Dv
= vessel diameter = 15.3 m
=
15.3
=0.51m=510 mm
30
For a steel pipe diameter of 510 mm, the pipe thickness = 45 mm (Perry, 2008)
The coil pitch is usually around twice the coil pipe diameter (Sinnott, 2003)
Coil pitch = 2 0.51 = 1.02 m
Number of coil spirals =
Tank liquid height 9.5

=
=9.3
coil pitch
1.02
Total length of coil pipe,

Inside tank diameter for the coils = tank diameter
2(baffle-tank gap + baffle width)
15.32 ( 0.15+1.5 ) =12m
Coil pipe total length

Where
N cs Dci
N cs
= number of coil spirals = 9.3
Dci
= inside tank diameter for the coils = 12 m
Coil pipe total length 9.3 12=350.6 m
Tank heating
Steam at 200C and 10 bar will be used for the heating.
Quantity of heat required,
q=mC p ( T 2 T 1 )
Where q
= the quantity of heat required to heat the fuel, J
54
m = mass of fuel in tank, kg

Cp
= specific heat of fuel = 2090 J/kg K (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)
T1
= initial temperature of fuel = 28C (assumed)
T2
= final temperature of fuel = 40C
m=V
Where
= density of fuel = 900 kg/m3

V
= volume of fuel in the tank = 1750 m3
m=900 1750=1,575,000 kg
9
q=1575000 2090 ( 4028 )=39 10 J =39 GJ

Surface area required for the heat transfer,
As
Q
UT
(Perry, 2008)
Where Q = rate of heat transfer, J/s

U
= overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
As
= total surface area required for the heat transfer, m2
T
= temperature difference between fuel final temperature and steam
temperature, C.
T =20040=160
Q=H m s
55
Where
= specific heat of steam at 200C, 10 bar = 2827.9 kJ/kg (Geankoplis,
m s
= mass flow rate of steam = 1200 kg/h (assumed) (ttboilers.htm, 2011)
1993)
Q=2827.9
1200
kJ
=942.6 =942.6 kW
3600
s
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by,

1 1 x do 1
= +
+
U hi kw dm ho
Where
= heat transfer coefficient of the steam, W/m2K
ho
= heat transfer coefficient of the fuel oil, W/m2K
= coil pipe thickness = 45 10-3 m
kw
= thermal conductivity of coil pipe wall = 51.9 W/m K (Callister, 2007)
dm
= log mean diameter, m
d o d i
d m=
ln
Where
do
hi
do
di
( )
di
= coil internal diameter = 0.51 m
= coil outside diameter = (2 45 10-3) + 0.51 = 0.6 m
dm=
0.60.51
=0.55 m
0.6
ln
0.51
( )
The heat transfer coefficient can be estimated using the correlation for forced
convection in conduit (Sinnott, 2003).
56
0.8
Cp
k
0.33
0.14
( )( ) ( )
hD
DG
=C
k
Where C
= 0.023 for non-viscous liquids.
h = heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
D = equivalent diameter, m
k
= fluid thermal conductivity, W/m K
= bulk fluid viscosity, Ns/m2

w
w
Cp
= fluid viscosity at the wall, Ns/m2
= viscosity correction factor 1 (Sinnott, 2003)

= fluid specific heat capacity, J/kg K
G = mass flux, kg/m2s
For the heat transfer coefficient of the steam at 200C,

D = 0.51 m
k
= 0.0342 W/m K (Geankoplis, 1993)
= 1.7 10- 5 Ns/m2 (Geankoplis, 1993)
Cp
G=
= 1932 J/kg K (Geankoplis, 1993)

m
Where
= flow rate of steam = 1200 kg/h = 0.33 kg/s (assumed) (ttboilers.htm,
2011)
57
0.51
0 .2
4
A
= cross-sectional area of coil
m2
0.33
=1.65 kg /m2 s
0.2
G=
0.023
hi =
0.51 1.65
1.7 105
0.8
)(
19321.7 105
0.0342
0.51
0.33
0.0342
=8.43 W /m2 K
For the heat transfer coefficient of the fuel oil,

D = 15.3 m
k
= 0.15 W/m K (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)
= 9.9 10-3 Ns/m2 (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)
Cp
= 2090 J/kg K (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)
G=
= mass flow rate of fuel oil = 0.47 kg/s

Where m
= cross-sectional area of tank

G=
0.47
=2.6 103 kg /m2 s
183.85
0.023
h o=
15.3 2
183.85
4
15.3 2.6 103

9.9 103
0.8
)(
2090 9.9 103

0.15
15.3
3.49 103 W /m 2 K
1
1
45 103 0.6
1
=
+
+
U 8.43
51.9
0.55 3.49 103
( )
58
0.33
0.15
m2
U =286 W /m2 K
A s=
942.6 1000
=20.6 m2 21 m2
286 160
Table 6.1: Summary of chemical engineering design

Parameter
Capacity of fuel oil to be stored, m3
Volumetric flow rate, m3/h
Actual tank volume, m3
Tank internal diameter, m
Tank height, m
Inlet diameter, mm
Outlet diameter, mm
Agitator diameter, m
Agitator power, kW
Heating coil pipe diameter, mm
Total surface area for heating, m2
Design pressure, kPa
Value
1750.3
2.21
2206
15.3
10.8
220
40
3
885
510
21
190
6.6 Mechanical engineering design

Material of Construction
Storage tanks can be constructed using carbon steel, reinforced concrete, aluminium and
its alloys among others. Carbon steel is the best and preferable choice for construction
of the vertically cylindrical fixed roof tank, because of the numerous advantages it has
over the others. Carbon steel is the most widely used material for storage tanks. It is
readily available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes. It can be easily worked
and welded. It has good tensile strength and ductility. It is suitable for most organic
solvents, except chlorinated solvents. (Sinnott, 2003).
The fuel oil is going to be stored at 40oC which is less than the maximun working
temperature of carbon steel (550oC) hence it can be used (Perry, 2008). The carbon steel
however is not resistant to corrosion, except in certain specific environments, such as
concentrated sulphuric acid and the caustic alkalies (Sinnott, 2003). Because of its
availability, low cost, and ease of fabrication, carbon steel is frequently used in services
59
with corrosion rates of 0.13 - 0.5 mm/y with added thickness (corrosion allowance) to
ensure the achievement of desired service life (Perry, 2008). Special paints such as
chlorinated rubber paints and epoxy-based paints are used to protect storage tanks from
atmospheric corrosion (Sinnott, 2003).
Shell design
The use of courses with diminishing thickness will have the effect that, at the joint
between two courses, the thicker lower course provides some stiffening to the top
thinner course. This causes an increase in stress in the upper part of the lower course
and a reduction in stress in the lower part of the upper course. This reduction in stress in
the upper course is assumed to reach a maximum value at 0.3 m above the joint. The 1foot method is used to calculate the thickness required at design points 0.3 m above the
bottom of each shell course (Long and Garner, 2004). The minimum shell plate
thickness which must be used is 6 mm for 15 36 m tank diameter. (API 650, 2003)
Shell thickness
The required thickness of shell plates for each course shall be the greater of the value
computed as follows (API 650, 2003):
Design shell thickness
t d=
4.9 D ( H0.3 ) G
+ CA
Sd
Hydrostatic test shell thickness

tt =
4.9 D ( H0.3 )
St
where
td
tt
= design shell thickness, mm

= hydrostatic test shell thickness, mm
D = nominal tank diameter = 15.3 m

60
= height from bottom of course under consideration to the top of tank
shell, m
G = specific gravity of the liquid to be stored
= 0.9 (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)

CA
Sd
= corrosion allowance = 3 mm (Sinnott, 2003)

= allowable stress for the design condition
= 160 N/mm2 for carbon steel (Long and Garner, 2004)

St
= allowable stress for the hydrostatic test condition
= 171 N/mm2 for carbon steel (Long and Garner, 2004)
First course (bottom course)

H = 12 m
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(120.3) 0.9

+3=7.9 mm 8 mm
160
4.9 15.3(120.3)
=5.1 mm
171
Therefore plate thickness of 8 mm will be used.

Second course
H=122=10 m
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(100.3)0.9
+3=7.1mm 7 mm
160
4.9 15.3(100.3)
=4.3 mm
171

61
Third course
H=102=8 m
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(80.3) 0.9

+3=6.2 mm 6 mm
160
4.9 15.3(80.3)
=3.4 mm
171

Fourth course
H=82=6 m
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(60.3) 0.9

+3=5.4 mm
160
4.9 15.3(60.3)
=2.5 mm
171
5.4 mm is the greater of the two, but the minimum thickness required is 6mm. Therefore
plate thickness of 6 mm will be used.
Fifth course
H=62=4 m
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(40.3) 0.9

+3=4.6 mm
160
4.9 15.3( 40.3)

=1.6 mm
171

Sixth course
H=42=2 m
62
t d=
tt =
4.9 15.3(20.3)0.9
+3=3.7 mm
160
4.9 15.3( 20.3)

=0.7 mm
171

Tank bottom plate thickness
The tank bottom is made up of rectangular plates. For larger tanks (over 12.5 m
diameter, according to BS 2654), a ring of annular plates is provided around the group
of rectangular plates. The minimum thickness of the annular bottom plates, excluding
any corrosion allowance, shall be 8 mm when the bottom course plate is 19 mm thick or
less. (BS 2654, 1989)
t b=8+CA
where
tb
= tank bottom plate thickness, mm
CA
t b=8+ 3=11 mm
Roof plate thickness
Self-supporting cone roofs shall have a minimum thickness of 5 mm and a maximum of
12.5 mm excluding any corrosion allowance. (API 650, 2003)
t rc=
where
D
+ CA
4.8 sin
t rc
= cone roof plate thickness, mm
D = tank diameter = 15.3 m
CA
63
= the angle of slope of the roof to the horizontal = 20

t rc=
15.3
+3=12.3 mm
4.8 sin 20
Loading on tank
The main sources of load to consider are: pressure, dead weight of vessel and contents,
wind, seismic load and external loads imposed by piping and attached equipment
(Sinnott, 2003).
Dead weight load

This is the load due to the tank shell, fittings (manways, nozzles) and external fittings
such as ladders, platforms, piping. For a steel vessel,
W v =240C v Dm ( H v + 0.8 Dm ) t
where
(Sinnott, 2003)
Wv
= total dead weight, N
Cv
= a factor to account for the weight of fittings such as nozzles, manways
and internal supports = 1.15 for vessels with many internal fittings (Sinnott,
2003)
Hv
= height of the cylindrical shell = 12 m
Dm
= mean diameter of vessel =
Di
= vessel internal diameter = 15.3 m
( Di +t 103 ) , m
= shell thickness = 8 mm
Dm=( 15.3+ 8 103 ) =15.308m

W v =240 1.15 15.308 ( 12+ 0.8 15.308 ) 8=819.52 kN
64
Load due to tank content

W c = o V o g
Where
Wc
= load due to content, N
= density of fuel oil = 900 kg/m3 (engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010)
Vo
= volume of fuel oil = 1750.3 m3

W c =900 1750.3 9.81=15,453.4 kN
Wind pressure
For a cylindrical vessel with attachments such as ladders or pipe work, the wind
pressure is given by:
Pw =0.07 u w 2
Where
(Sinnott, 2003)
Pw
= wind pressure, N/m2
uw
= design wind speed = 160 km/h (Sinnott, 2003)
Pw =0.07 (160)2=1792 N /m2

Elastic stability (buckling)
For buckling not to occur, the maximum compressive stress in a vessel wall should not
exceed the maximum allowable design stress of the material, else buckling will occur.
For steels at ambient temperature;
c =210 4
( Dt )< allowable design stress(Sinnott ,2003)

o
where
= maximum compressive stress, N/mm2
65
= shell thickness = 8 mm
Do
= shell outer diameter = 15300 + (2 8) = 15,316 mm
allowable design stress = 160 N/mm2

c =2 104
8
( 15316
)=10.45 N /mm
Since 10.45 N/mm2 < 160 N/mm2, it implies buckling will not occur.
Tank support
As a rule of thumb, vertical tanks with capacity beyond 38 m 3 are supported on concrete
foundations (Walas, 1990). The stress exerted on the foundation is due to tank the dead
weight and content weight. The stress will be tensile (positive) for points below the
plane of the vessel support, and compressive (negative) for points above the support
(Sinnott, 2003).
Stress on foundation
w =
W
(Sinnott , 2003)
( Di +t ) t
Where
= direct stress on foundation, N/mm2
= dead weight + content weight = 819.52 + 15453.4 = 16,272.92 kN
Di
= tank internal diameter = 15300 mm
w=
= tank shell thickness = 8 mm
16272920
2
=42.3 N /mm
( 15300+8 ) 8
Analysis of stresses
Dead weight stress
66
d=
Wv
( Sinnott , 2003)
( Di +t ) t
Where
d
Wv
= total dead weight load = 819.52 kN
Di
d=
= dead weight stress, N/mm2
819520
N
=2.0
(15300+ 8 ) 8
mm 2
Axial (longitudinal) stress

L=
Pi D i
( Sinnott , 2003)
4t
Where
= axial stress, N/mm2
Pi
= internal pressure (pressure due to liquid head) = 0.08405 N/mm2
Di
L=
0.08405 15300
2
=40.2 N /mm
48
Hoop (circumferential) stress

h=
Pi D i
(Sinnott , 2003)
2t
Where
h=
= hoop stress, N/mm2
0.08405 15300
=80.4 N /mm2
28
67
Wind stresses are disregarded because of the high ratio of tank diameter to tank height
(Ray and Johnston, 1989).
Upwind total stress
L d =40.22.0=38.2 MPa
Downwind total stress

Radial stress
h d =80.42.0=78.4 MPa
0.5 P i=0.5 0.08617=42.0 kPa
The downwind total stress is greater than the upwind total stress, thus the resultant
stress will be on the downwind side. The downwind total stress (80.4 MPa) is well
below the allowable design stress (160 MPa), thus the tank can withstand the downwind
stress.
Tank appurtenances
Manholes
The cutting of an opening in the shell interferes with the structural action of the shell
and therefore a means of providing reinforcement to compensate for this weakness is
required. This reinforcement can be provided by one of the following ways: a
reinforcing plate welded onto the shell plate at the opening section; an insert of a thicker
plate locally (in which the manhole is cut); a thicker shell plate than that required for
that course of the shell. A manhole through the shell wall should be at least 600 mm in
diameter (BS 2654, 1989). It is normally positioned just above the bottom of the tank.
(Long and Garner, 2004)
Nozzles
Nozzles are required through the shell for inlet and outlet and through the roof for vents.
According to BS 2654, for smaller nozzles (diameter < 50 mm), no reinforcement is
necessary, the extra material is considered sufficient. Larger holes must be reinforced in
the same way as manholes (Long and Garner, 2004).
68
Pressure and vacuum relief valve

This is used for tanks operating under an internal pressure. The vent opens only when
the set internal pressure is exceeded (during filling). On the vacuum side, the valve
opens when the set internal vacuum is exceeded, as is the case during withdrawing
(Long and Garner, 2004).
Stairway
According to AP1650, tanks taller than 6m must be furnished with a spiral stairway.
(Yacine et al, 2002). Handrailing is required on the inside stringer of a spiral staircase
where the gap between the stringer and the tank shell exceeds 200 mm according to
both BS 2654 and API 650. The maximum slope for a staircase is 45 according to BS
2654 (Long and Garner, 2004).
69
70
Table 6.2: Summary of mechanical engineering design

Parameter
Design stress, MPa
Design temperature, C
Axial stress, MPa
Hoop stress, MPa
Radial stress, kPa
Stress on foundation, MPa
Dead weight, kN
Wind Pressure, Pa
First course thickness, mm
Second course thickness, mm
Third course thickness, mm
Fourth course thickness, mm
Fifth course thickness, mm
Sixth course thickness, mm
Bottom plate thickness, mm
Roof plate thickness, mm
Shell manhole diameter, mm
Value
160
40
40.2
80.4
42
42.3
819.5
1792
8
7
6
6
6
6
11
12
600
Carbon steel
71
CHAPTER SEVEN
7 DESIGN OF AN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
The objective of this work is to design an electrostatic precipitator to remove particulate
matter from 53,485 kg/h of flue gas at 300 oC and 1 atm from a shaft kiln in controlling
air pollution.
7.2 Introduction
Particulate matter is one of the industrial air pollution problems that must be controlled.
It is emitted as a pollutant from many industrial processes. It is not a problem isolated to
a few industries, but pervasive across a wide variety of industries. Of the major
particulate collection devices used today, electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) are one of
the more frequently used. They can handle large gas volumes with a wide range of inlet
temperatures, pressures, dust volumes, and acid gas conditions. They can collect a wide
range of particle sizes, and they can collect particles in dry and wet states.
The source of particulate matter in this plant is the flue gas coming out of a shaft kiln
producing CaO from limestone, therefore the need to install an electrostatic precipitator
in controlling air pollution.
7.3 Electrostatic precipitator
All ESPs, regardless of their particular designs, contain the following essential
components: discharge electrodes, collection electrodes, high voltage electrical systems,
rappers, hoppers and shell. It is a particle control device that uses electrical forces to
move particles out of flowing gas stream and onto collector plates. The particles are
given an electrical charge by forcing them to pass through a corona, a region in which
gaseous ions flow. The electrical field that forces the charged particles to the walls of
72
the collector plates is from electrodes maintained at high voltage in the center of the
flow lane.
The particles collected on the plates are removed from it without reentraining them into
the gas stream. This is usually accomplished by knocking them loose from the plates,
allowing the collected layer of particles to slide down into a hopper from which they are
evacuated (Parker, 1978).
7.3.1 Types of ESPs
ESPs can be grouped, or classified, according to a number of distinguishing features in
their design. These features include the following, the structural design and operation of
the discharge electrodes (rigid-frame, wires or plate) and collection electrodes (tubular
or plate), the method of charging (single-stage or two-stage), the temperature of
operation (cold-side or hot-side) and the method of particle removal from collection
surfaces (wet or dry). (epa.gov, 1998)
Tubular ESP
Tubular precipitators consist of cylindrical collection electrodes (tubes) with discharge
electrodes (wires) located in the center of the cylinder. Dirty gas flows into the tubes,
where the particles are charged. The charged particles are then collected on the inside
walls of the tubes. Collected dust and/or liquid are removed by washing the tubes with
water sprays located directly above the tubes. The tubes may be formed as circular,
square, or hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing upward or downward. They are
tightly sealed to minimize leaks of collected material and generally used for collecting
mists or fogs. They are also most commonly used when collecting particles that are wet
or sticky. Tubular ESPs have been used to control particulate emissions from sulfuric
acid plants, coke oven byproduct gas cleaning (tar removal), and iron and steel sinter
plants (epa.gov, 1998).
73
Plate ESP
Plate ESPs are primarily used to collect dry particles. They can have wire, rigid-frame,
or occasionally, plate discharge electrodes. Dirty gas flows into a chamber consisting of
a series of discharge electrodes that are equally spaced along the center line between
adjacent collection plates. Charged particles are collected on the plates as dust, which is
periodically removed by rapping or using water sprays (epa.gov, 1998).
Single stage and two- stage ESP

