All-in-One

Electronics Guide
A comprehensive electronics overview for electronics engineers, technicians, students,
educators, hobbyists, and anyone else who wants to learn about electronics

Your complete practical guide to understanding and utilizing

modern electronics!
By: Cammen Chan
C & C Group of Companies LLC. Published by C & C
Group of Companies LLC. Copyright 2015. All rights
reserved.
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America

III

About the Author

Cammen Chan has been working in the electronics industry since 1996. After receiving
his bachelor of science degree in electronic engineering technology from the Wentworth
Institute of Technology and master of science degree in electrical engineering from Boston
University, he began his engineering career at IBM Microelectronics, then worked at
Analog Devices Inc., National Semiconductor, and several technology startups. He has
one US patent invention in the area of nanotechnology. Since 2009, Cammen has also
been an adjunct faculty member at a number of US colleges and universities including ITT
Technical Institute, DeVry University, Western International University, University of
Advancing Technology, Chandler Gilbert Community College, Remington College, and
Excelsior College. He teaches electronics engineering technology, information technology,
mathematics, and emerging technologies. Cammen has taught all the subjects in this book
in various formats such as on-site, online, and blended classes. Currently, Cammen is a
technical training engineer at Microchip Technology in the Phoenix area.

IV

Introduction
The semiconductor industry is a big business. The electronics industry is even bigger. The
semiconductor industry alone was a US $300 billion plus industry in 2012. The long-term
trend of electronics is bright and promising. With increasing use of electronic devices in
consumer, commercial, and industrial products and systems, the electronics industry is
always growing. If you are considering becoming an electronics engineer, this book gives
you the technical skills needed to pass the technical parts of interviews and the
confidence to increase your chances of getting employed. If you are already an electronics
technician or engineer, this book improves your ability to perform at the highest level at
work in the electronics field. If you want to be a microelectronics engineer or are already
one, you will find the microelectronics-related contents in this book applicable to your
work. If you are an educator teaching electronics, this book is the perfect reference for you
and your students with step-by-step technical examples and quizzes. If you are an
electronics hobbyist, this book offers sampled electronic circuits (electronic components
connected with each other by wires or traces) you can apply to your design. For everyone
else interested in learning about electronics, this book provides a strong foundation of
what you need to know when working with electronics.
The chapters are divided into various electronic principles levels, from basic to advanced,
along with practical circuits and quizzes. Answers provide step-by-step explanations of
how and why the answers were derived. Examples and circuits in later chapters build upon
previous chapters, thus creating a consistent flow of learning and a gradual accumulation
of knowledge. The level of mathematics is moderate without tedious and complicated
math models and formulas. For students majoring in electrical engineering, this book is
more than your typical academic electronics textbook that overwhelms you with excessive
theories, formulas, and equations. Instead, the material covered in this book is easy to
read, with plenty of diagrams, pictures, waveforms, and graphs, and is easy to understand.
Accurately representing our non-ideal world, this books technical contents greatly differ
from most academic textbooks false ideal perspective. The content is injected with real
world quantities and characteristics. For experienced electronics professionals, educators,
and hobbyists, this book affords a good reality check and comprehensive review to assist
your career or your students, to better prepare for your next job interview, and to inspire
your next electronics projects.

How This Book Is Organized

Chapter 1: Direct Current (DC)
First, learn direct current (DC) theories. Then, apply them in practical circuits. Basic
electrical parameters, concepts, and theories are covered. This chapter closes with
practical DC circuits.

Chapter 2: Diodes
Zero in on diode, the building block of transistors. This chapter explains not only what a
diode is made of but also the real world characteristics of diode and some practical diode
circuits.

Chapter 3: Alternating Current (AC)

After comprehending DC and diodes, learn about AC, another critical electronics concept.
From high-power electric plants to computers and wireless communications, AC
operations take place in countless electronic systems. Get a good hold on AC definitions,
common AC parameters, capacitors, inductors, and simple AC circuits.

Chapter 4: Analog Electronics

Analog electronics use a substantial amount of analog quantities. Transistors and
operational amplifiers (op-amp) are the building blocks of mainstream electronic circuits
and systems. Bipolar and Complimentary-Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) are the
most common types of transistors. Bipolar transistors consist of two diodes. On the other
hand, CMOS does not contain any active diodes. Although germanium, gallium, and
arsenide can be used to build transistors, both bipolar and CMOS transistors primarily use
silicon as the raw material. Performance differences between raw materials types must be
considered to choose the correct transistor type. CMOS and bipolar transistors have
similar voltage and current characteristics with major differences in fundamental
operation. A solid understanding of these differences is essential for analyzing and
designing transistors and op-amp circuits.

Chapter 5: Digital Electronics

Basic digital electronics require an in-depth understanding of digital quantities, high (1)
and low (0) logic level, logic gates, and circuits. It is considerably the best semiconductor
technology choice for high-speed design and operations. In comparison to analog
quantities, the simple two levels (1 and 0) offer distinct advantages over analog
technology such as lower noise. For cost reasons, digital electronics present a good case
for using CMOS transistor technology in digital systems. CMOS transistors are made in
deep sub-microscopic scale with advanced chip manufacturing capability, while
manufacturing throughputs continues to increase exorbitantly. For high speed, high-

density digital designs such as Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), Field
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), or microprocessors, digital designers often use
software to write programs/code for generating CMOS design. Using VHDL or Verilog,
instead

VI How This Book Is Organized

of manually placing transistors individually in schematics as in analog design, digital
circuits are generated to represent the functional and behavioral models and operations of
the target CMOS design. In recent years, BiCMOS process has gained popularity. As its
name implies, this process combines both bipolar and CMOS devices, offering the best of
both.

Chapter 6: Communications
Electronic communications are technology. It is an enormous businesses. Radios, cell
phones, home and business computers connected to the internet by using either wired or
wireless connections are just some examples. The vast majority of this technology is only
possible due to the advanced development of electronic communication systems.
Additionally, amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase locked loops will
be discussed in this chapter. Understanding basic communication theories, techniques, and
parameters will greatly assist your work in the communications engineering field. the
foundation of wired industry with its market and wireless communications
covering both consumers and

Chapter 7: Microcontrollers
Microcontroller silicon chips have found their way into a variety of electronic products.
One automobile alone has an average of eighty microcontrollers controlling the engine,
steering wheel controls, GPS, audio systems, power seats, and others. Microcontrollers are
embedded in many consumer and industrial electronics including personal computers, TV
sets, home appliances, childrens toys, motor control, security systems, and many more.
The final products that use microcontrollers are embedded systems. These devices are
field programmable: they allow system designers to program the chip to the needs of a
specific application, while letting end users perform a limited amount of modification. For
example, an end user turning on a microwave oven is actually programming the timer.
However, the end user does not have access to the source code on the microcontroller,
hence the name embedded systems. Moreover, the same microcontroller can be used in
multiple designs. For instance, dishwashers and refrigerators use the same microcontroller
with each design having its own specific code downloaded to the microcontroller,
resulting in two completely different applications. The microcontrollers field
programming capabilities allows many applications to be designed at a very low cost.
Comprehending microcontroller architecture and basic programming techniques will
prepare you to excel in this field.

Chapter 8: Programmable Logic Controllers

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are widely used in applications. Thus, it is
worthwhile to study them in addition to consumer-based systems. Types and uses of PLCs
are covered first, followed by an inside look at PLCs. Ladder logic programming, a
graphical programming technique, is the heart of PLCs. In addition, after exploring
practical PLC programs and applications, the chapter closes with PLCs troubleshooting
techniques and future development.

How This Book Is Organized VII

industrial and commercial

Chapter 9: Mental Math

If you have to use a calculator to solve 1 / 1 k = 1 m, you are probably not making a good
impression on interviewers or even coworkers. Using mental math to decipher simple
arithmetic answers demonstrates solid mathematic, analytic, and problem solving
capabilities. You can learn simple techniques to improve your mental math ability for
calculating electronics arithmetic.

Chapter 1: Direct Current (DC) ______________________________- 1

Current
________________________________________________________________________
- 1 Resistor
________________________________________________________________________
- 1 Voltage
________________________________________________________________________
- 5
Definition______________________________________________________________________
- 5 Ohms
Law______________________________________________________________________
- 6 Power
_________________________________________________________________________
- 7 Voltage Source and Schematic
______________________________________________________ - 7 Current Source
and Schematics _____________________________________________________ - 8
Electrons
_______________________________________________________________________ 8 Current versus
Electrons___________________________________________________________ - 9
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)
______________________________________________________ - 9 Kirchhoffs
Current Law (KCL)______________________________________________________ 11 Parallel Circuit

__________________________________________________________________ - 11
Parallel Resistor Rule
____________________________________________________________ - 12 Series
Resistor
Rule______________________________________________________________ - 13
Current Divider Rule
_____________________________________________________________ - 15 Voltage
Divider _________________________________________________________________
- 16 Superposition
Theorems__________________________________________________________ - 19
DC Circuits
_____________________________________________________________________ - 22
IC Packages
____________________________________________________________________ - 24
Summary
______________________________________________________________________ 33 Quiz
__________________________________________________________________________
- 33

Chapter 2: Diodes _______________________________________- 37

P-N
Junctions___________________________________________________________________
- 37 Forward-Biased and Reverse-Biased
________________________________________________ - 40 Diode I-V Curve
_________________________________________________________________ - 42
X Table of Contents
Diode Circuits
__________________________________________________________________ - 43
Summary
______________________________________________________________________ 47 Quiz
__________________________________________________________________________
- 48

Chapter 3: Alternating Current (AC)_________________________ - 49

Sine Wave
_____________________________________________________________________ - 49
Frequency and Time
_____________________________________________________________ - 50 Peak
Voltage vs. Peak-to-Peak Voltage
______________________________________________ - 52 Duty Cycle
_____________________________________________________________________ - 52

Vrms
_________________________________________________________________________
- 54 Impedance, Resistance, and
Reactance______________________________________________ - 54 Capacitors
_____________________________________________________________________ - 55
XC versus
Frequency_____________________________________________________________ 56 Simple Capacitor Circuit
__________________________________________________________ - 57 I (t) = C
(V)___________________________________________________________________ 59 Capacitor Charging and Discharging
Circuit___________________________________________ - 60 Parallel Capacitor
Rule ___________________________________________________________ - 63
Series Capacitor Rule
____________________________________________________________ - 63 Power
Ratio in dB
_______________________________________________________________ - 64 R C
Series Circuit
________________________________________________________________ - 64
20 dB per Decade
______________________________________________________________ - 65 LowPass Filter
_________________________________________________________________ - 68
Phase Shift
____________________________________________________________________ - 69
Radian
________________________________________________________________________
- 70 ICE
___________________________________________________________________________
- 71 Inductors
______________________________________________________________________ 73 XL versus Frequency
_____________________________________________________________ - 74 V (t) =
L (I) ___________________________________________________________________
- 75 ELI
___________________________________________________________________________
- 77 Q Factor
_______________________________________________________________________ 77 Parallel Inductor Rule
____________________________________________________________ - 78 Series
Inductor Rule
_____________________________________________________________ - 79 HighPass Filter
_________________________________________________________________ - 80
Real L and C
____________________________________________________________________ - 83

Practical AC Circuits
_____________________________________________________________ - 85 Ringing
and Bounce _____________________________________________________________
- 86 Inductive
Load__________________________________________________________________ 87 Diode Clamp
___________________________________________________________________ - 88
Series R L C
Circuit_______________________________________________________________ 89 LRC Parallel (Tank)
Circuit_________________________________________________________ - 91
Transformers__________________________________________________________________
- 93 Half-Wave
Rectifier______________________________________________________________ 95 Switching versus Linear Regulators
_________________________________________________ - 97 Buck Regulator
_________________________________________________________________ - 97
Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 100 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 101

Chapter 4: Analog Electronics ____________________________ - 105

What Is Analog?
_______________________________________________________________ - 105
Analog IC Market
______________________________________________________________ - 106 What
Are Transistors Made Of?
___________________________________________________ - 107 NPN and
PNP__________________________________________________________________ 108 NPN and PNP Symbols
__________________________________________________________ - 109 Transistor
Cross-Section _________________________________________________________ 110 Bipolar Transistor Terminal
Impedance_____________________________________________ - 111 IC, IB, IE, and
Beta () ___________________________________________________________ - 111

XII Table of Contents

VBE
_________________________________________________________________________
- 113 IE = IC + IB
____________________________________________________________________ - 113
IC versus VCE Curve

____________________________________________________________ - 114
Common Emitter Amplifier
______________________________________________________ - 115 Common
Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)______________________________________ 118 Common Base
Amplifier_________________________________________________________ - 120
Single-Ended Amplifier Topologies Summary
________________________________________ - 121 Tranconductance (Gm), SmallSignal Models ________________________________________ - 121 Common
Emitter Amplifier Input Impedance ________________________________________ 123 Common Emitter Amplifier Output Impedance
______________________________________ - 124 Common Collector Amplifier
Small-Signal Model _____________________________________ - 127 Common Base
Amplifier Small-Signal Model ________________________________________ - 128
Single-Ended Amplifier Summary
_________________________________________________ - 129 NMOS and PMOS
______________________________________________________________ - 130 3D
NFET
______________________________________________________________________ 131 Drain Current and Threshold Voltage
______________________________________________ - 132 NFET and PFET
Symbols _________________________________________________________ - 132 IC
Layout
_____________________________________________________________________ 134 VHDL and Verilog
______________________________________________________________ - 135
MOSFET Cross Section and Operations
_____________________________________________ - 136 MOSFET On-Off
Requirements____________________________________________________ - 137 ID
versus VDS Curve
____________________________________________________________ - 139 CMOS
Source Amplifier _________________________________________________________
- 139 MOSFET Parasitic
______________________________________________________________ - 142
Common Drain Amplifier (Source Follower)
_________________________________________ - 143 Common Gate
Amplifier_________________________________________________________ - 145
Bipolar versus CMOS
___________________________________________________________ - 147
Differential Amplifiers
__________________________________________________________ - 148

Table of Contents XIII

Common Mode
________________________________________________________________ - 149

CMRR and Differential Gain

______________________________________________________ - 150 Current
Mirror_________________________________________________________________ 152 Op-Amp
______________________________________________________________________ 153 Op-Amp Rules
_________________________________________________________________ - 155
Inverting Amplifier
_____________________________________________________________ - 158 NonInverting Amplifier
_________________________________________________________ - 160 Op-Amp
Parameters ____________________________________________________________ 162 LM741
_______________________________________________________________________ 164 Current Mirror Inaccuracies
______________________________________________________ - 165 Wilson Current
Mirror __________________________________________________________ - 166
Bipolar
Cascode________________________________________________________________ 167 Darlington Pair
________________________________________________________________ - 168
CMOS Cacosde
________________________________________________________________ - 170
Buffer (Voltage Follower)
________________________________________________________ - 171 Summing
Amplifier _____________________________________________________________ 172 Active Low-Pass Filter
___________________________________________________________ - 174 Circuit
Simulator _______________________________________________________________
- 176 Hysteresis
____________________________________________________________________ - 179
Positive Feedback (Oscillation)
___________________________________________________ - 182 Instrumentation
Amplifier _______________________________________________________ - 184
Linear Regulator
_______________________________________________________________ - 185 Low
Drop-out (LDO) Regulator
____________________________________________________ - 186 Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 189 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 190

Chapter 5: Digital Electronics _____________________________ - 195

1s and 0s: The Inverter

__________________________________________________________ - 196 NMOS

Inverter ________________________________________________________________
- 197 NFET and PFET Inverter
_________________________________________________________ - 197 Inverter
Action ________________________________________________________________ 198 Shoot-Through
Current__________________________________________________________ - 199
Ring
Oscillator_________________________________________________________________
- 200 OR Logic Gate
_________________________________________________________________ - 202
OR Gate Schematic
_____________________________________________________________ - 202 ThreeInput OR
Gate____________________________________________________________ - 203
LSB, MSB
_____________________________________________________________________ 204 NOR
Gate_____________________________________________________________________
- 204 AND and NAND
Gates___________________________________________________________ - 205
XOR Gate
_____________________________________________________________________ 206 Combinational Logic
____________________________________________________________ - 206 Boolean
Algebra _______________________________________________________________ 207 Latch
________________________________________________________________________
- 208 FlipFlop______________________________________________________________________
- 210 D and J-K FlipFlops_____________________________________________________________ - 211
Frequency
Divider______________________________________________________________ 211 Shift
Register__________________________________________________________________
- 213 Parallel Data Transmission
_______________________________________________________ - 214 Multiplexer
___________________________________________________________________ - 215
Mixed-signal
__________________________________________________________________ - 216
Level Shifter
__________________________________________________________________ - 217
Multi-Layer
Board______________________________________________________________ - 217
Digital Voltage Levels

___________________________________________________________ - 219

Table of Contents XV
Analog-to-Digital Converter
______________________________________________________ - 219 Nyquist
Frequency _____________________________________________________________ 221 ADC Gain and Offset Errors
______________________________________________________ - 222 Digital-toAnalog Converter ______________________________________________________ 224 Binary-Weighted DAC
___________________________________________________________ - 225 555Timer
____________________________________________________________________ - 226
Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 230 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 230

Chapter 6: Communications _____________________________ - 231

Time versus Frequency Domains
__________________________________________________ - 232 Harmonics,
Distortion, and Inter-modulation ________________________________________ 234 Modulation
___________________________________________________________________ - 236
Bit Rate, USB, and Baud
_________________________________________________________ - 236 C = F
_______________________________________________________________________ 237 Amplitude Modulation
__________________________________________________________ - 238
Modulation Index and Bessel Chart
________________________________________________ - 239 AM
Transmitter________________________________________________________________
- 240 Frequency Modulation
__________________________________________________________ - 241 Phase
Lock Loop (PLL)
___________________________________________________________ - 242 Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 245 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 245

Chapter 7: Microcontrollers _____________________________ - 247

MCU
Parameters_______________________________________________________________
- 248 Harvard Architecture
___________________________________________________________ - 251 Data and
Program Memory ______________________________________________________ 251 MCU Instructions
______________________________________________________________ - 255
Instruction Clock
_______________________________________________________________ - 257
Internal Oscillator
______________________________________________________________ - 258
Interrupt
_____________________________________________________________________ 260 Special Features
_______________________________________________________________ - 261
Development
Tools_____________________________________________________________ - 262
Debugger_____________________________________________________________________
- 263 Design Example:
Comparator_____________________________________________________ - 265
Design Example: Timer
__________________________________________________________ - 269 Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 271 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 271

Chapter 8: Programmable Logic Controllers _________________ - 273

History
_______________________________________________________________________ 273 PLC Benefits
__________________________________________________________________ - 275
PLC Components
_______________________________________________________________ - 276 PLC
Programming and Ladder Logic
________________________________________________ - 278 PLC Programming
Example_______________________________________________________ - 283 PLC
Programming Syntax
________________________________________________________ - 286 Timers
_______________________________________________________________________ 292 On-Timer
_____________________________________________________________________ 293 On-Timer Application
___________________________________________________________ - 294 OffTimer_____________________________________________________________________

- 295 Off-Timer Application

___________________________________________________________ - 296 Counter
______________________________________________________________________ 297 Counter Application
____________________________________________________________ - 298
Program Control Instructions
_____________________________________________________ - 300 Jump to Label
Instructions _______________________________________________________ - 300
Jump to Subroutine Instructions
__________________________________________________ - 301 Nested Subroutines
____________________________________________________________ - 303

Table of Contents XVII

Temporary End
________________________________________________________________ - 304
Data Manipulation Instructions
___________________________________________________ - 304 PLC Data
Structure _____________________________________________________________ 305 MOV Instruction
_______________________________________________________________ - 306
MOV Instruction Application
_____________________________________________________ - 307 Data Compare
Instructions_______________________________________________________ - 308
Math Instructions
______________________________________________________________ - 311
Sequencer Instructions
__________________________________________________________ - 315 Trends
_______________________________________________________________________ 317 Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 317 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 318

Chapter 9: Mental Math ________________________________ - 319

Multiples and Submultiples of Units
_______________________________________________ - 319 Decimal Numbers
______________________________________________________________ - 320
Whole Numbers
_______________________________________________________________ - 320
Multiples Number Conversion
____________________________________________________ - 320 Submultiples
Number Conversion _________________________________________________ - 321
One-Over Reciprocal with Multiples and Submultiples

________________________________ - 323 Multiplication and Division with

Multiples and Submultiples ___________________________ - 325 Percentage to
Decimals _________________________________________________________ - 326
Log to Real Number
____________________________________________________________ - 326
Summary
_____________________________________________________________________ 328 Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
- 328

Abbreviations and Acronyms ____________________________ - 329 Index

________________________________________________ - 335

Chapter 1: Direct Current (DC)

Students majoring in electronics always start with a Direct Current (DC) class. DC is a
basic electronic theory that you must learn and understand well. This is the first step to a
successful career in electronics. Lets first define some DC parameters.

Current
Electrical current is quantified as change ( or delta) of electron charge (Q) with time.
Think of it as flow rate in plumbing. measure of charges (Q) flowing through a point
(node) with time (see figure 1.0). Currents unit is amperes (A) with I being its symbol.
Electrical current is a the number of electron

Current = Q / Time Resistor

All materials possess resistance, which is a measure of the amount of resistor value. A
resistor is a passive electronic device made exclusively for electronic systems. Resistors
resist current flow for a given electrical voltage (voltage will be defined shortly). A
passive device by definition does not generate energy but rather stores and/or dissipates
energy. The most abundant materials used in resistors are copper (Cu) and aluminum (Al).
Carbon, thin-film, metal film, and wire-wound are popular resistor types. Resistor size
(resistance) is measured in unit Ohms () with R as the symbol. Resistors come in
many physical forms. Wire-leads, surface-mount, integrated circuits (ICs) package are
popular ones. Figure 1.1 on the next page shows a graphical view of a copper (Cu) wire
bundle with a certain length and area exhibiting a finite resistance amount. Internet wires
and cables found in residential and commercial dwellings are largely made of copper with
a plastic shield on the outside. A resistor can be discrete (one device per item) or
manufactured via an IC process housed in an IC package. We will explore more on
semiconductor packages later in the chapter. Resistance for a given material strongly
depends on the resistor dimension, where resistivity is unique to the materials type:

Figure 1.0: Q / time

Figure 1.1: Copper wire

Common carbon resistors are measured in the order of several centimeters (see figure
1.1a).

Figure 1.1a: Carbon resistors

Due to the small carbon resistor sizes, color bands are used to indicate resistance values
instead of printing them on the resistors. There are four bands. The first band on the left
represents the first significant resistance digit. The second band is the second significant
digit. The third band is the multiplier, and the last is tolerance. Tolerance determines the
maximum percentage change in resistance from its nominal value. Table 1-1 shows the
details among band color, digit values, multiplier, and tolerances.

Table 1-1: Resistor band color, digit values, multiplier, and tolerances
Lets apply this to an example. What is the resistance of the carbon resistor that has
Brown, Orange, Red, and Gold bands? First, brown yields 1; orange means digit 3;
red multiplier means 100; gold represents 5% tolerance. The resistance is therefore
calculated as:
13 X 100 = 1,300 or 1.3 k with 5% tolerance.

Figure 1.1b:
Surface-mount resistor

Surface-mount resistors, on the other hand, are popular due to their miniature sizes. They
are ideal for portable applications when small size is necessary. Figure 1.1b shows several
surface-mount resistors. A surface-mount resistor can be measured as small as 0.2 mm
(millimeter) X 0.4 mm (millimeter). Because surface-mount resistors are small, in order to
determine their values, numbering codes are used instead of color bands. The numbers
printed on the resistor are usually 3-digit numbers.
The first two numbers represent the first two digits of the resistor values while the third
digit represents the number of zeros. For example, a resistor marked with 203 means 20 X
1,000 or 20 k. A 105 resistor gives 10 X 105 or 1 M. Resistors manufactured by
microelectronics technology use different methods to determine resistances. Depending
upon the chip manufacturing process, there can be multiple resistor types, ranging from
metal and thin-film to poly resistors. The resistances are determined by the vertical and
horizontal dimensions in conjunction with the sheet rho (pronounced as row) resistance.
Sheet rhos units are in per square ( / square). For example, a Bipolar-CMOS
(BiCMOS) process thin-film resistors sheet rho is specified as 1,000 / square. Length
/ Width defines the square numbers. If the resistors length and width are drawn as 10
micrometers (um) by 10 micrometer (um) respectively, the number of square equates to 10
um / 10 um = 1. The resistance is then calculated as:

Regarding the chip manufacturing process, in addition to sheet rho resistances, each
process offers a slew of devices with a unique set of parameters. Below are some common
ones you will likely encounter. Transistors minimum geometries: CMOS uses gate length
where bipolar transistors use emitter width. Transistors maximum operating frequencies:
capacitors capacitance per unit area; temperature coefficient (it determines how much
variations device parameter changes with temperature); maximum voltage supply and
break down voltages; transistors drawn versus manufactured dimensions, metal level
numbers available, and many more. Further explanations of these parameters will be
discussed later in this book. Full understanding of these parameters is necessary before
deciding on a process to use for a particular chip design. Further details on microelectronic
design will also be discussed in later chapters.