Single-stage ESPs use very high voltage (50-70 kV) to charge particles. After being
charged, particles move in a direction perpendicular to the gas flow through the ESP,
and migrate to an oppositely charged collection surface, usually a plate or tube. Particle
charging and collection occurs in the same stage.
The two-stage ESP has separate particle charging and collection stages. The ionizing
stage consists of a series of small, positively charged wires equally spaced. A corona
discharge between each wire and a corresponding tube charges the particles suspended
in the air flow as they pass through the ionizer. The second stage consists of parallel
metal plates less than 2.5 cm apart. The particles receive a positive charge in the ionizer
stage and are collected at the negative plates in the second stage. They are also referred
to as electronic air filters. Two stage ESPs are used primarily for the control of finely
divided liquid particles. Controlling solid or sticky materials is usually difficult, and the
collector becomes ineffective for dust loadings greater than 7.35 x 10 -3g/m3. Therefore,
two-stage precipitators have limited use for particulate-emission control (epa.gov,
1998).
Wet and Dry ESP
74
Wet ESPs run a liquid over the collection plates to remove particles or when dust is very
sticky, corrosive, or has very high resistivity. The water flow may be applied
continuously or intermittently to wash the collected particles from the collection
electrodes into a sump. They typically result in higher capture of sub-micron particulate
due to the better adhesion of the particles to the collection surfaces cleaning liquid, and
virtually no re-entrainment.
Dry ESPs use rappers to remove the collected particulate matter from the collection
plates. The term dry is used because particles are charged and collected in a dry state
and are removed by rapping as opposed to water washing which is used with wet ESPs
(epa.gov, 1998).
7.3.2 Equipment selection
From the classification of the electrostatic precipitators, the plate ESP with discharge
electrodes made up of long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or are
supported there by mast-like structures (rigid frames) will be the best option. This is
because it has an advantage for handling large volumes of gas. The need for rapping the
plates to dislodge the collected material can also be divided into sections, often three or
four in series with one another, which can be rapped independent. Also the power
supplies are often sectionalized in the same way to obtain higher operating voltages, and
further electrical sectionalization may be used for increased reliability.
Volumetric flow rate of flue gas
The volumetric flow rate of flue gas from the shaft kiln is given by;
Q=
Where = mass flowrate = 53,485 kg/h (material balance calculation)
75
Q = volumetric flowrate, m3/h
= density of flue gas, kg/m3
The density of the flue gas can be estimated by the ideal gas law as;
=
MP
RT
Where M = average molecular weight of gas, kg/kmol

P = pressure of the gas = 101325 Pa
T = absolute temperature of the gas = 300 = 573 K
R = universal gas constant = 8314 J/kmolK
The average molecular mass of the flue gas is
M=
N a M a + N b M b ++ N x M x
Nt
Where Nx = number of moles of species X, mol

Mx = molecular masses of species X, g/mol
Nt = total number of moles of species, mol
But N =
m
Mx
Where m = mass of specie X

Table 7.1: Composition of flue gas from shaft kiln
Flue gas composition
O2
N2
H2O
CO2
SO2
NO2
Molar mass, kg/kmol

32
28
18
44
64
46
Hence for flue gas composition;
76
N CO =
20082
=456,409.1mol
44
N SO =
872
=13,625 mol
64
NN =
28397
=1,014,178.6 mol
28
NO =
1966
=61,437.5 mol
32
NH O=
2
N NO =
2
2148
=119,333.3 mol
18
20
=434.8 mol
46
Therefore, the total number of moles

Nt = 456,409.1 + 13,625 + 1,014,178.6 + 61,437.5 + 119,333.3 + 434.8 = 1,665,418 mol
Then, the average molecular weight is
M=
53,485,001.4
=32.1 kg/kmol
1,665,418
The density of the flue gas becomes

=
32.1 101325
=0.6831 kg /m3
8314 573
Q=
53,485
=78,297.5 m3 /h
0.6831
Q=
78,297.5
=21.75 m 3 / s
3600
Collection area
Assumptions
77
The assumptions of which the equation for determining the total collection area for an
ESP include: particle sizes are below 10 m, particles are uniformly distributed, no back
corona, rapping reentrainment of particles are neglected, no electrical resistivity of
particles and no gas sneakage around the field (epa.gov, 1998).
The Deutsch-Anderson equation for an ESP is given by

=1e
wA
Q
(Cooper and Alley, 2002)
Where = fractional collection efficiency = 0.99 (cedengineering.com, 1999)

w = drift velocity of particles in an electrical field = 0.015 m/s
(cedengineering.com, 1999)
A = total collection area of ESP, m2
e = base of natural logarithm = 2.718
Therefore, the total collection area
A=
21.75
2
( 10.99 )=6,677.5 m
0.015
Number of plates in ESP

The plates in an ESP are typically taller than they are long, and are placed in parallel in
several sections.
A = Ap (n 1) Ns = Ap (N Ns)
Where Ap = two-sided plate area = 2HLp, m2
n = number of plates in parallel across the width of the ESP
N = total number of plates in the ESP
Ns = number of sections in the direction of flow = 3 (Cooper and Alley, 2002)
H = Plate height = 6 m (Cooper and Alley, 2002)
Lp = Plate length = 3 m (Cooper and Alley, 2002)
Ap = 2(6 3) = 36 m2
78
N=
n=
A
6677.5
+ Ns=
+3=188.6 189
Ap
36
189
=63
3
This implies that there are 63 plates in each section in the direction of flow of gas.
The height of the ESP is given by
HE = 1.5 H
Where HE = height of ESP

HE = 1.5 6 = 9 m
The length of the precipitator is given by
L = NsLP + (Ns 1) Ls
Where L = length of precipitator, m

Ls = spacing between electrical sections = 1.5 m (Cooper and Alley, 2002)
L = (3 3) + (3 1)1.5 = 12 m
Collector plate spacing
Due, in part, to stringent particulate matter control requirements, the plate-to-plate
spacing is 51 cm. This spacing is required so as to accommodate the rigid frame
discharge electrode supports between the collecting plates (epa.gov, 1998).
Wire plate separation
The wires in the ESP are well spaced between the collecting plates to improve its
performance, thus the separation of the wires and the collecting plates is 15 cm
(epa.gov, 1998).
Corona power
The corona power which is the power that energizes the discharge electrodes and thus
creates the strong electric field is related to the collection efficiency of the ESP as
=1e
79
k Pc
Q
Where Pc = corona power, W

k = a constant = 0.55 (Cooper and Alley, 2002)
Q = 21.45 m3/s = 78,297.5 m3/h
Pc =
78,297.5
( 10.99 ) =655,588W 656 kW
0.55
Table 7.2 Summary of chemical engineering design

Parameter
Mass flowrate of flue gas, kg/h
Volumetric flowrate of flue gas, m3/h
Total collection area, m2
Collection plate height, m
Collection plate length, m
Total number of plates in ESP
Number of plates in each section of ESP
Height of ESP, m
Length of precipitator, m
Collector plate spacing, cm
Wire plate spacing, cm
Corona power, kW
Value
53,485
21.75
6678
6
3
189
63
9
12
51
15
656

Design pressure
The design pressure is 10% above the operating pressure (Sinnott, 2005). The operating
pressure is atmospheric pressure which is 101325 Pa
Pi = 101325 1.1 = 111,457.5 Pa = 0.1114575 N/mm2
Where Pi = design pressure
Design temperature
The design temperature at which the design stress is evaluated should be taken as the
average working temperature of the material (Sinnott, 2005). Therefore the design
temperature or operating temperature is 300oC
Material of Construction
80
Carbon steel is the preferred material used to build the ESP. Carbon steel has excellent
ductility and it is very weldable. Carbon steel also has very good tensile strength.
Carbon steel is used for components of the ESP such as the hopper casing, collecting
electrode, shell and the structural support. It is used to maintain optimum gas flow
characteristics and mechanical rigidity for component such as the collecting electrode.
Despite its limited corrosion resistance, an additional thickness (corrosion allowance)
can assure the achievement of desired service life. They do resist atmospheric corrosion
as well as attack by natural or neutral water and neutral soil. Carbon steel is also very
cheap as compared to the other materials (Perry, 1999).
Minimum shell thickness

The minimum shell thickness required to resist internal pressure can be determined from
e=
Pi L
2 f Pi
Where L= length of precipitator = 12000 mm

f = design stress = 85 N/mm2 for carbon steel at 300 (Sinnott, 2005)
e = minimum shell thickness, mm
e=
0.1114575 12000
=7.9 mm
2 ( 85 )0.1114575
For carbon and low-alloy steel, where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum
corrosion allowance of 2 mm is used (Sinnott, 2005).
e=7.9+2=9.9 10 mm
Longitudinal stress
The longitudinal stress is given by the equation
81
L=
Pi L
4t
Where
= longitudinal stress, N/mm2
t = thickness of shell = 10 mm
L=
0.1114575 12000
=33.44 N /mm2
4 (10)
Tangential stress
The tangential stress is given by the equation
h=
Pi L
2t
Where
h=
= tangential stress, N/mm2
0.1114575 12000
2
=66.87 N /mm
2(10)
Weight of vessel
For a steel vessel, the weight of the vessel is given by the equation
Wv = 240CvDm (Hv + 0.8Dm) t
Where t = wall thickness = 10 mm
Hv = height of vessel = 9 m
Cv = a factor = 1.08 (Sinnott, 2005)
Dm = mean diameter of vessel (= Di + t 10-3), m
Wv = weight of vessel, N
Dm=12+10 103=12.01 m
W v =240 1.08 12.01 ( 9+0.8 12.01 ) 10=579 kN
Weight of ESP content
82
W c mc g
Where mc = mass of flue gas = 53,485 kg
W c =53,485 9.81=524,688 N 525 kN
Dead weight stress

The dead weight stress is given by
w =
Where
W
( L+ t ) t
w
= dead weight stress of vessel, N/mm2
W = total weight of vessel

W =W v +W c
W =579+ 525=1,104 kN
w =
1,104,000
=2.93 N /mm2
( 12000+10 ) 10
Design of flat ends

The minimum thickness of flat ends is given by
e=C p L
Pi
f
Where Cp = design constant, dependent on edge constraint = 0.55 (Sinnott, 2005)
e=0.55 12000
0.1114575
=238.9 239 mm
85
83
Support design
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the vessel.
The skirt must be sufficient to withstand the dead-weight loads and bending moments
imposed on it by the ESP (Sinnott, 2005).
Bending stress in the skirt
The bending stress in the skirt is given by the equation
bs=
4 Ms
( Ds +t s ) t s D s
Where Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt, Nm

bs
= bending stress in the skirt, N/mm2

ts = skirt thickness = 10 mm
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt = 1800 mm (Sinnott, 2005)
But M s=
w x2
2
Where w = load per unit length due to wind pressure, N/m

x = height of ESP = 9 m
Also w = Pw L
Where Pw = wind pressure = 1280 N/m2 (Sinnott, 2005)
Then, w = 1280 12 = 15,360 N/m
Therefore, the maximum bending moment
M s=
15,360 92
=622,080 Nm
2
Then,
84
4 622080 10 3
bs=
=24.31 N /mm 2
( 1800+ 10 ) 10 1800
Dead weight stress in the skirt
The dead weight stress in the skirt is given by the equation
ws =
Where
Wv
( D s +t s ) t s
ws
ws=
= dead weight stress in the skirt, N/mm2
579000
2
=10.18 N / mm
(1800+ 10 ) 10
Resultant stresses in the skirt

Tensile stress
s(tensile) = bs
ws
(Sinnott, 2005)
s(tensile) = 24.31 10.18 = 14.13 N/mm2

Compressive stress
s(compressive) = bs + ws
(Sinnott, 2005)
s(compressive) = 24.31 + 10.18 = 34.49 N/mm2

Under the worst combination of wind and dead-weight loading, the following design
criteria are not exceeded.
s ( tensile ) f s sin s
s ( compressive ) 0.125 E
(Sinnott, 2005)
ts
sin s
Ds
( )
(Sinnott, 2005)
Where fs = maximum allowable design stress = 135 N/mm 2 for carbon steel at 20oC
(Sinnott, 2005)
s
= base angle of a conical skirt = 90o

85
E = Youngs modulus at 29C = 200,000 N/mm2
(Sinnott, 2005)
s ( tensile )
135sin 90
14.13
135
s ( compressive ) 0.125 200,000
10
( 1800
) sin 90
34.49
138.9
Since both criteria are satisfied, it implies the skirt support is not deemed to fail.
Table 7.3 Summary of mechanical engineering design

Parameter
Design pressure, Pa
Design temperature,
Minimum shell thickness, mm
Longitudinal stress, N/mm2
Tangential stress, N/mm2
Weight of ESP vessel, kN
Weight of ESP content, kN
Total weight of ESP, kN
Dead weight stress, N/mm2
Bending stress in the skirt, N/mm2
Dead weight stress in the skirt, N/mm2
Tensile stress in the skirt, N/mm2
Compressive stress in the skirt, N/mm2
86
Value
111457.5
300
10
33.44
66.87
579
525
1104
2.93
24.31
10.18
14.13
34.49
Carbon steel
CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 DESIGN OF A LIME HYDRATOR
The aim of this work is to design a lime hydrator that would provide optimum
conditions for producing 16520 kg/h per hour of Ca(OH)2 from 18750 kg/h of CaO .
8.2 Introduction
A calcium oxide hydrator is a chemical reactor in which calcium oxide is converted to
calcium hydroxide. It provides the necessary conditions so that hydration occurs and not
slaking. The difference is that, hydration is carried out with minimum amount of water
to obtain powdered product whilst slaking is done with excess water to give slurry
product.
Industry needs high quality hydrated lime with high solvatation speed. The speed of
solvatation depends on the specific surface area of the particle. This quality (specific
surface area) of the product of hydration is dependent on the water to lime ratio,
operation temperature, degree of mixing, temperature of the water for hydration,
diameter of the CaO particles and the time allowed for hydration to occur. (Lmus
etal.,2002). Thus, these parameters are considered in this design
The most important factor among these is the water to lime ratio. It determines the
specific surface area of the powdered product particles. As this ratio is decreased, the
surface area of the product increases. The recommended amount of water for hydration
is stoichiometric amount. However, the hydrator is to operate isothermally, hence
enough water is used to remove the exothermic heat of reaction produced.
The economics of every process plant is much dependent on the product yield and
quality, determined by the type of the reaction. Separation and purification of the
87
product would follow after the reaction, but it is still necessary that the reactor is
modeled for higher conversion of the reactant.
8.3 Hydration process
Hydration process is a dissolution- precipitation reaction in which quick lime is fed to a
stirred reactor and given enough time for the reaction to complete. In the mixer, water is
added to the quicklime (unhydrated lime) in calculated proportions.
The flow of the quicklime is metered by a belt feeder such that, just the calculated
amount is fed for reaction. The addition of water is controlled by metering, such that,
the reaction starts when the mixture is about to drop into the seasoning chamber and to
ensure moisture content and the temperature of the product are constant. High discharge
temperature indicates deficiency of water and low temperatures indicate excess water.
The seasoning chamber is where the actual reaction occurs, producing powdered
hydrated lime. (Metso.com, 2010)
The moisture content of the product is regulated by temperature-controlled water supply

to the reactor and retention time. The operation temperature of the reactor is 100 oC
(internationallime.org, 2010), corresponding to 0.5% free moisture content of the
hydrate. An attempt to produce bone dry hydrate may result in obtaining a lot of
unreacted active raw material (metso.com, 2010)
The hydrator consists of a mixing chamber with a shaft and paddle arrangement in
which quicklime and water are brought into contact. The shaft and paddle arrangement
is for turning the lime so as to speed up the reaction.
The second chamber, called seasoning chamber is also equipped with a shaft and
paddles. It is in this chamber that the actual reaction and drying up of the hydrate occur.
The upper part of the seasoning chamber is a deduster for handling the steam and dust
88
coming out from the seasoning chamber. The collected hydrate dust drop back into the
seasoning chamber and reenters the process stream.
Water inlet
Quicklime inlet
Reactor vessel
Steam out
Agitator shaft
Figure 8.1: A sketch of lime hydration unit
Hydrated product
8.4 Chemical Engineering Design

Hydration rate
The properties of the hydrated lime are controlled by process parameters. The need for
high production efficiency requires good knowledge about the hydration mechanism.
Thus, a model of the kinetics of the reaction is key to the design of the hydrator.
The mechanism of the hydration reaction can be described as a dissolution- precipitation

mechanism, though it cannot be described easily by only one model such as the
shrinking core model, progressive conversion model and porous reactant model for gassolid reactions. It is therefore predicted that the hydration reaction occurs through a lot
of processes; physical adsorption of the water, chemical reaction with water and inert
portions to water
The rate law equation for the hydration reaction is given by the relation:
89
m x
6k C Ao in
dC A
Mv
rA
1
dt
d pin 1 x 3
(Shete et al, 2004)
5
1
k = rate constant for the reaction 77.7 10 cm s
(Briss et al, 2010)
CAo = initial concentration of quicklime, kmol/m3

m = initial mass of quicklime =22783 kg/h (from material balance)
dp
= initial diameter of qiucklime particle = 6 mm. This is the particle diameter for
optimum hydration (Zimmerman et al, 1968).

M = relative molecular mass of CaO = 56.1 kmol/kg
-rA = rate of reaction of reactant A
vwater = volume of water, m3
x = fractional conversion of CaO 99
v water =
(Allen, 1959)
mwater
wat er
Where w= density of water=980.53 kg/m3 at 65oC (Geankoplis, 1993).

mw = mass of water = 13958 kg for every hour (from material balance)
v water =
C Bo=
mwater 13958
=
=14.24 m3
water 980.53
n
v wate r
m
980.53
kmol
= water =
=54.41
M v water
M
18.02
h
nin= the number of moles of H2O

M = molecular weight of water = 18.02 kg/kmol
90
1x
dp
dCA
=r A =
dt
6 k C B
m x
Mv
6 ( 7.77 107 3600 )
[(
m
22783 x
54.41
h
57.4 14.24
3
6 10 m ( 1x )
r A=
)) kmol
m ]
3
1
3
152.3577.95 x
, kmol /m3 h
3
( 1x )
Table 8.1 rate of reaction

Conversion(x)
Rate of reaction
1/-rA,
0.0
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
(-rA), kmol/(m3.h)
152.35
147.32
143.66
143.29
153.88
0.00
(m3.h)/kmol
0.0066
0.0068
0.007
0.007
0.0065
The volume of the reactor

Assumptions:
i.
The hydration process occurs isothermally(Lmus et al., 2002).
ii.
The process occurs at constant density (Missen et al., 1999).
iii.
The reactor operates autothermally (Missen et al., 1999).
iv.
The content of the reactor is well mixed, so there is even distribution of

temperature and material within the reactor (Fogler, 1999).
v.
Temperature of water for hydration is 65oC (Lmus et al., 2002).
91
It is also known that, for a continuous stirred tank reactor to give higher conversions,
large volume of the reactor is required. This problem can be offset by arranging a
number of the reactors in series. If the reactors are two, greater conversion is obtained
when their volumes are equal (Froment et al., 1990).
The volume of a reactor (CSTR) is given by the relation:
F x
r
Ao
, m3 (Fogler, 1999).
Where V = volume of the reactor, m3

A = feed(quicklime)
FAo = molar flow rate of feed into the reactor = 379.35 kmol/h
x = conversion of CaO
rA = rate of reaction of CaO, kmol/(m3.h)
Substituting in the relation for rA results in
V=
F Ao x ( 3 1x )
, m3
152.3577.95 x
Calculating conversion in the first chamber of the reactor

V 1=
F Ao x 1 ( 3 ( 1x 1) )
152.3577.95 x 1
, m3
V 2=
F Ao ( x 2x 1) ( ( 1x 2 ) )
152.3577.95 x 2
,m
Where x1 = conversion in the first chamber of the reactor

x2 = final conversion in the second chamber of the reactor =0.99
V1=volume of the first chamber of the reactor
V2=volume of the second chamber of the reactor.
For maximum conversion, V1=V2.
92
F Ao x1 ( 3 ( 1x 1 ) )
152.3577.95 x 1
F Ao ( x 2x 1) ( 3 ( 1x 2 ) )
x 1 ( 3 ( 1x 1 ) )
152.3577.95
x 1 ( 3 ( 1x 2 ) )
x 2 ( 3 ( 1x 2 ) )
+
=
152.3577.95 x 1 152.3577.95 x 2 152.3577.95 x2
By substituting in the value of x2 gives

x 1 ( 3 ( 1x 1 ) )
152.3577.95 x 1
+ 2.87 103 x1=2.84 103
By solving the resulting equation, x1=0.29