Voltage
Voltage is the potential difference (subtraction) between two points (nodes). The object of
these points can be any material. The most common materials are electronic devices such
as resistors, diodes, and transistors, which are the main focus of this book. Each electrical
parameter has its own symbol and unit. They are summarized in table 2-1.

Table 2-1:
V, I, R symbols; units

Definition
Direct current (DC) states that electrical current flows through a resistor without changes
in amplitudes or frequencies. A waveform can be used to make clear such phenomenon. A
waveform is a time (transient) domain graph that shows quantities such as voltage,
current, or power on the vertical (Y-axis); time on the horizontal (X-axis) (see figure 1.2).
In this waveform, the DC voltage level stays the same over time while the frequency of
DC is zero. We will further define amplitude and frequency in chapter 3, AC.

Figure 1.2: Voltage vs. time in DC

Ohms Law
Ohms law states that when there is a voltage developed (drop) across a resistor, i.e.,
voltage difference between two resistor ends (nodes), electrical current is bound to flow.
The mathematical relationship between voltage (V), current (A or Amp), and resistance

():

Voltage = Current X Resistance

For a given resistor size, increasing voltage causes current to increase linearly. Thereby,
Ohms law is simply a linear function (see figure 1.3). We can apply the above linear
relationship among voltage, current, resistor, and slope concept to calculate resistance. A
V-I graph is shown in figure 1.4. Any two points can be used to calculate slope
(resistance). Because this is a linear function (straight line), slope (resistance) is fixed.
Resistors are usually in large sizesthousands of s, sometimes even more. This is
because, for a given voltage, large resistance results in lower current (linear relationship).
This is essential due to safety and power-saving reasons. Using Ohms law, 1 V divided by
1 A equals 1 resistance (1 V / 1 A = 1 ). One ampere is a lot of current, in fact, current
above 100 mA (milliamp) going through the human body is deemed lethal. To lower the
current for a given voltage at a

Figure 1.3: Ohms Law,

a linear graph

Figure 1.4:
Slope equals resistance
safe level, resistance needs to increase. For example, to lower the current to 1 mA, 1 V
source yields:
R = (1 V / 1 mA) = 1,000 or 1 k
Note: k = 1 X 103 = 1,000
Many portable electronic designs draw less than 1 mA of current to conserve battery life
resulting in large values of R. This explains why thousands or even hundreds of thousands
of are frequently seen.

Power
Power (P) definition:

P = I2 X R or V2 / R
The unit of power is Watts (W) and its symbol is P. A modern smartphone power
amplifier consumes about 300 mW (milliwatt) in idle mode. With 4 V lithium-ion battery
(a popular cell phone battery type), antenna load resistance can be calculated:
300 mW = 42 / R R = 53.33

Voltage Source and Schematic

A voltage source is an electronic device that supplies voltage to an electronic load. The
electronic load acts as an output that delivers or receives electrical energy to and from an

input. Load examples are motors, electric fans, lights, etc. An ideal DC voltage source has
zero internal resistance, capable of sourcing (sending) and sinking (receiving) infinite
current amount to and from the load. A non-ideal voltage source contains finite (non-zero)
internal resistance and cannot supply or receive infinite current amount. The most
common DC

Figure 1.5: Alkaline battery types

voltage source is alkaline household battery commonly used in portable electronics.
Figure 1.5 shows several popular alkaline battery types (Energizer brand). Most alkaline
batteries are cylindrically shaped except the 9 V type, which is rectangular. They differ in
sizes, voltage ratings, and mAh. mAh stands for milliamp-hour, which is equivalent to
electron charge.
It describes the electrical current capacity of a battery. Both AA, AAA, and D batteries
and are rated at 1.5 V with different mAh ratings. A 9 V battery is rated at 9 V DC (1,800
2,600 mAh). If, for example, a portable device draws 100 mA discharge current to
operate, the battery will last a minimum of 18 hours (1800 mAh / 100 mA = 18 hours).
Other popular batteries are button-sized batteries (button cells) suitable for lightweight
applications. They come in a wide range of types, sizes and voltage ranges. Button cells
typically are rated at 1.5 V with less mAh (150 200 mAh).

Current Source and Schematics

A current source is an electronic device that supplies electrical current to a load. An ideal
current source has infinite output resistance capable of supplying an infinite amount of
current. Most electronic designs can be graphically expressed in the form of schematics
(electronic circuits). Schematics include graphical V, I, and R symbols, plus various
electronic components and wires. Figure 1.5a shows schematic symbols of voltage and
current sources with ground connected at the other end. Ground is an electrical connection
that is referenced to zero voltage potential (0 V). Schematics can be hand drawn on paper,

although the majority of schematics are entered into computer software. This makes it
very easy to design and modify electrical schematics. Popular electronic schematic
software tools will be discussed in chapter 4, Analog Electronics. Ideally, ground is at
absolute 0 V with zero resistance. Keep in mind real-world ground has non-zero
resistance. The ground signal amplitude depends on multiple factors (mostly from
electrical noise), which will be discussed later on. The current source symbol in figure
1.5a contains an arrow signifying the current flow direction. Both triangular and
horizontal line ground symbols are interchangeable although some use the triangular
symbol strictly for power ground; the horizontal symbol for signal ground. Triangular
ground symbols are used throughout this book.

Figure 1.5a: Voltage, current, and resistor schematic symbols

Electrons
An atom is made up of tiny particles: protons (positive charge), neutrons (neutral), and
electrons (negative charge). Protons and neutrons are in the center of an atom while
electrons surround the nucleus. Electrons are ions (particles) containing negative charges.
Difference in electron and proton numbers gives rise to various atom structures (chemical
elements). In this book, we mainly microelectronics, such as silicon and attracted to
positive charges (terminals and polarities). The symbol Q quantifies electron charges.
The unit of Q is coulomb (C). One electron charge holds:
focus on chemical elements that are used in
germanium. The negatively-charged electrons are

One Electron Charge = 1.6 X 10-19 C Current versus Electrons

In figure 1.6, a positive voltage source (positive signs) is connected to a resistor with a
wire. The other end of resistor connects to ground (negative polarity) creating a loop. Due
to a positive charge at the voltage source, according to Ohms law, a current is bound to
flow through the resistor in clockwise direction (inner arrow) while electrons (E-) are
flowing towards the positive charges arriving at the voltage source. Keep in mind the
electron and current flow in reverse directions.

Figure 1.6: Electron vs. current flow

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the sum of all voltages around a loop = 0. A simple circuit in figure 1.7
applies and explains this theory. There is only one theory to apply: Ohms law and we will
use it twice. This circuit contains a 5 V voltage source connects to a 10 resistor. We use
Ground to close the loop. By using Ohms law, current can be evaluated:
V = I X R
I = V / R
I = (5 V) / (10 ) = 0.5 A
This circuit is a series circuit. There is only one branch the current could go. We will visit
more series circuits in a moment.

Figure 1.7: Series circuit

By using Ohms law the second time, we could find out what the voltage drop is across the
10 resistor, V_resistor:
V_resistor = I X R
V_resistor = (0.5 A) X (10 ) = 5 V
Now, we could use all voltages in this circuit to see if KVL holds up.
Sum of All Voltages Around a Loop = Voltage Source + Voltage Drop Across the
Resistor.
5 V + ( 5 V) = 0 V
It checks out! Notice that the voltage drop across the resistor contains a negative sign
(polarity). The reason is that the voltage on the left-hand side of the resistor was higher (+)
than the voltage on the right-hand side of the resistor (). The positive resistor sign
opposes the positive polarity of voltage source, hence the negative sign in the KVL
calculations (see figure 1.7). The importance of this circuit is twofold. First, it
demonstrates how simple it is to apply and explain the circuit using Ohms law and KVL.
Secondly, despite the circuits simplicity, any electronic circuit regardless of its
complexity can always be explained by Ohms law and KVL. Sometimes, you will hear
statements such as; there is a short in an electronic circuit that caused damages.
Applying Ohms law easily explains it. In figure 1.7, if the 10 resistor were shorted
(zero resistance) and we applied Ohms law, I = V / R, where V = 5 V, R = 0. I = 5 V / 0
= infinite. Current becomes infinitely large causing damage to the system. Realistically,
any electronic system, no matter how shorted it becomes, possesses a finite amount of
resistance.

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that current going into (passing through) a point (node) is equal to current
coming out of the same node. We could use the same circuit in figure 1.7 to examine this
theory. This is a series circuit. The current goes into left-hand side (node) of the resistor,
and thus is equal to the right side of the resistor. We will use a parallel circuit in the next
segment to further explain KCL.

Parallel Circuit
Series circuit states that current only flows in one direction. In parallel circuits however,
current flows in more than one direction (see figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8: KCL

Current A (IA) goes into node Z and is equal to sum of both currents IB and IC, coming
out of the same node (node Z). Mathematically, its simply:

IA = IB + IC Parallel Resistor Rule

Equivalent resistance (R_ equivalent) of two resistors (see figure 1.9):

Figure 1.9: Parallel resistor rule

If the parallel (||) resistors number is two or more, the equivalent resistance is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of individual reciprocal resistances (see figure 1.10).

Figure 1.10: Multiple parallel resistors

If A = 1 , B = 2 , C = 5 ,

You may notice that the equivalent resistance of multiple resistors is always slightly less
than the smallest resistor among the resistor groups. From the above example, the
equivalent resistance of 1 , 2 , and 5 is 0.58 . Its less than the smallest resistor
value 1 . This gives you a quick way of knowing if the equivalent resistance you come

up with makes sense or not. Note that if the resistor numbers in parallel are exactly the
same sizes, the equivalence resistance is calculated as resistance of one resistor divided by
the total resistor number, e.g., 10 || 10 || 10 = 3.33 ( 10 / 3 = 3.33 ). This rule,
however, doesnt apply to parallel resistors that have different sizes.

Series Resistor Rule

Equivalent resistance = Sum of all resistances (see figure 1.11).

Figure 1.11: Series resistor rule

Lets use a simple parallel circuit to explain series and parallel resistor configurations.
(See figure 1.12).

Figure 1.12: Simple parallel circuit

In this illustration, resistor A, B forms a parallel circuit. Total current (I_TOTAL) going
towards node A, B is divided into two separate branches, according to KCL. To calculate
I_A, I_B, we first calculate the total resistance of the entire circuit. I_TOTAL can then be
found. The idea is to consolidate all three resistors T (10 ), A (10 ), and B (10 ) into
one resistor (Equivalence) and one voltage source. We can then use Ohms law to
calculate I_TOTAL. According to figure 1.9, resistor A, B can be combined into one
resistor, R_eq:

We then further consolidate the two resistors (T and R_eq) into one resistor. We will call it
R_total. Using series resistor rule, R_total = T + R_eq = 10 + 5 = 15 . The
consolidated one voltage source, one resistor circuit is shown in figure 1.13.

Figure
1.13: Simplified one voltage, one resistor circuit
We now can simply use Ohms law to calculate I_TOTAL. I_TOTAL = 5 V / 15 =
0.33 A. At this point, we can apply KVL to make sure the analysis is valid. 5 V + ( 0.33
A X 15 ) = 0 V To figure out I_A, I_B, we first calculate the voltage drop across T using
Ohms law:
Voltage Drop across T = (I_TOTAL) X (T) = 0.33 A X 10 = 3.33 V
Since voltage at left side of T is 5 V and the voltage drop across T is 3.33 V, the voltage at
the right-hand side of T (node A and B) is:
Voltage Drop across T = (Voltage at Left Side of T) (Voltage at Right Side of T) 5 V
(Voltage at the Right Side of T) = 3.33 V
(Voltage at the Right Side of T) = 5 V 3.33 V = 1.67 V
Its crucial to recognize that voltage across a device means the difference (subtraction)
between two nodes. Now we can use Ohms law again to calculate I_A and I_B. Because
voltage at right side of T is common to node A and B (Voltage at Node A = Voltage at
Node B):
I_A = (Voltage at Node A) / A = 1.67 V / 10 = 0.167 A I_B = (Voltage at Node B) / B

= 1.67 V / 10 = 0.167 A
To prove the analysis is correct, simply use KCL which states that I_TOTAL = I_A + I_B
I_A + I_B = 0.167 A + 0.167 A = 0.33 A = I_TOTAL, it checks out!

Current Divider Rule

The current divider rule states that the current on one branch is the total current multiplied
by the ratio of total current. When seeking current A, the numerator contains resistor B
and vice versa.

Using figure 1.12 in the previous example,

I_A and I_B can be easily calculated:

Notice if both resistor sizes are the same on each branch, the current amount will be
equally divided in a parallel circuit. If the resistors A and B are different sizes, the current
is less on the branch that has the larger resistor and vice versa. This concept is illustrated
in figure 1.14.
In this example, I_total = 2 A, A = 20 , B= 10 :

This shows that I_A is less than I_B (As resistance > Bs resistance). To further prove
this is correct, apply KCL:
I_total = I_A + I_B = 0.66 A + 1.33 A = 2 A It checks out!

Figure 1.14: Resistor size vs.

current amount

Voltage Divider
The voltage divider is used all too often. We will start with the definition then use simple
circuits to explain it. Just like it sounds, a voltage divider divides voltage. The word
divides does not mean there is a mathematical division; it means the voltage is
reduced by the resistors. Below is a simple series circuit (see figure 1.15) to explain
voltage divider.

Figure 1.15: Simple series resistor circuit

The explanation of this circuit is simple, not surprisingly, using Ohms law. There is only
one current branch in this series circuit. The current can be calculated using Ohms law
and the series resistor rule:

The voltage at Node A is 10 V (connected to a 10 V voltage source). The voltage across (I

R drop) resistor A is the potential difference between node A and B, i.e., Voltage at Node
A Voltage at Node B or it can be calculated using Ohms law: 0.5 A X 10 = 5 V
Once again, its important to realize that voltage drop across a resistor is the potential
difference between two nodes. Knowing that voltage at node A is 10 V, and voltage drop
across resistor A is 5 V, voltage at node B can be found using voltage definition:
(Voltage Drop across A) = (Voltage at Node A) (Voltage at Node B)
5 V = 10 V Voltage at Node B

Voltage at Node B = (10 V 5 V) = 5 V For voltage drop across resistor B, it would be

Voltage at Node B ground (0 V) = 5 0 = 5 V. All voltage drops (I R drops) are shown
in figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16: Voltages across A and B

There are voltage drops across each resistor. Voltage was reduced (divided) from the 10 V
voltage source. In other words, voltages across each resistor cannot exceed the 10 V
voltage source. Some use this formula when it comes to voltage divider:

RA is in the numerator when calculating VA. RB is in the numerator when calculating VB.
VA and VB are simply the ratio of individual resistance (RA, RB) over the sum of all
resistances (RA + RB) in the circuit. If you look closely, the VA, VB formula comes from
Ohms law and series circuit rule. We know that the current going through A and B are the
same (series circuit rule). VA / 10 = VB / 10 . This current can be calculated from the
10 V source in series with RA + RB (Ohms law):

Thus, VA = VB = (10 ) X 10 V / (10 + 10 ). This is essentially the voltage divider

formula. Although the voltage divider formula does come in handy, one formula will not
and cannot fit all because the resistor configurations may be totally different from one
circuit to the next. Its much more intuitive to apply basic principles to analyze voltage
divider circuits, in fact, any circuits. To see if we come up with the voltages correctly, we
use KVL to prove it.
10 V + ( 5 V) + ( 5 V) = 0 V, it checks out!

Figure 1.17: Voltage vs. resistor size

In the above example, there are only two resistors. Their sizes are the same. In real life,
voltage dividers could have more than two resistors exhibiting a variety of sizes and
connection configurations. Despite different voltage divider configurations, the method of
determining voltages on any node, voltage drop across any resistor, and current through

each branch is the same: by using Ohms law, KVL and KCL. One interesting fact is that if
the resistance is larger than the other(s), such resistor would have the most voltage drop
across it. This is demonstrated in figure 1.17, where resistor B value is larger than A, thus
voltage
drop across B is larger than A. This observation is exactly opposite to the current divider
rule where larger R sought smaller I and vice versa. In figure 1.17, lets assume
RA = 5 , RB = 10
To seek the voltage drops across RA and RB, we use the voltage divider formula:

Check with KVL:

10 V + ( 6.67 V) + ( 3.33 V) = 0 V, it checks out!
This example shows that, in a series circuit, if resistance (RA) is higher, there is more
voltage drop (VA) across RA than RB. Regardless of resistor values or circuit
configurations, KVL and Ohms law always hold true.

Superposition Theorems
So far, weve focused only on one voltage source circuit. Practical circuits have more than
one voltage and/or current source. Numerous theories exist which attempt to explain how
the circuits are analyzed in academic textbooks (Thevenin, Norton, and Mesh, just to
name a few). I decided to use superposition because of its simplicity. By definition,
superposition states that if a circuit contains multiple voltage or current sources, any
voltage at a node within the circuit is the algebraic voltage sum found by calculating
individual voltage one at a time. Furthermore, any voltage source will be seen as a short to
ground when calculating other voltages in the remaining circuit. Any current source will
be seen as open circuit. Lets use a simple example to understand superposition (see figure
1.18).

Figure 1.18: Superposition circuit example

The goal is to find out what the voltage is at Vx if the current source pushes out 100 uA
(100 microamperes, 100 X 10-6 A) current and DC voltage source is 5 V.
Steps:
1) Isolate the circuit into two separate ones.
2) Start with the voltage source on the left; force the current source open. Then calculate
Vx_1. The individual circuit is shown in figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19: Superposition circuit 1

Noticed the 5 k resistor (upper right) has zero I R drop (voltage across it) because of the
open circuit on the right resulting in no current flowing through it. Ohms law says, V = I
X R = 0 X 5 k = 0 V. Vx_1 is then viewed as a voltage between 10 k and the vertical 5
k (voltage divider):

3)
Second circuit: The 5 V DC source is shorted to ground (see figure 1.20).

Figure 1.20: Superposition circuit 2

Use parallel resistor rule, 10 k and the vertical 5 k can be combined:

By inspection, figure 1.20 is transformed to figure 1.21. This is a series circuit where the
voltage drop across 3.33 k is between Vx_2 and ground (0 V). Ohms law states that
Vx_2 = 100 uA X 3.33 k = 0.333 V when a 100 uA fixed current source flows through
3.33 k.

Figure 1.21: Circuit 2 transformation

The resulting Vx can now be found by summing Vx_1 and Vx_2:
Vx_1 + Vx_2 = 1.67 V + 0.33 V = 2 V

DC Circuits
1) What is the difference between an ideal and non-ideal voltage source?
This question leads to the understanding of voltage source and voltage divider non-ideal
characteristics.
Rules:
Ideal voltage source: Zero internal resistance
Non-ideal voltage source: Non-zero (finite) internal resistance Ideal current source:
Infinite internal resistance
Non-ideal current source: Non-zero (finite) internal resistance
A non-ideal voltage source can be viewed as a voltage divider. Figure 1.22 demonstrates
this concept. If it were an ideal voltage source, internal resistance would be zero . The
voltage at node A will be exactly the same as voltage originating from the voltage source.
If node A is the output voltage, input would be the same as the output. In a not-so-perfect
world, voltage source would have finite internal resistance. This finite resistance
originating from the voltage source makes the circuit look just like a voltage divider.
Voltage at node A is no longer the same as the original voltage source. In a non-ideal
world, when you connect a voltage source to a resistor, the output will not be exactly the
same as the input. High quality power supplies offer extremely low internal resistance
(still non-zero), and your output is almost the same as the input. Its for this reason
voltage divider is seldom used as a constant voltage source. Using Figure 1.22 as an
example, if the original voltage source on the left is 10 V, the intended voltage output is 5
V at node A. By design, we set both resistors to have the same values (voltage divided by
half) so that 5 V at node A can be obtained. In reality, the voltage at node A wont be
constant at 5 V. Firstly, any changes from the original input source will change the voltage
at node A (again by the voltage divider action). Secondly, any change in the resistances
(e.g., caused by temperature variations) will also change the voltage at node A. To achieve
a more stable voltage output, low drop-out and switching regulators are used, which will
be discussed later in this book.

Figure 1.22: Nonideal voltage source

2) Draw V, I curve of a real resistor.
This question tests how much you know about non-ideal resistors behavior. Back in figure
1.3, Ohms law is depicted as a linear function. In reality, its a linear relationship only up
to a certain point. This point is determined by how hot the resistor gets. Figure 1.23 shows
this heating effect. As electrons (E-, current in reverse direction) pass through a resistor
made of copper (Cu), the resistor heats up causing random copper ion movements by the
electron bombardment. This random motion decreases the likelihood of available electrons
passing through Cu atoms. This causes the resistance to go up. These random copper ions
movements are the electrical noise source. Noise is unwanted signals interfering with
circuits. It comes from many different sources, adversely affecting circuit performance
and corrupting ground signal. Noise is particularly apparent in AC systems. The V versus
I resistor function (see figure 1.24), unlike an ideal resistor I-V curve, is a non-linear
function with increasing slope, i.e., increasing resistance. This phenomenon is called
temperature coefficient (TC) where resistors TC is positive. This means resistances go up
with temperature. The exponential part of the curve depends largely on the resistors
power rating. If its within or below the rating, it may not show up in the datasheets.
Product datasheets are documentation provided by the electronic device manufacturers
detailing device features, functions, descriptions, and ratings, along with device symbols,
conditioned parameters, and specifications (spec). They often include graphs, waveforms,

sampled circuits, application notes, and package information. Thorough device datasheet
understanding allows you to decide quickly if the part is right for your design. A datasheet
is a document provided by the electronic system component manufacturers that details
specific device name, number, features, functions, and parameters related to the device
electrical performances. Many datasheets come with electrical test and characterization
graphs along with devices dimensions. Some even provide sampled application circuits.

Figure 1.23: Resistor heating effect

Temperature is a major factor of electronic systems. Many designs temperature range. The
system you work with most likely have electronic parameters fluctuate with temperature.
Pay special attention when design and analyze products over temperature.
consideration in most
operate in a wide
electronics

Figure 1.24: Resistor temperature

coefficient (TC)
As for purchasing parts, most discrete (stand-alone) components are sold through third
party wholesalers (distributors). Well-known ones are Digi-key, Mouser electronics,
Arrow electronics, AVNET, and Future electronics. Some chip companies provide direct
purchase systems to customers in conjunction with distributors. Analog companies such as
Analog Devices, Texas Instruments, Freescale, STMicroelectronics, Maxim Integrated
Circuits, Linear Technology, On Semiconductor, Intersil, International Rectifier and
Microchip Technology have these systems in place.

IC Packages
Leading semiconductor companies all design and produce integrated circuits (ICs), which

are microscopic electronics components manufactured on a piece of semiconductor chip

(chip). Some chips are measured in several hundreds of square millmeters in area. The
chip will then be housed inside an IC package. The semiconductor package is a crucial
part of modern electronics devices. Many devices are manufactured at the sub-micron
(less than a micrometer) level that requires an IC package to house the device inside.
Figure 1.25 shows an IC that is placed in the middle of an IC package. Most ICs are small
enough to place in the palm of a hand. The thin wires connecting the chip to the package
pins (needleshaped structure) are bond wires used to interface the chip with the outside
world such as wires and traces on the printed circuit board (PCB). More on PCB in a
moment.

Figure 1.25: IC inside semiconductor package

The purpose of the IC package mainly is to protect the device from external damage,
shock, and contaminants such as dust and moisture that could adversely affect device
operation. The other purpose of the package is to provide a physical connection of the
device itself to the outside world. The IC package is a vital part of the entire electronics
industry. They come in many forms and sizes. From wire-bond, dual inline package, ballgrid-array to flip-chip, the advancement in IC packaging technology is always
progressing. Semiconductor packaging is large enough that it is categorized as a separate
industry. Major package manufacturers are Amkor, Advanced Semiconductor Engineering

and Siliconware Precision Industries. The IC package could come with interface pins or
ball-shaped bumps that connect to the other ICs or devices at the board level. Figure 1.25a
shows a Microchip Technology Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) IC with a package
length of about 10 mm long.

Figure 1.25a: Microchip Technology MCP3903, ADC IC

3) Show current flow direction and amount of current, if there is any in figure 1.26. This
simple question tests the concept of potential difference and Ohms law. The voltage drop
across the 50 k resistor is the difference between 10 V and 5 V, i.e., 10 V 5 V = 5 V.
Apply Ohms law:

Figure 1.26 illustrates the current flow direction from higher potential to lower (left to
right). Notice the two horizontal lines symbol representing voltage source symbol.

Figure 1.26: Current flow

4) What is the voltage at the ideal source, given the divider circuit in figure 1.27? This
question tests your knowledge on a simple voltage divider where both resistors connected
in series are same sizes. If voltage at node B is 2 V, the source would be twice as much, 4
V. The divider divides the source voltage by half with equal resistor sizes.