From material balance calculation, FAo = 379.35 kmol/h.
Substituting FAo and x1 values into the V1 realtioon;
F Ao x 1 ( 3 ( 1x 1) )
379.35 0.29 ( ( 10.29 ) )

3
V 1=
=
=0.76 m
152.3577.95 x 1
152.35( 77.95 0.29 )
Hence the volume of the first chamber of the hydration reactor, V1 = 0.76 m3
T h e total volume of t h e reactor =2 V 1=2 0.76=1.52m3
The hydrator is modeled as a horizontal cylindrical mixing reactor, and is assumed that
the diameter of the reactor is one-third its length. This assumption is made based on the
fact that, the length of a mixing vessel is related to its diameter by the relation;
L=2 7 D (Nagata, 1975)
The volume of a cylinder is given by the relation;
D2 L
V=
4
Where D= the diameter of the reactor and L= the length of the reactor.
The optimum dimension of the reactor for best agitation is when L = 3D (Nagata, 1975).
Substituting L into the above equation yields;
93
( ) (
3 4 0.76 m
3 D
3 4V
V=
=D=
=
=1.47=1.47 m
4
3
3
L=3 1.47=4.4 m
Thus,
Space time
The performance of a flow reactor is characterized by the space-time and spacevelocity. Space time (
) is the time required to process one reactor volume of feed
measured at specified conditions. It is given by the relation;

=
C AoV
F Ao
Where CAo = concentration of feed, kmol/m3.h

FAo = molar flow rate of the feed, kmol/h
V= volume of the reactor, m3 (Levenspiel, 1999).
C Ao =
F Ao =
n
v water
m
22783
kmol
=
=27.87 3
M v water 57.4 14.24
m
mass
22783
kmol
=
=396.92
molar mass 57.4
h our
C AoV 27.87 1.52

=
=0.11 hour=6.6 minutes
F Ao
396.92
Space velocity
Space velocity(s) is the number of reactor volumes of feed which can be processed in
one minute at specified conditions. It is the inverse of space-time. (Levenspiel, 1999)
1 1
s= =
=0.15 min1
6.6
Inlet nozzle diameter
Table 8.2 Densities of feed components
94
component
Density, kg/m3
Mass fraction
from material
CaO
3300
MgO
3580
CaCO3
2700
SiO2
3950
Al2O3
2650
Fe2O3
5242
(Source: Felder, 2005)
balance
0.823
0.014
0.030
0.068
0.038
0.027
avg =mi i
Where avg = average density of the feed, kg/m3
mi = mass fraction of the ith component (obtained from material balance)
i = density of the ith component.(Felder et al., 2005)
avg =mi i=0.823 3300+0.014 3580+ 0.03 2700+0.068 3950+ 0.038 2650+0.027 5242
Average density of the feed, avg = 3357.85 kg/m3

= 22783 kg/m3 (from material balance)
Mass flow rate of feed, m
Assuming that the feed moves at the same velocity as the air that carries it in the
pneumatic conveyor;
The velocity of the air read from table is v = 2072 m/min. (Perry, 1997)
The volumetric flow rate of the feed is given by the expression;
m
10
V =
avg
Where 10 is a design factor (Peter et al., 2002)
3
10 22783 10
m
m
V =
=
=67.8
avg
3357.85
h
Area of the nozzle is given by the relation;
A=
95
V
v
Where A = cross sectional area of the nozzle, m2

A=
V
67.8
=
=5.45 104 m2
v 2072 60
Area of the nozzle is related to its diameter by the relation:
A=
D
4
(area of a
circle).
Where D = diameter of the nozzle, m.
D=
4A
4 0.000545
=
=0.09 m
Outlet nozzle diameter

Mass flow rate of product,
m
product
= 28799 kg/m3 (from material balance)
Average density of the product, avg = 2705.95 kg/m3

Assuming that the product moves at the same velocity as the velocity of rotation of the
impeller:
The velocity of the air read from table is v = 5296.95 m/h (Perry, 1997)
The volumetric flow rate of the feed is given by the expression;
m
10
V =
avg
Where 10 is a design factor (Peter et al., 2002)
3
10 28799 10
m
m
V =
=
=106.43
avg
2705.95
h
Area of the nozzle is given by the relation;

A=
V
v
Where A = cross sectional area of the nozzle, m2
96
A=
V
106.43
=
=0.02 m2
v 5296.95
Area of the nozzle is related to its diameter by the relation:

A=
D
4
Where D = diameter of the nozzle, m.

Hence
D=
4A
4 0.02
=
=0.16 m
Agitator
Agitation of the content of the reactor is necessary to achieve (1) uniform distribution of
water, and (2) reduce diffusion resistance around the solid particles which has a great
impact on the rate of chemical reaction. The nature of the content of the reactor requires
a multi-stage impeller to ensure proper mixing of the CaO and the water added.
A parameter of great importance in the design of the impeller is the critical (minimum)
speed (Nf) at which the solid is completely dispersed. It varies with the size and design
of the impeller. Hence, optimum design of the impeller is required.
The type of agitator that is appropriate for solid-liquid mixing is turbine agitator. Thus a
four blade turbine agitator is designed for the hydration (Nagata, 1957).
Data;
The width of the impeller;
w impeller=0.1 D
Where D = diameter of the reactor.
97
Diameter of the impeller; this parameter is greatly affected by the nature of the bottom
of the reactor.
d impeller =
D
2
. However, the optimum diameter of impeller for vessels
with spherical bottom is given by;

The length of the shaft,
d opt =0.35 D
Lshaft =27 D
Distance between impellers=D/2 (Nagata, 1975)

w impeller=0.1 D=0.1 1.47=0.147 m=14.7 cm
d opt =0.35 D=0.35 1.47=0.515 m=51.5 cm
Ls h aft =3 D=3 1.47=4.4 m=440 cm
distance between impellers ( H )=
D 1.47
=
=0.74 m=74 cm
2
2
L s h aft 4.4
The number of impeller positions along the shaft H = 0.74 =6
The critical speed at which the mixing is even is given by the relation;
s d
0.1
Where
Nf
0.45
0.2
p
L
0.85
B 0.13
= the minimum impeller speed to achieve complete suspension, rps
s = a dimensionless constant (Zwietering, 1958) presented graphically as a

function of D/c and D/d.
C = the impeller clearance above the base of the vessel, m
= the kinematic viscosity of the liquid, m2/s
dp = the diameter of the particle, m
98
g = gravitational constant, 9.81 ms-2

L
= the density of the liquid, kg/m3
= difference in solid and liquid densities, kg/m3
D = the diameter of the reactor, m

d = the diameter of the impeller, 0.2 m
B = the percentage ratio of mass of solid phase to mass of liquid phase.(Kee et
al, 2002)
s = 6.8 at
D
=2.9
d
and
Viscosity of water at 65oC,
D
=4
C
(Kee et al, 2002)
=0.43555 103
kg
m. s . (Geankoplis, 1999)
Density of water at 65oC = 980.53 kg/m3
, m2/s (Geankoplis, 1999)
0.00043555
4.44 10 7 m 2 / s
980.53
avg =mi i
Where avg = average density of the feed, kg/m3
mi = mass fraction of the ith component
i = density of the ith component
by computing from the table above, i = 3357.85 kg/m3
Thus,
B=
=L CaO =3357.85980.53=2377.32
mass of solid
22783
100=
=163.23
mass of water
13958
Substituting the values obtained into the equation;

99
kg/m3
s 0.1 d p 0.2
Nf =
g
L
0.45
( )
B0.13
=
d 0.85
0.1
6.8 ( 4.44 107 ) ( 0.006 )
0.2
9.81 2377.32
980.53
0.45
(163.23 )
( 0.476 )0.85
8.3 rps=497 rpm
For proper mixing and better distribution of water within the solid, it is good that the
solid is mixed to fluidize. The power required by the mixer to mix and fluidize the
material is given by the relation;
2
3
water
gd p3 s i
16 i
(Nagata, 1957)
Where P = power of agitator, kW

Mwater = total mass of the water used =13958 kg
Dp=diameter of the particle =0.006 m,
s = avg=density of the solid =3357.85 k/m3,
i
= average density of the liquid (water) and solid, kg/m3
g=gravitational constant, m/s2.
Wliquid Wsolid
Vtotal
(Nagata, 1957)
Where Wliquid = weight of liquid=13958 kg

Wsolid = weight of solid=22783 kg
Vtotal = total volume of liquid and solid, m3
volume of solid=
mass of solid
22783
=
=6.78 m ,3
density of solid 3357.85
volume of liquid =
mass of liquid
13958
=
=14.24 m,3
density of liquid 980.53
100
0.13
i=
weight of liquid+ weight of solid 13958+22783

kg
=
=1747.91 3 .
total volume of solid liquid
6.78+14.24
m
Rearranging the equation above results in
gd
P M water
1
3
p
s i
16
3
2
1
3
p
gd s i
16
P M water
3
2
9.81 0.006 13 3357.85 1747.91
13958
16 1747.91
Table 8.3 Summary of the chemical engineering design parameters

Design Paramter
Ratio of water to CaO
Volume of the reactor, m3
Inside diameter of the reactor, m
Length of the reactor, m
Space time, minute
Feed inlet nozzle diameter, m
Product outlet nozzle diameter, m
Length of agitator, m
Value
0.7
1.52
1.47
4.4
6.6
0.09
0.16
4.8
101
3
2
1.16kW
Diameter of impeller, m
Width of impeller, cm
Distance between impellers, cm
Number of impeller positions
0.52
1.47
74
6
Angle of blade to the horizontal
45o
Speed of the agitator, rpm

Power consumption of agitator, kW
497
1.16
8.5 Mechanical Engineering Design

8.5.1 Material selection
Austenitic stainless steel (type AISI 317) which has 18% Cr, 14% Ni, 3% Mo and
0.08% C is chosen. (Perry et al,1997).
8.5.2 Design temperature and pressure

The thermal properties of metals change with temperature. So the design stress of a
material depends on the design temperature of the material (the temperature at which
the equipment is design to operate at). It is also necessary that the reactor is able to
withstand the pressure within which it would operate. The reactor is modeled to work at
atmospheric pressure. But according to Sinnott, the design pressure is normally taken as
10% above the internal pressure of the reaction vessel.
The reactor is modeled as a cylindrical vessel. The minimum thickness of a cylindrical
Pi D i
e=
vessel shell (e) is given as
2 f Pi
(Sinnott, 2005)
Where Pi =internal pressure of the reacting vessel, Pa

f = design stress= 150N/mm (Sinnot, 2005)
102
Di = internal diameter of the vessel=1.47 m

Pi=1.1 atmosp h eric pressure=1.1 101.325 k Pa=111.46 kPa
e=
Pi D i
111.46 1.47 1000
=
=5.5 mm
2 f Pi (2 150 1000)111.46
But according to Sinnot, corrosion allowance is normally added to account for metal
losses due to corrosion, erosion or scaling. However, stainless steels are not very
corrosive (from Perrys), thus the minimum corrosion allowance added is 2 mm.
Hence the minimum thickness of the reactor shell 5.1+ 2=7.5 mm .
8.5.3 Heads and enclosures

The ends of cylindrical vessels are enclosed by heads of different shapes; flat heads,
ellipsoidal head, torispherical and hemispherical heads. The choice of a type of head
depends on the operation conditions (mostly pressure) and economics. (Sinnot, 2005)
With these factors in consideration, torispherical head is chosen.
The minimum thickness of a torispherical head is calculated from the equation;
e=
Pi R c C s
2 fj+ Pi ( C s0.2 )
(Sinnott, 2005)
( )
Rc
1
Where Cs=stress concentration factor for torispherical heads 4 3+ R
k
2005)
Rc=crown radius, m
Rk=knuckle radius, m
Pi=internal pressure of the vessel=111.46 kPa
103
(Sinnott,
f= design stress of the material=150 N/mm

j=joint factor=1 for preformed heads.
In order to avoid buckling, the ratio Rc/Rk should not be less than 0.06 and the crown
radius should not be less than the diameter of the reactor. (Sinnot, 2002).
This implies that Rk/Rc 0.06 and Rc = 1.47 m
C s=
e=
( ) ( )
Rc
1
1
1
3+
= 3+
=1.77
4
Rk
4
0.06
Pi R c C s
111.46 1.47 1000 1.77
=
=9.7 mm
2 fj+ Pi ( C s0.2 ) 2 150000 1+111.46 ( 1.770.2 )
8.5.4 Loading on the reactor

The reaction vessel is subjected to several kinds of loading and must therefore be
designed to withstand the worst combination of such loadings without failure. The
different kinds of loadings could result from; pressure, dead weight of vessel and
contents, wind, seismic and external loads resulting from piping and attached
equipment. (Sinnot, 2005)
Loading caused by weight.
The different types of weight loading on the reactor include; the weight of the vessel,
the weight of the content of the vessel, weight of the agitator, weight of the vessel
fittings (manways and nozzle), and weight of external fittings (ladders and pipings).
The approximate weight of a steel cylindrical vessel with doomed ends and uniform
wall thickness is given as
W v =240C v D m g ( H v + 0.8 D m ) t
. (Sinnott, 2005)
Where Wv = total weight of the shell including internal fittings, N

Cv = a factor to account for weight of nozzles, manways, internal fittings
etc=1.08
Hv = length of the cylindrical vessel, m
104
3
Dm = mean diameter of the vessel = ( Di+t 10 )=1.47 +0.0075=1.48 m
T = is the thickness of the vessel = 7.5 mm

W v =240C v Dm g ( H v + 0.8 D m ) t=240 1.08 ( 1.48 ) ( 4.4+ 0.8 1.48 ) 7.5=14875.78=14.88 kN
The weight of the vessels content is the sum of the weight of the solid and the water
( M solid + M water ) g= (22783+ 13958 ) 9.81 0.11=39.65 kN
Where = residence time of the reactor= 6.6 min = 0.11 h
g=acceleration due to gravity=9.81 m/s2
the total load on the reactor = weight of reactor + weight of content = 39.65 + 14.88
= 54.53 kN
Bending moment due to Wind loading

The horizontal cylindrical vessel on a saddle support can be considered as a uniformly
loaded cantilever beam under wind loading. The bending moment is given by;
Mx
w
wx 2
2
PD
w
(Sinnot, 2005)
Where Mx=the bending moment at any point along vessel length, Nm
W=weight per unit length, N/m
X=distance measured from free end of the vessel, m
Pw=dynamic wind pressure=1280 N/m2 (Sinnot, 2005)
Do=outside diameter of the vessel=1.37 m
W=Wind load, N/m
105
Figure 8.2: The reactor under wind loading
w P w Do 1280 1.47 1881.6 N / m
Mx
wx 2 1881.6 x 2
2
940.8 x
2
2
The maximum value of Mx is obtained at an end of the vessel where x=4 m.
940.8 x 940.8 4.4 18.2kNm
Stresses acting on the reactor

The vessel is subjected to different stresses due to the different kinds of loading and
pressures acting on it. Consider a section of the reactor, the diagram below shows the
stresses acting on it.
z
Figure 8.3: stresses acting on the vessel

z = longitudinal stress, MPa
106
PDi
2t
The principal circumferential stress acting on the vessel (h) due to internal
pressure is given by the relation;

(Sinnot, 2005).
Where P = pressure within the vessel = 111.46 kPa
Di= internal diameter of the vessel =1.47 m = 1470 mm
t = thickness of the vessel =7.5 mm
PDi 111.46 1470
10.92MPa
2t
2 7 .5
The longitudinal stress (L) acting on the vessel due to internal pressure is given by the
relation;
PDi 111.46 1470
5.46 MPa
4t
4 7.5
The direct stress due to the weight of the vessel and its content is defined by the
relation:
W
( Di t )t
(Sinnott, 2005)
w
Where
=dead weight stress, MPa

W=total weight supported by the vessel wall at the plane considered=39.23 kN
W
54.53
1.57 MPa
( Di t )t (1.47 0.0075) 0.0075
The value of w is negative because it is a compressive stress.

Also, the horizontal vessel on a saddle support may bend when acted upon by wind load
or/and when the dead-weight is displaced from the center of the vessel. The bending
107
M v Di
Iv 2
b
stress due to this effect is given as
Iv
and
64
D D
4
2005)
Where b=bending stress, MPa
Mv =total bending moment at the plane being considered=18.2 kNm
Iv =second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending, m4
Do Di 2t 1.47 2 0.0075 1.49m
Iv
64
D D 64 1.49
Mv
Iv
1.47 4 0.013m 4
18.2 1.47
Di
0.0077 1.04MPa
2
0.013 2
The principal stresses on the vessel are given by the following relations;
1 0.5 h z
2 0.5 h z
h z 4
2
h z 4
2
(Sinnott, 2005)
Where z=total longitudinal stress, MPa
= the torsional shear stress, MPa but is negligible (Sinnot, 2005)
z L w b
For upwind loading;
z L w b 5.46 1.57 1.04 4.93

MPa
For downwind loading;
108
(Sinnott,
z L w b 5.46 1.57 1.04 2.85

MPa
1 0.5 h z
h z 4
2 0.5 h z
h z 4
0.5 10.92 4.93
0.5 10.92 2.85
10.92 4.93 10.92MPa

2
10.92 2.85
2
2.85MPa
Using the maximum principal stress theory to access the stability of the reactor
The maximum principal stress theory states that, a member will fail when one of the
principal stresses reaches the failure value in simple tension, e. The failure point is the
yield point stress. (Sinnott, 2005)
The value of e=276 MPa (Perry et al, 1999).
By comparing the failure point with the principal stresses calculated, it can be
concluded that the reactor will not fail and hence the design is feasible.
Design of support
The type of support that is appropriate for handling the unit is two saddle supports. A
vessel supported on saddle is considered a simple beam which is uniformly loaded.
Also, it is assumed that half of the weight of the vessel and its content act on each of the
supports (Zick, 1951). The design of the support requires that all the necessary stresses
are taken into consideration so that the vessel does not collapse when placed on it.
Below are diagrammatic representations of the vessel on the support and the distribution
of the bending moment. The maximum bending moments occur at the saddles and the
mid-span of the vessel.
109
Figure 8.4: Vessel on saddle support
Figure 8.5 Bending moment diagram of vessel on saddle support.