Figure 1.27:
Voltage divider

5) There are many kinds of electronic measuring instruments. The most basic ones are
multimeter, oscilloscope (scope), function generator, and DC power supplies. There are
analog and digital multimeters (DMM). Both have the abilities to measure voltage and
current. An analog multimeter has a needle to display the measurement results.

Figure 1.28: Fluke DMM Model

CNX3000
Digital multimeters (DMM) come with 7-segment display. DMM
features, and
prices vary depending on brands,
specifications such as accuracy and resolutions. Well-known DMM brands are Fluke,
Agilent, and Tektronix. Figure 1.28 shows a Fluke DMM Model CNX3000 (Courtesy of
Fluke Corporation). DMMs have become mainstream in recent years. Many are portable,
designed to be lightweight and available with a wide range of features. In
resistance
capacitance,
addition to voltage, current, and measurements, some measure inductance, frequency,
temperature,
and diodes. The center dial (see figure 1.28) allows users to switch from measuring
voltage and resistance to current. Frequency, capacitance, and inductance will be

discussed shortly in chapter 3, AC. A simplified graphical DMM view is shown in figure
1.29. I, V, and COM are terminals. Test cables and leads are plugged into these
DMM terminals. The other ends of the cables connect to the device being measured.
COM corresponds to common that should be connected to the lowest potential (ground
or the most negative supply voltage) during the measurement. Size, accuracy, range
numbers, resolutions (the smallest values the DMM could measure), maximum voltage,
current ranges are criteria in choosing DMMs. Aside from knowing how DMM works,
understanding how it measures voltages helps you troubleshoot your circuits much
quickly. We use the voltage divider to expand this idea further (see figure 1.30).

Figure 1.29: Simplified DMM view

Figure 1.30: DMM measures voltage

We assume the 4 V power supply is an ideal voltage source. DMM is connected as a

voltmeter measuring voltage. It measures only 1.98 V. According to the voltage divider
rule, it should have measured 2 V. Why? There are two answers to this question. First of
all, test leads (represented by the arrows) and plugs (connectors that go into the DMM
terminals) consist of finite resistance adding additional resistances to the circuit affecting
the measurement. Secondly, the DMM itself contains input resistance, and although very
large by design, its not infinite. DMMs input resistance hence determines the meters
resolution. We have little control over this parameter for a particular DMM. We do have
control over leads. To achieve more accurate readings, short leads with the least resistance
are more preferred. What about measuring current? Figure 1.31 shows a simple current
measurement using DMM. The DMM is set to measure current as an ammeter. Its
connected in series with the circuit. Ideally, the ammeter resistance is infinite. This is the
reason why the ammeter cannot be connected in parallel. If it were, no current would flow
through the ammeter. Real current sources possess large internal resistance (non-zero) that
would impact the overall resistance of the entire circuit. This internal resistance causes a
small voltage drop across the ammeter. This error voltage is particularly important when
measuring low, precise current, (e.g., microamperes (uA) and below). Leading test
equipment suppliers such as Agilent offer many power supplies models. Figure 1.32
shows an Agilent DC power supply with multimeter, U3606A. It comes with a voltage
supply, current, and resistance measurement with
programming capabilities.

Figure 1.31:
DMM measures current

Figure
1.32: Agilent Power supply, multimeter, U3606A
6) Is it true that if you have voltage, you always have current? What about the circuit in
figure 1.33? What is the voltage at node A assuming 9 V is an ideal source? The answer is
no, not always. The circuit below is a series circuit with a broken loop. No current is able
to flow through the loop due to infinite resistance from the open circuit. Using Ohms law,
there is 0 V drop across the resistor, V = I X R = 0 X R = 0 V The resistor potential
difference can be derived:
(9 V Voltage at Node A) = 0 V
Then, Voltage at node A = 9 V

Figure 1.33: Open circuit

7) What is the equivalent resistance between node A and B in figure 1.34? We need to first
consolidate this resistor network into one single resistor. Using series and parallel resistor
rules, we start from the two parallel resistors D and E (5 using the parallel resistor rule).

Figure 1.34: Equivalent D and E resistance

Then we further simplify it by combining C, parallel of D and E (5 ) below (see figure
1.35).

Figure 1.35: C + parallel of D and E

The result is a 15 resistor. We then use the parallel rule to combine B and 15 . This
yields 6 (see figure 1.36).

Figure 1.36: Combine B with 15 in parallel

Finally, the result of the parallel combination is in series with 10 resistor A. This gives
rise to 16 equivalent resistance between node A and B (see figure 1.37).

Figure 1.37: Final equivalent resistance value

Summary
DC electronics are the most basic, easy to learn electronic theory. The chapter started with
basic electronic properties (voltage, current, and resistor). Basic electronic principles were
then discussed: Ohms law, KVL, and KCL. We then went over series and parallel
resistors rules, and voltage-current divider rules explained by practical circuit examples.
Superposition theorems, IC package, electronic measuring apparatus, non-ideal
characteristics of voltage, current sources, and resistors were reviewed. Once you become
proficient in basic electronics principles, you can then apply theories to explain and
analyze any circuits with ease. This builds up a strong foundation for further study, use,
and applications of more complex electronics.

Quiz
1) Show current flow direction and amount of current, if any (see figure 1.38).

Figure 1.38: Current flow

2) The power supply was set to produce 5 V. When measuring using DMM, it only reads
4.95 V. Why?
3) Five parallel resistors sized from 1 , 10 , 100 , 1 k, and 10 k. What is the
approximate equivalent resistance by inspection?
4) Using figure 1.38, if the 5 V on the left is replaced with 10 V, what is the current flow
direction? What is the amount of current, if any?
5) Design a voltage source that generates 3 V from a 12 V DC source. To save power,
current is limited to 10 mA. Hint: Use a voltage divider.
6) What is the power in Watts from the circuit you designed in problem 5? 7) Refer to the
circuit below in figure 1.39a. R1 is a variable resistor symbol (potentiometer or POT) in
which users can adjust resistances by manually turning a knob. Figure 1.39b is a 10 k
POT with a body size of 9.5 mm X 9.5 mm X 4.9 mm. You can view the potentiometer as
a resistive divider where the top, middle, and bottom pins are measured points. If you
connect the top and bottom pins to your circuit, a full scale 10 k is obtained. By
connecting the top and middle pins to the circuit, resistance can be varied by turning the
knob. The range of resistance would be from 0 to 10 k. Calculate current flow in each
branch, assuming that the potentiometer is at mid scale.

Figure 1.39a: Current flow in different branches

Figure 1.39b: Potentiometer

8) Use superposition to find Vx. Show steps (see figure 1.40).

Figure 1.40: Superposition, voltage, current sources

9) Use superposition to find Vx. Show steps (see figure 1.41).

Figure 1.41: Superposition, two voltage sources

10) Two voltage sources are connected in series in figure 1.42. What are the voltages at
node A and B?

Figure 1.42: Two

voltage sources in series

Chapter 2: Diodes
Diodes are passive electronic devices that do not generate electrical energy or power.
Passive devices only dissipate or store energy. Resistors and diodes are examples of
passive devices. Diodes are made of P (positive) and N (negative) type junctions. They are
the building blocks of transistors. Transistors, by far, are the most widely used electronic
components in electronic systems. Diodes are used in many electronic circuits that we
encounter daily. Understanding diode structure, device physics, behavior, and diode
circuits prepares you well to further understand transistors and complex electronic circuits.

Figure 2.0:
Silicon atom, 14 electrons, 4 electrons on outer shell

P-N Junctions
Diodes are formed by merging two different types of materials. Silicon and germanium are
the most popular material choices used in semiconductors. From a performance
standpoint, germanium offers faster switching capability with lower reliability. With
silicons abundant
supply and higher reliability, silicon is the most popular material in semiconductor
technology. 1, DC, chemical materials (elements) atoms. Each atom consists of electrons,
protons, and neutrons. Silicon has total 14 electrons (dots) with 4 electrons in the outer
shell (see figure 2.0). An atom is stable if the outer shell contains two or eight electrons.
By bombarding silicon (Si) with chemicals, we can alter its properties to create P-N

junctions. For example, to create a P-type junction in silicon, we bombard silicon with
boron (Br), which has three electrons in its outer shell. By adding borons three electrons
to silicon, which currently has four electrons, seven electrons are now in the silicon atoms
outer shell. Recall that the silicon atom wants to have eight
electrons to fill up its outer shell. These seven electrons leave a net positive charge (hole)
in the modified silicon atom outer shell (see figure 2.0a).
From chapter are made of

Figure 2.0a: Silicon implanted with boron, net positive charge

In other words, its eager to seek one electron to fill the outer shell with total of eight
electrons, which is the maximum number of electrons a shell could accept. This process
leaves a net positive charge. P-type junction material means that the area is injected with
more positive ions, namely holes. Precisely, the positive ion concentration and ratio is
higher than with Ntype. It does not mean there are no electrons at all in a P-type region.
The number of ions in a given junction area is defined by its carrier concentration (doping
levels). For P-type, the holes doping level is high. To create an N-type junction,
phosphorus (P) is bombarded with silicon. Because phosphorus has 5 electrons on the
outer shell, it nets a total of 9 electrons (e-). This extra electron results in net negatively
charged silicon. An N-type junction is defined as the area that is dominated by negative
ions, namely higher electron concentrations (see figure 2.0b).

Figure 2.0b: Silicon implanted with phosphorus, net negative charge

The bombardment process mentioned above is called ion implantation, which is one of
many IC manufacturing steps. The result of ion implantation gives the processed silicon
unique properties so that its not totally conductive but only semi-conductive, hence the
name semiconductor. Electronic devices made by such process are called solid-state
devices because the electrons and other charged carriers are confined in the solid
materials. With appropriate voltage condition (bias), a semiconductor can be controlled by
either turning it fully or partially on or off. This concept builds the foundation of diodes,
which come in many forms in terms of junction carrier concentrations.
Figure 2.1 shows a graphical representation of a P-N junction (see top of figure 2.1).
There is a region in between P-N junctions, called the depletion region (see bottom of
figure 2.1). This region determines the amount of voltage across the diode needed in order
to turn a diode on or off. The ability to turn a diode on and off gives limitless and powerful
design possibilities. Electrons in the N junction diffuse into the P-type while the P-type
migrates to the N region due to carrier concentration imbalance (see middle of figure 2.1).
This difference in carrier concentration results in electrons diffusing into the P region,
leaving the N-type with an extra hole. While the electron recombines with a hole in the P
region, it leaves behind a negative ion. As this diffusion process continues (see bottom of
figure 2.1), a wall of electrons accumulates near the P-type and wall of holes on the Ntype edges. Finally, the diffusion process stops, reaching equilibrium. This process forms
the depletion region. The reason for the end of the diffusion process is that as more holes
recombine with electrons, the electron concentration starts to increase in the P region
opposing additional electrons migration from N- to P-type. The same resisting force
occurs at the P region. This is why there is a wall of electrons and holes on the edges of
each type. These ions cannot diffuse anymore and are stuck at the depletion region.

Figure 2.1: Graphical representation of P-N junction

Forward-Biased and Reverse-Biased

The implication of depletion region is significant. It sets the minimum voltage required to
turn on the diode. Turning on the diode means forward-biasing a diode, in which case we
say the diode is forward-biased. Many textbooks define the minimum built-in diode
voltage potential to be 0.7 V. It is important to note that this number is only a typical
number. Forward-biased voltage can have other values depending upon the diode types
and many other factors. A datasheet would indicate the exact forward-bias voltages on any
particular diode. Lets now go over the mechanisms behind forward-biasing a diode. In
figure 2.2, there is a voltage source connected to a diode with the sources positive
terminal connected to the P junction. The negative source terminal (polarity) connects to
the N junction. Assume the forward voltage is 1 V. If we dial in the voltage source to 0.5

V across the diode, the positive charge from the source opposes the holes in the P junction
causing the holes in the P junction to diffuse towards the depletion region. The same
action takes place in the N junction where electrons are moving towards the depletion
region. Since 0.5 V is less than 1 V, which is the minimum voltage required to turn on the
diode, the diode is now reverse-biased. Modeling the diode as a switch, its currently open
(off). If we increase the voltage source to 1 V, the switch overcomes the built-in potential,
causing holes and electrons to flow in the reverse direction breaking through the depletion
barrier. Current then starts to flow. The diode is now conducting. As a switch, its now
closed (on).

Figure 2.2: Voltage across diode

The diode schematic symbol includes a vertical line and a triangle (see figure 2.3). It may
be obvious that the diode symbol looks like an arrow. The vertical line at the tip of the
arrow end is a cathode. A cathode is simply the N junction of the diode in figure 2.1. The
opposite side of the diode symbol is the anode (P junction). A diode is forward-biased
when the voltage across anode and cathode is positive and at least equal to or above the
forward-biased voltage, i.e., voltage at the anode is higher than voltage at the cathode.
These conditions give rise to current flow from the anode to the cathode, just like an arrow
moving from left to right. When a diode is forward-biased, current flows from anode to
cathode. When the diode is reverse-biased, i.e., when voltage at cathode is larger than
anode or the voltage at the anode and cathode is less than the minimum forward drop
voltage, under these conditions, the diode is said to be reverse-biased (off or an opencircuit) without current flow.

Figure 2.3: Diode forwardand reverse-biased

Diode I-V Curve

Figure 2.4: Diode

voltage vs. current
As we continue to increase (sweep) the DC voltage source in figure 2.2, forward biasing
the diode, the current continues to increase exponentially. Using current versus voltage of
a 1 V diode (see figure 2.4), we can further examine diode behavior. There are two sets of
curves in this figure. The dotted line is the ideal diode I-V characteristic. It shows that the
current takes off infinitely once the diode is forward-biased. The nonideal diode, however,
shows the current is rising exponentially with voltage but not infinitely. This is because of
the finite resistance in the real world diode that limits the current. Before the diode voltage
reaches 1 V, the current is close to zero with the diode being off
(reverse-biased). When an ideal diode is reverse-biased, it is an open circuit (infinite
resistance). A real diode, however, would not have infinite resistance but extremely large
resistance when its off. It means that there would be current flowing through the diode
when its reverse-biased. This is characterized as leakage current, which is usually small
and negligible but increases exponentially with temperature. The diode current transfer
function is modeled as:

I = Io X (eqV / K T 1)
Io: Leakage current; q: Electron charge (1.6 X 10-19 C); V: Voltage across diode; K:
Boltzmanns constant (1.38 X 10-16); T: Absolute temperature (Kelvin). The transfer
function of temperature from Kelvin to Celsius is K = C + 273; for room temperature, 27
C, K = 27 + 273 = 300 K. This diode current model indicates that for a given
temperature, increasing diode voltage increases diode current. Every diode has its own set

of parameters (ratings). Maximum forward voltage is the maximum voltage a diode could
withstand in forward-bias mode before it breaks down (shorts or blows open). Reverse
voltage: This number determines the maximum reverse-biased voltage a diode could
withstand before reverse breakdown. Diode output current defines the current level during
forward bias and is approximately constant in high forward voltage. Maximum reverse
current (leakage) defines the current amount through a diode during reverse bias.
Maximum power dissipation describes the amount of power (Watts) allowed for a given
diode voltage and current, power = (I) X (V).

Diode Circuits
1) Many circuits utilize diodes. A diode can be used as a voltage regulator (see figure 2.5).
A voltage regulator by definition is an electronic device that generates a constant voltage
source. The ideal voltage regulator can source and sink infinite amounts of current. The
tilted up-pointing arrow in the voltage source means its a changing (sweeping) variable
voltage source. The diodes forward-bias voltage is 200 mV in this sampled circuit.
Voltage at node D is the thin trace (V-I graph on the right). As the voltage source sweeps
from 0 V to 200 mV, there is no current flowing in this circuit due to the fact that the diode
remains off (reverse-biased). Therefore, node D voltage follows variable voltage. Using
Ohms law, there is no voltage drop across the diode, i.e., Input voltage node D voltage
= 0 V, and current = 0 A. When variable voltage increases to 100 mV, node D follows at
100 mV. Once the variable voltage source reaches 200 mV, the diode starts to turn on.
Node D voltage is now roughly fixed at 200 mV. Current continues to increase
exponentially as the variable voltage source continues to go up.

Figure 2.5: Diode as voltage regulator

2) A very popular diode type is the light emitting diode (LED). When the LED is
forwardbiased, it emits light. There are many color LED combinations (white, red, blue,
yellow, orange, green, and violet are popular colors). Typical LED forward-biased voltage

is between 2 V to 3 V. The intensity of the light is a strong function of current. Typical

LED consumes 20 to 30 mA of forward current. Because of its small sizes, low power
consumption, and long life (typically 10,000 hours), LEDs are suitable for lighting
applications. As the prices of LEDs have continued to go down in recent years, theyve
found themselves further in automotive lighting applications. Figure 2.6 shows several
LEDs that are in the order of 2 mm by 3 mm in dimensions (right) and a simple LED
circuit in a series configuration (left).

Figure 2.6a: LEDs in

series
3) Another common LED application is constructed in parallel configuration (see figure
2.7). From chapter 1, DC, it is easily recognized that the trade-off between a series and a
parallel LED application is that a series LED circuit requires higher voltage than the
parallel one. A parallel circuit draws more current due to multiple LED branches as a
result of the KCL rule.

Figure 2.7: LEDs in parallel

4) As mentioned previously in this chapter, diodes are modeled as switches. Lets take a
look at a practical circuit (see figure 2.8). An output is supplied by either one of the two
voltage sources (V1 and V2). There are two assumptions. 1) When V1 is present, V2 is
not. 2) When V2 is connected, it would be higher than V1. If V1 = 5 V, the forward diode
drop is rated at 1 V. This forward-biases the diode causing the voltage at the output to be 4
V. If V2 is 10 V connected to the output, the diode is now reverse-biased (voltage at
cathode > anode). The diode is off (switch is open), and V2 is then the only voltage supply
to the output.

Figure 2.8: Diode application

5) A real diode does not behave the same as an ideal diode. Diode voltage is a strong
function of temperature. The graph in figure 2.9 shows that diode voltage exhibits
negative temperature coefficient with approximately 2 mV / C. Due to many diode
types, you should refer to the specific diode datasheet for the correct temperature
coefficient numbers.

Figure 2.9: Diode negative temperature coefficient

6) A diode contains finite resistance when its forward-biased. Additionally, there are
resistances in a real diode due to physical leads. Figure 2.10 shows a simplified physical
diode representation with leads. These leads present small finite resistance that may be
significant in designs that are sensitive to noise. Surface-mount diodes are available in
small footprints. Figure 2.11 shows surface-mount diodes from SEMTEX. Recall from
chapter 1, DC, figure 1.21, that any resistor with current flowing through it generates heat
and noise due to random ion bombardments. Noise in particular should be minimized at all
costs, especially in highly accurate circuits.

Figure 2.10
Surface-mount diode (Courtesy of SEMTEX)

Figure 2.11

7) A zener diode is a very popular diode type commonly used in linear regulator
applications. Linear regulators are the building blocks of virtually all electronic power
supplies. As opposed to switching regulators, linear regulators are on 100% of the time.
Switching regulators means that devices that turn on and off periodically will potentially
increase power efficiency. We will take a closer look at switching regulators in chapter 3,
AC. Figure 2.12 demonstrates a simple zener diode implementation used as a voltage
regulator. A zener diode operates in the reverse-biased region, i.e., the left-hand side of the
I-V diode curve. When it reaches the rated reverse-biased threshold, 5 V, it behaves as a
voltage source staying at 5 V. Once the zener diode starts conducting, it remains turned on

Figure 2.12: Zener diode circuit, V, I curve as a linear regulator as long as variable
voltage source stays at least or above 5 V.

Summary
Diodes are formed by P-N junctions. They are basic transistor building blocks. Powerful,
practical electronic circuits can be built and designed by using diodes. The chapter started
with silicon atomic structure, then basic diode formation process, followed by diode DC
characteristics (I-V diode curve). We then examined forward and reverse-biased
definitions as well as several practical diode applications. Ideal- and non-ideal diode
characteristics were discussed. The chapter closes with LED, zener diodes, and the linear
and switching regulator principle of operations and applications.

Quiz
1) If you measure voltage across a diode between the anode and cathode, the DMM reads
1 V. Is the diode forward- or reverse-biased?
2) Draw a DC graph of nodes A and B during 0 V to 5 V (DC sweep) using the diode
circuit (see figure 2.13). Assume forward-biased voltages are 1 V.
3) Design a circuit that drives 5 LEDs. Assume 5 V is the supply voltage and the

minimum current needed to turn on each LED is 10 mA. When the LED conducts, it drops
1.5 V. Hint: Include LED voltage drop. Decide if you should choose parallel or series
configurations.
4) Using figure 2.13, at 5 V DC, draw a DC sweep graph of nodes A and B over
temperature ranging from 40 C to + 125 C (see figure 2.14). The temperature
coefficient of both diodes is 2 mV / C.

Figure 2.13: Diode circuit

Figure 2.14: Diode voltage

temperature sweep
5) 1N4001 is a popular general-purpose diode that is capable of handling up to 1 A of
forward current (see figure 2.15). Its length is less than 10 cm; forward voltage drop is
rated at 1.1 V, 27 C room temperature; reverse voltage is specified at maximum of 50 V.
Using DMM, 100 mA forward bias current is measured; the voltages at the anode and
cathode of the diode are the same. What condition is the diode most likely to be? Would it
mean it is shorted, open or working properly?

Figure 2.15: 1N 4001 general-purpose diode

Chapter 3: Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current (AC) is not an isolated electronic theory but rather an extension of DC
and diode. By definition, AC is an electrical signal (current, voltage, or power) that
changes its amplitude over time. AC operations can be seen everywhere from electric
power utilities, computers, Central Processing Unit (CPU) operations, radio broadcasting,
wireless communications, etc. We first need to understand basic AC parameters,
capacitors, and inductors before getting into more complicated AC electronics designs.
Some AC parameters are listed in table 3-1.

Table 3-1: AC parameters

Sine Wave
We will use sinusoidal wave and AC parameters to explain most AC operations. The most
common AC waveform is the periodic sinusoidal wave. Sinusoidal (sine) wave comes
from trigonometry in mathematics. Figure 3.1 shows a periodic sine voltage waveform in
time (transient) domain. It means that the frequency is fixed while the waveform
amplitude is changing. Other than the sine wave, the square wave and saw-tooth wave are
also common AC signal sources. The schematic symbols of all three types are shown
below.
Sine wave Square wave Saw-tooth wave

Figure 3.1: Periodic waveform

Frequency and Time

One operation cycle (period, unit in seconds) is defined as the total time it takes while the
voltage stays above the X-axis (upper half of a sine wave cycle) plus the time the voltage
stays below the X-axis (bottom half of one sine wave cycle). In figure 3.1, each cycle
takes 1/60 second to complete. Furthermore, one period can be interpreted as: from one
waveform peak (maximum point) to the next peak. It can also be measured from the rising
(leading) or falling (trailing) edge of the waveform to the next rising or falling edge. From
figure 3.1, one period is found by one rising edge to the next. By definition in table 3.1,
frequency is defined as one over period (1 / Period):

Frequency = 1 / Period Or Period = 1 / Frequency

The frequency in figure 3.1 is:

In other words, 60 Hz means that there are 60 cycles occurring in one second (see figure
3.2). The significance of this example is that 60 Hz is the US household power outlet
frequency. A 3 gigahertz (GHz) signal (the typical CPU clock speed of todays desktop
computers) runs 3 billion cycles in one second.

Figure 3.2: 60 Hz in time domain

We use AC in our daily lives. Figure 3.2a shows an electrical outlet (receptacle)
commonly found in US residential households and commercial buildings. Each of the
three terminals has a copper conductor connected it. The hot terminal provides 120 V

AC source. Neutral is the return current path for the AC source. The ground terminal
has a zero voltage potential and zero resistance. It provides a path for the current to the
earth, which is a huge mass of conductive materials such as dirt, rock, ground water, etc.
Since the earth is a superb conductor, it makes the ground terminal a great voltage
reference for electrical systems as well as a safety measure by directing all unwanted
buildup of electrical charge to the earth, thus preventing damage to the equipment and the
user. Electrical equipment, such as computers, is often built with a chassis ground. This
zero voltage connection provides a common point of voltage reference with respect to
internal circuitries and for safety reasons.

Figure 3.2a: Electrical outlet

Peak Voltage vs. Peak-to-Peak Voltage

From figure 3.1, the vertical axis is voltage. It swings up and down above and below the
Xaxis. The vertical amplitude is expressed in voltage (V). From the highest peak of the
upper half waveform to 0 V on the X-axis, its amplitude is 120 V. This is the positive peak
voltage (Vpeak), (see figure 3.3). The lower half of the waveform is peak voltage with a
negative sign, i.e., 120 V. Peak-to-peak voltage (Vpeak-to-peak) can be estimated from
the highest peak voltage to the lowest peak voltage. In this example, 120 V ( 120 V) =
240 V. Vpeak-to-peak can also be viewed as the positive Vpeak multiplied by 2, i.e., (120
V) X 2 = 240 V. You can see that Vpeak is exactly half of Vpeak-to-peak.