Calculation of stresses acting on the vessel
The maximum longitudinal stress acts at the mid-span of the vessel and is given by the
relation:
L =
3 K 1 QL
r2 t
(Zick, 1951)
Where L = longitudinal stress, MPa

K1 = a constant=0.63 (Zick, 1951)
Q= half of the weight of the vessel and its content=54.53 kN
L= the tangential length of the vessel= 4.4 m
110
r = the radius of the vessel = 0.735 m

t= the thickness of the vessel = 7.5 mm
L =
3 K 1 QL
2
r t
3 0.63 54.53 4.4

=35.63 MPa
0.7352 0.0075
Longitudinal stress due pressure within the vessel=
PD
(Sinnott , 2005)
4t
Where P = pressure within the vessel = 111.46 kPa

D= diameter of the vessel = 1.47 m
Longitudinal stress due pressure within the vessel=
PD 111.46 1.47
=
=5.46 MPa
4t
4 0.0075
Tangential stress acting on the vessel; the maximum tangential stress occurs at the
center side of the saddle. Its given by the relation;
T =
K 2 Q L2 A
rt
4H
L+
3
( )
(Zick, 1951)
Where T = tangential stress, MPa

K2 = 1.171
H = depth of the head = 0.06D = 0.088 m
A = distance between the head joint and the saddle, m.
From Zicks table for saddle design, at H/L=0.02; A/L=0.09.
Therefore,
T =
A=0.09 L=0.9 4.4=0.395 m
K 2 Q L2 A
1.171 54.53 4.42 0.395
=
=9.3 MPa
rt
4H
0.735 0.0075
4 0.088
L+
4.4+
3
3
( )
111
Circumferential stress acting on the vessel; the maximum circumferential stress occurs
at the horn of the saddle and is due to local bending and direct stresses. The
circumferential stress can be calculated from the formula;
C =
3 K3 Q
Q
2
4 t ( b+ 10t )
2t
(Zick, 1951)
Where C = circumferential stress, MPa

B = width of the saddle = 0.30848 m for steel material (Zick, 1951)
K3=0.0528 (Zick, 1951)
t = thickness of vessel = 0.0075 m
C =
3 K3 Q
Q
54.53
3 0.0528 54.53
=81.56 MPa
2
2
4 t ( b+ 10t )
4 0.0075 ( 0.3048+10 0.0075 )
2t
2 0.0075
Figure 8.6: Dimension of saddle support

Dimensions of the support obtain from table;
V = 0.88 m, Y = 0.20 m, C = 1.24 m, J = 0.305 m, G = 0.14 m, t2 = 12mm, t1 = 10mm
(Sinnott, 2005)
Accessing the stability of the saddle support
112
For the saddle support to be stable and serve its purpose, the following conditions must
be fulfilled.
1. The combined maximum axial stress and the stress due to internal pressure should not
exceed the allowable tensile stress of the material (Zick, 1951).
Total axial stress = 35.63 + 5.46 = 41.09 MPa
Allowable tensile stress of steel = 276 MPa (Perry, 1999)
This condition is satisfied since 41.09 MPa 276 MPa
2 .The tangential stress should not exceed 0.8 times the allowable tensile stress of the
material. (Zick, 1951)
This value = 220.8 MPa 9.30 MPa
From the fore going, it is certain that the support will work.

Parameter
Design temperature, oC
Design pressure, MPa
Design stress of the material, MPa
Thickness of vessel shell, mm
Thickness of vessels head, mm
Dead weight, Kn
Dead weight stress, MPa
Bending moment on the reactor, kNm
Bending stress, MPa
Longitudinal stress, MPa
Tangential stress, MPa
Yield point stress of the material, MPa
Value
100
0.11
150
7.1
9.7
39.23
1.29
14.03
0.09
4.23
10.68
276
113
CHAPTER NINE
9 Design of a shaft kiln
It is required to design a shaft kiln for the production of 12,500 kg/h of CaO. The CaO
is to exit the kiln at 80C.
9.2 Introduction
There are various kilns employable for the production of lime. They fall into three broad
groups which are shaft, rotary and parallel flow regenerative kilns.
Shaft kilns are vertical cylindrical hollow structures through which limestone flows
down and is counter-currently, co-currently or in some cases as in the annular shaft kiln
both counter-currently and co-currently contacted with hot gases evolved from the
burning of fuel. Table 9.1 shows different kilns and their characteristics.
Table 9.1: Shaft kiln characteristics
Shaft Kiln type
Fuels used
Output range, t/day
Feed size range, mm
Double-inclined kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
10 - 160
20 200
Multi-chamber kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
40 - 225
20 150
Annular shaft kiln
Gas, Liquid, Solid
80 - 600
10 250
Solid
60 - 200
20 200
Central burner
Gas, Solid
40 - 80
40 150
External chambers
Gas, Liquid
40 - 120
80 350
Gas, Liquid, Solid

Gas, Liquid, Solid
50 - 800
15 - 250
20 175
25 120
Mixed-feed shaft kiln
Beam burner
Internal arch

The rotary kilns are also hollow cylindrical shafts but are inclined at a slight angle to the
horizontal about 3-4. The feed end is the elevated end of the kiln. A rotary kiln rotates
about its axis, this action cause the limestone to slide gradually down the rotary kiln
114
towards the burning zone which is at the opposite end from the feeding end. The flue
gas motion is from the burning end counter-currently over the limestone and towards
the feed end. Table 9.2 shows some rotary kiln characteristics.
Table 9.2: Rotary kiln Characteristics
Kiln type
Long
Pre-heater
Fuels used
Gas, Liquid, Solid
Gas, Liquid, Solid
Output range, t/day Feed size range, mm

160-1500
Dust-60
150-1500
0-60

The parallel flow regenerative kiln is characterized by two vertical shafts connected to
each other by a cross-over channel. This allows for parallel flow heating, i.e. the parallel
flow of the feedstock and combustion gases in one shaft and the regenerative preheating
of the feedstock by the mixture of combustion gases and cooling air in the second shaft.
The parallel flow principle is ideal for producing highly reactive quicklime and burnt
dolomite.
The shaft kiln has been chosen out of all the suitable ones because of its structural
simplicity, which ensures it will be economical to construct. It also has an
uncomplicated mechanism of operation, which minimizes the need for highly skilled
technicians to continuously monitor the unit when it is in operation. It is the commonest
kiln which means parts and services will be readily available if any servicing is
necessary when it is installed on site.
Cross sectional area
Typical diameter for a shaft kiln is between 2-3m. (Mason, 1987). A diameter of 3 m is
chosen because this minimizes shell cross sectional area. The cross section area is
A= r 2= 1.52 =7.1m2
Height of kiln
115
The height of the kiln is a summation of the heights of the burning zone, preheating
zone, and cooling zone. The volume of limestone that can be in a given zone determines
the height of that zone, since the cross sectional area is fixed. The rate of heat transfer
depends on the area available for heat transfer (which depends on the mass of
lime/limestone in the given zone) and the heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer
coefficient however is a function of the superficial mass flux of gas. (Geankoplis,2003)
To find the mass of lime/limestone that can be in a zone at a give time t, the rate of heat
transfer required must be determined, the superficial mass flux and thus the heat
transfer coefficient are then determined. These pieces of information are then used to
determine the amount of limestone in a give zone and by extension the volume and
height of the zone.
Height of burning zone

For the burning zone flue gas maximum temperature is 1350C (Agniezka, 2005) and it
leaves the burning zone at 900C because calcination starts at 900C, thus calcining
zone ends when flue gas is at 900C i.e. in thermal equilibrium with limestone in the
burning zone.
T LM =
CG
(T 1 T 2 ) (1350900)
=
=1112.8
(T 1 )
1350
ln
ln
900
(T 2 )
Where T1 = maximum combustion product temperature in burning zone = 1350C

T2 = minimum combustion product temperature in burning zone = 900C
TLMCG = log mean combustion product temperature in burning zone
The bulk temperature of the flue gas Tb = 1112.8C
The limestone enters the burning zone at 900C and exits at a maximum temperature of
1200C (Agniezka, 2005).
116
T LS/ L =
bz
(T 1T 2) (1200900)
=
=1044.3
(T 1)
1200
ln
ln
900
(T 2)
Where T1 = maximum limestone/lime temperature in burning zone = 1200C

T2 = minimum limestone/lime temperature in burning zone = 900C
TLS/Lbz = log mean limestone/lime temperature in burning zone
The temperature of the fluid film next to the limestone/lime surface, Tf is
T f=
T LS/ L +T LM
=1079 ( Geankoplis, 2003)
2
bz
CG
Table 9.3: Mean Cp values at film and bulk temperature in the burning zone
Specie
s
Amount, kg/h
CO2
6345
N2
28396.8
H2O
2148.12
O2
1965.8
SO2
27.85
NO2
19.69
38903.26
(Source: Geankoplis, 2003)
x
0.16
3
0.73
0
0.05
5
0.05
1
0.00
1
0.00
1
CP
CP
, kJ/kgK
, kJ/kgK
1.14
1.13
1.13
1.12
2.19
2.18
1.06
1.05
0.9
0.8
1.18
1.17
Using the table. 9.3, Cp of fluid at bulk and film temperatures is found below;
C P =x CO C P + x N C P + x H O C P + x O C P + x SO C P + x NO C P =1.19 kJ /kgK
b
CO2
N2
H 2O
O2
SO2
NO2
Where xi = mass fraction of species in combustion product

CPbi = specific heat capacity of species i at bulk temperature (1112.8C), kJ/kgK
CPb = specific heat capacity of entire combustion product at bulk temperature
f
CO2
N2
H2 O
O2
SO 2
xi = mass fraction of species in combustion product

117
NO2
CPi = specific heat capacity of species i at film temperature (1079C), kJ/kgK

CPf = specific heat capacity of combustion product at film temperature
Table 9.4: Viscosity and thermal conductivities at film temperature in the burning zone
Specie
s
CO2
N2
H2O
O2
SO2
NO2
f
kf
, cP
, W/mK
Amount, kg/h X
6345
0.163
0.054
0.088
28396.8
0.730
0.054
0.081
2148.12
0.055
0.05
0.127
1965.8
0.051
0.059
0.06
27.85
0.001
0.048
0.04
19.69
0.001
0.05
0.08
38903.26
(Source: Geankoplis, 2003, Engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010, Gupta and Saxena, 1970,
Saxena and Chen, 1975)
Using data from table 9.4, the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the entire
combustion product is found at film temperature;
f =x CO CO + x N N + x H O H O + x O O + x SO SO + x NO NO =0.054 cP
2

i = viscosity of species i at film temperature, cP
f = viscosity of combustion product at film temperature
k f =x CO k CO + x N k N + x H O k H O + x O k O + x SO k SO + x NO k NO =0.084 W /mK
2

ki = thermal conductivity of species i at film temperature, W/mK
kf = thermal conductivity of combustion product at film temperature
The heat transfer rate with respect to the burning zone is equal to the rate of energy
transfer required to cause dissociation of the amount present in the burning zone at any
given time. The heat transfer coefficient is set by the superficial mass flux which is in
118
turn set by the mass flow rate determined in the mass balance and the cross sectional
area of the kiln.
G'bz =
FG 38903
M
kg
=
=2.1 2
2
A
1.5
m s
'
Where Gbz = flue gas flux in burning zone
A = cross sectional area of kiln= 7.1 m2

FG
M
= mass flow rate of flue gas = 53530 kg/h = 14.9 kg/s
Heat transfer coefficient h is found by the following correlation;

2
f
h C P 3 2.876 f
=
+ 0.3023
'
'
k f
CPG
Dp G
D p G'
0.35
( )
( )
(Geankoplis , 2003)
Where CP = specific heat capacity of bulk fluid = 1.19 kJ/kgK

CPf = specific heat capacity of fluid at film temp. = 1.18 kJ/kgK
f = viscosity of fluid at film temp. = 0.054 cP = 5.4 10-5 kg/ms
kf = thermal conductivity of fluid at film temp. = 8.4 10-5 kW/mK
= void fraction = 0.40
DP = log mean of size range (0.125-0.05) = 0.08 m
0.40
h
1.17 5.4 105 3 2.876 5.4 105
5.4 105
=
+0.3023
1.2 2.1
0.08 2.1
.08 2.1
8.4 105
f
h=0.15
0.35
kW
2
m K
The rate of heat transfer required in the burning zone is the mass flow rate of limestone
in to the burning zone multiplied by the specific heat of dissociation of limestone.
LS h d=28,126 1670=13,047.3 kW
qbz = M
Where
LS
M
= mass flow rate of limestone into burning zone=28126 kg/h= 7.8 kg/s
119
hd = heat of dissociation of limestone=1670 kJ/kg

qbz = heat transfer rate in burning zone, kW
The limestone in the burning zone is modeled as a packed bed therefore;
q bz=h as M LS ( T LM T LM ) (Geankoplis , 2003)
FG
LS
Where q= required rate of heat transfer= 13,047.3 kW

h= heat transfer coefficient= 0.15 kW/m2K
as = specific surface area of limestone= 0.014 m2/kg (Agniezka, 2005)
MLS = mass of limestone in the burning zone at any time, kg
T LM
FG
= log mean temperature of combustion product in burning zone =
1112.8C
T LM
LS
= log mean temperature of limestone in burning zone = 1044.3C
13047.3=0.15 0.014 M LS ( 1112.81044.3 )

bz
M LS =94480 kg
bz
The volume of the burning zone is the volume that will contain the limestone and the
void fraction of the bed of lime. = 0.40. The burning zone constituents are a
continuum from limestone to lime hence a more accurate representation of the mass of
substance in the burning zone is the average of the mass of limestone that can be in the
burning zone and the mass of lime that amount of limestone would produce.
M LS
bz
/L
94480+ ( 0.56 94480 )

=73694 kg
2
Similarly the density of this mixture varies from limestone to lime so a good estimate of
the density of the mass in the zone is: LS/ L=
LS + L 2600+3300
=
=2950 kg /m3
2
2
120
V bz =V LS / L +V V =V LS/ L +
V LS / L=
M LS / L 73684 kg
=
=25 m3
LS/ L
kg
2950 3
m
bz
V bz=1.67 25 m =41.8 m
H bz =
0.40
V =1.67 V LS
0.60 LS/ L
V LS
57.6
=
=5.9 m
A 1.52
Where Vbz = volume of the burning zone, m3

V LS / L
= volume of mass of limestone/lime in burning zone, m3
VV = volume of the void spaces, m3

LS/L = density of limestone/Lime mixture, kg/m3
Hbz = height of burning zone, m
M LS
bz
/L
= mass of limestone/lime mixture, kg
Height of cooling zone

Rate of necessary heat transfer in cooling zone to cool lime from 1200C to 80C is
found by:
1200
|q L|= M L
80
Where
CP
C P dT
L
= spec. heat capacity of lime = 0.84
T
T0
0.13
( )
temperature and To = 373 k ), kJ/kgK

L
M
= mass flow rate of lime 7.25 kg/s
|q L|
= rate of heat transfer in cooling zone, kW

121
,(Agniezka, 2005) (T=
|q L|=4738.3 kW
Air enters the cooling zone at ambient temperature assumed to be 25C and leaves at
900C
T LM =
CA
(T 1T 2) (90025)
=
=244.1
(T 1)
900
ln
ln
25
(T 2)
( )
Where T1 = maximum air temperature in cooling zone = 900C

T2 = minimum air temperature in cooling zone = 25C
TLMCA = log mean air temperature in cooling zone
The bulk temperature of the air is Tb = 244.1C
The limestone enters the cooling zone at a maximum 1200C and exits at about 80C
(Agniezka, 2005).
T LM =
L
(T 1T 2) (120080)
=
=414
(T 1)
1200
ln
ln
80
(T 2)
Where T1 = maximum lime temperature in cooling zone = 1200C

T2 = minimum lime temperature in cooling zone = 80C
TLML = log mean lime temperature in cooling zone
Therefore the temperature of the fluid film next to the lime surface is
T f=
T LM +T LM
=329.1 (Geankoplis ,2003)
2
L
CA
kg
17,859
M
h
kg
G'cz = CA =
=0.70 2
2
A
1.5
m s
'
Where Gcz = Mass flux of air through burning zone, kg/m2s

CA
M
= mass flow rate of cooling air through burning zone=4.96 kg/s
122
= cross sectional area of kiln, m2
2
f
h C P 3 2.876 f
=
+ 0.3023
'
'
k f
CPG
Dp G
D p G'
0.35
( )
( )
(Geankoplis , 2003)
Where CP = specific heat capacity of bulk air = 1.03 kJ/kgK (Geankoplis, 2003)
CPf = specific heat capacity of air at film temp. = 1.04 kJ/kgK (Geankoplis, 2003)
f = viscosity of air at film temperature = 2.07 10-5 kg/ms (Geankoplis, 2003)
kf = thermal conductivity of fluid at film temperature = 4.69 10-5 kW/mK
(Engineeringtoolbox.com)
DP = diameter of lime particles= log mean of size range (0.100-0.04) = 0.065 m
Inserting the value of G for the burning zone gives
0.40
5 0.35
h
1.04 2.07 3 2.876 2.07 10
2.07 10
=
+0.3023
1.03 0.7
4.69
0.065
0.7
0.065 0.7
f
h=0.066
kW
m2 K
q cz=h a s M L ( T LM T LM
CA
Where h= heat transfer coefficient= 0.066 kW/m2K

as = specific surface area of lime= 0.013 m2/kg
ML = mass of lime in the cooling zone at any time, kg
T LM
T LM
CA
= log mean temperature of air in cooling zone = 244 C

= log mean temperature of lime in cooling zone = 414 C
4738.3 kW =0.066 0.013 M LS ( 414244 )

cz
M LS =32485 kg
cz
123
V cz =V L +V V =V L +
V L=
0.40
V =1.67 V L
0.60 L
M L 32485 kg
=
=9.84 m3
L
kg
3300 3
m
cz
V cz =1.67 9.84 m =16.44 m
H cz =
V CZ 16.44
=
=2.3 m
A
1.52
Where Vcz = volume of the cooling zone, m3

VL
= volume of mass of lime in cooling zone, m3

L = density of Lime in cooling zone, kg/ m3
Hcz = height of cooling zone, m
ML
cz
= mass of lime, kg
Preheating zone
Some of the flue gas is removed from the preheating zone to preheat the incoming fresh
combustion air. It is expected that the flue gas temperature will be 700C when it is
removed for this purpose. This immediately divides the preheating zone into 2 zones
which will contain different amounts of limestone. The temperature of limestone in the
lower preheating zone will range from a Tm (that corresponds to the point at which the
flue gas temperature is 700C) to 900C while the limestone in the upper preheating
zone will range in temperature from ambient temperature of 25C to Tm.
The temperature Tm can be found by relating the rate of heat transfer from the flue gas
to the rate of heat addition to the limestone, which must be equal.
124
900
FG C P ( 900700 )= M
LS
M
FG
Tm
C P dT
LS
FG
M
= mass flow rate of flue gas= 53530 kg/h
Where
CP
FG
= mean specific heat capacity of flue gas from 900 to 700C= 1.21
kJ/kgK
(Geankoplis,2003)
LS =
M
mass flow rate of limestone= 28126 kg/h
CP
LS
= specific heat capacity of limestone = 0.97
T
T0
0.25
( )
, kJ/kgK
Where T = temperature, T0 = 373 K (Agniezka,2005)

1.25
1.25
0.97 ( 1173 T m )
53,530 ( 1.21 200 )=28,126
1.25
3730.25
T m=801.07 K=528 C
The main use of Tm is to determine the log mean temperature of the limestone in the
lower preheating zone with which variable values are determined for use in finding the
heat transfer coefficient.
Flue gas enters the lower preheating zone from the burning zone at 900C and leaves at
700C.
T LM =
FGl
(T 1T 2) ( 900700)
=
=796
(T 1)
900
ln
ln
700
(T 2)
( )
Where T1 = maximum flue gas temperature in lower preheating zone = 900C

T2 = minimum flue gas temperature in lower preheating zone = 700C
TLMFGl = log mean flue gas temperature in lower preheating
125
The bulk temperature of the air is Tb = 796C

The limestone enters the lower preheating zone at a 528C and exits at 900C
T LM =
LS
(T 1T 2) (900528)
=
=698
(T 1)
900
ln
ln
528
(T 2)
( )
Where T1 = maximum limestone temperature in lower preheating zone = 900C

T2 = minimum limestone temperature in lower preheating zone = 528C
TLMLS = log mean limestone temperature in lower preheating zone
T f=
T LM +T LM
=747 (Geankoplis , 2003)
2
LS
FGl
Table 9.5: mean Cp values at film and bulk temperature