Figure 3.3: Vpeak, Vpeak-to-peak

Duty Cycle
So far, we have discussed peak voltage, amplitude, frequency, and period. Now, we will
look at duty cycle. The duty cycle is the ratio of on-time over one period (on-time + offtime) expressed in percentage:

From figure 3.3, the time it takes for the upper half of one sine wave cycle to complete is
ontime. The other half, off-time, is the time it takes for the lower half of the sine wave
cycle. By definition, On-time + Off-time = One period (see figure 3.4). For a periodic
waveform, ontime is exactly the same as off-time. Using the duty cycle equation, you can
see that the duty cycle of a periodic 60 Hz sine wave is 50%:

Figure 3.4: Period and duty cycle

In other words, a 50% duty cycle means the signal is on half of the time (one period)
while the other half is off. This concept applies to a signal in any frequencies, not just
60 Hz. As long as the waveform is periodic, the duty cycle is 50%. Not all AC signals are
50% duty cycle. Figure 3.5 shows a 10% duty cycle (a 0.1 GHz square wave).

Figure 3.5: 10% duty cycle

Vrms
Vrms stands for root mean square voltage. It directly relates to Vpeak discussed in
previous section:

Vrms = Vpeak X 0.707

We will discuss the meaning of the 0.707 constant in detail shortly. Electronic products
show Vrms information in the datasheets where the manufacturers use Vrms to specify the
noise amount. Ideally, noise, as a parameter, should be minimal. Manufacturers normally
use Vrms rather than Vpeak because Vrms is less than Vpeak by about 29.3% (100%
70.7% = 29.3%). If Vpeak = 100 mV, Vrms = 70.7 mV.

Impedance, Resistance, and Reactance

Until this point, we have strictly described resistance as a parameter that does not change
with frequency. This is in fact true with ideal resistors. However, it is very different with
AC. There are two electronic devices that are found in virtually all electronic systems that
behave very distinctively when it comes to resistance and frequencies. These are
capacitors and inductors. Before we discuss them, some essential resistance parameters are
listed below:

Impedance = Resistance + Reactance

These three parameters all have units in Ohms. Impedance is the sum of resistance and
reactance of an electronic component such as a resistor, capacitor, or inductor. For
resistors, reactance is zero. Thus, resistance is equal to impedance. The resistors value
does not change with frequency:

Impedance = Resistance + 0 = Impedance

Reactance, however, changes with frequency. This causes the impedance to vary with
frequency. This fundamental characteristic provides the framework for all AC electronic
designs, circuits, and systems.

Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive electronic device that does not generate energy. However, it stores
energy through an electric field. A capacitor is formed by two conductive plates separated
by an insulator (dielectric). There are plenty of conductive plate materials as well as
insulator types. The most common ones are tantalum, ceramic, polyester, and electrolytic.
Figure 3.6 shows a capacitor graphical representation, capacitor schematic symbol,
discrete tantalum, electrolytic capacitors, and film capacitors.

Figure 3.6: Capacitor structure, schematic symbol (top right),

tantalum, electrolytic and film capacitors (bottom left); capacitor symbols (middle)
created by Fritzing Software
Capacitor values (capacitance) are measured in farad (F), which exhibits reactance, called
capacitive reactance (Xc). Capacitive reactances units are in Ohms ().

Capacitive Impedance = Resistance + Xc

The contribution of the capacitor resistance comes from capacitor packages, leads, and the

intrinsic nature of capacitive materials.

Capacitive reactance (Xc) is defined as

, where f is frequency of signal, = 3.14, C is capacitive value in farad (F). If the

signal frequency changes, Xc changes causing capacitor impedance to change. For
example, if signal frequency = 1 MHz, capacitance = 1 uF.

XC versus Frequency
If the frequency now increases to 2 MHz, then Xc = 80 m. In short, Xc is inversely
proportional to frequency. See bode plot in figure 3.7. A bode plot is a graph that shows
AC (frequency) analysis. It includes X-Y axis where X-axis is frequency. Keep in mind
that even though impedances changes with frequencies, the capacitance values remain the
same. From above, capacitance remains 1 uF between the two frequencies.

Figure 3.7: Xc vs. frequency

The above figure shows that Xc could reach zero ohms if frequency is extremely high.
Using arithmetic rules, suppose frequency is infinite (); Xc would become zero (AC

short).
Applying the same rule, if frequency is zero
(DC), Xc would become infinitely large (DC block).

Simple Capacitor Circuit

Lets use a simple capacitor circuit in figure 3.8 to further understand and apply this

theory. Connecting a DC voltage source to a capacitor is equivalent to connecting the

voltage source to an open circuit, i.e., infinite impedance. This implies that the capacitor is
now charged to the positive voltage from the source. Its storing energy from the voltage
source in the form of an electric field on the capacitor. Despite voltage drop across the
capacitor, there is no current flowing through the capacitor (Xc is infinite, open circuit).
According to Ohms law, while impedance is infinite, there would be zero current flow. To
simplify Xc, 1 / (2 f C), can be converted to 1 / SC or 1 / C, where S or (omega)
replaces 2 f.

Figure 3.8: Simple capacitor circuit

A simple mathematical model can be used to represent the capacitor:

(Current) X (Time Change) = (Capacitance) X (Voltage Change)

I (t) = C (V)
A simple four-step process circuit in figure 3.9 explains the I (t) = C (V) equation.

Figure 3.9: Four-step capacitor circuit

Step 1: Before the switch closes completely, there is no voltage across the capacitor, i.e.,
the voltage across top and bottom plates is 0 V.
Step 2: When the switch closes, electrons move towards the positive voltage source
leaving the top capacitor plate positively charged. During this charge movement process,
unless there is damage to the dielectric causing a short circuit, no electrical ions are able to
pass through the capacitor due to the insulating dielectric. The time delay it takes for the
voltage at the capacitor to be charged up to the voltage source amount is t. Dielectric
damage can be caused by excessive voltage across the capacitor, thus breaking down the

capacitor. The capacitor datasheet should spell out the maximum voltage.
Steps 3 and 4: When the switch opens, energy stored on the capacitor in the form of
voltage has no other path to go (discharge) and therefore remains in the capacitor. The
capacitor can now be viewed as a battery holding up the charge.

I (t) = C (V)
By knowing the voltage, capacitance, and Xc, t can be obtained:

t = C (V) / I
The charging behavior is further made clear in the waveform shown in figure 3.10. You
can see that it takes time (t) to charge up the capacitor (dotted line) to full voltage.

Figure 3.10: Capacitor charging

Capacitor Charging and Discharging Circuit

Capacitors are used in applications where charging and discharging happens periodically.
Flash lights applications found in cameras can be implemented using the circuit below
(see figure 3.11).

Figure 3.11: Capacitor flash light circuit

This circuit requires two switches, S1 and S2, operating in a complementary manner.
When S1 opens, S2 closes and vice versa. The flash light acts as an electronic circuit load.
The main difference between this flash light circuit and the capacitor charging circuit in
figure 3.9 is that the flash light circuit dissipates charge to the load to light up the flash
light (step 3). The electrical energy is transferred from the capacitor (battery) to the flash
light (step 4). The capacitor voltage waveform is shown in figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Capacitor charge and discharge

Combining resistors and capacitors creates several fundamental electronic circuits that are
found in literally endless electronic systems (see figure 3.13). The circuit contains a square
wave voltage source symbol (Vin). The circuit is analyzed using the following
mathematical model,
V_cap = Vin X (1 e t / (r c))
where V_cap is the voltage at the top capacitor plate. Vin represents input voltage; e is
the exponential function in mathematics. R and C are resistance and capacitance. This is
an exponential function. A V_cap waveform is shown in figure 3.14.

Figure
3.13: R, C series circuit

Figure 3.14: Capacitor voltage waveform

This circuit introduced a well-known electronic quantity called RC time constant. RC time
constant is expressed by the number of instances, for example, one, two, and three time
constants. When the square wave signal goes from low to high, the capacitor is charged up
with a time delay called time constant. From the V_cap mathematical model, one time

constant means t = RC. Substituting that into the equation yields the following:
V_cap = Vin X (1 e1)
V_cap = Vin X 0.64
From this result, at one time constant, voltage at the capacitor is 64% of the input voltage.
For two time constants, time is equal to 2 X RC. V_cap now equates to:
V_cap = Vin X (1 e-2) = Vin X 0.87
Plug in some realistic numbers and let us further demonstrate this concept. Suppose the
lowest and the highest levels of the square wave are 0 V and 1 V respectively. R = 10 k
and C = 1 uF. One time constant yields 10 k X 1 uF = 10 ms. It means that it takes 10
ms for V_cap to reach 0.64 V (64% of 1 V). For two time constants, i.e., 2 X R C = 20
ms, it takes 20 ms for V_cap to reach 0.87 V (87% of 1 V) (see figure 3.15). When the
square wave goes from high to low, the capacitor was discharged (decay) using the same
mathematical model.

Figure 3.15: RC time constant

Parallel Capacitor Rule

Capacitors can be arranged in parallel with the following rules in figure 3.16. Two parallel
capacitors equivalence is the sum of two capacitances.

Figure 3.16: Parallel capacitor rule

Series Capacitor Rule

In figure 3.17, capacitors connected in series have equivalent capacitance (C_eq):

Figure 3.17: Series capacitor rule

You probably noticed that the capacitor rules are exactly opposite to the resistor rules. At
this point, we focused on using time domain to illustrate capacitor circuits. Its more
favorable to use frequency domain (bode plot, AC analysis) in electronic circuits.
Frequency domain uses frequency on the X-axis and electrical quantities on the Y-axis.
Before we take a deeper look at frequency domain, decibel or dB needs to be understood.
dB is a ratio of two quantities. To calculate voltage ratio expressed in dB, logarithm (log)
can be used.
For voltage:
For current:

For power:

The difference
between voltage, current, and power dB calculation is the constant 10 vs. 20.

Power Ratio in dB
For example, an audio power amplifier outputs 7.5 W, the input supply voltage, current is
10 V and 1 A. What is the power ratio in dB?
The input power is found by: V X I = 10 V X 1 A = 10 W:

R C Series Circuit

Figure 3.18:
RC series circuit in
frequency domain
We will now move onto using the same circuit from figure 3.13 to explain frequency
domain in figure 3.18. We would define the square wave voltage source as Vin (input
voltage), voltage at the capacitor is Vout (output voltage). To analyze this circuit in
frequency domain, we need to derive a transfer function. A transfer function is an equation
that spells out the relationship between input and output. If you look closely, its nothing
more than a voltage divider where the capacitor is an impedance varying resistor, (i.e.,
Xc). The transfer function thereby is:

The sign in Xc indicates C lags

behind R by 90 degrees. This concept will be further explained shortly.
Recall Xc = or,

 20 dB per Decade
This transfer function shows that for given resistor and capacitor sizes, increasing
frequency causes the Vout to decrease. The bode plot below elaborates this concept (see
figure 3.19).

Figure 3.19: RC rolls off

At 0 Hz (DC), Vout = Vin,

As frequency increases, voltage falls rolling off at 20 dB per decade rate. A decade is 10
times change in frequency. Assume at 10 kHz, Vout starts to fall; Vin is at 10 V. Vout / Vin
in dB; frequency and Vout are developed below in Table 3-2. There is a negative sign of
dB after 0 dB. Its due to the 20 dB per decade reduction rate.

Table 3-2: Frequency, Vout / Vin, Vout

The corresponding graph is shown in figure 3.20.

Figure 3.20: Vout / Vin vs. Frequency

Lets put some actual numbers to this RC circuit in figure 3.21. Vin = 0 V to 10 V at 10
kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz and 10 MHz, R = 10 k, C = 1 mF

Figure 3.21: RC circuit with actual values

This circuit only contains passive devices, hence output cannot exceed input. The highest
output can reach is input, denoted by 0 dB (Vin = Vout). As frequency increases; Vout
decreases, the negative dB sign then follows. Every 20 dB per decade roll-off signifies
the 10 times increases in frequency. When Vin = Vout = 10 V, frequency is 0 Hz:

At 20 dB,
Vout:
Frequency is then found by:
At 40 dB, Vout:

Vout = 0.1 V, where Vin = 10 V

100 = 1 2f
f = 16 Hz

Vout = 0.01 V, Vin = 10 V Frequency is then

found by:

1,000 = 1 2 f f = 160 Hz Apply the same technique, it can be estimated that the
frequency increases 10 times for every 10 times reduction in Vout. Table 3-3 summarizes
these findings for R = 1 k, C = 1 mF. The exercise above shows that you can design the
circuit by changing the R and C values to fine tune a unique frequency in such a way that
Vout starts to reduce. This concept extends to a very popular capacitor filter application:
low-pass filter.

Table 3-3: For R = 1 k,

C = 1 mF

Low-Pass Filter

Figure 3.21 is a popular circuit called the low-pass filter. It allows signal to pass through
only at low frequency filtering out high frequency signals. A low-pass filter is used to
remove high frequency noise effectively improve electronic system performance. The
capacitor used in this circuit is called decoupling or bypass capacitor. The down side to
this noise reduction technique is the additional R and C components adding bill-ofmaterials (BOMs) costs and space on the printed-circuit board. BOMs are used to estimate
overall system costs. They include all hardware components as well as printed circuit
boards costs. One filter parameter often used is f 3dB. It denotes specific frequency value
when the output starts to fall to 70.7 percent of the input. Its the point where the output
just starting to roll-off. Using this characteristic, filter performance can be summarized
(see figure 3.22).

Coincidently, the 0.707 is the same

constant used in Vrms calculations.

Figure 3.22: f 3dB

Phase Shift
In the RC low-pass filter circuit, there is a phase shift between the voltage at the resistor
and capacitor. Phase shift is the time difference amount from the original timing position
to a new one. A phase shift can be positive or negative. To understand phase shift in the

low-pass filter, we use a 360-degree circle to interpret a full cycle sine wave in figure 3.23.

Figure 3.23: Sine wave with 360 degree circle

A periodic sine wave revolves continuously. It can be mapped to a 360 degree circle on the
left-hand side of figure 3.23. A sine wave at a single point of time presents specific
amplitude. It starts from 0 degree moving in anti-clockwise direction. In the figure 3.23,
when the sine wave arrives at the positive peak, it represents 90 degree of the circle (top
dotted line). When the sine wave continues to revolve towards the right-hand side of the
timing waveform arriving at the lower half, it corresponds to 225 degrees. All these can be
modeled as:
V(t) = Vpeak X sin , where is degree
= Vpeak X sin ( t)
= Vpeak X sin (2 f) X (t)
= Vpeak X sin (2 )
For example, if Vpeak= 5 V, the rotation degree () = 45 degrees:
V(t) = 5 V X sin (45 degrees) = (5 V) X 0.707 = 3.53 V

Radian
The equation on the previous page is a function where V(t) is a portion of Vpeak at any
particular time. = 2 f or (2 ) / t is the angular velocity (distance divided by time).
Figure 3.24 below shows the various radians around a full cycle sine wave and a table
with degrees correlate with radian in and decimal values. Radian can also be defined as:

 degrees of a circle, if
given a radian, a particular degree is easily found via the 2 and 360 degree ratio. For
example, radian = 1, degree X:
(2 / 360 degrees) = (1 radian / X degree)
X = 57.30 degrees, where = 3.14
If arc distance = 2, radius = 0.5. Radian:
Radian = 2 / 0.5 = 4 radians = (1.27 X ) radians
The rotation degree can be calculated by the 2 and 360-degree relationship. Lets assume
the rotation degree is Y. Use 4 radians from the above example:
(2 / 360) = (4 radians / Y)
(2 / 360) = 1.27 / Y
Y = 229.18 degrees

Figure 3.24: Radian vs. sine wave

ICE
In the RC filter circuit, the voltage at the capacitor lags current. Some use I to C to E
(ICE) as a way to recognize this phenomenon. I corresponds to current, C is the
capacitor, and E is voltage potential across the capacitor. In figure 3.25, voltage at the
capacitor appears on the right while both capacitor and resistor currents (on the left) lead
capacitor voltage by 90 degrees. Because the resistor and capacitor are connected in series

with only one current branch, the capacitor current has the same phase as resistor current
and voltage. In other words, the capacitor voltage is lagging capacitor and resistor currents
by 90 degrees. This explains why Xc has a negative sign in the R C circuit calculation in
figure 3.18. It designates the 90-degree phase shift.

Figure 3.25: ICE

We derived in chapter 1, DC: Current = I = Q / t
The capacitor is represented by this model,
I (t) = C (V)
Substituting I with Q / t in this model results in
(Q / t)t = C (V)
Q = C (V)
This equation can be realized by the circuit below in figure 3.26.

Figure 3.26: Capacitor circuit question

With a 5 V source, two 5 uF capacitors are connected in parallel. Both S1 and S2 are ideal
switches with zero resistance. S1 first closes, S2 opens. What is the voltage at Vx after S1
opens while S2 closes? You may be tempted to say Vx is 5 V, but it isnt. We can use Q
= C (V) to prove that. From the formula, the electric charge (Q) remains the same before
and after the switch opens and closes. Applying energy conservation from the law of
physics, when S1 is closed, S2 opens:
Vx = 5 V, C = 5 uF
Q = C V:
Q = (C) X (Vx) = (5 uF) X (5 V) = 25 u coulombs
After that, S1 opens, S2 is closed, and Q remains the same. We are now looking at two
capacitors in parallel (5 uF || 5 uF = 5 uF + 5 uF = 10 uF):
Q = (C) X (V) = 25 u coulombs = (10 uF) X (Vx)
Vx = 2.5 V
We will go over more practical capacitor circuits at the end of the chapter after the
inductor section.

Inductors
An inductor is an electronic passive device that does not generate energy but rather stores
energy in a magnetic field. Inductors are typically made of wounded coil in multiple forms
and sizes. Common inductor materials are iron, copper, and ferrite. Many characteristics
are exactly opposite that of a capacitor. Figure 3.27 shows several inductor types and its
schematic symbol.

Figure 3.27: Assorted inductors (top) and inductor schematic symbol (bottom)
Inductor value (inductance) is measured in unit Henry (H). They exhibit reactance, called
inductive reactance (XL) measured in Ohms (). The inductor symbol is L. Some
inductors are constructed in the microelectronic scale housed in small semiconductor
packages. The smaller sizes save area, however, small sized inductors offer much less
inductance.

Inductor Impedance = Resistance + XL

The contribution of the inductance resistance comes from inductor packages and leads and
the intrinsic nature of inductive materials. XL = 2 f L, where f is signal frequency and L
is inductance with units in Henry (H). When the signal frequency change, XL change
causing change in inductor impedances. If signal frequency = 1 MHz, inductance = 1
uH:
XL = (2 ) X (1 MHz) X (1 uH) = 6.28

XL versus Frequency

If the frequency now increases to 2 MHz, then XL = 12.56 . In other words, XL is

proportional to frequency (see figure 3.28). Keep in mind that even with changes in
impedances with frequencies, the inductive values remain the same. Inductance remains 1
uF in both frequencies.

Figure 3.28: XL vs. frequency

The above diagram shows that XL could reach infinity if frequency is extremely high.
This only applies to ideal inductors. You will see several non-ideal inductor characteristics
later on. Using arithmetic rules, assuming frequency is infinite, XL would become infinite
(AC choke):

XL = 2 () (L) >> 2 , L, XL =
Applying the same rule, if frequency is zero (DC), Xc would become zero.

XL = 2 (0) (L) = 0
Lets use a simple inductor circuit to explain this in figure 3.29. Connecting a DC voltage
source to an inductor is equivalent to connecting the voltage source to a zero resistor.
This implies that the inductor practically is non-existent (DC short).

Figure 3.29: Simple inductor circuit

V (t) = L (I)
A simple mathematical model can be used to represent a capacitor.

(Voltage) X (Time Change) = (Inductance) X (Current Change)

V (t) = L (I)
A simple inductor circuit in figure 3.30 explains the above model.

Figure 3.30:
Inductor circuit explained
After the switch is closed, current starts to ramp up and the magnetic field starts to
increase. It takes t for the inductor to build up the magnetic field and current to its

maximum level. The field strength and current depend on the inductance amount, which
relates strongly to the inductor materials and proportionally to the coil number.
Immediately after current ramps up to the highest level, the switch opens. The inductor
tries to maintain current flow and the inductor will flip polarity. The magnetic field
strength decreases and current ramps down. Figure 3.31 shows the current ramp (current
ripple) waveform. If, for example, inductance is 1 H, 1 V across the inductor results in
current ramp of 1 A in 1 S.
(1 V) X (1 S) = (1 H) X (I)
(I) = 1 A
Power management applications step up and/or down input voltage to provide higher or
lower output voltage, current, or power. Some power management designs operate in DC
such as those (diodes, zener diodes) mentioned in chapter 1, DC. Many power
management applications operate in AC and at much higher frequency. For example, a
400 kHz (2.5 ms period) switching regulator takes 12 V input voltage and regulates to 1.2
V output. It specifies that 10% duty cycle (0.25 ms) is required with maximum 2 A ripple
current at the output. The inductor size can be calculated:
(12 V) X (0.25 ms) = L (2 A)
L = 15 mH

Figure 3.31: Inductor current ramps

ELI
As for voltage leads and lags, inductors behave exactly the opposite of capacitors. We use
E to L to I (ELI) where E is potential difference, L represents the inductor, and
I corresponds to current. Inductor voltage is leading the current by 90 degrees, shown in
figure 3.32.

Figure 3.32: ELI

Q Factor
The inductor quality factor (Q) dictates how good an inductor is. This factor determines
how much loss the inductor incurs in terms of heat and magnetic field losses. Q factor is
modeled by 2 f, inductance (L), and the inductors internal electrical resistance (R).

With this simple model, an ideal inductor

(lossless) Q factor is infinite (R = 0):

A surface-mount 10 nH inductor with 1 mm by

0.5 mm in dimension can have a Q factor as high 20 at 500 MHz.

Parallel Inductor Rule

Recall capacitor parallel rules. Inductors can be arranged in parallel with the following
rules in figure 3.33. Its again opposite to the capacitor rule. The parallel inductor rule is
the same as the resistor rule. The equivalent of two parallel inductors, L_eq:

Figure 3.33: Parallel inductor rule

With two wire-wound inductors connected in parallel, each has 100 nH. Equivalent
inductance, L_eq is:

The same as the resistor rule, if the parallel inductors are the same sizes, the equivalent
inductance is the inductance divided by the number of inductors, (i.e., 100 nH / 2 = 50
nH). If 3 inductors connected in parallel are all equal in inductances, the equivalent
inductance:

Series Inductor Rule

The equivalence of two inductors in series yields the sum of two inductances shown in
figure 3.34.

Figure 3.34: Series inductor rule

Two inductors, each having 5 uH connected in series, yields 5 uH + 5 uH = 10 uH. A
combination of series and parallel inductor can be evaluated using these rules to yield
equivalent inductance. In figure 3.35, L_eq:
Step 1: First combine B, E, and D, (B + E + D)
Step 2: Parallel (B + E + D) || F
Step 3: Add A, results from step 2, and C together

A + (F || (B + E + D)) + C

Figure 3.35: Inductor combinations

High-Pass Filter
Lets use a simple inductor circuit in frequency domain (AC analysis), illustrated in figure
3.36, to help our inductor knowledge sink in further.

Figure 3.36: R L circuit

This circuit is called high-pass filter. It contains passive devices only; a 1 k and 10 uH
inductor connected in series. AC square wave source frequency increases. Output cannot
exceed input. It can only go as high as input, denoted by 0 dB, Vin = Vout. To derive
Vout, we cannot simply use a standard voltage divider because of the ELI behavior, (i.e.,
inductor current leads inductor voltage by 90 degrees). A creative way to analyze an AC
circuit is to use the vector diagram shown in figure 3.37. Instead of using time on the Xaxis, the vector diagram uses voltage or current on both the X- and Y-axis along with
degree rotations. Because this circuit is a series circuit, current in this series R L circuit is
the same, (i.e., the same phase). This makes the voltage and impedances 90 degrees out of
phase. In order to figure out the voltage across resistor and inductor, total impedance Z
first needs to be found. Z is the resultant impedance between XL and a 1 k resistor. For a
given frequency, if XL and R are the same, the resultant Z would be angled at 45 degrees
(half of 90 degrees). If XL is higher than R, (i.e., Vin frequency is higher), XL pulls Z
upward with more degree rotation. We can use standard trigonometry or the Pythagorean
Theorem to calculate the resultant Z and angle. Once Z is found, the divider rule is used to
evaluate the voltages across inductor and resistor. In figure 3.37, to achieve a 45 degree
angle, XL = R = 1 k = 2 f L, and Vin frequency:

Use the Pythagorean Theorem:

Z = (R 2 + XL 2) 0.5
Z = (1 k 2 + 1 k 2) 0.5
Z = 1.414 k

When Vin reaches peak at 10 V,

Vout = 7.07 V

Figure
3.37: R L vector diagram
Figure 3.38 shows the timing waveform between inductor and resistor voltage. They differ
by 45 degrees. If the input frequency changes, the resultant Z changes as well as the
rotation angle (phase shift).