CP
Specie
CP
Amount, kg/h %
kJ/kgK
kJ/kgK
CO2
20082 37.55
1.10
1.09
N2
28397 53.09
1.10
1.10
H2O
2148 4.02
2.09
2.07
O2
1966 3.68
1.02
1.01
SO2
872 1.63
0.78
0.77
NO2
20 0.04
1.13
1.13
53485
Using table 9.5, the Cp of the flue gas at the bulk and film temperatures is calculated;
b
CO2
N2
H 2O
O2
SO2
NO2
Where xi = mass fraction of species in flue gas

CPbi = specific heat capacity of species i at bulk temperature =796C, kJ/kgK
CPb = specific heat capacity of flue gas at bulk temperature
f
CO2
N2
H2 O
O2
xi = mass fraction of species in flue gas

126
SO 2
NO2
CPi = specific heat capacity of species i at film temperature= 747C, kJ/kgK

Table 9.6: Viscosity and thermal conductivities at film temperature in the lower
preheating zone
Specie
s
CO2
N2
H2O
O2
SO2
NO2
f
kf
, cP
, W/mK
Amount, kg/h X
20082 0.163
0.067
0.040
28397 0.730
0.064
0.041
2148 0.055
0.086
0.035
1966 0.051
0.058
0.050
872 0.001
0.07
0.035
20 0.001
0.07
0.043
53485
(Source: Geankoplis, 2003, Engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010,Gupta and Saxena,1970,
Saxena and Chen,1975)
Using Table 9.6, the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the flue gas at the film
temperature is calculated;
2

i = viscosity of species i at film temperature, cP
f = viscosity of flue gas at film temperature
k f =x CO k CO + x N k N + x H O k H O + x O k O + x SO k SO + x NO k NO =0.066
2
W
mK

ki = thermal conductivity of species i at film temperature, W/mK
kf = thermal conductivity of flue gas at film temperature
G'LP h z =
FG
M
A
LPh z
53530
kg
=2.1 2
2
1.5
m s
Where A = cross sectional area of kiln= 7.1 m2
127
FG
M
= mass flow rate of flue gas = 53530 kg/h = 14.9 kg/s
LP h z
2
f
h C P 3 2.876 f
=
+ 0.3023
'
'
k f
CPG
Dp G
D p G'
0.35
( )
( )
Where CP = specific heat capacity of bulk flue gas = 1.13 kJ/kgK

CPf = specific heat capacity of air at film temp. = 1.13 kJ/kgK
f = viscosity of flue gas at film temperature = 4.1 10-5 kg/ms
kf = thermal conductivity of flue gas at film temperature = 6.6 10-5 kW/mK
DP = diameter of limestone = log mean of size range (0.125-0.5) = 0.08 m
Inserting the value of G for the lower preheating zone gives
h
1.13 4.1 32 2.876 4.1 105
4.1 105
0.40
=
+ 0.3023
1.13 2.1
6.6
0.08 2.1
.08 2.1
f
0.35
h=0.13 kW /m K
q p h zL=h a s M LS ( T LM T LM
FG
LS
Where h= heat transfer coefficient = 0.13 kW/m2K

as = specific surface area of limestone = 0.014 m2/kg
MLS = mass of limestone in the lower preheating zone at any time, kg
T LM
T LM
FG
LS
= log mean temperature of flue gas in lower preheating zone = 796C

= log mean temperature of limestone in lower preheating zone = 698C
3591 kW=0.13 0.014 M LS ( 796698 )

ph zL
M LS =20133 kg
p h zL
V p h zL=V LS +V V =V LS +
0.40
V =1.67 V LS
0.60 LS
128
V LS =
M LS
20133
=
=7.74 m3
LS
2600
p h zL
V p h zL =1.67 7.74=12.9 m
H p h zL =
V LS
12.9
=
=1.8 m
A
1.52
V p h zL
Where
V LS
= volume of the lower preheating zone, m3

= volume of mass of limestone in lower preheating zone, m3

LS = density of Limestone in lower preheating zone, kg/ m3
H p h zL
= height of lower preheating zone, m
M LS
= mass of limestone in lower preheating zone, kg
p h zL
The mass flow in the upper preheating zone is less since some gas is removed to preheat
the incoming combustion air.
'
G=
M FGUph z 5353015017
1h
kg
=
=1.51 2
2
A
3600 s
1.5
m s
M FGUp h z
Where
= mass of flue gas through upper preheating zone, kg/h
Flue gas enters the upper preheating zone from the burning zone at 700C and leaves at
300C.
T LM =
FGU
(T 1T 2) (700300)
=
=472
(T 1)
700
ln
ln
300
(T 2)
( )
Where T1 = maximum flue gas temperature in upper preheating zone = 700C

T2 = minimum flue gas temperature in upper preheating zone = 300C
TLMFGU = log mean flue gas temperature in upper preheating zone
129
The bulk temperature of the flue gas is Tb = 472C

The limestone enters the upper preheating zone at ambient temperature assumed to be
25C and exits at 528C
T LM =
LSU
(T 1 T 2 ) (52825)
=
=165
(T 1 )
528
ln
ln
25
(T 2 )
( )
Where T1 = maximum limestone temperature in upper preheating zone = 528C

T2 = minimum limestone temperature in upper preheating zone = 25C
TLMLSU = log mean limestone temperature in upper preheating zone
T f=
T LM +T LM
=319 (Geankoplis , 2003)
2
L SU
FGU
Table 9.7: Mean Cp values at film and bulk temperature in the upper preheating zone
CP
CP
, kJ/kgK
, kJ/kgK
Species Amount, kg/h %
CO2
20082 37.55
1.02
0.96
N2
28397 53.09
1.08
1.05
H2O
2148 4.02
1.98
1.91
O2
1966 3.68
0.98
0.95
SO2
872 1.63
0.73
0.7
NO2
20 0.04
1.08
1.04
53485
b
Using data from table 9.7, the mean Cp of the flue gas in the upper preheating zone at
bulk and film temperatures is found;
b
CO2
N2
H 2O
O2
SO2
NO2
Where xi = mass fraction of species in flue gas

CPbi = specific heat capacity of species i at bulk temperature (472C), kJ/kgK
CPb = specific heat capacity of combustion product at bulk temperature
f
CO2
N2
H2 O
O2
130
SO 2
NO2
xi = mass fraction of species in combustion product

CPi = specific heat capacity of species i at film temperature= (319C), kJ/kgK
Table 9.8: Viscosity and thermal conductivities at film temperature in upper preheating
zone
Specie
f
kf
, cP
, W/mK
Amount, kg/h X
CO2
20082
0.028
0.041
0.163
N2
28397
0.03
0.044
0.730
H2O
2148
0.021
0.047
0.055
O2
1966
0.034
0.044
0.051
SO2
872
0.023
0.04
0.001
NO2
20
0.03
0.04
0.001
53485
(Source: Geankoplis, 2003, Engineeringtoolbox.com, 2010,Gupta and Saxena,1970,
s
Saxena and Chen,1975)

Using date from table 9.8, the viscosity and thermal conductivity of the flue gas in the
upper preheating zone is found at film temperature;
2

i = viscosity of species i at film temperature(319C), cP
f = viscosity of flue gas in upper preheating zone at film temperature
k f =x CO k CO + x N k N + x H O k H O + x O k O + x SO k SO + x NO k NO =0.043 W /mK
2

ki = thermal conductivity of species i at film temperature(319C), W/mK
kf = thermal conductivity of flue gas in upper preheating zone at film temperature
2
f
h C P 3 2.876 f
=
+ 0.3023
'
'
k f
CPG
Dp G
D p G'
( )
0.35
( )
Where CP = specific heat capacity of bulk flue gas = 1.08 kJ/kgK

131
CPf = specific heat capacity of air at film temp. = 1.04 kJ/kgK

f = viscosity of air at film temperature = 2.9 10-5 kg/ms
kf = thermal conductivity of fluid at film temperature = 4.3 10-5 kW/mK
DP = diameter of limestone particles= log mean of size range (0.125-0.5) =0.08m
Inserting the value of G for the upper preheating zone gives
0.40
h
1.04 2.9 3 2.876 2.9 10
2.9 10
=
+0.3023
1.08 1.51
4.3
0.08
1.51
0.08
1.51
f
h=0.088
kW
m2 K
528.07
LS
q p h zU = M
25
q p h zU =28,126
C P dT =h ( asdz ) M LS ( T LM T LM
LS
FG
LS
( 801.071.25298 1.25 )
kg 0.97
=4171.2 kW
h 373 0.25
1.25
2
4171.2 kW =0.088
kW
m
0.014 M LS
2
kg
m K
( 472165 )
p hzU
M LS =14286 kg
p h zU
V p h zU =V LS +V V =V LS +
V LS =
0.40
V =1.67 V LS
0.60 LS
M LS
14286 kg
=
=5.5 m3
LS
kg
2600 3
m
p h zU
V p h zU =1.67 5.7 m3 =9.2 m3
H p h zU =
V LS
9.2
=
=1.3 m
A 1.5 2
132
0.35
Where
V p h zU
V LS
= volume of the upper preheating zone, m3

= volume of mass of limestone in upper preheating zone, m3

LS = density of Limestone, kg/m3
H p h zU
= height of upper preheating zone, m
M LS
= mass of limestone in upper preheating zone, kg
p h zU
H T =H bz + H cz + H p h zL+ H p h zU =5.9+2.3+1.8+1.3=11.3 m
This height is adequate for the provision of natural draught by the pressure drop of the
Stack.
Location of burners
The burners will be located at the bottom of the burning zone since natural draught will
cause most of the gas evolved from fuel combustion to rise rather than travel
downwards. The burning zone ends immediately above the cooling zone therefore the
burners will be located 2.3 m from the bottom the kiln since this is the length of the
cooling zone.
Refractory thickness
Generally refractories are acidic, basic or neutral. At high temperatures acidic materials
attack basic refractories and vice versa. (Uppal, 2008)
There are typically two refractory layers in a lime kiln. The first layer used, which
comes into contact with the limestone/lime, is made of magnesia bricks. This is mainly
because magnesia is a basic refractory. The second layer is made of fireclay. Fireclay is
the most widely used refractory in industry thus it is readily available and thus cheap;
133
however it is an acidic refractory and thus must not come into direct contact with the
lime/limestone. A combination of magnesia and fireclay is thus practical both
economically and in the engineering sense. (www.hiwtc.com, 2010)
The total thickness of refractory in a lime kiln usually ranges from 80-300 mm (Peray,
1998). The necessary thickness is chosen based on economics and engineering
necessity. Standard magnesia refractory bricks come in 2 thicknesses; 0.064 m (2.5 in)
and 0.076 m (3 inch) (www.hiwtc.com). To reduce frequency of replacement the larger
thickness will be employed. Therefore thickness of one brick thick magnesia layer is
0.076 m. Mild steel on the outside of the refractory must be kept at or below 350C to
prevent adverse effects (Boateng, 2008). Thus the refractory combination here used
must maintain a temperature of 350C on the outside with an inside temperature of
1400C.
Most of the energy is lost in the burning zone so it can be treated as though all the enrgy
lost is lost through this zone so as to ensure adequate refractory thickness.
L hLW =4.38 170=743.8 kW
q x= M
Where ML = mass of lime produced = 4.38 kg/s
hLW = heat loss through wall per kg of lime produced= 170 kJ/kg
(Agniezka,2005)
qx = energy lost through kiln wall
For an open cylinder
qx
dT
=k
( Geankoplis , 2003 )
2 r h
dr
Where r = radius
134
h = height
k = thermal conductivity of material of construction
T = temperature
Integrating gives
qx
r2
ln
=T 2T 1
2 k h
r1
()
For the magnesia layer k= 3.1 W/mK (Uppal, 2008)

r2 = outer radius of magnesia layer= 0.0762 +1.5= 1.5762 m
r1= inner radius of kiln=1.5 m
T2 = temperature at magnesia/fireclay interface, C
T1 = maximum internal temperature1400C (Agniezka, 2005)
h = height of burning zone = 5.9 m
743800
1.5762
ln
=T 21400
2 3.1 5.9
1.5
T = 1080C
2
For fireclay layer
k= 1.7 W/mK (Uppal, 2008)

r2 = outer radius of entire refractory combination, m
r1= outer radius of magnesia layer= 1.5762 m
T2 = temperature at fireclay/steel interface= 1080C
T1 = temperature at magnesia/fireclay interface = 350C
h = height of burning zone = 5.9 m
r2
743800
ln
=3501080
2 1.7 5.9
1.5762
r2 = 1.677 m
Thickness of magnesia layer = 0.0762 m,
Thickness of fireclay layer = 1.677 - 1.576 = 0.101 m
135
Total refractory thickness = 0.101 + 0.0762 = 0.177 m (below maximum allowable

thickness)
Height of refractory
Refractory is not necessary in areas where the temperature is at or below 250C. Air
temperature reduces steadily down through the cooling zone from 900C just before
entering burning zone, to ambient temperature assumed to be 25C when entering.
Lcz
L L250
= cz
L250 =1.7 m
T e T ex T e 250
Where LCZ = length of cooling zone = 2.3 m
Te = temperature at cooling zone entry= 25C
Tex = temperature at cooling zone exit = 900C
L250 = length measured from start of cooling zone at which air temperature is
250C
L250 = 1.7 m
Thus height of refractory =
H bz + H p hz +1.7=10.7 m
Table 9.9: Summary of chemical engineering calculations

Design parameter
Height of burning zone, m
Height of cooling zone, m
Height of preheating zone, m
Height of kiln, m
Height of refractory, m
Inner diameter of kiln, m
Internal cross-sectional area, m2
Volume of kiln, m3
Volume of refractory, m3
Thickness of refractory, m
Burning zone heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2K
Cooling zone heat transfer coefficient, kW/m2K
Upper preheating zone heat transfer coefficient,
Value
5.9
2.3
3.1
11.3
10.7
3
1.71
19.32
18.90
0.177
0.15
0.066
0.088
kW/m2K
Lower preheating zone heat transfer coefficient,
0.13
kW/m2K
136

Equivalent fluid density (EFD)
EFD=w [
1- sin
]
1+sin
Where w = Average density of lime/limestone (3300+2700)/2 = 3000 kg/m 3 (Kogal et

al., 2006, mineralzone.com, 2007)
= Angle of repose of lime/limestone = (45+55)/2 = 50 (kogal et al., 2006,
Mineralzone.com, 2007)
EFD=3000
kg 1- sin50
=397.4 kg/m3
3
m 1+ sin 50
The Lateral Unit Pressure PL,

PL =EFD h g
Where g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.8 m/s2

PL =397.4 11.39.8=44008 N /m2
Steel shell thickness
The steel shell of a lime kiln is typically made of rolled mild steel plate of 30 mm
thickness (Peray, 1998). Thus that thickness shall be assumed as the thickness of the
shaft kiln. However, stress analysis must be carried out to ensure that this thickness is
sufficient for structural stability. The outer radius of the kiln becomes
r o=
1.707
=0.854 m
2
Height of silo
137
The kiln is fitted at the bottom with a cone hopper. The silo is a cone of whose side is at
a 45 to its base. The height is therefore found as for a right angled triangle whose base
is the outer radius of the kiln (0.854).
H silo =r o tan 45 =0.854 m
Where Hsilo = height of silo, m
ro = outer radius of kiln, m
Stress analysis
For a steel vessel, the dead weight of the vessel excluding refractory is estimated as:
W v = ( r 2or 2i h s g
Wv
Where
= total weight of the shell, excluding internal fittings, N
ro = outer radius of steel shell = 1.706 m

ro = sq. of inner radius of steel shell = 1.676 m
h = height of steel shell = 11.3 m
2 = density of mild steel = 7850 kg/m3 (www.cr4.globalspec.com)
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 m/s2
W v = (2.912.81 11.3 7850 9.8=273101.5 N

Wind loading
The pressure exerted by the wind on tall vessels results in bending moments at the base
of the vessel. This effect is estimated as:
Mx =
w x2
(Sinnott, 2005)
2
Where,
M x =
Bending moment, Nm
138
w= Loading per unit length due to wind pressure, N/m

x= Height of vessel = 11 .3 m
w = Pw Dm =4331.5 N/m (Sinnott, 2005)

Pw = pressure due to wind loading = 1280 N/m2 (Sinnott, 2005)
Dm = log mean diameter = (3.414-3.354)/ln(3.414/3.354) =3.384 m
Therefore,
Mx=
2185 11. 32
=276 , 546 Nm
2
Primary stresses
The primary stresses are longitudinal and circumferential stresses due to pressure.
L =
P Di
(Sinnott, 2005)
2t
where , L = Longitudinal stress, kPa
P=design pressure= 44008 N /m2

Di =internal diameter of vessel=3.354 m
t=shell thickness=0.03 m
L =
44008 3.354
= 2460 kPa
20.03
c =
P Di
4t
where ,
(Sinnott, 2005)
= Circumferential stress
P=design pressure= 44008 N /m
139

t=shell thickness= 0.03 m
44008 N /m2 3.354 m
c =
= 1230 kPa
40.03 m
Dead weight stress
(w
Dead weight stress is either compressive or tensile

This is estimated as:
w =
Wv
( D i +t ) t
273101.5
= 856.3 kPa
( 3.354+0.03 ) 0.03
( Sinnott, 2005)
Bending stress (b)

This is estimated by:
b =
M x Di
+t (Sinnott, 2005)
Iv 2
where,
( )
M x =
Total bending moment = 276 , 546 Nm
Di = internal diameter = 3.354 m

Do=
Outer diameter = 3.414 m

I v =
b =
The second moment of area of the vessel=
276 ,546
( 1.677+ 0.03 ) = 1026.2 k Pa
0.46
The resultant longitudinal stress ( z) is given as:
140
( D4o - D4i )
64
=0.46 m4
z = L + w b (Sinnott, 2005)
For a compressive stress,
is taken as negative and the vice versa in the case of
tensile stress. The dead weight stress of this reactor is compressive and hence the value
is negative.
For compressive stress
Upwind conditions,
z = 2460 kPa + ( 856.3 kPa ) +1026.2 k Pa =4342.5 kPa
For downwind conditions, the principal stress will be
z = 2460 kPa + ( 856.3 kPa ) - 1026.2 k Pa = 2290.1 kPa
The principal stresses will be
and
The maximum difference between the principal stresses will be:

2290.1 1230 = 1060 kPa
The maximum stress obtained is below the maximum allowable design stress of 250000
kPa and hence this design is safe.
Support design (Optional)
The suitable support for a kiln of this kind is the bracket support (Sinnot, 2005). The
bracket legs are supposed to support the total weight of the vessel and its contents. The
thickness of the leg of the bracket and the maximum safe height of the legs must be
determined.
W=total weight of the vessel and contents
Weight of vessel = 273101.5 N

Approximate weight of vessel content when vessel is full (including refractory) is given
as:
141
W c =( ( r i )2 H ) g
(Sinnott,2005)
Where Wc = weight of contents, kN

ri = inner radius of steel shell= 1.677 m
H = height of steel shell = 11.3 m
= approximate density of contents= 3000 kg/m3
2
W c =( (1. 677 ) 11. 3 )
Therefore,
3000 kg
-2
9.8 m s = 2 938.2 kN
3
m
W=273.1 + 2938.2 = 3211.3 kN
Maximum compressive stress occurs when the vessel is filled with CaCO 3 whiles the
maximum tensile stress occurs during operating conditions under the dead weight of the
vessel ( Sinnott, 2005 ) .
Total Weight of Vessel with content = 3211.3 kN
t=
S t 135000 kPa
=
=38571.4 kPa
f
3.5
Where t = allowable tensile stress, kPa

St = tensile strength of steel support = 135000 kPa (Sinnot, 2005)
f = factor of safety= 3.5 (Andoh, 2009)
and
t=
F
A
142
Where F = Total Weight of Vessel and content per support
3211.3
3
=1070.4 kN
A = Area of support, m2
A= 0.028 m2
A = L
Where L = characteristics length, m
L = 0.17 m
I= L4/12= 0.000065 m4
Where I = second moment of bending, m4
K =I/A
Where K radius of gyration, m2
K = 0.000065 /0.028 = 0.0023 m2
K = 0.048 m
Hs = K Sr = 0.048 100 = 4.8 m
Where Hs = height of support, m
Sr = strut slenderness ratio, 100 for struts (Sinnot, 2005)
While the calculation yields 4.8 as the maximum height of support additional
redundancy can be built into the design by using a length shorter than this. Therefore 4
m shall be employed as the height of this design.
Buckling Force, Pc
Pc =Least value of force which will cause the column to buckle.
Pc=
E I
( Sinnot , 2005)
KH 2s
143
I = 0.000065 m4
Hs = 4.0 m
K = column effective length factor = 0.5 for both ends fixed
E = modulus of elasticity = 204 GPa (Engineeringtoolbox.com)
Pc = 5,207.2 kN
The buckling force is much greater than the weight of the kiln and its contents at full
loading, thus the structure is safe.

Design parameter
Equivalent fluid density, kg/m3
Design pressure, N/m2
Dead weight of vessel, kN
Bending moment, Nm
Longitudinal stress, kPa
Circumferential stress, kPa
Value
397.4
44008
273.1
276546
2460
1230
Dead weight stress, kPa
856.3
Total weight of vessel and content, kN
3211.3
Material of support construction
Carbon steel
144
Material of construction of kiln shell
Mild steel
Length of support (height), m

Least force to cause buckling, kN
Number of support columns
Thickness of kiln shell
4.0
3616.1
3
0.03 m
145
146
CHAPTER TEN
10 Design of a stack
The design of a stack is required to discharge 53,530 kg of flue gas per hour. The flue
gas enters the stack at a temperature of 300C.
10.2 Introduction
A stack is vertical vent for conducting cooled combustion products of a process to the
atmosphere. The gases may be warm or cold; they may have high exit velocities or low
exit velocities. The stack is merely a means of getting the gases out of the operating area
into the atmosphere where they can be diluted and dispersed. When the gases are
exhausted from stoves, ovens, fireplaces, or other small sources within residential
buildings, restaurants, hotels, or other public buildings and small commercial
enterprises, their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys.
Some stacks are designed as a forced draft system with a blower to pressurize the stack,
while other stacks may be tall enough to provide the necessary draft needed at their
base. Tall stacks provide not only natural draft for combustion processes but also deals
with safe atmospheric dispersion of flue gases. The taller the stack, the greater the
dispersion of the effluent. The shorter stack may then need to operate with induced draft
or forced-draft.
10.3 Chemical engineering calculations on the stack
Assumptions:
i.
ii.
iii.
The height of the stack is higher than 60 m (Lund, 1971)

The gas exit velocity is between 2.5 3.0 m/s (Khalil E.E, 1982)
The base diameter is 1.5 times the top diameter (Khalil E.E, 1982)
Height of the stack

H = 80 m
Temperature difference in the stack
T =1.3 H ,(Khalil E . E ,1982)
147
where, T = temperature difference in the stack, C

H = height of the stack, m
T =1.3 80=104 C
Diameter of the stack
Mass flow rate of flue gas, m = 53,530 kg/h
Table 10.1 Table of flue gas compositon
Flue gas
composition
Mass, %
Mass flow
CO2
37.3
H2O
4.0
SO2
1.9
O2
3.7
N2
53.1
rate, kg/h
19,966.69
2,141.2
1,017.07
1,980.61
28,424.43
The bulk density of the flue gas is calculated using the ideal gas law to calculate the
individual densities of each component at a temperature of 300C.
PV =nRT ,(McCabe et al , 2005)
Where, P = atmospheric pressure, N/m2

V = volume of the gas, m3
n = number of moles, mol-1
R = molar gas law constant, 8,314 J/kg mol K, ( McCabe et al, 2005)
T = temperature of gas, K
The equation is rearranged to
P
n
=
RT V
multiplying both sides by molar mass.
PM nM
=
RT
V
Where, M = Molecular weight, kgmol-1
148
and
nM =m
where, m = mass flow of the gas, kg/s
m
=
V
Where, = density of the gas, kg/m3
Therefore, we have the final equation as
MP
RT
Sample calculation
The density of CO2 is calculated below.
molecular weight of CO2 = 44 kg/mol
temperature of gas = (300 + 273) K = 573K
atmospheric pressure = 101325 N/m2
CO =
2
44 101325
=0.936 kg/ m3
8314 573
Therefore,
V=
m 19,966.69
=
=21,335.4 m3 /h
0.936
The total volumetric flow is calculated for all the components of the flue gas.
Table 10.2: Volumetric flow rate of flue gas
Flue gas
composition
Volumetric
CO2
H2O
SO2
O2
N2
Total
78,314.
flow, m3/h
21,335.4
5,592.8
747.2
2,910.0
47,728.9
The bulk density is calculated using this formula

149
m
,( McCabe et al, 2005)
V
Where, m = mass flow rate, kg/h

V = volumetric flow rate, m3/h
fg = buk density of flue gas, kg/m3
Therefore,
fg =
53,530
=0.684 kg/m3
78,314.3
The gas exit velocity, v2 = 2.5 m/s

Therefore,
A=
V
,( McCabe et al, 2005)
v
Where, A = cross-sectional area, m2

V = volumetric flow rate of gas, m3/s = 21.8 m/s
v = velocity of flue gas, m/s
A 1=
21.8
2
=8.7 m
2.5
Diameter at the top of the stack is derived by manipulating the formula for the area of a
circle;
D2
A=
4
Therefore, the equation becomes
D=
D 1=
A4
8.7 4
=3.3 m
Area at the top of the stack,

150
Diameter at the bottom of the stack,

D2 = 1.5D1,
(Khalil E.E, 1982)
Pressure drop in the stack

The pressure drop available by natural draught is
P' =0.35 H p
1
1
,( Sinnot ,2005)
Ta Tg
Where, H = height of stack, m

P = pressure drop in the stack, mm H2O
P = atmospheric pressure, millibar
Ta = ambient temperature, K
Tg = flue gas temperature, K
(Source: Sinnot, 2005)
P' =0.35 80 1013.25
1
1
= 44.7 mm H 2 O
301 573
55.9 mm H2O = 1.8 in H2O

1 in H2O = 249.1 N/m2, (McCabe et al, 2005)
Therefore, 1.8 in H2O = 448.38 N/m2
P = 448.38 N/m2
The stack has a natural pressure drop of 448.38 N/m2. This pressure drop in the stack is
enough for the stack to have a natural draft.
Table 10.3: Summary of chemical engineering design
Design Parameter
Height of the stack, m
Value
80
Diameter at bottom of stack, m

Diameter at top of stack, m
Velocity at bottom of stack, m/s
Velocity at top of stack, m/s
4.95
3.3
1.1
2.5

151
The material of construction of the stack is structural steel, a form of carbon steel. The
average thickness of stacks is usually 12 15 cm. The thickness assumed for the stack
is 15 cm, so the stress analysis will be carried out. This is done to make sure the
structure will be stable.
Thermal stress
This is due to the contraction and expansion caused by the temperature of the flue gas in
the stack. It is calculated as:
t =E T (Ferdinand P . Beer ,1979)
Where t = thermal stress
E = modulus of elasticity, 200109 N/m2
= , 11.710-6/C
T = temperature difference in stack, 104C
t =200 10 9 11.7 106 104=243.36 106 N /m2
Design pressure
The Lateral Unit Pressure PL,
PL =FD h g
Where g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.8 m/s2

FD = fluid density, kg/m3
H = height, m
PL =0.684 80 9.8=536.256 N / m2
Primary stresses
This includes the longitudinal stresses and the circumferential stresses.
l=
P Di
( Sinnot ,2005)
2t
152
where , L = Longitudinal stress, kPa
P=design pressure= 536.256 N /m2

Di =internal diameter of vessel = 4.95 m
t=shell thickness=0.15 m
L =
536.256 4.95
= 8848.224 Pa
20.15
c =
P Di
4t
where ,
(Sinnott, 2005)
= Circumferential stress
P=design pressure= 536.256 N /m

t=shell thickness= 0.15 m
c =
536.256 4.95
= 4424.112 Pa
40.15
Stress analysis
For a steel vessel, the weight is estimated as:
W v = ( r 2or 2i h s g
Where
Wv
= total weight of the stack, N
ro = outer radius of steel shell = 2.625 m

ri = inner radius of steel shell = 2.475 m
h = height of stack = 80 m
s = density of structural steel = 7860 kg/m3 (Ferdinand P. Beer, 1979)
153
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 m/s2
W v = ( 2.625 2.475 80 7860 9.8=14809824.65 N
(w
Dead weight stress
Dead weight stress on the stack is compressive. It is estimated as:

w =
Wv
( Di +t ) t
w =
14809824.65
= 6162240 Pa
( 4.95+0.15 ) 0.15
( Sinnott, 2005)
Bending moment (Wind loading)

Due to the wind speed, there is a bending moment at the base of the tall vessels. This
effect is estimated as:
Mx =
w x2
(Sinnott, 2005)
2
Where,
M x =
Bending moment, Nm
w= Loading per unit length due to wind pressure, N/m

x= Height of vessel = 80 m
Pw = pressure due to wind loading = 1280 N/m2 (Sinnott, 2005)

Dm = mean diameter = 4.95+2(0.15) = 5.25 m
Loading = 1280 5.25 = 6720 N/m
Therefore, bending moment at bottom tangent line is:
Mx=
6720 802
= 21, 696 , 000 Nm
2
154
Wind load, N/m
Figure 10.1: Bending moment diagram

Bending stress (b)
b =
M x Di
+t (Sinnott, 2005)
Iv 2
where,
( )
M x =
Total bending moment = 21,696,000 Nm
Di = internal diameter = 4.95 m

Do=
Outer diameter = 5.25 m

I v =
I v=
The second moment of area of the vessel=
( 5.25 44.954 ) =7.82 m4

64
b =
(D4o - D4i )
64
21696000
( 2.475+ 0.15 ) = 7282864.45 Pa
7.82
The resultant longitudinal stress ( z) is:
z = L + w b (Sinnott, 2005)
For a compressive stress,
is taken as negative. The dead weight stress of this
reactor is compressive and hence the value is negative.

For compressive stress
Upwind conditions,
155
z = 8.848 kPa - ( 6162.2 kPa ) + 7,282.9 k Pa =1129.55 kPa

For downwind conditions, the principal stress will be
z = 8.848 kPa - ( 6162.2 kPa ) 7,282.9 k Pa = -13,436.25 kPa
The principal stresses will be
and
The maximum difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side:
4.424 (-13,436.5) = 13,440.92 kPa
The maximum stress obtained is below the maximum allowable design stress of
400,000 kPa, (Ferdinand P. Beer). This proves that the design is plausible.
Table 10.4: Summary of mechanical engineering design

Design parameter
Design pressure, N/m2
Thermal stress, N/m2106
Longitudinal stress, N/m2
Circumferential stress, N/m2
Total weight of stack, kN
Value
536.256
243.36
8,848.224
4,424.112
14,809.8
Dead weight stress, kPa
6,162.2
Bending moment, kN/m
21,696
Bending stress, kPa
7,282.9
Material of construction of kiln shell
Structural steel
156
157
CHAPTER ELEVEN
11 PLANT LOCATION
Plant location is an important aspect of plant design because it directly affects the future
running cost of a plant and thus the overall profitability of the project over its lifespan.
In locating a plant several factors are considered. The importance of each factor varies
depending on the particular situation. The lime plant is to be located in Takoradi. The
main reasons for this choice are raw material availability, market area, infrastructure,
labour availability, utilities, land availability and environmental impact (Timmerhaus et
al., 2004).
Raw material availability
The foremost reason for locating the plant in Takoradi is the proximity to the primary
raw material required for operation. There is limestone to be found in other regions of
Ghana; however the most suitable limestone available in large quantities is to be found
in Nauli, in the western region, near the Ghanaian border with the Ivory Coast. The
proximity of Takoradi to this source of raw material makes it a prime location for the
plant. (Kesse, 1985)
Market area
The anticipated primary customer is the gold industry in Ghana. There are several gold
mines in and around the western region. They include Gold Fields Limited, Bogoso
Gold mines. Those not in the immediate vicinity of the western region are nonetheless
easily accessible from this locus of production (Timmerhaus et al., 2004).
Infrastructure
The infrastructure in and around Takoradi is well developed. This allows easy transport
of raw materials and products to and from the plant. The good roads also extend to the
158
gold mines in other regions. There is also a harbour in Takoradi which will allow easy
exportation of product when the need arises.
Availability of labour
There is a readily available labour pool for all aspects of the plant. Takoradi and its
environs have a labour pool which can provide for the skilled and unskilled labour
needs of the plant operation. The large labour pool means that economic laws of
demand and supply will drive down the price of labour, thus increasing the profitability
of the plant.
Utilities
Utilities such as water and electricity are readily available in Takoradi. These important
utilities are reasonably priced due to their availability. Their availability also does away
with the necessity of producing electricity and drilling bore holes for water, which
would otherwise arise.
Availability of land
There are large tracts of virgin land around Takoradi large enough to build a plant of this
type upon. The low population density of Takoradi also ensures that the plant can be
built away from populated areas.
Environmental impact
The minimal environmental impact was considered as a factor. The plethora of
vegetation around the intended location of the plant will counteract the effect of the
major pollutant from the plant, which is CO2 (Sinnot, 2005).
159
CHAPTER TWELVE
12 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL
Implicit in the design of the plant is a margin of safety. However, the human element
must be taken into account. The reality that carelessness and complacency can overtake
even the most diligent engineers and workers must be considered, therefore certain
measures of safety must be taken to ensure that no harm comes to any employees or
machinery. It is also necessary that all pollution is abated to the maximum possible
extent. This is to ensure the comfort of the workers on the plant and the members of the
surrounding community.
12.1 Safety measures
Safety perimeters
Perimeters of safety will be created around heavy machinery. Such machinery will be
cordoned off by erecting railings at a reasonable distance around its perimeter to ensure
that workers do not accidently come too close to such units. In the case of transport
equipment such as bucket elevators and conveyor belts the motion of the limestone will
be considered in the creation of this perimeter to take into account the farthest possible
distance the limestone can travel if it accidentally falls off or out of the conveyor belt or
bucket elevator respectively (Timmerhaus et al., 2004).
Protective clothing
The transport and handling of heavy deliveries of limestone by such equipment as belt
conveyors and bucket elevators introduces a crushing hazard from falling limestone
around such equipment. The safety perimeter around such equipment is not adequate
protection for those who have to work at such equipment. It is therefore compulsory for
all workers to wear safety helmets and safety boots (steel-toed) on the plant. This will
provide adequate protection from falling limestone (Sinnott, 2005).
First aid stations
160
There are two pieces of equipment on the plant which operate at high temperatures these
are the lime kiln and hydrator. There is also heavy machinery on site. Therefore it is
prudent to provide first aid stations to be situated at strategic locations around the plant.
There will be four well stocked and clearly marked stations located at the jaw crusher,
kiln, hydrator and conveyor belt area.
Marked paths for pedestrian and vehicular movement

Clearly marked separate paths will be provided on the plant for pedestrian and vehicular
movement to prevent accidents. There will be lights provided along these paths for
movement at night (Timmerhaus et al., 2004).
Lighting
The kiln will operate 24 hrs a day and the other equipment will operate 16 hrs per day.
Lighting will be provided at the kiln for night time operation and at the other pieces of
equipment to ensure adequate lighting when operating under dim conditions such as at
dawn or dusk (Timmerhaus et al., 2004).
Material supply data sheets (MSDS)

Up to date material supply data sheets will be maintained on all chemicals used and
present on the plant to ensure their safe and proper handling. These chemicals include
fuel oil, lime and slaked lime. Multiple copies of these documents must be kept at the
stations which handle these chemicals. All workers who handle these chemicals will be
required to read and adhere to the laid down protocols contained within the MSDS
(Sinnot, 2005).
Fire fighting preparedness

161
An adequate supply of water must be available for fighting Class A fires. To this end a
water tank must be available to hold water for this specific purpose. However since lime
undergoes a highly exothermic reaction if contacted with water, measures must be in
place to combat all classes of fire. This can be arranged with the fire fighting authority.
All electrical equipment should be grounded to prevent electrical fires. Regular fire
drills must be held to ensure that evacuation plans are adequate and well understood so
as to avoid casualty in the case of an accident. (Sinnot, 2005)
Staff safety training

While all the above safety measures are good, the best way to prevent accidents is to
properly train staff to recognize risks and hazardous situations so they are forestalled.
All staff will thus be thoroughly trained on all the risks and hazards on the plant. They
will also be trained on measures that can be taken to prevent accidents and evasive
measures in case of an accident. (Sinnot, 2005)
12.2 Pollution control

Particulates and flue gas
Particulates will be removed from the flue gas by an electrostatic precipitator. The
cleaned flue gas will be dissipated by a stack far above the plant to ensure that the
working conditions on the plant are not significantly affected and remain comfortable.
(epa.gov, 1998)
Waste disposal
Waste from the air classifier will be collected in a bin and disposed at the appropriate
location. The location and mode of disposal will be determined by the municipal rules
and guidelines. (Sinnott, 2005)
162
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
13 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product (lime). There are various instruments provided to monitor the
key process variables during the plant operation. They may be incorporated in automatic
control loops, or used for the manual monitoring of the process operation. The main
reason for putting controls in the production of lime is to maximize efficiency, reduce
variability and ensuring safety in the plant.
Variations in temperature in the shaft kiln which can affect the calcinations process,
flowrate, level and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to
produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy.
Therefore the process variables that must be recorded, indicated or monitored on the
plant include temperature, flow rate, level.
Temperature control system
Temperature is one of the important variables of consideration in the units such as the
shaft kiln and the fuel storage tank in the plant. The temperature in the shaft kiln has to
be maintained at degrees for the limestone in it to be uniformly calcined and also for
them not to over-burn. The temperature within the tank is also controlled to keep the
fuel in it as warm as possible. It is because of these reasons that controls as
thermocouples and temperature probes will be used to check the temperatures and
records are made with the aid of temperature gauges (Sinnott, 2005).
Level control system
The volume of material in the storage tanks and hoppers need to be monitored and kept
under control. Shutoff valves are therefore employed to regulate the inflow or outflow
of limestone as well as lime in the storage tanks and hoppers in order to ensure a
problem free process (Sinnott, 2005).
Flow control system
163
The flowrate of fuel oil to the shaft kiln for the calcinations process is very critical in
the operation of the plant and so is the flow of water to the heat exchanger. A flow
control system (by- pass control) will operate by closing and operating control valves as
required in order stabilizing flow of material to process requirements. A central control
room located at the centre of the plant will serve as the main control hub of the plant
(Sinnott, 2005).
164
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
14. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Every production process must be analysed to ensure that it is economically viable. This
involves cost estimation and profitability analysis. There are different types of capital
cost estimates; ratio estimate, study estimate, preliminary estimate, definitive estimate
and detailed. (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
This cost estimate is a study estimate also called a factored estimate. It involves the use
of factors to estimate the capital cost of the plant, in this case Lang factors. The
accuracy of a study estimate is 30%.
14.1 Cost estimation
Table14.1 shows the equipment indices and prices for 2007 and 2010.
Table 14.1 Equipment Indices and prices
Equipment
Number
required
2007
2007 Price, $
Index
Jaw crusher
Hammer mill
Screen
Storage bin
Air classifier
Waste bin
Hopper
Bucket
elevator
Belt
conveyor
Pneumatic
conveyor
2010
2010 Price, $
Index
1
2
1
4
1
1
4
1
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
2129000
647800
17,500
175600
17600
43,900
246,400
26,700
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
2259379
687470.9
18571.69
186353.6
18677.81
46588.41
261489.4
28335.09
1373.3
314,100
1457.4
333335.3
1373.3
714,000
1457.4
757724.9
2007
2007 Price, $
2010
2010 Price, $
93100
Index
1457.4
98801.38
3711000
1457.4
3938259
Table 14.1 Continued

Equipment
Number
required
Blower
Index
1373.3
Burner
1373.3
165
Heat
exchanger
Recuperator
Pump
Pipes
Boiler
Fuel storage
tank
Kiln
Electrostatic
precipitator
Stack
Fan
Feeder,
1373.3
56000
1457.4
59429.4
1
2
2
1
1
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
12000
18000
43401
191600
223,800
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
12734.87
19102.31
46058.85
203333.5
237505.4
1
1
1373.3
1373.3
5500000
267000
1457.4
1457.4
5836816
283350.9
1
1
1
1373.3
1373.3
1373.3
50000
28,200
7000
1457.4
1457.4
1457.4
53061.97
29926.95
7428.675
Rotary table
Total
12,253,283
(Source: matche.com, 2007 and che.com, 2010)

Fixed capital investment (FCI)
FCI=L F DEC (Timmerhaus et al . ,2004 )
Where LF = Lang factor for solid chemical process industry = 4
(Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
DEC = Delivered equipment cost = 1.1 total equipment cost
FCI=4 1.1 ( 12253283 )=$ 53,914,446

Total capital investment (TCI)
TCI=FCI +WCI
Where WCI = working capital investment = 10% of TCI (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
TCI=
FCI
=$ 59,904,940
0.9
Total production cost (TPC)
166
Total production cost consists of manufacturing costs and general expenses.