Figure 3.38: RL timing waveform, XL = R, 45-degree phase shift

At DC, XL is zero yielding Vout = ground.
XL = 2 X 0 X 10 uH = 0

Using the dB equation

covered previously, we can figure out the Vout/ Vin versus frequency relationship. At DC,
frequency is zero and Vout / Vin in dB:

Assuming frequencies step up

gradually to infinitely high, Vout / Vin in dB:

>> 1 k,

dB when Vout / Vin = 1:

= 20 X 0 dB = 0 dB
See figure 3.39 for Vout / Vin in the dB bode plot. At DC, Vout is at ground (0 V). With
dB, as frequencies increase, negative dB goes up with Vout going up to 0 dB (Vin). This
is why the circuit is called a high-pass filter. At DC or low frequency, Vout is close to
ground or no signal at the output. The signal only passes through at higher
signal frequency.

Figure 3.39: Vout / Vin vs. Frequency To determine 3db bandwidth of a high-pass

filter:

Real L and C
Before we step into real world circuits, its beneficial to know capacitors and inductors
device models. Device models include additional components (R, L, and C) that are called
parasitic. Although these components are small in quantity, they could have major effects
on circuit performance. A non-ideal capacitor model is shown in figure 3.40. It includes
the capacitor itself, leakage resistor, equivalent series resistor (ESR), and equivalent series
inductance (ESL). ESR contributes to heat loss. ESL contains XL. 10 m is considered
good performance for a 500 uF aluminum capacitor. Recall that Xc decreases with
increasing frequency. In reality, if the frequency is high enough, XL from ESL would
eventually kick in, tilting the overall impedance upward (see figure 3.41). The uptick in
Xc occurs at extremely high frequency. Some datasheets will not show them because its
above the normal operating frequency for a specific capacitor.

Figure 3.40: Capacitor model

Figure 3.41: Xc vs. frequency

Inductor contains parasitic devices as well. Figure 3.42 showcases a real inductor model.
The ESR comes from leads and package resistance. Parasitic capacitance comes from tiny
gaps between coils.

Figure
3.42: Inductor parasitic
At high signal frequency, XL ultimately decreases (see figure 3.43). For a high frequency
surface-mount inductor with 100 nH, ESR can be as low as 500 m.

Figure 3.43: XL vs. frequency

Practical AC Circuits
Figure 3.44a is a typical circuit used in a Frequency Modulation (FM) radio circuit. It
eliminates noise by clipping out signal above the upper and below lower diode voltage.
More AC circuits will be presented in chapter 4, Analog Electronics. In this circuit, D1
conducts in the positive half AC cycle leading Vout at +2 V, during the negative half AC
cycle, the D2 forward-bias resulting in 2 V at Vout while the D2 anode stands at ground.
See Vin and Vout waveforms in figure 3.44b.

Figure 3.44a: FM noise clipper

Figure 3.44b: FM noise clipper, Vout and Vin waveforms

Ringing and Bounce

The RC circuit was mentioned previously as a filter. A practical scenario below in figure
3.45 has a real switch connecting to an electronic load. When a real switch closes
(step response), the transition takes finite delay time with physical bounce back and forth
causing ringing, which is a form of oscillation and undesirable. Ringing is also referred to
as undershoot and overshoot of the signal. Using an RC filter in figure 3.46, this bounce
can be eliminated or high frequency noise can be filtered out (dotted trace). The trade-off
is a longer time to reach peak value, completely closing the switch.

Figure 3.45: Switch connects to load

Figure 3.46: R C eliminates bounce

Inductive Load
You need to be mindful about an electronic load that is inductive during switching. In
figure 3.47 below, when the switch is fully closed, the inductive load turns on.

Figure 3.47: Switch

close with inductive load
When the switch opens in figure 3.48, the inductor flips polarity, attempting to maintain
current flow. The bottom end of the inductor is open, and voltage is unknown. There is no
limit to how high this voltage can be. There is no mechanism to define the bottom end

inductor voltage. The electronic load could be damaged by exposing it to large voltage
amount. We call this phenomenon inductive kick.

Figure 3.48: Switch opens, voltage undefined

Diode Clamp
To solve this problem, a diode can be added (see figure 3.49) in parallel with the inductor.
When the switch opens, the diode now conducts and holds (clamps) the diode anode at 2
V above the 7 V source. In other words, the electronic load voltage is safely clamped at
no more than 2 V above 7 V. This diode, sometimes called a commutating diode, has no
impact on normal operation when the switch is closed. The diode in fact is reversedbiased, appearing as an open circuit. This technique is also called snubber circuit. The
disadvantage of using the diode is the additional charge and discharge time because of the
diode resistance and parasitic.

Figure 3.49: Diode clamp (snubber)

Series R L C Circuit
Recall the voltage, current lead, and lag differently among R, L, and C. This interesting
feature creates many useful circuits like the R L C series circuit in figure 3.50.

Figure 3.50: RLC circuit

Applying voltage, current lead, and lag rules, the following waveform in figure 3.51 can
be obtained.

Figure 3.51: Capacitor and inductor voltage lag and lead

All currents in a series circuit are in phase. Capacitor voltage lags its current by 90 degrees
(ICE) while inductor voltage leads its current by 90 degrees (ELI). This results in inductor
voltage leading capacitor voltage by 180 degrees. Using the same AC principles, voltage,
current, and phase information can be extracted. In figure 3.52, the vector diagram shows
inductor voltage (VL) is leading capacitor voltage (VC) by 180 degrees. The resistor
voltage is at zero degree as the reference voltage. VL is standing upward in the vector
diagram while VC is pulling downward due to the 180-degree phase difference. There is a
net voltage sum depending upon the XL and XC impedance sizes. This series circuit only
has one current going through all three components. If the C and L were designed to have
the same impedances, the resulting circuit is purely resistive, i.e., no phase shift between
voltage and current. The net VL and VC voltage yields zero voltage. This leads to
maximum current flowing in the circuit with minimum impedance. This particular
frequency is called resonant frequency. Frequency affects both XL and Xc. L C reactance
is heavily controlled by frequency. Keep in mind, however, the non-ideal R, L, and C
nature could become factor in the RLC circuit. We can derive resonant frequency using
figure 3.52: Vout = 0 when XL and XC cancel each other out: XL = Xc or XL Xc = 0.
Maximum current occurs when XL Xc = 0, i.e., minimum impedances. To look for the
resonant frequency, we simply apply XL = XC then solve for resonant frequency, f:

Figure 3.52: Inductor voltage leads capacitor voltage

LRC Parallel (Tank) Circuit

The popular LRC parallel circuit is called a tank circuit (see figure 3.53). It includes the
inductor and capacitor connected in parallel. The voltage across L and C is the same. The
current throws through the inductor and capacitor are 180 degree out of phase. The vector
diagram in figure 3.54 shows the vector diagram. Varying (tuning) LC component values
allows us to determine and adjust resonant frequency. Similar to series an LC circuit, a
tank circuits resonant frequency is:

At resonant, XL = Xc, the total reactance is at maximum while circuit current is minimum.
Positive peak inductor current cancels out the negative peak capacitor current (see figure
3.54). Resonant frequency can easily be tuned by varying inductor and capacitor sizes for
a given frequency. For example, to achieve 1 MHz resonant frequency using a 10 mH
inductor, the capacitor value can be evaluated:

Figure 3.53: LRC parallel tank circuit

Figure 3.54: Parallel LC vector diagram

Figure 3.55 demonstrates the transient waveform among capacitor and inductor voltage
and current. Inductor and capacitor voltage are in phase. Inductor current lags inductor
voltage (ELI) by 90 degrees while capacitor current leads inductor voltage also by 90
degrees. This results in a 180-degree phase shift between capacitor and inductor currents.
The applications of a tank circuit include oscillators and wireless transmitter and receivers.
These applications will be further explored in chapter 6, Communications.

Figure 3.55: Tank LC current waveforms

Transformers
A transformer is an AC circuit that steps up or down AC voltages. The operation of a
transformer can be explained by electromagnetic theory. Transformers are used in many
applications such as electric power generation and electronic device charging, (e.g., laptop
and cell phone battery chargers). A transformer requires at least two sides to operate:
primary and secondary sides. Multiple secondary sides are often found in complex
transformer designs. The key to transformer operation is electromagnetic theory where
changing voltage and current induce voltage and current on the other side of the circuit
through electric and magnetic fields generated on both sides. In figure 3.56, the primary
side on the left is powered by an AC voltage source which connects to wires. The wires
are rounded with many turns (turn numbers), called N1. These turns are tightly wrapped
around the core, which is made of conductive materials. The wires on the secondary side
wrap around the core also with fixed turn numbers (N2). For step-down applications, from
a household electrical outlet (120 V AC) to DC, the secondary turn number is less than the
primary one. The input AC voltage (Vin) is generating magnetic and electric fields from
the wire carrying AC current. These fields are directed to the secondary side via the core,
inducing changing voltage and current on the secondary side. The current amount and
voltage at the output (Vout) are determined by the turn number ratio between primary and
secondary sides. Lets use some real numbers to further elaborate it.
N1 = 100, N2 = 10, Vin = 120 V, Vout =?

12 V is an AC voltage. To achieve a 5 V DC, usually found in portable electronic devices

such as iPod and smartphone car chargers, additional voltage reduction is required. The
benefit of using a transformer is electrical isolation. It offers safety in addition to the
ability to increase or decrease voltages at the output. You may ask how it could provide
isolation if the coils are tightly wrapped around the conductive core. The answer is that the
wire surface is coated with non-conductive materials. Despite tight wrapping with the
core, there isnt any direct electrical connection from primary to the core and the
secondary side. All actions are purely relied reliant on electromagnetic theory where
voltage and current are created by changing electric and magnetic fields.
In electrical plant operations, power plants step up the voltage to tens of thousands of
volts. Then, travelling through cable before arriving at the household, these high voltages
are eventually stepped down through multiple substations before they get to 120 V AC
(household rating). Its very typical that few thousand volts are present at the sub
transformer located right outside residential homes. The motivation for this high step-up
voltage is power loss reduction. For power conservation rule,

(Input Voltage) X (Input Current) = (Output Voltage) X (Output Current)

Suppose all components are ideally lossless. This means if the input voltage is extremely
high, current would be lowered for the same input and output power. Less input current
means less I2 R power loss. These losses are mainly due to heat and electromagnetic field
losses when current flows through the utility cables. For example, to provide 12,000 W of
power, input voltage is at 1,200 V drawing 10 A of current. On the output side, power
remains the same assuming all components are ideal. Transformer steps down 120 V
output. This equates to 100 A of output current.
(1,200 V) X (10 A) = (120 V) X (100 A)
Many countries have their own standards. 120 V AC is the United States standard. Asia,
Europe, and other parts of the world have different ratings numbers ultimately affecting
transformer designs.

Figure 3.56: Transformer

Half-Wave Rectifier
Using a diode rectifier, a zener linear regulator could further transform AC voltage to DC.
A halfwave rectifier is a classic example shown in figure 3.57. The diode only conducts
during the positive Vin half cycle. Vout is at 0 V during the negative half (Diode reversebiased) cycle. By adding a capacitor in the circuit, a DC-like output is acquired similar
to figure 3.58. During the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged up to the Vin peak.
During the negative half cycle, the diode turns off, and charges accumulated on the top
capacitor plate slowly discharge to the resistor delayed by the RC time constant. This
output is not a stable DC voltage due to the fact that the voltage is being charged and
discharged. The amplitude of this charge and discharge voltage is called ripple voltage.
Ripple voltage defines how well the Vout is compared to a stable DC voltage.

Figure 3.57: Half-wave rectifier

Figure 3.58: DC voltage with capacitor

A zener regulator or DC-to-DC regulators may be used to achieve more stable Vout as
shown in figure 3.59.

Figure 3.59: Diode, RC with zener diode

The AC signal frequency and RC sizes are important design considerations to produce
stable Vout. For example, in figure 3.60, Vin peak-to-peak is 10 V running at 10 kHz (0.1
ms period). R C is initially designed to be 10 k and 1 uF (10 ms time constant). The
problem with this design is that the RC time constant is too long. Recall time constant
definition: it takes 2 time constants to reach 87% of the input. The Vout in this design
never had enough time to reach noticeable output. Sizing RC accordingly is the key to
designing this type of regulator successfully.

Figure 3.60: Large RC time constant

Switching versus Linear Regulators

By definition, voltage regulators provide constant DC output voltage to a load. A
switching regulators output is an AC signal with minimum ripple voltage behaving like a
DC signal. Most switching regulators require a controller circuit and a switch toggling on
and off. This increases circuit complexity. Its because of this reason switching regulators
are more efficient because devices are only on only part of the time. Some switching
regulators can run with as high as 90% efficiency. This is extremely beneficial in portable
applications when longer battery life is required. Conversely, a linear regulator does not
have any switching actions, is easy to use, makes less noise, and costs less, but suffers
from lower power efficiency because the active device remains on (heat sink may be
required) the entire time during voltage regulation. Typical
linear regulator efficiency is less than 50%. Both types come in many topologies and are
found in plenty of portable applications such as smartphones, digital cameras, robots,
computers, etc. Popular topologies of switching regulators are step-up (boost) and stepdown (buck). The zener diode and low drop out regulator (LDO) are common linear
regulators. Both switching regulators and LDO use feedback control circuitry to regulate
the output. A summary of the major differences between switching and linear regulators is
shown in table 3-4.

Table 3-4: Switching vs. linear regulators

Buck Regulator
Lastly, a switching voltage regulator is shown in figure 3.61. This is a buck regulator
circuit invented in the 1970s. It continues to be popular in power management systems. It
merely consists of three devices: a switch, a diode, and an inductor. This circuit steps
down a higher voltage to a lower one. One application is the 5 V DC outlets in
automobiles. They run off a 12 V lead-acid car battery, which is stepped down to lower
voltages for portable electronics used inside automobiles. V(t) = L (I) can be used to
explain this circuit. When the switch is closed, the diode is reversebiased and inductor
current starts to ramp up with a fixed voltage across it. The time it takes for the current to
ramp to its peak is ton (on-time). During this time, the switch is closed. The voltage across
the inductor is (Vin Vout). The switch then opens, and the inductor flips polarity trying
to maintain current flow (see figure 3.62).

Figure 3.61:
Switching regulator

Figure 3.62:
Switch opens
The only current path is through the diode, which is now forward-biased (see figure 3.62).
This causes the diodes cathode to be one diode below ground ( Vdiode). This diode
sometimes is called a catch diode. Its intended to be switching fast to keep up with the
on-off switching action. To achieve just that, its quite typical for a catch diode threshold
to be as low as 200 mV. Using KVL, the voltage across the inductor is now
(Vout ( Vdiode)) = Vout + Vdiode.
The switch-open time duration is toff. For a given inductor size, current change (either
ramping up or down) has the same amplitude (see figure 3.63). The inductance and I
literally are constants.

Figure 3.63: Inductor current ramp

L (I) = (Vin Vout) X ton = (Vout + Vdiode) X toff

Vdiode is designed to be as low as possible. Assume Vdiode is much smaller than Vout
and becomes negligible. (Vin Vout) X ton = Vout X toff Solve for Vout: Vin X ton
Vout X ton = Vout X toff
Vout (ton + toff) = Vin X ton

Duty cycle needs to be less than or at least equal to one (duty cycle 1) in order for Vout
to be lower than Vin. For example, if Vin is 10 V, regulated output voltage is 5 V. 50%
duty cycle is needed (ton = toff). If the switching frequency is 400 kHz:
duty cycle = 0.5 = ton / (ton + toff)
(ton + toff) = Period = 1 / 400 kHz = 2.5 us
0.5 = ton / 2.5 us
ton = toff = 0.5 X 2.5 us = 1.25 us
To change Vout, you need to control the switchs duty cycle using control circuits, a
voltage divider, and a comparator. In figure 3.64, the output is always in AC, i.e., the
output voltage is toggling back and forth. The amplitude of AC output waveform is
quantified as ripple voltage. The peak-to-peak value of the ripple voltage determines how
well the output looks like a DC signal. The smaller the ripple, more stable the output
would be. Due to the load attached to the Vout causing uneven current flow, noise in the
system, and possible intermittent Vout disconnection, Vout could change erratically. The
triangular symbol with the + and signs inside is the operational amplifier (op-amp). The
op-amp and control circuit are part of the feedback mechanism. It takes a voltage sample
and compares it to a fixed value (VFB). The result of the difference feeds back to the
control circuit. The control circuit then alters the switchs duty cycle. The whole concept
is to maintain constant output by adjusting the switchs duty cycle according to the
feedback from the Vout. If Vout goes too high, the switch turns on less to bring the Vout
back down, and vice versa. The opamp in this circuit is a comparator that compares
voltage between VFB and Vout. The positive op-amp terminal changes if Vout changes
(voltage divider) causing the op-amp output changes. The control circuit takes this change
then adjusts the duty cycle. If the Vout drops, the switch turns on longer (increasing the
duty cycle), bringing the Vout back to its original value. Feedback techniques in the opamp are used in countless electronics products. They will be further examined in chapter
4, Analog Electronics. Using a voltage divider can control Vout level easily by changing
the resistors ratio. For example, target Vout = 2.5 V, VFB = 1.25 V. If resistors are the
same size, then:

Figure 3.64: Buck regulator controlled circuit

This feature allows you to program the output voltage by using different resistor sizes.
The buck regulator is a simple, yet powerful architecture demonstrating the simplicity of
basic AC theories in creating useful and practical electronic circuits.

Summary
AC is an extension of DC and diode theories. AC characteristics empower large number of
modern electronic systems and circuits. We covered basic AC parameters, definitions, and
components. Ideal and non-ideal capacitors and inductor characteristics were reviewed
followed by simple LC circuits including low- and high-pass filters. Series and parallel
LRC circuits were then discussed with several other practical AC applications (rectifiers,
transformers, diode clamps, and snubber circuits). We also explored resonant frequency,
vector diagrams, bode plots, and switching and linear regulators towards the end of the
chapter. Only with a solid foundation in DC, diodes, and AC, can more complicated
electronic circuits be understood, designed, tested, and analyzed. Table 3-5 is a summary
of inductor and capacitor characteristics.

Table 3-5: Inductor and capacitor summaries

Quiz
1) The signal is 5 sin (2 1000 t + 20 degrees). What are the signal frequency and Vpeak?
2) The peak of an AC voltage (Vpeak) may be calculated as: Vrms X Constant. What is
the constant value?
3) The ideal inductor stores energy in ________________ field.
4) The ideal capacitor stores energy in ________________ field.
5) If an AC signal is running at a 25% duty cycle, and on-time is 250 ns, what is the
frequency?
6) Derive the Vout to Vin transfer function of the boost-switching regulator (see figure
3.65). Hint: Assume diode forward voltage drop is 1 V.

Figure 3.65: Boost-switching regulator

7) Design a high-pass filter using an inductor and resistor. This circuit allows a signal to
pass through at the output starting at 10 MHz assuming resistor value is 1 k.
8) Ceramic capacitors are often used in filtering noise due to their small size and low cost.
Figure 3.66 shows a simple application using a ceramic capacitor to filter out high
frequency noise to the IC. In actual implementation, the location of the capacitor needs to
be as close as possible to the chip to minimize any noise pickup along the board traces.
What is the purpose of the diode from VCC to the external pin? If the VCC contains AC
noise running as high as 100 kHz, what is the size of the ceramic capacitor in order to
reduce noise starting at f 3dB, assuming the output impedance of the external pin is 100
?

Figure 3.66: Ceramic capacitor noise filter

9) A full-wave rectifier in a power supply generates a rectified AC voltage (DC) signal. As
opposed to a half-wave rectifier in figure 3.57, a full-wave rectifier converts both first and
second halves of an AC input (secondary side of the transformer) to the output (see figure
3.67). In this circuit, the dotted lines show the current directions during the positive half of
the transformer output. Only D2 and D4 are conducting. According to this design, if Vins
peak voltage is 10 V and frequency is 100 kHz, what is the voltage waveform at the Vout?

Figure 3.67: Full-wave rectifier

10) Voltage can be easily doubled by using switches and capacitors. Figure 3.68 shows a

voltage-doubler circuit called a charge pump. While switches 1 and 4 are closed, switches
2 and 3 are open, and vice versa, charge pumping the capacitor. If Vin is 10 V, examine the
circuit and draw the transient response waveform of Vin and Vout, assuming Vout
connects to a resistive load and the RC time constant is negligible.

Figure 3.68:
Charge pump circuit
11) A tank circuit shown in figure 3.69 consists of 10 mH and 100 pF capacitors. What is
the resonant frequency of this tank circuit? The Q factor of a resonant circuit can be used
as a figure of merit to describe how good the tank circuit is. The higher the Q, the smaller
the bandwidth. This results in sharper AC response, as shown in figure 3.70. Bandwidth is
measured from the peak reactance to both rising and falling at 70.7%. What is the
bandwidth of this tank circuit if Q is 100?

Bandwidth = fresonant/ Q

Figure 3.69: LC tank circuit

Figure 3.70: High and low circuit Q AC response

12) The vector diagram of a RC filter is shown in figure 3.71. If Vin is 25 V at 500 kHz,
calculate the total impedance of the circuit, and calculate the voltage at the output and
phase shift. Hint: Use the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate Z, then use the voltage
divider rule to calculate Vout, and trigonometry to calculate the phase angle.

Figure 3.71: R C circuit

Chapter 4: Analog Electronics

What Is Analog?
Lets first define and clarify what an analog signal is. We experience analog signals daily.
Sound, light intensity, speed, temperature, pressure, humidity, weight, height, voltage,
current, and power are examples of analog quantities. Analog signals consist of infinite
combinations of levels or numbers. In chapter 3, AC, sine waves were presented. They are
analog waveforms having an infinite number of combinations between two points. There
are no discrete levels at a single point of time (see figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Analog signal

An analog signal can also come in irregular patterns. Figure 4.2 shows a temperature
pattern as a function of time depicted in a timing waveform. At any particular point in
time, the temperature reading can have infinite digit numbers after the decimal points.

Figure 4.2: Temperature in time domain

Analog IC Market
Before we dive into the world of analog electronics, lets take a look at how big the analog
market really it. The analog IC market size is about US $17 billion according to 2011
market data from research firm Databeans. Plenty of electronic products deal with analog
signals. When you speak into your smartphones, your voice is an analog signal that is
processed and digitized before being transmitted through the air. The top five analog IC
vendors account for almost 40% of total market share. They are Texas Instruments,
STMicroelectronics, Infineon Technologies, Analog Devices and Qualcomm. Low costs
and technological advancement in electronics technology made electronics an ideal choice
for processing analog signals. Electronics take analog signals as input; then the signals are
filtered and amplified before passing to the next processing phase. Such a process is called
signal conditioning. Major analog electronics products include standard amplifiers,
comparators, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), digital-to-analog converters (DACs),
radio frequency (RF) chips, power management systems, and more. Many analog
electronics are now combined with digital electronics. The industry terminology of such
framework is mixed-signal design. These systems contain a mix of analog and digital
design combined into one semiconductor chip. Some refer these chips as system-on-achip (SOC). Products containing mixed-signal electronics are plentiful. Figure 4.3 shows
several industries that use mixed-signal electronics and the market and product categories
within. In each market, numerous electronic functions and applications are employed:
audio, video, automotive, LED lighting, Ethernet network, wireless network,
telecommunication applications, medical equipment, motor control applications,
renewable energy, aerospace, military, defense applications, touch screen, smartphone
applications, industrial testing, manufacturing equipments, and the list goes on.

Figure 4.3: Mixed-signal electronics industries and markets

What Are Transistors Made Of?

Transistors are the building blocks of analog electronic systems. A great deal of
understanding is required before attempting to understand more complex analog circuits.
The transistor was invented in 1947 at Bell Labs. It has since gone through tremendous
developments. Todays computing microprocessors easily hold several hundred million
transistors on a single chip measured in 10 mm X 10 mm. Transistors come in different
types with either a discrete or in an IC package. Popular transistor types are manufactured
via bipolar and Complimentary-Meta-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) processes (see chart
4-1). BiCMOS process has been popular in recent years combining both bipolar and
CMOS into one single manufacturing process. BiCMOS process offers the best of both
bipolar and CMOS technologies undermined by its high cost. The materials used to
manufacture transistors are mainly silicon based. For high-speed application, germanium
and gallium arsenide are considered alternatives. There are two types of bipolar
transistors: NPN and PNP. CMOS transistors are not made of diodes although both bipolar
and CMOS transistors operate similarly. For CMOS transistors (MOSFETs: Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), there are two typesNFET (N-type field-effect
transistor) and PFET (P-type fieldeffect transistor). NFET and PFET can also be called

NMOS and PMOS transistors respectively. Chart 4-1 below shows all transistor and
process types. We will focus on NPN, PNP, and enhancement mode NFET and PFET in
this book.

Chart 4-1: Transistor types

NPN and PNP

We will first go over bipolar
transistors. NPN and PNP each
have three terminals. Each is made
of a triple-layer sandwich of N, P,
and N-type materials for NPN; P, N,
and P-type materials for PNP (see
figure 4.4). On NPN, the P-type
junction (base) is sandwiched by
two N-type junctions (collector and
emitter). For PNP, the N-type
junction (base) is sandwiched
between two
(emitter and
P-type junctions
collector). The
terminal namescollector, base,
and emitter have special meanings

and are not randomly assigned. Each

Figure 4.4: NPN and PNP structures and terminal names

terminal name represents a specific transistor action. Their meanings will become obvious
in the next section.

Figure 4.5:
Two diodes on NPN and PNP
NPN and PNP transistors are each formed by two diodes (see figure 4.5). For NPN, the
base (anode) and emitter (cathode) is one of the two diodes. The second diode is formed
by the base (anode) and collector (cathode). You can see that the base is shared between
the two diodes in NPN. Both the NPN collector and emitter are highly concentrated with
electrons. Relatively speaking, there are more electrons in the emitter than in the collector.
The base, on the other hand has higher holes concentrations. PNP is also formed by two
diodes. The terminal names are: P (emitter), N (base), and P (collector).
From a performance point of view, NPN switches faster than PNP due to electrons moving
at a higher speed than holes. Even with this performance difference, both NPN and PNP
are used frequently together.

NPN and PNP Symbols

The NPN and PNP schematic symbols and discrete NPN and PNP transistors are shown in
figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: NPN and PNP

schematic symbols (top); discrete NPNs (bottom left, created by Fritzing software);
and PNP in plastic package, 2.2mm in length (bottom right)
The NPN schematic symbol has two diodes (see figure 4.7), base-collector and baseemitter diodes. The base-emitter diode is a part of the NPN symbol and looks a like an

arrow.
Figure 4.7 NPN diodes in schematic symbol

Transistor Cross-Section
A conceptual NPN device and a realistic Silicon Germanium (SiGe) transistor cross
sections are shown in figure 4.8. Transistor regions are created one layer at a time starting
from the bottom, involving hundreds of steps by complex semiconductor manufacturing
equipment. Many of these steps utilize chemicals in gas or liquid form. Ion implantation
and diffusion processes are major process steps in creating junctions, also called
diffusions. In the conceptual view (figure 4.8), the substrate is an area filled (doped) with
positive ions (holes) by chemical reactions with the silicon wafer used as the devicesupporting structure. The N pocket (junction or diffusion) is doped with electrons
supporting the collector. Base and emitter junctions are built on top of the collector. The
dimensions and thickness of the junction vary from one process to another. Nonetheless,
they are measured in the order of micrometer (um). Because germanium requires less
energy than silicon to excite electrons from one energy band to the next, transistors made
by germanium are faster, consume less power, and generate less electrical noise. Its
disadvantage is lower reliability compared to silicon, especially in higher temperatures
and the high cost of manufacturing. However, by combining both silicon and germanium
in one process, we can leverage the low cost silicon manufacturing capability while
gaining the performance benefits of germanium. In 1989, IBM Microelectronics first
introduced a mainstream, high volume SiGe IC process. Since then, IBM has pioneered
SiGe with other major semiconductor companies following suit with their proprietary
SiGe processes. The latest development of SiGe has demonstrated that CPUs successfully
operate at more than 100 GHz clock speed (conventional desktop computers CPU clock
speeds are less than 10 GHz). This is ideal for wireless and high-speed applications. On
the silicon germanium cross-section diagram below, the base emitter region is the critical
area defining transistor performance in terms of switching speed, noise, and power
consumptions. In the SiGe process, germanium is doped in the base region, improving
operating frequency, reducing noise, and increasing power
capabilities.

Figure 4.8: NPN, SiGe transistor side view, cross

sections (Courtesy of Dr. Steve Voldman)

Bipolar Transistor Terminal Impedance

Before we go into transistor circuit design, lets get familiar with device characteristics.
First, we will take a look at bipolar transistor impedances. Table 4-1 below shows the base
has the highest impedance, and then the collector, followed by the emitter. Bases high
impedance is due to narrow base width and low carrier concentration. Emitters high
doping level contributes to low impedance, and collectors impedance is moderately
higher than emitters but less than that of the base. Real world circuits will be discussed
later to echo back to this impedance concept.

Table 4-1:
Base, collector, and emitter Impedances

IC, IB, IE, and Beta ()

Lets now use a simple circuit in figure 4.9 to examine how a transistor functions. The
NPN base connects to a variable DC input voltage. The output is at the collector that
connects to a resistor. The top end of resistor ties to a DC voltage source. The emitter is
grounded. In this example, DC input voltage sweeps from 0 V to 5 V. Assume the baseemitter diode threshold (minimum voltage required to forward-bias the base emitter diode)
is 1 V. At 0 V, its reversebiased. Consider the transistor as a switch. At this input voltage
level, the switch is inactive (off, open). No current flows through the transistor. As the
input voltage continues to sweep higher to a point where it reaches the 1 V threshold, it
starts to conduct forming the base current (Ib). A nice feature of the transistor is that there
is a much bigger current (IC) now starting to flow through the collector down to the
emitter (IE). This is why transistors are active devices. Current and/or voltage are larger at
the output with gain. So, how could a small Ib generate a bigger IC and IE?

Figure 4.9:
Simple transistor circuit
The graphical representation of the NPN circuit operation explains the reason (see figure
4.10). The base junction is filled with positive ions (holes). The base size (width) is
relatively smaller than the collector and emitter. Only small numbers of electrons can
emit from the emitter towards the base forming a small base current (Ib). The majority
of electrons are swept across the base junction, collected by the collector as long as the
collector is tied to a positive terminal (a positive 5 V attracts electrons). Recall from
chapter 1, DC, that electrons and current flow in reverse directions. This collector current
(IC) combines with the base current (Ib) flowing downwards to form emitter the current
(IE). To turn on the transistor, base-emitter voltage (VBE) needs to be at least equal to or
larger than the diode threshold (VBE forward-bias threshold). The second condition is
that the collector has to be more positive relative to the base. The current transfer function:

Figure
4.10: NPN operations

IE = IC + Ib
Beta () is used to specify current gain:

Many academic textbooks claim that the base current is zero for simplicity reason. This is
a false assumption. In the real world, Ib is non-zero and it could adversely affect circuit
performance. Typically Beta () is around 100 to 200. If Ib = 1 uA, beta = 100:

Beta in the real world doesnt stay constant and change over temperature. This imperfect
characteristic could become a major design challenge. Many design tasks are to
compensate for these changes, keeping the circuit running in stable conditions over wide
temperature range. We use Alpha () to specify the IC to IE (IC / IE) ratio. For a non-ideal
transistor, where Ib is non-zero, is always less than 1.

VBE
As input voltage (VBE) continues to go up, this causes IC and IE to increase as well. The
VBE transfer function is:

VT = Thermal voltage (KT / Q), K is the Boltzmanns constant, and T is temperature.

The ln symbol is the natural log math function, IS = Saturation current, and IC =
collector current. A = Transistor Area, measured in width and length.
Within VT, K is a constant that is fixed for a specific transistor manufacturing process. T
is absolute temperature measured in Kelvin (K). Q is electron charge (1.6 X 10-19 C). VT
is approximately 26 mV at room temperature (27C). Saturation current (IS) is a complex
function that is inversely proportional to temperature. Recall from chapter 2, Diode, that
the temperature coefficient of a diode is negative. The VBE equation is a reflection of that.
Despite the fact that VT goes up with temperature, with strong temperature dependence of
IS in the denominator, VBE actually decreases with temperature. Applying VBE function,
IC increases with VBE exponentially as follows:

IC = A X IS X e (VBE/VT) IE = IC + IB
Up to this point, the VBE diode is fully on. The transistor is operating in the active region.
On the other hand, the base collector diode is kept intentionally off. You will see in the
next section that it is critical to keep this diode off for optimal transistor operation.
Furthermore, you will see in the next section that IC will eventually stop increasing even
with increasing VBE. PNP, in contrast, works in an opposite manner in a sense that the

current flows from emitter to base and collector. Figure 4.11 shows the NPP and PNP
current directions using schematic symbols. Knowing how to connect the terminals to
appropriate voltage levels or bias the transistors the right way gives you great control over
a transistors operations.

Figure 4.11: NPN and PNP current flow directions

IC versus VCE Curve

The following IC versus VCE curves in figure 4.12 reveals more information about
transistor. These curves are great tools to examine transistor operations.

Figure 4.12: IC vs. VCE

The graph shows collector current (IC) on the Y-axis, voltage across the collector, and the
emitter (VCE) on the X-axis. The emitter is connected to ground (0 V), thus,

VCE = VC VE = VC 0 V = VC
This graph shows 5 IC vs. VCE curves. Each curves VBE is different. VBE1 > VBE2 >
VB3etc. As mentioned in previous section, as VBE increases, IC increases accordingly,
as shown by the vertical up arrows on the left of figure 4.12. The dotted line intercepts
(cross) each curve to form a load line. For each VBE increase, (e.g., VBE1), the load line
intersects the IC curve and extrapolates down to VCE1. Increase VBE1 to VBE2, and the
load line intersects with the IC curve leading to VCE2. This process continues as VBEs
increase. The load line shows that as input voltage (VBE) increases, IC increases and VCE
decreases, shown in the horizontal arrow right below the X-axis. From VCE1 to VCE4,
the transistor current is constant at each VBE. In other words, the IC has little effect on
decreasing VCE. This is explained by a device physic effect called emitter current
crowding. This effect reduces base-emitter area reducing the current gain significantly.
This is why the IC starts to bend down at higher VCE. From VCE 1 to 4, the transistor is
said to be running in the normal operating region (almost constant current). Noticed I
mentioned almost constant. Within this region, the collector current actually goes up
slightly with increasing VCE instead of remaining absolutely constant. The Early effect
explains this phenomenon. The Early effect was discovered by Mr. James Early in 1952.
This effect states that base width is modulated as the VCE changes in the operating region.

As the VCE continues to rise, the effective base width gets reduced further due to the
spreading of depletion region into the base, increasing current gain slightly and therefore
the uptick in IC (IC) (see figure 4.13). VBE continues to increase to VBE5 and VCE
goes down further to VCE5. At this point, the IC starts to fall. Continued VCE reduction
leads to more IC decreases. This region is called saturation. The small region where IC
just started to fall (bend) is called the knee region. It defines the point where the
transistor starts going into saturation. During saturation, the current is changing,
modulating with changing VCE. This collector current change could cause unstable
system operation if a constant current is expected. If VCE goes down even more, IC
would eventually reach zero current and the transistor is now in cut-off region (Zero IC).
Ideally, you would want to operate the transistor in the normal operating region where the
IC is relatively constant. In addition to a stable collector current, the normal operating
region offers the highest voltage output swing. This is the optimal operating region often
referenced as the transistor Q point.

Figure 4.13: Early

effect

Common Emitter Amplifier

Lets apply individual transistor understanding into a simple circuit: an amplifier. An
amplifier by definition provides voltage, current, and/or power gain. Amplifiers are
regularly used to amplify input signals and produce a larger output signal. The circuit in
figure 4.9 is categorized as a single-ended amplifier. There is one single input and output.
This is a common emitter amplifier, which means the emitter is common (DC) to a fixed
potential where the output is located at the collector. There are many ways to build
amplifiers using transistors. We will look at several in this section. Reusing the circuit
back in figure 4.9, we revised it to replace the input with a sinusoidal source shown in
figure 4.14. When Vin is zero, NPN stays off (Zero VBE). No IB, IC, and IE are zeros.
There is no voltage drop across the resistor. Vout is 5 V according to Ohms law:
Top end of resistor = 5 V, I = 0, voltage across resistor = I X R = 0 X R = 0 V
5 V (Voltage at resistor bottom end) = 0 V
(Voltage at resistor bottom end) = 5 V 0 V = 5 V

Figure 4.14:
Revised NPN circuit
As Vin rises above the diode forward-biased threshold in figure 4.15, IB, IC, and IE start
to flow. Suppose IC = 1 mA at 1 V input. Transistor Beta = 100 (these numbers are
devicespecific), R = 1 k, VC = 4 V, Ib = 10 uA, and IE = 1.01 mA

Figure 4.15: NPN on

Repeating the steps shows that
increasing Vin leads to decreasing VC
and vice versa. This agrees with the IC
vs. VCE graphs in figure 4.12, revised
in figure 4.16. Vin
wave, and the Vout
is a sinusoidal
will have the
waveform as shown in figure 4.17.
You can see that Vin and Vout are
180 degrees out of phase where Vout
is larger than Vin. This circuit offers
an inverter function meaning when
input is low, output is high and vice
versa. More importantly, its an
amplifier that provides voltage gain
(hfe). By definition, hfe:

Figure 4.16: IC vs. VCE revised

Voltage gain (hfe) is unit-less because this is a division. An amplifier, by definition, is to
create a larger output signal from a lower one. The larger output signal can be in the form
of voltage, current, and/or power.

Figure 4.17: Sinusoidal Vin

All circuits discussed so far have ground (0 V) being the lowest circuit potential. Many
amplifiers were designed to accept negative voltage on the bottom supply (rail). For
personal safety and to minimize the chance of damaging the parts, do pay close attentions
to maximum positive and negative voltages the device could withstand from the
datasheets. In fact, all components in the circuits can be used in conjunction with diodes,
inductors, and capacitors for an
unlimited number of circuits. It depends on the applications requirements when making a
part-selection decision.

Common Collector Amplifier (Emitter Follower)

The second amplifier topology is the common collector amplifier. Its output is at the
emitter. Input remains at the base, and the collector connects to the positive rail. Figure
4.18 shows two emitter followers (NPN and PNP).

Figure 4.18: Common

collector amplifier (Emitter follower)
NPN and PNP common collector amplifiers works the opposite way. For PNP, the device
was flipped upside down (emitter to rail, collector to ground). In both NPN and PNP, an
emitter resistor (RE) is added in the circuit. The collector resistor needs not be there as
long as its connected to a positive source. Alternatively, this circuit is named emitter
follower because the emitter output (VE) follows the base input (VB). The emitter
followers voltage gain is one. To prove that, assume a 0.7 V VBE threshold, and Vin
swings from 1 V to 2 V. This leaves the output swinging from 0.7 V to 1.3 V (0.7 V drop
across VBE). Voltage gain (hfe):

hfe = (1.3 V 0.3 V) / (2 V 1 V) = 1

Because voltage gain has no unit, to describe it in some form of measured unit, dB is used:

in dB = 20 log (1)
= 0 dB
On phase shift, the output follows the input. Both are in phase. Figure 4.19 shows the
phase relationship between Vout, Vin, and the 0 dB gain. The emitter followers gain in

reality is slightly less than 1, which will be discussed in the next section. If you question
why use the emitter follower if the Vout = Vin, voltage gain sometimes may not be
your primary goal. First, the emitter follower has current gain from beta. Secondly, the
strong appeal of the high input, low output impedances makes the common collector
(emitter follower) an ideal choice as a buffer (more on buffer in chapter 4, Analog
Electronics). The following model in figure 4.20 illustrates this buffer idea with a multistaged amplifier design.

Figure 4.19: Vin vs. Vout phase

Figure 4.20: Multi-staged amplifier block diagram

Starting from the left, Vin has finite impedance, and RVin connects to a Stage 1 amplifier

that presents finite input impedance, Rin. From chapter 1, DC, we know that this forms a
voltage divider denoted by the dotted rectangle. To achieve the closest voltage possible at
Stage 1 input from Vin, RVin ideally would be zero while Rin would be infinite. These
situations, however, are not practical in the real world (RVin > 0, Rin < infinite). Instead,
we choose the right amplifier topology to give us the highest possible impedance (highest
output voltage level) as possible. At Stage 1 output, we need to condition the output to
have the lowest possible output impedance. It faces the same issue where the output ties to
Stage 2s input forming a voltage divider. Finally, Stage 2 output connects to a load.
Ensure Stage 2 Routs low impedance is critical especially when Load Rin may not be
easily changed due to system requirements. Using an emitter follower (high input, low
output impedance) is a good choice for Stage 2 to drive the load.

Common Base Amplifier

The last popular single-ended amplifier is the common base amplifier. Figure 4.21 shows
an NPN-based common base amplifier. Its input is at the emitter, its output at the collector,
while base ties to the fixed voltage source (common DC). The common base amplifier
provides high gain without any phase shift (see figure 4.21).

Figure 4.21: Common base amplifier

Single-Ended Amplifier Topologies Summary

Table 4-2 below summaries 3 singled-ended amplifier topologies.

Table 4-2: Amplifiers input and output configurations

Tranconductance (Gm), Small-Signal Models

You may wonder how you can precisely figure out the specific gain of the amplifiers.
Utilizing a small-signal model facilitates transistor circuits using ideal impedances, and
voltage gain. In order to use a small-signal model, transconductance (Gm) is introduced:
this process for us. Small-signal models are simplified voltage, current sources to
determine input, output

Gm is equal to the output current change divided by input voltage change. Multiplying
Gm by Vin gives rise to output current, Gm X V. Recall that a transistor is an active device

that produces a large current if certain requirements are met. Gm X V is used to model a
transistor as a current source. Lets now apply these concepts back to a common emitter
amplifier to derive voltage gain. First, we need to transform the original circuit into a
smallsignal model circuit using the Gm and superposition theorem.
Figure 4.22 is a small-signal model of a common emitter amplifier (hybrid- ) model.

Figure 4.22: Common emitter amplifier small-signal model

Common Emitter Amplifier Input Impedance

On the previous page, the original common emitter amplifier is on the far left. After the
transformation, r connects to the Vin. r is intrinsic (natural) base resistance. It is
defined as the change of VBE over the change of base current (Ib):

Substituting Ib to r equation from above yields:

VBE = Vin,

r in terms of , Gm:

r represents the input impedance of this

circuit. For example, a bipolar transistor beta is 200 at room temperature (r.m.t.). For a 1 V
VBE change, output current, IC changes by 1 mA:

Once again, Gm in this circuit is:

By multiplying Gm by VBE, its left with

output current IC represented by the current source.

Gm X VBE = Gm X Vin = IC = Output current

The positive voltage source ties to collector resistor (RC), and is converted to a short
circuit shown on the far right. The voltage gain of the final small-signal model circuit is
calculated as:

The negative voltage gain sign is because V+ was converted to ground while current
continues to flow from ground towards RC. The voltage drop across RC would have to be
below ground by ( (Gm X Vin) X RC). This negative sign agrees with previous
assessment that the common emitter amplifiers input and output are out of phase, i.e.,
when input is + output is . If RC = 100 k, IC = 1 mA, VBE = 1 V:

hfe = Gm X RC = 1 m
X 100 k = 100

Common Emitter Amplifier Output Impedance

As for output impedance, it is equally important from a circuit performance standpoint.
The common emitter amplifiers output at the collector usually connects to a load. In AC
analysis (sinusoidal input), this load presents finite resistive and capacitive reactance seen
in parallel with the collector resistor (see figure 4.23). In AC small-signal analysis, the DC
voltage source is replaced by a short to ground. Thus the effective output impedance is the
parallel of RC, RLoad, and Cload (see figure 4.24a).

Figure 4.23: Common emitter with RLoad, CLoad at collector output

Figure 4.24a: Common emitter output impedance

RC is typically much larger than RLoad. Consequently, the output impedance is roughly
equal to RLoad according to parallel resistor rules in chapter 1, DC. The result of this
small-signal model concludes that the voltage gain is controlled largely by the Gm and RC
sizes. The higher Gm and RC, the higher the voltage gain would be without any phase
shift. Use of small-signal model applies to any transistor circuit types including the two
previously discussed single-ended amplifiers. There are other transistor models such as
Gummel-Poon and Ebers-Moll models describing transistor circuit behaviors. Regardless
of the models you choose, always follow AC analysis rules and basic electronic principles.
In the original common emitter small-signal model, there was a small re (internal emitter
resistance) that was excluded in the model. There is the intrinsic resistance in the emitter.
The re value is a function of emitter current and doping level. Some use 25 (1 mA / IC)
to model re resistance. The revised model is shown in figure 4.24b.

Figure
4.24b: Revised common emitter small-signal model
The voltage gain also needs to be revised from the small re as follows:

From the above, you can see that the voltage gain is reduced by the re in the denominator.
The voltage gain is further reduced if an external resistor is connected at the emitter
terminal. You may wonder why anyone would want to design an amplifier with lower
gain. The reason is to keep the amplifier stable. which is called emitter de-generation, it
oscillations. The details of the emitter de-generation relate to circuit design techniques and
beyond the scope of this book. The readers should however, at least take note of their

existence.
By adding an external resistor at the emitter, helps prevent the amplifier from going into

Common Collector Amplifier Small-Signal Model

The AC small-signal model of the common collector amplifier (emitter follower) is shown
in figure 4.25. Just like a common emitter amplifier, r is the input impedance. The
positive voltage source is converted to a short circuit shown in figure 4.25. Once again,
Gm in this circuit is:

By multiplying Gm by VBE, its equal to

current source:
Gm X VBE = Gm X Vin = IC = Output current
Vin is the voltage across r (VBE) plus voltage across RE (VE):

Figure 4.25: Emitter

follower small signal model
Vin = VBE + VE
VE = (Ib + IC) (RE), IC = (Gm X Vin):
Vin = VBE + (Ib + (Gm X Vin)) (RE)
VBE = (Ib) (r ):
Vin = (Ib) (r ) + (Ib + (Gm X Vin)) (RE)
IE = Ib + IC = Ib + (Gm X Vin): VE = Vout = IE (RE):

Vout = VE = Ib + (Gm X Vin) (RE)

The voltage gain of the final small-signal model circuit is calculated as:

The voltage gain came in slightly less than 1 without any phase shift (the output follows
the input).

Common Base Amplifier Small-Signal Model

Figure 4.26:

Common base amplifier small

As for the common base amplifier, the same small-signal model technique can be applied
to figure out voltage gain, input, and output impedances. Figure 4.26 shows the
smallsignal model of a common base amplifier. The DC source at the base has been
replaced by a short circuit to ground. The small re is the intrinsic impedance of the emitter.
The transistor is now represented by the output current source, Gm X VBE. Vout remains
at the collector with effective output impedance equal to RLoad in parallel with RC and
CLoad. To calculate gain, we need to derive Vout and
Vin.
signal model

IOUT = Gm X VBE:
The current going through re came from the base; re is the effective input impedance. Vin
= IB X re = VBE,

Notice the gain is positive, i.e., there isnt any phase shift from the input to the output.
This agrees with previous assessment. The drawback of the common base amplifier is that
the input impedance re is quite low. Be sure that the voltage source driving the emitter
input is high impedance or else the input level at the emitter will be degraded. The output
impedance is largely dependent on the RLoad just like the common emitter amplifier.
From a design perspective, a small-signal model is a nice tool to check if the circuit makes
sense first before the actual design.

Single-Ended Amplifier Summary

Table 4-3 below sums up the single-ended amplifiers characteristics. Some textbooks
assign these commonly used amplifiers in classes. The common emitter amplifier is
considered a class A amplifier. It defines the amplifier is on during the entire input period,
supplying output with an active signal 100% of the time, though 180 degrees out of phase.
Class A amplifiers are inherently power inefficient due to the fact that the transistors are
never turned off. Increasing power loss results in low power efficiency.

An emitter follower (common collector) is considered a class B amplifier, which means

the output is active only 50% of the time. If a common collector amplifier is emitterground, when the input goes below ground during half of the period, the transistor is said
to be off resulting in a rectified half-wave output. Class B amplifier is more efficient (only
50% of time on). It however lacks the ability to drive the load at 100% duty cycle. Class
AB is another amplifier type that combines the best of both class A and B. Class AB
conducts between 50 to 100% of the time. A common class AB example is a push-pull
topology using combinations of NPN and PNP transistors. This topology, though it
increases efficiency and load driving capability, comes at the expense of circuit
complexity.

Table 4-3: Single-ended amplifiers characteristics

NMOS and PMOS

Similar to bipolar transistors, CMOS transistors (MOSFETs) are 3-terminal devices with
complimentary N- and P-types. Some refer to the N-type device as NMOS (NFET) and
the Ptype device as PMOS (PFET). The MOSFETs structures are fundamentally different
than the bipolar ones despite sharing similar circuit behavior. Both NMOS and PMOS are
made of Nand P-junctions and poly-silicon gate combination through chip manufacturing
process. By shrinking transistor sizes and with the concept of mass production,
manufacturing throughput could increase substantially. Figure 4.27 shows the top-level
view of a silicon wafer containing chips printed on them. The thickness of the wafer is
in the order of 100 um to 200 um. A single chip is called a die. The more advanced
process on the right houses more chips than the older one on the left. This increases the
total production number for the same process time amount and silicon space. In addition to
scaling down device sizes, wafer diameter had increased from 6-inches (150 mm) to 12inches (300 mm) to 18-inches (400 mm) in just two decades. With rising computing power
demand, many electronic circuits are integrated onto a single chip, noticeably in portable
devices, like smartphones where longer battery life is required. Running these devices at
lower voltages help increase battery life. Since 1997, CMOS voltage supply had since
scaled up from 5 V to 3.3 V to 2.5 V to 1.8 V to 0.9 V in recent years. Its only feasible to
run electronic circuits at lower voltages if the transistors are smaller, or else higher
voltages will break down smaller-sized transistors. The trend of making transistors smaller
closely echoes Moores Law. It states that transistor size will shrink and numbers will
increase twofold every year. Chip companies like Intel, Advanced Micro Device (AMD),
IBM Microelectronics, and others with manufacturing capabilities tend to develop their
own proprietary processes to gain and maintain a competitive edge. The high cost of
building chip manufacturing plants and of fabrication (fab), often in billions of dollars,
pose huge capital expenses to these companies. For others that dont have such financial

strength, contract manufacturing facilities are available. There are companies (foundries)
worldwide. The top 4 IC Manufacturing Company (TSMC), United Microelectronics
Corporations (UMC), Global Foundries, and Samsung Semiconductor. In 2011 they
brought in, combined, over US $20 billion in revenue. The foundry business model has
made fabless design companies a means to manufacture chips without building a fab.
These chip manufacturing capabilities not only apply to CMOS, but also to bipolar and
any other discrete devices.