Manufacturing costs are divided into variable cost, fixed charges, and plant overhead.
General expenses for the plant include administrative costs and distribution and market
costs (Timmerhaus et al., 2004).
TPC=VC + FC + PO+ (Timmerhaus et al . ,2004)
Where TPC = total production cost
VC = variable cost
FC = fixed charges = 0.1TPC
PO = plant overhead
GE = general expenses
VC=RM +OL+ SL+U + PMR+OS + LS (Timmerhaus et a l ., 2004)
Where VC = variable cost

RM = raw materials = 0.1TPC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
OL = operating labour = 0.1TPC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
SL = supervisory labour = 0.15OL (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
U = utilities = 0.1TPC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
PMR = plant maintenance and repairs = 0.02DEC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
OS = operating supplies = 0.15PMR (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
LS = laboratory supplies = 0.1OL (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
PO=0.5 ( OL+ SL+ PMR ) (Timmerhaus et al. , 2004)
Where PO = plant overhead
OL = operating labour = 0.1TPC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
SL = supervisory labour = 0.15OL (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
PMR= plant maintenance and repairs = 0.02DEC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
=CA +CD( Timmerhaus et al. , 2004)
167
Where CA = administrative costs = 0.15OL (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)

CD = distribution and marketing costs = 0.02TPC (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
TPC =$ 1,201,202.7
14.2 Profitability analysis
There are two types of profitability analyses. Analyses that disregard the time value of
money and those that takes into account the time value of money. Analyses that
disregard the time value of money include return on investment, payback period and net
return. Those that take into account the time value of money include net present worth
and discounted cash flow rate of return. (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
Profitability analysis involves comparing the rate of profit from an investment to a
minimum acceptable rate of return (MARR), usually set by a board or some other
criterion. For a new product entering into an established market there is a medium level
of risk and the MARR should be between 16 24%. (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
14.2.1 Non-time-value-of-money methods
Return on investment (ROI)
ny
NP
1
= [ p ( APP )TPC ] ( 1ITR ) (Timmerhaus et al . , 2004)
ny 1
ave
Where
NP
ave
= average net profit, $
ny = number of years
p = price per tonne = $137/tonne of hydrated lime (www.alibaba.com)
APP = amount of product produced = 119366.4 tonnes/yr
TPC = total production cost = $ 1201202.7
ITR = income tax rate = 0.35 (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
For a constant 100% production rate per yr
N P =[ p ( APP )TPC ] ( 1ITR )=[ 137 ( 119366.4 )1201202.7 ] ( 0.65 )=$ 9,848,796.2
ave
168
ROI=
NP
9848796.2
=
=0.164 (Timmerhaus et al . ,2004)
TCI 59904940
ave
Payback period (PBP)

ACF =[ p ( APP )TPC ] ( 1ITR )+(d ITR)
Where ACF = annual cash flow
d = depreciation = 0.9TCI/no. yrs of plant life= 0.9TCI/10yrs
ACF =[ 137 ( 119366.4 )1201202 ] ( 0.65 )+
PBP=
FCI
53,914,446
=
=4.6 yrs (Timmerhaus et al. , 2004)
ACF 11,735,802.23
Optimum PBP=
Where
0.35)=$ 11,735,802.23/ yr
( 0.9 59,904,940
10
0.9
0.9
MARR+
N
( )
MARR
(Timmerhaus et al . ,2004)
minimum
acceptable
rate
of
return
(Timmerhaus et al . ,2004)
N = number of yrs of plant life = 10 yrs
Optimum PBP=
0.9
=3.6 yrs
0.16+( 0.09)
Net return
R Ave=N P ( MARR TCI )=9848796( 0.16 59904940 )=$ 264006
ave
14.2.2 Time value of money methods

Net present worth
169
0.16
PWF cf , j [ p ( APP ) TPCd j ] (1ITR ) +rec j +d j

N
j=1
j =b
NPW = PWF v, j TCI

Where PWFcf,j = present worth factor of cash flows in year j = (1+0.16)-j
N = lifespan of plant = 10 yrs
p = price of product =$137/ tonne (www.alibaba.com)
APP = Annual product produced = 119366.4 tonnes of hydrated lime/yr
TPC = total production cost = $ 13478612
dj = depreciation = $ 5391445
recj = recovery from sale of physical assets and working capital= (TCI/10) recj
ITR = income tax rate = 0.35
PWFv,j = present worth factor of investments = 1, because total capital
investment occurs in year one. (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
TCI = Total capital investment = 59,904,490
NPW = $ 75,792,043 59904940 = $ 15,887,103
Discounted cash flow rate of return
The DCFRR is the interest i in the present worth factor which renders the net present
worth equal to zero.
Therefore NPW becomes
PWF cf , j [ p ( APP ) TPCd j ] (1ITR ) +rec j +d j
N
j=1
j=b
0= PWF v , j TCI
Recall that;
recj + dj = TCI, also recall that all variables are considered constant
apart from PWF = (1+DCFRR)-j

The DCFRR is found by iteration to be approximately 0.15871
170
Table 14.2: Discounted cumulative and normal cumulative cash flow

Year
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
Year
no.
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Cumulative
Discounted
Cash flow, $ Cumulative
cash flow, $
cash flow, $
Cash flow, $
-26957223
-26957223
-26957223
-53914446
-26957223
-53914446
-59305890.6
-5391444.6
-59305890.6
-48636979.5
10668911.1 11735802.23
-47570088.4
-38937969.4
9699010.1 11735802.23
-35834286.1
-30120687.5
8817281.9 11735802.23
-24098483.9
-22104976.6
8015710.8 11735802.23
-12362681.7
-14817966.8
7287009.8 11735802.23
-626879.4
-8193412.4
6624554.4 11735802.23
11108922.8
-2171090.2
6022322.2 11735802.23
22844725.0
3303748.2
5474838.4 11735802.23
34580527.2
8280873.9
4977125.8 11735802.23
46316329.5
12805533.7
4524659.8 11735802.23
58052131.7
Cumulative cash flow

100000000
50000000
Cumulative cash flow, $
2020
2000 2040
-50000000
-100000000
Year
Figure 14.1: Cumulative cash flows
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
15 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
171
Discounted cumulative cash

flow
Normal cumulative cash
flow
The process of producing lime from limestone is an age old and uncomplicated process,
Thus profitability depends on efficiency. For a new product entering into an established
market the risk is medium level and the required minimum acceptable rate of return
(MARR) is 16 24%. The optimum payback period is 3.6 years (Timmerhaus et a.,
2004).
Disregarding the effect of the time value of money, the rate of return on investment is
found to be 16.4% which falls within the required range of MARR. The payback period
is 4.6 yrs which is one year more than the recommended optimum. The net return is
positive at $ 264,006. Taking into account the time value of money, the net present
worth is $ 15,887,103. The discounted cash flow is approximately 15.871%.
Small or medium companies generally value payback period over any other
performance index and the payback period is one year longer than required. The
DCFRR is unimpressive when compared to the MARR. (Timmerhaus et al., 2004)
It should also be noted that there is already at least one company supplying most of the
major consumers of lime in Ghana. Thus while the analysis shows a profitable venture
the reality is; to enter the market, the owners of this plant will have to dislodge a near
monopoly. The Ghanaian market may not be big enough to generate demand for this
new flow of product. A proper feasibility survey of the Ghanaian market demand should
thus be carried out.
This report is merely a study estimate and as such a more detailed estimate should be
done to ascertain the performance indices obtained above. If the values above are
improved when a detailed estimate is performed, then it is recommended that the plant
be built. If these figures above persist then the plant is not recommended.
172
173
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Uppal M. M., (2008) Engineering Chemistry, KHANNA publishers, New delhi, India
Walas, S.M. (1990) Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design. p: 611 615.
Butterworth-Heinemann Inc. USA.
Yacine, A., Chaitali, D., Kamal, G., Lee, R., and Montemayer, L. (2002) General rules
178
for aboveground storage tank design and operation. Chemical Engineering

Progress [online], 3 (1), 20 December 2002. Available from:
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5350/is_200212/ai_n21322333/pg_1
[Accessed 2011 February 7].
Zimmerman, R.V., Reeves, A.A., Rossomme, R., andJones, J.B., (March, 1971)
Hydrator for lime and the like. US patent 3 673 002.
APPENDIX A
MATERIAL BALANCES
Plant capacity = 90,000 tonnes of lime/year 103,000 tonnes of hydrated lime/year
Plant attainment = 300 days/year
Rate of production = 12,500 kg of quicklime/h 14305 kg of hydrated lime/h
Operation schedule of the kiln = 24 hr/day
No. of shifts on kiln = 3 shifts of 8 hr/day
Operation schedule of all other units = 16 hr/day
No. of shifts on all other units = 2 shifts of 8 hr/day
Below is a table of molecular weights and percentages of feed components
Component
CaCO3
MgCO3
Sulphates as S
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
LOI(carbonaceou
s material)
Total
Element
Al
C
Ca
Fe
Mg
O
Molecular Mass, g/mol

100
84
32
60
102
160
12
Composition of feed, %
87.3
1.8
1.5
2.2
3.9
0.6
2.7
100
Molecular weight, g/mol
27
12
40
56
24
16
179
S
Si
32
28
Jaw crusher
The general equation for reduction ratio of a jaw crusher is given by the equation
f
R= (Walas , 1990)
p
Where R = reduction ratio = 8 (Walas,1990)

f = feed size = 1000 mm (assumed)
p = product size
R=
1000
=125 mm
8
There are several formulae for calculating the percentage of a size distribution below a
certain diameter, such as the Rosin-Rammler model. However, these models require a
prior analysis of a crushed sample to generate parameters which fit the model to the
present situation. In the absence of such data, as is here the case, it is convenient to
assume a uniform size distribution. It is known that the size distribution of a crushed
sample usually contains more of the larger sized particles, hence the assumption of a
uniform distribution provides a limiting case for calculations, the extant case may in
reality be more favourable than the results here presented.
If a uniform distribution is assumed, such that all particle sizes are equally represented
in the sample, then logically the following equation can be deduced,
d maxd min xd min
=
100 0
t 0
Where
d max
= maximum diameter of particle size distribution = 100 mm
d min
= minimum diameter of particle size distribution = 0 mm
= any stated diameter of particle = 50 mm
t = amount of particles below stated diameter x, %

180
Amount of particles below 50 mm is then
( 500 ) (1000)
t=
(1250)
= 40%
Therefore, 40% of the particles will be below 50 mm and 60% of the particles will be
above 50 mm.
Screen
F (feed)
O (oversize)
U (undersize)
F=O+U
Where F = mass of limestone feed to screen, kg
O = mass of particles above 50 mm, kg
U = mass of particles below 50 mm, kg
To obtain 12500 kg/h of lime requires an input to kiln of 28126 kg/h of limestone.
28126 kg/h 24 h/day = 675,024 kg/day
Therefore for two 8 h shifts per day
675,024
16
= 42189 kg/h of shift time
Hence required mass flow of oversize from screen, O = 42189 kg/h

From the size distribution;
O = 0.6 F and U = 0.4 F
F=
42189
=70,315 kg /h
0.6
U = 0.4 70,315 = 28,126 kg/h
181
Kiln
The aim is to produce 12500 kg/h of CaO at 80C. The feed, fuel consumption, air input
for combustion, cooling air and flue gas flow rate are to be found.
Fuel oil will be burnt to supply the gas necessary to heat up the limestone to the
calcining temperature of 900C and to burn the limestone in the burning zone to
complete the conversion to lime. (Agniezka, 2005)
The flue gas is made up of gas (products of combustion and dissociation of lime) and
particulates carried off from the burning and preheating zone. It is not possible to
determine how much of the particulates will be limestone and how much will be lime,
thus to design for the worst case scenario it will all be assumed to be lime.
Mass of limestone feed
CaCO3 makes up only 87.3% of the feed and conversion is estimated to be 98% (Austin,
1985).
Therefore,
m
LS =m
L
MW LS
1
1

MW L
X x CaCO
Where mLS = mass flow rate of minimum limestone feed required

mL = mass flow rate of lime output
MWLS = Molecular weight of limestone= 100 kg/kmol
MWL = molecular weight of lime= 56 kg/kmol
X = conversion= 0.98
x CaCO
= mass fraction of CaCO3 in feed= 0.873 (from material balance)
182
Disregarding any particulates losses in flue gas exiting the kiln, to produce 12500 kg/h
of CaO the limestone feed rate is:
m
LS =12500
100 1
1
=26090.5
56 .98 .873
However if y% of flue gas mass is lime then

m
LS =m
FG
FG
Where
m
LS
m
LS
FG
MW LS
y
100 y
MW L
FG
FG
)(
= mass flow of limestone lost as lime in flue gas

= mass flow rate of flue gas
y = mass percentage of particulates in flue gas

MWLS = molecular weight of limestone= 100 kg/kmol
MWL = molecular weight of lime= 56 kg/kmol
y
100
100 y
=m
FG
=
m
100 y 56 560056 y FG
Therefore
100 y
m
( 560056
y)
m
LS =m
LS + m
LS =26091+
total
Where
FG
m
LS
total
FG
= Total limestone feed
Flue gas is made up gases from combustion of fuel and gases evolved from the
dissociation reaction.
Mean molar heat capacities between 25C and temperature T, kJ/kgmolK

Temperatu
re
SO2
N2
CO2
O2
H2O
298
39.9
29.14 37.2
29.38 33.59
373
41.2
29.19 38.73 29.66 33.85
473
42.9
29.29 40.62 30.07 34.24
183
573
44.5
29.46 42.32 30.53 34.39
673
45.8
29.68 43.8
31.01 35.21
773
47
29.97 45.12 31.46 35.75
873
47.9
30.27 46.28 31.89 36.33
973
48.8
30.56 47.32 32.26 36.91
1073
49.6
30.85 48.27 32.62 37.53
1173
50.3
31.16 49.15 32.97 38.14
1273
50.9
31.43 49.91 33.25 38.71
1473
51.9
31.97 51.29 33.78 39.88
1673
32.4
52.34 34.19 40.9
Wherever calculations involving heat capacities of gases were presented herein, the
method of mean specific heat was used with the values presented above
m
FG =m
CG + m
EVG
Where mCG = mass of gases from combustion of fuel
mEVG = mass of gases evolved from dissociation limestone
Mass of gases from fuel combustion
Properties of industrial fuel oil
Specific
gravity
Heating value, kJ/kg
0.9
44,966
(Source: Hesketh, 1979)
range
0.05-0.24
Composition, mass %
C
H
N
S
Ash
87
12
0.3 0.7 0.05
When fuel oil reacts with oxygen the products are CO2, H2O, NOx, SO2 and the ash
remains unchanged. The NOx fraction is a mixture of NO and NO2 however it shall be
considered to be only NO2 so as to design for the maximum necessary oxygen amount.
Taking a basis of 100 kg of fuel oil gives the following stoichiometric quantities of
products;
Mass of CO2 = 319 kg [44 kg/1 kmol of CO2 evolved per 12 kg/1 kmol of C]
Mass of H2O = 108 kg [18 kg/1 kmol of H2O evolved per 2 kg/2 kmol of H]
Mass of NO2 = 0.99 kg [46 kg/1 kmol of NO2 evolved per 14 kg/1 kmol of N]
Mass of SO2 = 1.4 kg [64 kg/1 kmol of SO2 evolved per 32 kg/1 kmol of S]
Mass of ash = 0.05 kg (unchanged)
184
mass of products=319+ 108+0.99+1.4=429.44 kg

mass of oxygen=mass of productsmass of fuel=429.44100=329.44 kg
mass of air=mass ratio of air oxygen mass of oxygen=
13
329.44 kg=1427.57 kg
3
1.3 air excess ratio can be employed to ensure complete combustion (Agniezka, 2005),
therefore mass of air to burn 100 kg of fuel becomes;
1.3 1427.57 kg = 1856 kg
Thus
m
CBA =
1856
m
F =18.56 m
F
100
Where mCBA = mass flow rate of total combustion air

mF = mass flow rate of fuel oil
There will be 99 kg of O2 and 1428 kg of N2 left over.
mCG mass of products +mass of O2N 2 1956 kg
=
=
=19.56
mF
mass of fuel
100 kg
mCG =19.56 mF
Where mF = mass of fuel oil
Mass of gases evolved from limestone
Most of the gas evolved comes from CaCO3, MgCO3 the rest being SO2 from sulphates.
[(
MgCO 3 MW CO X MgCO
CaCO3 MW CO X CaCO
%S MW SO X S
%LOI
EVG
m
=
+
+
+
LS
m
100 MW MgCO
100 MW CaCO
100 MW S
100
2
)(
Where mEVG = mass flow of evolved gases

mLS = mass flow of limestone
%x = mass percentage of species x
MWx = molecular weight of species x
185
)(
)(
Xi = conversion of species x
[(
EVG
m
1.8 44 1
87.3 44 0.98
1.5 64 1
2.7 44 1
=
+
+
+
m
LS
100 84
100 100
100 32
100 12
)(
)(
)(
)]
= 0.52 kg of evolved gas/ kg of limestone

EVG=0.52 m
LS (1)
m
Thus the mass flow rate of flue gas is
FG =19.56 m
F +0.52 m
LS (2)
m
and the mass flow rate of
m
LS =26091
kg
100 y
1956 y
52 y
+
19.56 m
F +0.52 m
LS ) =26091+
m
F +(
)m
(
h
560056 y
560056 y
560056 y LS
m
LS =26091
560056 y
1956 y
m
( 5600108
)y +( 5600108
y)
Mass of Fuel oil