Figure 4.27: Top view silicon wafer

over twenty contract foundries are Taiwan manufacturing Semiconductor

3D NFET
A NMOS 3-dimentional cross section model is shown in figure 4.28.

Figure 4.28: A NMOS 3-dimentional cross section model

The height of this 3D model is less than 20 um thick. The CMOS gate is made of
polysilicon doped positively. Beneath the gate is an oxide layer made of silicon dioxide
(SiO2), which is used as an insulator. The oxide layer thickness and quality determine the
performance of the MOSFET. Advanced CMOS process strives for making the oxide layer
as thin as possible while maintaining high quality for size-shrinking, lower voltage
domain, and increasing speed reasons. The oxide in the diagram was drawn out of
proportion just to show that in reality, the oxide layer is much thinner. Oxide thickness
found in state-of-the-art CMOS processes can be as thin as 50 angstroms (1 angstrom = 1
X 10-10 meter). The advanced processs gate length can be as low as 30 nm and below.
The latest finFET technology (still being developed at the time of publication) pushes
device geometry down to 10 nm gate length. Circuit designers do not have control over
this parameter due to the fact that its fixed by the manufacturing process. The two Njunctions, called source and drain, are located above the P-substrate region. The doping
levels of these junctions are entirely dictated by the process. The only parameters that
circuit designers could vary for adjusting circuit performances are the transistors width
and length. The drain current (Id) transfer function is modeled as below:

u: effective mobility,
Cox: gate-oxide capacitance per unit area. W, L: CMOS transistors width and length:
VGS = (Voltage across gate and source) = VG VS

Drain Current and Threshold Voltage

Similar to the base-emitter diode forward-biased voltage in bipolar, VT is the threshold

voltage. This parameter is a constant for a specific process although it varies strongly with
temperature. In fact, VT behaves similar to VBE where VT goes down with increasing
temperature (negative temperature coefficient). VT scales down along with shrinking
device size from one process generation to the next. VT, found in many advanced CMOS
processes, is about 0.9 V. For example, to the calculate drain current of an NFET in a 2 um
(gate length) process, its uCox is roughly 100 um. If W = 5 um, length remains at
minimum 2 um, VGS = 2, VT = 0.9 V:

NFET and PFET Symbols

NFET and PFET schematic symbols (see figure 4.29a) have arrows to represent the
current flow directions. Similar to bipolar transistors, MOSFETs are three-terminal
devices. Gate, drain, and source correspond to a bipolar transistors base, collector, and
emitter.

Figure 4.29a: NFET, PFET schematic models

There are other alternatives to MOSFETs symbols. Figure 4.29b shows an example. In
this book, we will use the symbols in figure 4.29a.

Figure 4.29b: Alternative MOSFET symbols

There is actually a fourth terminal in MOSFET, called a substrate terminal as indicated in
figure 4.30. This terminal contacts the transistor substrate. If it connects to the source of
NMOS, it forms a diode called the body diode. There are design trade-offs when
deciding whether or not to connect the substrate terminal to the source. One diode
application is a catch diode mentioned in the buck regulator circuit in chapter 3, AC.

Figure 4.30: Body diode

From a top view of the actual device printed on silicon, the CMOS transistor would look
similar to figure 4.31. These shapes were printed through hundreds of IC manufacturing
steps involving the use of numerous chemicals and expensive equipment. Although the
details of these steps are beyond the scope of this book, you should at least recognize that
transistors are produced by highly efficient, large-scale, complex manufacturing processes.

Figure 4.31:
CMOS transistor top view

IC Layout
The actual devices shapes printed on the semiconductor chip are the device layout.
Figure 4.32 shows the top view of a silicon chip layout comprising transistors and resistors
created by IC schematic capture software (top). An Intel i7 core silicon chip (About 215
mm2) seen under a microscope (bottom) contains over one billion transistors.

Figure 4.32: IC layout in software (Top), Intel I7 core silicon chip (Bottom) Courtesy
of Dr. Bruce Wooley and Tallis Blalack (Stanford University)

VHDL and Verilog

For high-density design like Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC), Field
Programmable Gate Array (FPGA), and CPUs, it is impossible to place millions of
transistors manually one by one during the design process. Instead, digital designers use
programming techniques to write programs (scripts) to represent digital functions as

behavioral models. The scripts are called Very High Level Descriptive Language (VHDL).
One popular scripting language is Verilog. Below is a script example for a 2-input AND
gate. This logic AND gate (further discussed in chapter 5, Digital Electronics) consists of
A and B inputs and F output. module AND2gate (A, B, F);
input A;
input B;
output F;
reg F;
always @ (A or B) begin
F <= A & B;
end
endmodule
The Verilog scripts would be processed by sophisticated software algorithm in the form of
simulations and verifications. Digital designers would use timing waveform tools that are
built in the software to verify functionalities performing timing analysis of the design.
Upon digital design completion, the final steps are synthesis using a computer-aided
design (CAD) tool, which generates final schematics and physical layout automatically via
automatic-synthesis function. These chip-design methodologies are very complex. There
are only a handful of companies supplying software in this area. Cadence Design Systems,
Mentor Graphics and Synopsis are market leaders in this field. Once the circuits were
constructed in the schematic capture software using schematic symbols, such design
would need to be converted to layout using layout software. High-density design
incorporates automatic layout generations. The verification process, Layout versus
Schematic (LVS), checks if both schematic and layout match or not. Layout designers will
correct any discrepancies if found, between schematic and layout. Design Rule Checking
(DRC) is another verification tool. DRC checks if the physical layout meets the design
rules set by the manufacturing processes. A design rule example is the minimum gate
length. If the gate in the layout is drawn shorter than the minimum gate length specified by
the manufacturing process, the DRC will flag indicating a DRC fail. The layout designers
can then correct the errors accordingly. Once LVS and DRC are complete, the layout will
be sent electronically to manufacturing. This process historically is called tapeout. The
time it takes to manufacture ICs differs by companies. Generally speaking, it takes several
weeks to complete the entire process. ICs printed on the silicon wafers are processed in
batches. They often are counted in lots (boxes), in which each lot contains number of
wafers (10 to 12 typically). The number of lots depends on the order sizes. Electrical tests
are performed throughout the manufacturing process to make sure devices are within test
spec.

MOSFET Cross Section and Operations

The mechanics of MOSFETs operations are best described using the conceptual NMOS
cross sectional diagram (see figure 4.33).

Figure 4.33: MOSFET cross section

The gate (top plate), oxide (insulator), and p-substrate (bottom plate) underneath are
modeled as a capacitor. This capacitor essentially gave the meaning to MOSFET. FET
stands for field-effect transistor. This field refers to the electric field of the capacitor.
Applying two voltage sources at the gate and the drain strike this point clearly in figure
4.34.

Figure 4.34: MOSFET operations

MOSFET On-Off Requirements

If voltage at the gate (VG) is slowly rising, electrons are attracted to the surface right
underneath the oxide forming an electron passage called a channel. Electrons are minority
carriers doped in the substrate. The channel is effectively inverted as electron
concentration increases with increasing positive gate voltage (VG). This is a strong

inversion phenomenon. When VG increases to at least equal to or larger than VT (VG

VT) and the drain voltage (VD) is higher than ground (VD > 0 V), the NMOS is said to be
enhanced; the channel is now pinched off giving rise to current flow (see figure 4.34).
At this point, the transistor is active (on). If the NMOS is modeled as a switch, its now
closed with finite impedance. To turn on PFET, the polarities would be reversed. Table 4-4
below summarizes the on and off conditions and the requirements of turning on and off N
and PFETs.

Table 4-4: N/PFET On and off requirements

Convert figure 4.34 to a schematic. Figure 4.35 shows us the difference between N and
PFETs on-conditions (ID > 0).

Figure 4.35: NFET and PFET different in operations

Unlike a bipolar transistors base, CMOS gate, at DC, has no gate current because of the
capacitor (gate, oxide, and substrate). As a result, ID and IS are almost equal to each other
except for small leakage current. The bad news is that the leakage current increases
exponentially over temperature change. These leakage currents come in the form of
dynamic gate current. Despite zero DC gate current, during AC (switching signal), there
would be current flowing towards and out of the gate. These currents flow towards and out
of the gate during AC signal transition. This is called dynamic gate current. Figure 4.36
demonstrates this event. During voltage square wave transition, currents are shooting up,
down, to, and from the CMOS gate. This current contributes noises (glitches) propagating
throughout the systems. Extra care is required to minimize these glitches. They adversely
impact the overall system noise performance. One of the techniques to reduce dynamic
gate current is to add a resistor at the gate (RG). The resistor suppresses the gate current
and helps protect the gate from transient voltage-spike damage at the expense of slower
transition time. The size of RG depends on timing transition requirement. Typical size

varies from 10s to 100s of ohms.

Figure 4.36: Dynamic gate current

The other fact about CMOS transistors is that there are no active diodes present in them
except the body diode. The arrow of the schematic symbol simply indicates the current
directions. The ID versus VDS curves on the next page shows the CMOS transistors
operating regions (see figure 4.37).

ID versus VDS Curve

Figure 4.37: ID vs. VDS

They look almost identical to bipolar transistors IC versus VCE curves. The exceptions
are the region definitions where the constant current region is now called saturation. This
is the exact opposite of bipolar transistor. The region where VDS is low is the Linear
(Ohmic) region. Cut off occurs when the transistor is turned off without any drain current.

CMOS Source Amplifier

If we modify the NMOS circuit in figure 4.35 to figure 4.38, we obtain a common source
amplifier that performs an inverter function just like the bipolar inverter (common emitter)
without the base. CMOS transistors can be constructed in common source, common drain
(source follower) and common gate amplifiers similar to those discussed in the bipolar
sections. Similar to the common emitter amplifier, the common source amplifiers input is
at the gate while the output is located at the drain. The input and output waveforms are
shown in figure 4.39. They are 180 degrees out of phase with positive voltage gain.

Figure 4.38: Common

source amplifier
Figure 4.39: Common source amplifier input, output
If, for example, VGS = 0 V (VG < VT), NFET is off. No ID or IS would flow. No voltage
drops across the resistor. VD is at positive voltage supply. One incentive using MOSFET
as an amplifier choice is the infinite input impedance at the gate (capacitor). Recall
chapter 3, AC, capacitors are open circuits at DC, i.e., infinite impedance. From an input
impedance standpoint, it is preferable that the amplifiers input stage have extremely high
impedances (maximum voltage at the input). This gives MOSFETs better edge over
bipolar transistors, not to mention the benefit of lacking DC gate current. These features

make CMOS circuits easier to build, test, and measure. The same small-signal model
technique used to analyze bipolar amplifiers can be used on CMOS circuits as well. The
original common source amplifier in figure 4.35 was transformed to the small-signal
model in figure 4.39a on page 141. The voltage at the gate, VG is the same as Vin. It is
now facing an open circuit by the gate-oxide capacitor. Gm in this circuit is:

By multiplying Gm by VGS, which is the

input, its left with output current, ID, represented by the current source.

The positive voltage source ties to the drain resistor (RD), is converted to a short circuit
shown in the bottom of figure 4.39a. The voltage gain of the final small-signal model
circuit is calculated as:

The voltage gain sign came from the fact that V+ was converted to ground while
current continued to flow from ground towards RD. The exact same analysis technique in
the bipolar common emitter amplifier applies to common source. The voltage drop across
RD is below ground by (Gm X Vin) X RD. The result of this small-signal model
indicates that the voltage gain is controlled largely by Gm and the RD size. The higher the
Gm and RD, the more voltage gain you could achieve. For example, a common source
amplifiers ID = 1 mA, VGS = 1 V, RD = 10 k. Voltage gain:

Figure 4.39a: Common source amplifier small-signal model

MOSFET Parasitic
Small-signal analysis applies to any amplifier design. It simplifies design tasks and gives
first-order confidence the design works to your expectations. However, many real world
circuits process AC signals. This AC requirement complicates transistor behavior. The
NFET model examines what it means in figure 4.40. Parasitic capacitances are distributed
around both bipolar and CMOS transistors. The NFET example includes capacitors from
gate-todrain capacitor (CGD), gate-to-source (CGS), drainto-substrate (CDSub), drain-tosource (CDS), and source-to-substrate (CSSub). The capacitances of these parasitic caps
are relatively low. They have little effects in DC. If you recall chapter 3, AC, Xc = 1/ 2 f
C, Xc is infinite at DC. If the signal frequency is high, Xc starts to decrease generating
current paths via the capacitors. This Xc has profound effects on transistor functions
including changes in gain, leakage current, input, and output impedances. This somewhat
explains why analog design is a challenging task in addition to numerous changing
parameters, from power supply values, temperature fluctuation, frequency ranges, or
bandwidth. In most cases, a transistor datasheet only list specifications as a range of
numbers at some pre-defined conditions. These capacitances are strong function of VGS,
VDS, temperature, and switching frequency. MOSFETs datasheets sometimes list them as
input capacitance (CISS). They can be in the order of 100s of pico farads (pF). For high
speed applications, gate charge is an important parameter that describes how much charge
(Q unit in coulomb) the MOSFET needs to switch at certain conditions. These parameters
become significant at high speed, which could slow down the overall speed. Gate charges
are heavily depending on MOSFETs threshold voltage (VT) as well as the type of load
connected to it. To select the right MOSFET for an application, engineers need to
understand the trade-off among parameters and performance.

Figure 4.40: NFET

model

Common Drain Amplifier (Source Follower)

Lets now analyze the second CMOS amplifier type: the common drain amplifier. Its input
is at the gate. Output is at the source. The connections are similar to the common collector
amplifier (emitter follower). This is why the common drain amplifier is called the source
follower. Figure 4.41 shows two source followers: NFET and PFET types. Figure 4.42
shows the input and output waveform. Both are in phase with Vout slightly less than the
input.

Figure 4.41:
Common drain (source follower) amplifier

Figure 4.42: Source follower input, output

Using a NFET-based source follower, when VG is at ground (VGS < VT) and NFET is
off, ID = IS = 0 A. No voltage drops across the RS. VD is measured at positive voltage
supply. Same small-signal model technique used to analyze common source amplifier can
be used on common drain amplifier. Figure 4.41 was transformed to small-signal model in
figure 4.43.

Figure 4.43:
Common drain amplifier small-signal model
The voltage at the gate, VG, is Vin. It is now facing an open circuit by the gate-oxide
capacitor. Similar to a common source amplifier, Gm in this circuit is:

By multiplying Gm by VGS, which is

the input, were left with output current, ID, represented by the current source.
The drain ties to V+, which is converted to a short circuit shown on the far right. Vin =
VGS + Vout. Vout = VS = (Output current X RD) = (Gm X VGS) X RD

The voltage gain of the source follower is slightly less than 1 (Negative dB). For example,
a common drain amplifiers ID = 1 mA, VGS = 1 V, RD = 10 k. Gm = 1 m / 1 = 1
m. The voltage gain is thereby:

To calculate gain in dB:

= 20 log (0.909) = 0.83 dB

Common Gate Amplifier

The third and last single-ended CMOS amplifier is the common gate amplifier. Figure
4.44 shows NFETand PFET-based common gate amplifiers. The NPN-based common gate
amplifier input is at the source, the output at the drain, and the gate ties to a DC voltage
source. The common gate amplifier provides high gain without phase shift, as shown in
figure 4.45.

Figure 4.44:
Common gate amplifiers (N/PFETs)

Figure 4.45: Common gate amplifier, NFET, PFET, waveform

The common gate amplifier gain can be realized by small-signal model in figure 4.46.

Figure 4.46:
Common gate amplifier small-signal model
VIN = VS VG = VSG = VGS
Vout = VD = (Gm X VGS) RD

From the gain equation, you can see that gain is positive indicating there isnt any phase
shift. The amount of gain is mainly controlled by Gm and RD.

Bipolar versus CMOS

Among the six different types of amplifiers, there are trade-offs among them when it
comes to choosing one that meets your design target. Table 4-5 details the differences,
pros, and cons between bipolar and CMOS transistors. The differences between
MOSFETs and bipolar transistors create interesting dynamics when it comes to designing
and analyzing electronic circuits. Understanding the trade-offs saves you time, gets your
final system within specs.

Table 4-5: Bipolar and CMOS electrical performance

Differential Amplifiers
So far, we covered single-ended amplifiers. Differential amplifiers (diff amp) are wellsuited to many applications. They are in many cases superior to singled-ended design.
This section describes what diff amps are and the motivation behind using them. Look
back at singleended amplifiers. The inputs and outputs are referenced from positive to
ground or the most negative rail voltages. We know by now there is no such thing as a
perfect voltage source or ground. A DC power supply, even ground, has noise riding over
it (see figure 4.47). These imperfect qualities lead to inaccuracies.
These noises become more
apparent in microelectronics when transistors are measured in the sub-micron level
running in extremely low voltages. Any substantial noise could falsely trigger a transistor
to give wrong results. One solution to this problem is to not use ground or the negative rail
as a reference to the input but rather to use two (differential) inputs instead. Figure 4.48
consists of two NFETs (Q1, Q2) and two drain resistors. The input voltage is no longer a
single-ended input reference to ground. It consists of two inputs, V1 and V2. More

precisely, the inputs are the difference between V1 and V2 (V1 V2 = Vdiff). This
topology eliminates ground as voltage reference.

Figure 4.47: Supply and ground noise

Figure 4.48:
Differential amplifier

Common Mode

Figure
4.49a: Current split in differential amplifier
In terms of diff amp voltage gain, we first need to introduce common mode. Common
mode voltage = (V1 + V2) / 2. When both V1 and V2 are the same (see figure 4.49a),
there is no voltage difference between the two inputs. Currents (I1, I2) are split equally
between two drain resistors (KCL in chapter 1, DC). The outputs are at the drain between
Q1 and Q2. They are exactly the same, i.e., the voltage output difference is zero. The
amplifier now has zero differential voltage gain. When both inputs are the same, diff amp
exhibits zero common mode gain. The zero common mode gain is yet another advantage
over single-ended topology. Any noise appearing at both inputs, if they are equal in value,
would not get amplified showing up at the output. However, even with diff amp, there
would be some small common mode gain. This gain is caused by the mismatch
between resistor and transistor sizes even if their designed values are the same. What it
means is that during the manufacturing of electronic components, no two physical
electronic components can be manufactured identically to each other due to process
technology limitations (gradients). For example, for a resistor with 10 k in value, there
could be plus or minus percentage (e.g., 5%) difference between the actual resistors and

the resistors design value. In other words, there could be as much as 500 difference
between the two physical 10 k resistors. This percentage difference varies from process
to process. A process spec sheet would tell you such information. Besides the resistors,
transistors have same inaccuracies where no two transistors are the same
even if they are identical in the schematic. Their
width, length, and VT may be slightly different.
These non-ideal device characteristics lead to
uneven current between I1 and I2, even when V1
and V2 are the same. These differences in current
results in voltage difference at the output, hence
common mode gain. The current (I1 + I2) combined
at sources is called tail current (tail-like shape of

Figure 4.49b: Tail current source vs. resistor NMOS). These currents are sunk by the
current source. Numerous academic textbooks use a resistor at the source to produce the
current. This is impractical because the current generated by the voltage drop across the
resistor is constantly changing when V1 and V2 are AC signals. This leads to differences
in I1, I2, and drain voltages. The voltage gain will be changing constantly, unacceptable
for stable gain operations. Most real world diff amps use current source to supply constant
current to the circuit (see figure 4.49b).

CMRR and Differential Gain

To quantify this small gain, the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is easily found in
the differential amplifier datasheet. Its a means to quantify how well the amplifier rejects
common mode signal. Using Adm (differential mode gain) and Acm (common mode
gain), CMRR = Adm / Acm. In an ideal case, Acm = 0 and CMRR = infinite. In reality,
CMRR would be large although not infinite due to small Acm in the denominator of
CMRR. The differential amplifier gain thereby is equal to (differential mode gain +
common mode gain) or (Adm + Acm). The differential mode gain is simply a measure of
voltage change (difference) at the output versus input:

We could use figure 4.50 to show the meaning of voltage difference at the output. If V1 >
V2, current is steered towards Q1 so that I1 > I2 (larger I1 arrow). This
generates a voltage
difference in current
difference (Vout_diff) between Q1, Q2s drain voltages (VD_Q1 < VD_Q2). To find out
the exact differential amplifier gain, we could use the same smallsignal model technique in
the previous section and apply a half-circuit analysis. A half-circuit takes the half of the
differential circuit where the common mode voltage input is zero:

Figure
4.50: Voltage output difference
V1 = V2

If both inputs are the same, V1 = V1, for differential voltage input:
Vin_diff = V1 ( V1) = 2 X (V1)
We split the differential circuit in half. V1 would be equal to Vin_diff divided by:

Using the small-signal model, output voltage at Q1:

Vout_1 = Gm (V1) X RD1

Go through the same

steps on the right-hand side for Q2:

The final differential

amplifier voltage gain, Adm or Av(diff):

The differential gain is a function of Gm X (RD1 + RD2) where (RD1 + RD2) is the
output impedance. To visualize how diff amp works, we use Vout_diff vs. Vin_diff DC
graph in figure 4.51a. When V1 = V2 (Vin_diff = 1), Vout_diff = 0 (no voltage gain).
When V1 > V2, Vin_diff is positive (right-hand side of the graph). V1 >> V2 indicates Q1
VDS approaches 0 V (cut off). The most negative the curve can go is V++. When V1 <<
V2, Vin_diff is negative (left-hand side of the graph). If V1 << V2, Q2 VDS approaches 0
V (cutoff), and the highest the curve can go is V++. The resistors in the diff app are called
passive load resistors. In practical diff amp circuits, load resistors are seldom used. With a
transistors high drain impedance, transistors are used as active loads to achieve high gain
in diff amps. An example is shown in figure 4.51b. This differential amplifier topology is
the basic building block of the operational amplifier. The two PFETS are constructed as a
current mirror with high drain impedance. Current mirror is discussed in the next section.

Figure 4.51a: Vout_diff vs. Vin_diff

Figure 4.51b:
Active load

Current Mirror
Lets examine the current mirror (see figure 4.52a). They are widely used in
microelectronic design to generate current references. The purpose of the current mirror is
to first generate a reference current (IREF), then replicate it to create multiple copies. The
copies of the current can be manipulated by varying transistor sizes. The current copies
can then be used in other places throughout the design. Its simplicity makes a powerful

circuit to easily generate any number of currents from only few components. Figure 4.52a
is a current mirror example made up of a 10 k resistor and two NPNs (Q1, Q2). This
circuit is only practical when implemented in an IC design; discrete components exhibit
too many parameter mismatches making it difficult to achieve descent accuracy. The Q1
collector is shorted to Q1 and Q2s bases, i.e., VC = VB. This forces both Q1 and Q2s
VBEs to be equal. If you recall the collector current equation:

IC = A X IS X e (VBE / VT)

Figure 4.52a: Current mirror

Both collector currents are identical if Q1, Q2 area, VBE, and temperature are the same.
The current reference (IREF) is found by KVL on the 10 k resistor:

The PMOS current mirror used in the differential amplifier as active load works similarly.
Figure 4.52b shows an example. For 1 V VGS, ID assumes to be 0.4 mA (process
dependant). The reference current:

VGSs for two PFETs on the right have are the same (gates and sources are tied together).
Because their sizes are 2X and 3X larger than the reference PFET:
IOUT1 = 2 X 0.4 mA = 0.8 mA
IOUT2 = 3 X 0.4 mA = 1.2 mA
PFETs drain is high impedance. As discussed in the prior section, this is advantageous in
a differential amplifier where current mirror is frequently used as an active load to provide
higher voltage gain.