The fuel oil must provide enough energy for the combustion products to burn the
limestone, leave the burning zone at 900C and Cater for the heat loss through the wall.
Heat provided by evolved gas when it rises through the preheating zone is actually
provided by the fuel during preheating and burning zone. Thus the energy contained in
the evolved gas must be subtracted from the energy load of the fuel.
Thus
F h C =m
LS hd + m
FG C P T + m
L hLW m
EVG C P T (3)
m
FG
EVG
mF = mass flow rate of fuel, kg/h

mLS = mass flow rate of limestone feed, kg/h
mFG = mass flow rate of flue gas, kg/h
186
mL = rate of lime production in burning zone =
56 kg of lime
mLS
=0.56 mLS,
100 kg of limestone
kg/h
mEVG = mass flow rate of evolved gas
hC = calorific value of fuel oil = 44,966 kJ/kg of fuel (Hesketh, 1979)
hd = heat of dissociation of limestone = 1670 kJ/ kg of limestone (Agniezka, 2005)
hLW = heat loss through kiln wall = 170 kJ/kg of lime produced (Agniezka, 2005)
CP
FG
= mean specific heat capacity of flue gas at 900C = 1.2 kJ/kgK (Geankoplis,
2003)
CP
EVG
= mean specific heat capacity of evolved gas at 900C = 1.1 kJ/kgK
(Geankoplis, 2003)
T = temperature difference = 900 - 25C = 875C (basis temperature =25C)
Inserting equations (1) and (2) into (3) gives:
F h C =m
LS hd +(19.56 m
F + 0.52 m
LS )C P T +0.56 m
LS hLW 0.52 m
LS C P T
m
FG
EVG
F =( 1670 m
LS ) + [(19.56 m
F +0.52 m
LS ) 1.15 875 ] + ( 95.2 m
LS )(0.52 1.1 875 m
L
44,966 m
m
F=
1787.95
m LS
25,283.75
Therefore the mass flow rate becomes

m
LS =26091
560056 y
2064 y
0.071 m
( 5600108
)y +( 5600108
y)
m
LS =26091
560056 y
( 5600254.54
y)
LS
Particulates make up a maximum of 20% of flue gas for a cement rotary kiln (Hesketh,
1981). However the impinging effect of the limestone packed into the kiln reduces the
concentration of particulates in flue gas to about a max of 2%.
187
To design for the worst case scenario it shall be assumed that the mass percentage of
particulates in flue gas is 2%.
Therefore,
The mass flow rate of limestone
LS =26091
m
5600(56 2)
=28,126 kg /h
5600(254.54 2)
The mass flow rate of fuel

m
F=
1787.95
m LS=0.071 28,126 kg/h=1,989 kg/h
25,283.75
The mass flow rate of flue gas is

m
FG =19.56 m
F +0.52 m
LS =( 19.56 1,989 )+ ( 0.5228,126 )=53,530 kg /h
The mass flow rate of combustion gas (products of fuel combustion only) is
m
CG =19.56 m
F =19.56 1,989=38,905 kg /h
The mass flow of gas evolved from the limestone is
m
EVG =0.52 m
LS=0.52 28,126=14,625 k g/h
And the mass flow rate of air needed for combustion is
mCBA =18.56 m
F =36,916 kg /h
Mass of cooling air
Neglecting heat loss through the kiln wall the cooling air absorbs all the energy given
off by the hot lime to bring its temperature from a maximum 1200C to 80C.
Therefore
1200 C
mCA C P ( 900 C25 C )=mL

CA
80 C
C P dT
L
188
CP
Where
= specific heat capacity of lime = 0.84
T
T0
0.13
( )
, kJ/kgK, where T=
temperature and To= 100C (Agniezka, 2005)

C Pm
= mean specific heat capacity of N 2 from upper temp to 25C = 1.11
N2
kJ/kgK (Geankoplis, 2003)

C Pm
= mean specific heat capacity of O2 from upper temp to 25C = 1.03
O2
kJ/kgK (Geankoplis, 2003)

CP
mL
= specific heat capacity of cooling air, kJ/kgK
CA
= mass flow rate of lime= 16,269 kg/h
mCA = mass flow rate of cooling air
1200 C
0.77 mCA C Pm ( 900 C25 C ) +0.23 mCA C P m ( 900 C25 C ) =mL

N2
mCA =
O2
80 C
C P dT
L
17057895.98
=17,859 kg /h
955.2
Therefore the mass flow rate of fresh combustion air is

mFCBA =mCBA mCA =19057 kg /h
Where mFCBA = mass flow rate of fresh combustion air
mCA = mass flow rate of cooling air
mCBA
= mass flow rate of cooling air
Thus the mass of flue gas for preheating this air is found by balancing the energy
transfer between the two streams;
mFGph =
mFCBA C P (30025)
=15017 kg /h
C P (700400)
A
FG
189
Hydrator water heat exchanger

The water flowing into the hydrator is heated up from 25C to 65C by the hot flue gas
flowing out of the ESP.
The energy lost by the flue gas is gained by the water thus;
M FG C P T FG=M W C P T W
FG
Where FG= flue gas

W= water
Mi = mass of species i
CP
= specific heat capacity of species i
Ti= temperature change of species i

CP
is the weighted average of the mean Cp values of all constituents of the flue gas
FG
over the specified range.

CP
at temperature T =
FG
Where
CP
ci
CP ( M i )
i=1
ci
= the specific heat capacity of the ith constituent species
Mi = mass of ith species in flue gas stream

MT = total mass of flue gas
meanC P
FG
for temperature range 25-300C =
(0.960.248)+(0.70.005)+(1.050.633)+(0.950.063)+(1.910.051)= 1.064 kJ/kgK

mean C P
FG
for temperature range from 25-200C =
(0.920.248)+(0.670.005)+(1.0460.633)+(0.940.063)+(1.900.05)= 1.050 kJ/kgK
190
M =
FG
M W CP TW
W
C P T FG
FG
MW CP T W
W
CP
FG @ 300 C
( 30025 )C P
FG@ 300 C
(20025)
13974 4.182 (6525)

1.064 ( 275 ) 1.05(175)
= 21,475 kg/h
Hydrator
Assumptions:
1. 100% conversion of CaO.
2. No reaction of impurities.
3. The MgO is hard-burnt and will not react.
4. Entry temperature of CaO is 25C (it would have cooled whilst being stored
overnight storage)
5. Entry temperature of water us 65C
6. The exit temperature of steam and that of the hydrated lime are 100C
CaO
H2O
Ca(OH)2
1 mol
1 mol
1 mol
56.10 g
18.02 g
74.10 g
(mole basis)
Mass flow rate of CaO

Mass flow rate of CaO out of kiln=12,514 = 12,514 24 = 300,336 kg/day
Hydrator operates for 16 h/day, therefore mass flow of CaO into hydrator = 300336/16
= 18,771 kg/h
191
Mass flow rate of Ca(OH)2

mass of CaO
18,771
=
molar mass ofCaO 56.10 = 334.6 kmol/h
Moles of CaO in feed =
From the stoichiometry of the reaction,

1 mole of CaO : 1 mol of Ca(OH)2
Hence 334.6 kmol/h of Ca(OH)2 will be produced
Mass flow rate of Ca(OH)2 = 334.6 74.10 = 24,794 kg/h
Mass flow rate of H2O

Assuming the stream of CaO is at 25C
H Ca(OH )
HCaO + Hr + Hwater =
+ Hsteam
Where HCaO = enthalpy of CaO inflow stream

H Ca(OH )
= enthalpy of Ca(OH)2 outflow stream
Hr = enthalpy of reaction = 880.4 kJ/kg of Ca(OH)2 (Felder et al, 2005)

Hsteam = enthalpy of the steam
Hwater = enthalpy of water inflow
HCaO = MCaO
H Ca(OH )
Hwater = Mwater
Cp
(TCaO 25C) = 0
CaO
M Ca(OH ) Cp
2
Cp
Hsteam = Msteam[+
water
Ca(OH )2
(100 - 25C) =
(65 - 25C)= Mwater
Cp
water
Cp
water
M Ca(OH ) Cp
2
192
(75C)
(40C)
(100-25C)]= [Mwater (
(75C)]
Ca(OH )2
M Ca(OH )
- MCaO)][ +
Cp
water
Where Mi= mass flow rate of species i, kg/h

Cp
= specific heat capacity of species i, kJ/kgC
Ti = initial temperature = 28C

= latent heat of vaporization of H2O= 2,444.8 kJ/kg at 25C and 1 atm
C
( M Ca (OH ) M CaO )( +C p (75 C ) )
M
=
water
[ pCa (OH ) (75 C ) H r ]
M Ca (OH )
water
= 13974 kg/h
Steam flow rate

Msteam = [Mwater (
M Ca(OH )
- MCaO)] = 7951 kg/h
Air Classifier
Feed
F
Classifier
Fine overflow (Ca(OH)2)
Assumptions:
1. No fines material in the coarse underflow.
2. The efficiency of the classifier is 98%.
Overall material balance:
193
U Coarse underflow ( impurities)
F=U +C
Component balance on fines
Ff =Uu+ Cc
C = mass flow rate of overflow (mainly Ca(OH)2), kg/h

U = mass flow rate of underflow (mainly impurities), kg/h
f = fraction of fines in the feed.
c = fraction of fines in the fines overflow.
u = fraction of fines in the coarse underflow.
F = total mass feed rate = 28,801 kg/h
28,445=U +C
For 98% efficiency of the classifier, it can be deduced that;
Overflow=Desired +0.02 Undesired
Where Desired = Ca(OH)2 and Undesired = impurities
C=m Ca (OH )2 +0.02 ( FmCa (OH )2 )

C=24,794+0.02 ( 28,44524,794 )=24,867 kg/h
Also,
U=FC
U=28,44524,867=3,578 kg/h
194
APPENDIX B
ENERGY BALANCES
Kiln
For all stream a base temperature is chosen of 25C (this is chosen because there are
easily accessible mean Cp values from this temperature to others)
The enthalpy of each stream is calculated as the sensible heat with reference to this base
temperature. all streams exactly or approximately at the base temperature are thus
assumed to have an enthalpy of 0 kJ/h.
For all streams;
Ei = miCpi(Ti-25C)
Where Ei is the enthalpy of species/stream i
Mi is mass of stream/species i
Cpi is the Cp(specific heat capacity at constant pressure) of stream/species i
Ti is the temperature of stream/species i
Example;
E FCBA=mFCBA C FCBA ( T FCBA 25 C )
E FCBA=19057 1.01 (30025 ) =5.29GJ /h
Where FCBA = fresh combustion air
Combustion energy of the fuel is calculated using the enthalpy of combustion of the fuel
EF= mFhF
Where mF = mass flow of the fuel = 1989 kg/h
hF = the calorific value of the fuel = 44,966 kJ/kg
EF = the Combustion energy of the fuel
Example;
EF = 1989 44,966 = 89,437,374 kJ/h
The difference between the energy in and energy out is the energy used in the reaction.
195
Recuperator and Hydrator Heat exchanger

For all streams a base temperature is chosen of 25C (this is chosen because there are
easily accessible mean Cp values from this temperature to others)
The enthalpy of each stream is calculated as the sensible heat with reference to this base
temperature. all streams exactly or approximately at the base temperature are thus
assumed to have an enthalpy of 0 kJ/h.
For all streams;
Ei=MiCpi(Ti-25C)
Where Ei is the enthalpy of species/stream i
Mi is mass of stream/species i
Cpi is the Cp(specific heat capacity at constant pressure) of stream/species i
Ti is the temperature of stream/species i
Example;
M HFCA C p
HFCA
( T HFCA 25 C )
E HFCA=13,8911.01 ( 30025 )=3.86 GJ /h
Hydrator
Steam
Fin
CaO
Fout
Hydrator
H2O
196
Ca(OH)2
Assumptions
1. All the lime inflow is considered to have the same specific heat capacity even
though it contains some impurity
Ei=MiCpi(Ti-25C)
Where Ei = the enthalpy of species/stream i
Mi = mass of stream/species i
Cpi = the Cp(specific heat capacity at constant pressure) of stream/species i
Ti = the temperature of stream/species i
Enthalpy of water stream
Ewater= 13958 4.19 (65-25) = 2,339,394 kJ/h
Enthalpy of Ca(OH)2 stream
ECa(OH )
= 28801 1.2 (100-25) = 2,592,090 kJ/h
Enthalpy of steam
Esteam = Msteam[+
Cp
steam
(100-25C)]
Esteam = 7942.2 [2445 + (4.19 75)]

= 21,914,515 kJ/h
197
APPENDIX C
Jaw crusher
Reduction ratio = 8 (Walas, 1990)
Feed size 1000 mm (Walas, 1990)
Power = 120 kW ( Walas, 1999)
Screen
Area = 1.8 m2 (Walas, 1990)
Storage bin
m
3 days 24 h/day
V=
4 bins
Air classifier
Diameter = 1 m (matche.com, 2007)
Belt conveyor
Width = 800 mm (Walas, 1999)
Speed = 19.8 m/min (Walas, 1999)
Bucket elevator
Height = 13 m
Bucket size 50 20 cm (matche.com, 2007)
Pneumatic conveyor
Distance = 45 m (Walas, 1999)
Burner
Power = 4081 kW (maxoncorp.com, 2002)
Fan
Width = 1.59 m (matche.com, 2007)
Waste bin
m
3 d ays 24 h/day
V=
4 bins
Hopper
m 24
V=
Hammer mill
Reduction ratio = 400 (walas)
Bucket elevator
H = height of kiln + 3 = 13 m
Bucket size = 5020 cm (matche.com)
Belt conveyor
Width = 800 mm (Walas, 1990)
Speed = 19.8 m/min (Walas, 1990)
Recuperator
q=UA T
(Geankoplis, 2003)
A=
q
U T
HWHE
q=UA T
A=
(Geankoplis, 2003)
q
U T
198
199
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................1
1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................1
Main objective...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Specific objectives...................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO...............................................................................................................3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................................3
2.1 History of lime production and use..........................................................................3
2.2 Limestone.................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Occurrence of limestone in Ghana....................................................................6
2.2.2 Calcination reaction of limestone......................................................................8
2.3.1 Properties of lime............................................................................................10
2.3.2 Uses of lime.....................................................................................................13
2.3.3 World lime production....................................................................................14
2.3.4 Packaging and Transportation.........................................................................15
2.3.5 Product pricing................................................................................................15
CHAPTER THREE.........................................................................................................17
3 PROCESS SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION..........................................................17
3.1 Lime kilns..............................................................................................................17
The specific energy usage of the different types of kilns is shown in table 3.4..........21
Kiln type......................................................................................................................21
Rotary...........................................................................................................................21
200
5.8-5.9..........................................................................................................................21
Shaft.............................................................................................................................21
4.1-4.2..........................................................................................................................21
Annular........................................................................................................................21
3.9-4.1..........................................................................................................................21
Parallel Flow Regenerative..........................................................................................21
3.6-3.7..........................................................................................................................21
3.2 Description of selected process for the production of lime...................................21
CHAPTER FOUR...........................................................................................................25
4 MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCES.................................................................25
4.1 Material balance.....................................................................................................25
4.2 Energy balance.......................................................................................................34
CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................38
5 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS...............................................................................38
CHAPTER SIX...............................................................................................................46
6 DESIGN OF A FUEL STORAGE TANK....................................................................46
6.1 Problem statement..................................................................................................46
6.2 Introduction............................................................................................................46
6.3 Fuel storage tanks..................................................................................................46
6.3.1 Fixed roof storage tank....................................................................................47
6.3.2 Floating roof storage tank...............................................................................47
6.4 Equipment selection...............................................................................................49
201
6.5 Chemical engineering design.................................................................................50

6.6 Mechanical engineering design.............................................................................60
CHAPTER SEVEN.........................................................................................................72
7 DESIGN OF AN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR..............................................72
7.2 Introduction............................................................................................................72
7.3 Electrostatic precipitator........................................................................................72
7.3.1 Types of ESPs..................................................................................................73
7.3.2 Equipment selection........................................................................................75
7.4 Chemical engineering design.................................................................................75
7.5 Mechanical engineering design.............................................................................80
CHAPTER EIGHT.......................................................................................................87
8.0 DESIGN OF A LIME HYDRATOR.........................................................................87
8.2 Introduction............................................................................................................87
8.3 Hydration process..................................................................................................88
8.4 Chemical Engineering Design...............................................................................89
8.5 Mechanical Engineering Design..........................................................................103
8.5.1 Material selection..........................................................................................103
8.5.2 Design temperature and pressure..................................................................103
8.5.3 Heads and enclosures....................................................................................104
8.5.4 Loading on the reactor..................................................................................104
202
CHAPTER NINE..........................................................................................................116
9 Design of a shaft kiln..................................................................................................116
9.1 Problem statement................................................................................................116
9.2 Introduction..........................................................................................................116
9.3 Chemical engineering design...............................................................................117
9.4 Mechanical engineering design...........................................................................142
CHAPTER TEN............................................................................................................152
10 Design of a stack......................................................................................................152
10.1 Problem statement..............................................................................................152
10.2 Introduction........................................................................................................152
10.3 Chemical engineering calculations on the stack................................................152
10.4 Mechanical engineering design.........................................................................158
CHAPTER ELEVEN....................................................................................................165
11 PLANT LOCATION................................................................................................165
CHAPTER TWELVE....................................................................................................167
12 SAFETY AND POLLUTION CONTROL..............................................................167
12.1 Safety measures.................................................................................................167
12.2 Pollution control................................................................................................169
CHAPTER THIRTEEN.................................................................................................170
13 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION.............................................170
CHAPTER FOURTEEN...............................................................................................172
14. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS........................................................................................172
203
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................181
APPENDIX A................................................................................................................186
APPENDIX B................................................................................................................203
APPENDIX C................................................................................................................206
204

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CHAPTER ONE

to conduct literature review,

to select and describe a process for producing lime,

to calculate material and energy balances of the process,

to specify all equipments,

to design selected process equipment,

to select a location for the plant,

to select relevant safety and pollution controls for the plant,

to select the relevant instrumentation and process control scheme and

to conduct an economic analysis of the plant.

organic or inorganic substances. Aboriginal people as well as ancient Roman physicians

Table 2.2: Typical chemical composition of limestone

2.2.1 Occurrence of limestone in Ghana

Buipe limestone deposit

(Source: Kesse, 1985)

Table 2.4: Chemical analyses (average) of Buipe limestones prospected

Table 2.5: Chemical analyses for measured resource

Nauli limestone deposit

2.2.2 Calcination reaction of limestone

2.3.1 Properties of lime

Table 2.7: Chemical analysis of commercial quicklime

(Source: Kogal et al, 2006)

2.3.2 Uses of lime

Industrial and other uses

2.3.3 World lime production

2.3.4 Packaging and Transportation

2.3.5 Product pricing

Table 2.9: Lime prices1

Average all types2

Average all types2

(Source: Miller 2008)

Average value per tonne, on free-on-board-plant basis, including cost of containers.

Includes dead-burned dolomite.

3.1.1 Shaft kilns

Output range, t/day

Feed size range, mm

Gas, Liquid, Solid

Gas, Liquid, Solid

Annular shaft kiln

Gas, Liquid, Solid

Gas, Liquid, Solid

Mixed-feed shaft kiln

(Source: Agniezka, 2005)

Output range, t/day Feed size range, mm

(Source: Agniezka, 2005)

Figure 3.1 Parallel flow regenerative kiln

Table 3.3: Characteristics of other types of kilns

Output range, t/day

Feed size range, mm

Gas, Liquid, Solid

(Source: Agniezka, 2005)

Parallel Flow Regenerative

(Source: Agniezka, 2005)

3.2 Description of selected process for the production of lime

Table 3.5: Average composition of Nauli limestone

Flue gas to ESP

Flue gas to HWHE

Flue gas from HWHE