Figure 4.52b: PMOS

current mirror

Op-Amp
Operational amplifier (op-amp) inputs are differential; output is typically single-ended
although differential outputs are fairly common. Differential amplifiers in the previous
section are great choices for op-amp input. All amplifiers discussed so far are open-loop
where the amplifier output is not connected back to the input (feedback). An op-amp
connected in open-loop offers extremely high gain. To achieve such impressive gain,
multistaged amplifiers are needed. Total system multi-stage amplifiers gain is determined

by the multiplication of individual gains. Assume individual stage gains are A1, A2, and
A3, total opamp gain = A1 X A2 X A3. An op-amp with reasonable bandwidth could
have open-loop gain of 90 dB to 100 dB.

This means if Vin changes by 1 V, theoretically, Vout changes by 100,000 V. 100,000 V is

not a practical number to use or list in the datasheet. For this reason, open-loop gain is
written as V / mV (1 V / 0.001V). From the above example, the open-loop gain is:

To achieve reasonable,
manageable gain, feedback or closed-loop configuration is necessary. As for unity-gain
bandwidth, its the frequency where the op-amp drops to a gain of 1 (0 dB):
Recall the low-pass filter in chapter 3, AC. We could use a bode plot to explain op-amp
gain vs. frequency (see figure 4.53). Ideally, the higher the unity-gain bandwidth, the
better the op-amp will be. Transistors are active devices. An op-amp is made primarily of
transistors. At low frequency (DC), gains in dB would be much more than 0 dB as
opposed to

a low-pass filter, where the highest

Figure 4.53: Op-amp gain vs. frequency

filter gain is 0 dB because filters do not have gain; they have attenuation instead. The
lowpass filter attenuation and op-amp are both 20 dB/decade ( 20 dB per decade) with
increasing frequency. A closed-loop op-amp configuration means that the output is feeding
back to the input providing lower but controllable gain. You may wonder why anyone
would want to design an amplifier with lower gain. The reason lies in analog signal
processing. Many analog applications need precise and controllable gains. This is where
closed-loop and feedback network come in. We will discuss them shortly. The op-amp has
its own schematic symbol (see figure 4.54).

Figure 4.54: Op-amp schematic symbol

The triangular symbol includes two input terminals, denoted by + (non-inverting
terminal) or (inverting terminal). Singled-ended output is located on the right. The
differential amplifier discussed in the previous section is a good example being used as the
op-amps input stage. Figure 4.55 shows an op-amp input stage example using PFETs Q1
and Q2 as the input stage, Q3, and Q4 (active loads). The NMOS in this circuit are the
active loads.

Figure 4.55: PFET input stage different amplifier

Op-Amp Rules
These are the rules associate with op-amp worth noting:
1) Input impedance: infinite
2) Output impedance: zero
3) Input offset voltage: zero
Lets take a complete op-amp circuit as an example to make these rules clear in figure
4.56.

Figure 4.56: Multi-stage amplifiers

Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4, and the current source make up stage 1 of the op-amp. Stage 1 is a
CMOSbased amplifier with V1 and V2 as inputs at Q1 and Q2s gates. This makes the
input impedance infinite at DC from rule 1. Q3 and Q4 form a PMOS current mirror. The
output is located at the Q4 drain (PFET) and Q2 (NFET) causing a 180-degree phase shift.
This output is taken to Q5s gate. Its drain resistor forms stage 2: A PMOS common
source amplifier with the output located at Q5 drain. Stage 2 provides a 180-degree phase
shift netting a zerodegree shift from stage 1. Finally, Q6 is the final stage, 3: The emitter
follower offers low output impedance (ideally zero from rule 2) and with a zero-degree
phase shift. In reality, we know that the emitter has low, finite impedance. The majority of
the op-amp gain comes from stages 1 and 2 (both common source amplifiers) with slight
trade-off from stage 3s small emitter followers voltage loss. The zero offset voltage
means when V1 and V2 are the same, both Q1 and Q2 gate voltages are identical. In
reality, this is not true because no two transistors could be manufactured exactly the same
in sizes resulting in different threshold voltages (VT), i.e., different Q1 and Q2 gate
voltages. When V1 >> V2, Q1 is enhanced and current steers to the left-hand side of stage
1. Q3 VGS is established equaling Q4s VGS. With this enhanced Q4, however, no current
is able to flow downward from Q4 because Q2 is off (open circuit). This lifts Q4 drain up
towards the positive supply. This high output collapses Q5 VGS shutting it off. No current
flows to the drain resistor yanking Q6 (NPN) base to ground. VBE is zero voltage so the
output is low. In summary, when V1 is high, V2 is low, and Vout is low. Now lets
consider when V2 >> V1. Q1 is now off, and Q3 then cuts off. Without adequate VGS of

Q3, Q4 is off. Even V2 is high enhancing Q2; there isnt any current flowing through it.
This pulls Q2s drain down which in turn causes Q5 VGS larger than VT turning it on. If
VGS is known with a drain resistor size designed properly to be higher than VBE voltage
plus the I R drop (voltage across) of the emitter resistor, Vout is lifted up. Table 4-6 shows
the op-amp operation with terminal definitions. One easy way to interpret this summary is
that an open-loop inverting amplifier simply means when the input of the inverting
terminal is higher than of the non-inverting terminal, the output goes low and vice versa
(see figure 4.57a).

Table 4-6: Op-amp operation with terminal definitions

Figure 4.57a: Inverting, Non-inverting, output relationship

From the buck regulator in chapter 3, AC, the op-amp was used as a comparator connected
in open-loop. In that example, the non-inverting terminal is fixed with a voltage source. If
the non-inverting terminal is higher than the voltage source at the negative terminal, the
output will lift up to the rail. This can be realized by the high open-loop gain. Suppose the
op-amp has 100 dB open-loop gain with positive rail voltage at 5 V to ground.

This means that it only takes 50 uV difference between the positive and negative terminals
to flip the output to either 5 V or ground. This is a comparator circuit comparing the
voltage difference between two terminals. The outputs are either going up to the positive
rail or ground. Open-loop is perfect in comparator topology because of its high gain. This
high gain directly relates to high slew rate, which specifies how fast voltage changes over
time, i.e., V / T. For example, a step response at the input produces an output with slew
rate at 10 V / 1 us (see figure 4.57b). This means the device would be able to change 10 V
at the output in one microsecond (us). A high slew rate is desirable because it reduces the
time for the input and output to reach to its intended levels. Settling time is another
important op-amp spec that is commonly found in a datasheet. In figure 4.57c, settling
time specifies how quickly the op-amp responds to an input and output settles in 2 us
when the output value stays within the predefined error band.

Figure 4.57b: 10
V / 1 us Slew rate

Figure 4.57c: 2 us settling time

Apart from voltage gain, many analog circuits require current gain. An op-amp used to
drive a high-current motor is one example. It requires the op-amp output stage to provide
sufficient current for the motor to turn. We will summarize all major op-amp parameters at
the end of this section. As nice as high openloop gain sounds, in many cases, we would
like the gain to be lower and in a more controlled manner. In many cases, an audio
amplifier only needs to amplify the input signals 3 to 5 times. If lower and controlled gain
is required,
closed-loop op-amp configuration can be implemented. There are two popular ways
(inverting and non-inverting amplifiers) to connect an op-amp in closed-loop. Both are
covered in the next few sections and can be easily explained by Ohms law, KVL, and
KCL.

Inverting Amplifier
Inverting amplifier is first shown in figure 4.58. Our goal is to develop the Vout vs. Vin
transfer function, i.e., closed-loop gain, with respect to the Rf and Ri. You will see in a
moment that the amplifier gain is nicely set by Rf and Ri. In this configuration, the input
voltage connects to
terminal (V). There
the negative is a resistor
feedback network, Rf and Ri. Part of the output is now feeding back to the opamp input
creating a closed-loop circuit. For closed-loop op-amp connections, if the op-amp output
stage (transistors) isnt driven in saturation (out of range), Vout would do whatever it takes
to force the difference between positive and negative terminals to be zero, V+ (V) = 0.
This rule means that V has the same voltage as the V+ at 0 V. This ground potential is

called virtual ground. Once we have obtained the virtual ground connection, we can
apply the infinite input impedance op-amp rule. A transformed circuit inside the dotted
line is developed (see figure 4.59). The infinite input impedance prevents any current
going into the op-amp turning it into an open circuit. This op-amp literally can be taken
out of the picture for the transfer function gain analysis.

Figure 4.58:
Inverting amplifier

Figure 4.59: Transformed op-amp

Figure 4.60: Simplified op-amp circuit

The simplified version of the circuit is shown in figure 4.60. This circuit can further be
realized as two individual circuits. One from Vin and Ri to ground, the other from Vout
and Rf to ground (see figure 4.61). The current of both circuits go to virtual ground. These
currents cant go to op-amps infinite impedance negative terminal.
The amount of current goes from Vin to ground is identical to current from Vout. The only
difference is current direction as both currents are flowing towards each other resulting in
a negative sign. The individual circuits are shown in figure 4.61.

Figure 4.61: Individual op-amp circuits

Using Ohms law and current, Vout / Vin equations are derived:

The voltage gain, Vout / Vin, is now easily determined by the Rf to Ri ratio. Due to the
(Vout / Vin) sign, this is an inverting amplifier. Vin increases and Vout decreases with a
controllable gain. If the desired gain is 5, Ri = 10 k:

Non-Inverting Amplifier
What if you want a positive gain at the output? One could add a common source or emitter
amplifiers at the op-amp output to revert the phase, or could use a non-inverting amplifier
(see figure 4.62).

Figure 4.62: Non-inverting amplifier

The only difference between this amplifier and the inverting one is that Vin is connected
to the positive terminal. The left side of Ri is connected to ground. The resistive feedback
network, however, remains on the negative terminal side. The Vout / Vin gain transfer
function is examined through the modified circuit (see figure 4.63).

Figure
4.63: Modified non-inverting amplifier
The same rule is applied to the noninverting amplifier. Both positive and negative
terminals are at the same voltage potentials. This makes V = Vin. This op-amp rule
converts figure 4.63 to the final modified version (see figure 4.64). This circuit strikingly
resembles a voltage divider. The voltage transfer function is thereby:

Figure 4.64: Final modified non-inverting amplifier

The closed-loop voltage gain of a non-inverting amplifier is conveniently set by the Rf to
Ri ratio. The closed-loop gain is positive, hence the non-inverting amplifier name
convention. If a gain of 10 is your design target, Ri = 10 k:

Op-Amp Parameters
There are many op-amp parameters in addition to gain, slew rate, and settling time. Get
familiar with these op-amp parameters makes choosing, designing, and testing op-amps an
easier task. The other major significance of op-amp feedback topology is the ability to
alter the op-amp input or output impedances. For the input, it could be a negative effect.
Ideally, op-amp inputs are infinite, which is now lowered by the Ri and Rf.
-Supply and input voltage: Supply voltage defines absolute maximum and minimum
values of power supply you can apply to the op-amp. Input voltage defines the highest and
lowest voltage you can apply to the input terminals. Unless the op-amps are rail-to-rail,
input voltage is less than supply voltage.
-Supply current: It tells you how much current the op-amp will be sourced from the opamp power supply. When the op-amp is not driving any load or amplifying any signal, the
op-amp still draws current to keep its operations. This current is specified as quiescent
current. Quiescent current applies to any electronic device such as voltage regulators or
controllers.
-Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR): It has the same definition as described in

previous section. It tells how well the op-amp rejects the common mode signal from noise.
The CMRR unit is in dB. The larger the dB, the better CMRR performance would be.
-Power supply rejection ratio (PSRR): It specifies how much output changes from
power supply changes. Its measured in dB with transfer function as: (Power supply) /
(Vout). PSRR is infinite in an ideal case (Vout = 0).
-Output voltage swing: It defines the voltage range the output could go from the most
positive to the most negative levels. The range depends on the load. With a smaller load
(big load resistor, lower current), the output can go higher than a larger load.
-Output source and sink current: This is the maximum current op-amp could supply and
receive. Figure 4.65 depicts what source and sink current mean. There are two electronic
loads (circle symbols) in this circuit. The top load turns on when op-amp output goes low
sinking current towards the op-amp. When the op-amp output goes high, the top load turns
off, and the bottom load turns on. The op-amp is now sourcing current to the bottom load.
The current amount capable of sourcing and sinking to and from the load is the op-amp
source/sink current parameter.
-Input offset voltage: This is the voltage difference between the positive and negative
terminals that is needed to bring Vout to zero. Ideally, input offset is zero, meaning when
the difference of the two input terminals is the same, there is zero voltage output change.

Figure 4.65:
Op-amp source, sink current
-Input offset current : This current goes in or out of the op-amps input terminals. An opamp with a CMOS input stage doesnt have such spec. Only bipolar carries this spec due
to base currents. For NPN, input bias current goes into the op-amp. For PNP, base current
comes out of the input terminals. This current adds to the offset voltage. For this reason,
minimal input bias current is desirable.

-Power consumption: The maximum power in watts that op-amp consumes. This relates
to power supply voltage and supply current.
-Input impedance: This is the input impedance looking into the op-amp. For a CMOS
input op-amp, input impedance is infinite. For a bipolar-based op-amp, its bases
impedance is high but not infinite. 5 M input impedance is typical.
-Open-loop gain, bandwidth: Some use large signal voltage gain to represent open-loop
gain. Instead of dB, some datasheets translate dB to V / mV to describe open-loop gain.
For example, 100 V / mV is equivalent to 100 dB. 20 log (100 / 1 m) = 100 dB. Openloop gain can be realized in a bode plot in frequency response (see figure 4.66). The openloop gain is much larger than controlled closed-loop gain.

Figure 4.66: Op-amp frequency response

Be mindful that datasheets only list value ranges on a particular parameter from maximum
to minimum. Most parameters are guaranteed only for a specific set of conditions, e.g., a
specific temperature range ( 55 C T + 125 C) or supply voltage level.

LM741
Perhaps the most talked about op-amp in academics is the general purpose LM741 opamp. Its an 8-pin bipolar transistor-based, differential input, single-ended output op-amp.
Figure 4.67 shows LM741 in a metal can package; it also shows the pin names, and
numbers. The diameter of the can is about 0.37 inch. Pins 1 and 5 are usually connected
together with a 10 k resistor to reduce the offset voltage.

Figure 4.67: LM741 in a can package (left) and pin names, numbers (right)
Table 4-7 Texas Instruments part of LM741 datasheet. http://www.ti.com/product/lm741

Table 4-7: LM741 datasheet (Partial)

Note: TA (Operating temperature), RS (Source impedance), VS (Source voltage), and RL
(Load impedance)

Current Mirror Inaccuracies

Use the current mirror developed earlier (see 4.52a). The design goal is to create
IOUT, an exact copy of IREF if both
Q1 and Q2 sizes are the same. By
just three components, a
reference current and copies of
currents are created. Changing
Q2s size easily creates multiple
current amplitudes. For example,
doubling the Q2 size from Q1
makes IOUT twice as much as
IREF. This circuit does have flaws.
The IOUT would not be exactly
concept
figure

equal to IREF. The main errors Figure 4.68: Current mirror errorcome from the base current and

the size mismatch between the two NPNs. Figure 4.68 examines this inaccuracy. Using the
KCL, IB + IC = IE rule, it can be seen that IOUT is two IBs less than IREF. IOUT =
IREF (2 X IB). For example, VBE = 1 V, IC = 0.3 mA (a specific transistor spec).
IREF = (5 V 1 V) / 10 k = 0.4 mA = 400 uA. Suppose beta () = 100, IB = 0.3 mA /
100 = 3 uA. From the math derivation in figure 4.68: IOUT = IREF (2 X IB) = 400 uA
(2) X (3 uA) = 394 uA
The current error in percentage:

Despite 1.5% appearing to be a low number, recall that VBE and transistor beta are

dependent on temperature. This error worsens with temperature and supply variations. The
error percentage could go up quickly. For high accuracy design, it may be unacceptable.
Because this error is mainly caused by the base current, you may be tempted to use a
CMOS transistor to solve this problem, thinking that there is no gate current in MOSFET.
However, VT matching of CMOS is worse than VBE in microelectronic design. Device
matching quantifies how well two devices would be identical to each other.
Comparatively, because CMOS VT matching is poorer than bipolar VBE due to the
matching problem, the benefits of zero CMOS gate current are diminished.

Wilson Current Mirror

There are simple design techniques we could implement to improve the bipolar-based
current mirror (see figure 4.69).

Figure 4.69: Wilson current mirror

This is a Wilson mirror circuit, invented by Mr. George Wilson in 1960s. Its still popular
today and used by many IC designers. By making two changes to the original circuit,
Wilsons mirror IOUT is now equal to IREF. These simple changes are: 1) Add Q3. 2)
Swap the Q1 and Q2 base to the Q2 collector instead of Q1. The mathematical derivation
looks tedious. If you look closely, however, they are no more than KCL, IC, IE, and IB
rules and simple arithmetic. This circuit serves another purpose. The Q1 collector voltage
(Q1_VC) is now fixed at two VBEs (VBE2 + VBE3). This fixed voltage at the Q1
collector ensures Q1 doesnt go into saturation (VCE being too low) and stay in the

normal operating region (constant current). All these design fixes so far require good
transistor understanding. Any electronic innovations are always backed by basic electronic
principle no matter how complicated they turn out to be.

Bipolar Cascode
The technique of constant collector voltages is called cascode. Figure 4.70 is a current
mirror using this technique.

Figure 4.70: Cascode current mirror

Q3, Q4, and Q5 are cascode devices. All VBEs (Q_VBE) are identical. The cascode
devices keep Q1, Q2, and Q6s collector voltages (Q1_VC, Q2_VC, Q3_VC) equal.
Apply KVL:
Q3_VC = Q1_VBE1 + Q3_VBE
= 2 X (VBE)
Q4_VE = Q2_VC:
Q2_VC = (2 X VBE) VBE = VBE
There is an additional current branch from Q5 to Q6. Similar to Q1 and Q2s VBEs, Q6s
collector is one VBE. These constant voltages at collectors Q1, Q2, and Q6 keep them out
of saturations. This is a useful feature when transistors are used as current sources. All
design solutions come with trade-offs; the cascode current mirrors are no exception. What
you lose is the head room. Head room is the voltages across the collector and emitter.
From the ICversus-VCE curves, it indicated that having large VCE is desirable in order to
keep the transistor out of saturation. By adding a row of cascode devices, Q3, Q4, and Q5

transistors head room would be reduced (reduced head room). This is particularly
apparent in low voltage applications. In general, cascodes are not designed for extremely
low voltage design due to the head room issue.

Darlington Pair
The Darlington pair configuration is a popular circuit. This circuit was invented by Mr.
Sidney Darlington in 1953 when he worked at Bell Lab. Its still used today in many
modern ICs. Lets use PNP devices, this time connected as Darlington shown in figure
4.71. This circuit is a differential amplifier using PNP as the input stage, NPN as active
load. The Darlington pair provides two features in this circuit: 1) maximum current gain,
and 2) input voltage conversion. On point 1, current is increased from Q1 to Q2 using the
transistor beta rule as
follows: Assume transistors beta () are equal,

Figure 4.71: PNP

Darlington pair
Q1_IE = Q1_IB + Q1_IC:
Q2_IB = Q1_IE:
Q1_IE = Q1_IB X (1 + ):

>> 1,

Q1_IE = Q1_IB + (Q1_IB X ) =

Q1_IB (1 + )

Q2_IC = X Q1_IB (1 + )
Q2_IC = X Q1_IB X
Q2_IC = 2 X Q1_IB
This shows that output current IE (Q2_IE) is much larger than the input current (Q1_IB)
by 2. For example, if Q1_IB = 10 uA, beta are all 100. Q2s emitter current:
Q2_IE = 1002 X 10 uA = 100 mA, 10,000 times larger
On point 2, the input voltage at the Q1 base is lifted up two VBEs at Q2s emitter
(Q2_VE). If the input is 2 V, VBE is 1 V, and Q2_VB is at (2 V + 1 V) = 3 V. Adding one
more VBE gives 4 V at Q2s emitter, keeping Q2 and Q3 out of saturation. This input
voltage conversion is likely needed especially when the input voltage is relatively low. For
designs that require low input voltage, the Darlington pair becomes an ideal choice as an
input stage. Imagine using the same circuit without the Darlington in figure 4.72. With 1 V
input at Q1 and 1 V VBE, emitter voltage at Q1 = 1 V + 1 V = 2 V. Q3 collector stands at
1 V from Q3s VBE. VEC across Q1 is now 2 V 1 V = 1 V. For a particular bipolar
process, 1 V VEC may be too low, forcing Q1 into saturation. Saturation should be
avoided at all costs because it takes time for the transistor to recover from saturation
during switching, hurting timing performance.

Figure 4.72: PNP differential pair with low input voltages

CMOS Cacosde
Cascode can also apply to CMOS transistors. A CMOS cascode circuit is shown in figure
4.73. Q1 and Q2 gates and Q2 drain are tied to each other. This makes Q1 gate-to-source
voltage (Q1_VGS) equal to Q2 drain voltage. Gate-to-source voltage of Q2 is Q2_VGS.
Apply KVL, source voltage of Q2, Q2_VS = (Q1_VGS Q2_VGS). Plug some numbers
into the circuit. You will gain some real insights into how it works. For example, if
Q1_VGS = Q2_VGS = 1 V for a given transistor size, VT, and temperature, then
according to the Q2s source voltage equation, it is equal to: Q2_VS = (1 V 1 V) = 0 V.
This makes Q1 drain-to-source voltage (Q1_VDS) zero volt cutting off Q1. This circuit
does not operate properly. To fix it, the device size needs to be changed; use the drain

current equation:

By changing the transistor size, VGS could be modified for a given VT and drain current.
In this case, we would like to increase the Q1 VGS to be larger than Q2s. We double Q1s
width to change Q1_VGS from 1 V to 2 V. Q2_VS is now: 2 V 1 V = 1 V. For low
voltage CMOS process, 1 V is possibly enough to keep Q1 from cut-off.

Figure 4.73: CMOS cascode

circuit

Buffer (Voltage Follower)

Lets now go over some op-amp circuits to reinforce what we learned. A very common
opamp usage is a buffer. Its purpose is to provide high input and low output impedances
(voltage divider concept) to maximize signal levels. By definition, the buffer output is the
same as the input. An op-amp can be connected as a buffer, shown in figure 4.74. Its
called voltage follower (unity gain amplifier) because the output follows the input with

gain of one. Comparing to source and emitter followers (single-ended), a voltage follower
is superior because the output is the same as the input without any voltage drop (recall
source and emitter follower output is slightly less than the input).

Figure 4.74: Voltage follower

This op-amp configuration above is a non-inverting amplifier where input voltage
connects to the positive terminal. Using the voltage gain equation developed earlier:

Because Ri and Rf do not exist, this

makes voltage gain transfer function to be 1, i.e., Vout = Vin. In figure 4.74, the op-amp
output is 5 V, which is equal to the input.

Summing Amplifier
The next circuit in figure 4.75 is called summing amplifier. It is an inverting amplifier
with multiple inputs connecting to the negative terminal.

Figure 4.75: Multiple-inputs op-amp

Apply inverting amplifier and KCL rules, and virtual ground is established in the
following circuit (see figure 4.75a) and modified circuit in figure 4.76 on the next page.

Figure 4.75a: Virtual ground at negative terminal

Figure 4.76: Modified multiple-input circuit

Apply KCL, IA + IB = I

I and I are equal but flow in opposite

directions:

This circuit is
a summing amplifier circuit with an inverted output. It adds all input voltages together.
The result of the sum arrives at Vout is phase-shifted by 180 degrees.

Active Low-Pass Filter

Lets now use AC components understand op-amps. Figure 4.77 low-pass filter. We could
develop a Vout / Vin transfer function using standard op-amp and capacitive reactance
rules. For an inverting amplifier:

to further

is an active

Figure
4.77: Active low pass filter using op-amp
This is a low-pass filter with high input and low output impedances by the op-amp (active
device). In some cases, you may want to maintain finite gain in high frequency. A simple
change to the circuit (adds Rf) in figure 4.78 achieves that. Revised transfer function:

Figure 4.78:
Add Rf in active low-pass filter
Based on this transfer function, starting at low frequency, the denominator is close to zero.
Vout / Vin is large. Input frequency starts to increase, and Vout / Vin starts to fall at 20 dB
/ decade rate. At extremely high frequency, voltage gain remains roughly constant because
2 f C cancel out each other:

The transfer function is best described by a bode plot (see figure 4.79).

Figure 4.79: Bode plot

Again from Vout / Vout transfer function:

At high frequency, voltage gain remains constant and holds steady by Rf to Ris ratio. The
bode plot above is an excellent method to verify circuit behaviors and performances. With
the use of capacitors and inductors in feedback circuits, you need to take phase shift into
consideration because it could potentially cause oscillations. Recall R C, voltage, and
current (lead, lag) characteristics in chapter 3, AC. Feedback signal arriving back at the
input may either lead or lag output signals. These L, C components could cause circuits to
behave erratically (circuit oscillation). Unwanted oscillations create noise and unstable
output in the system. They should be prevented at all costs. The criteria of oscillation
depend on phase shift that exceeds 360 degrees when gain is above unity. In circuit design
analysis, gain and phase margins are often used to determine oscillation criteria. We will
look a closer at these circuit design criteria later in the positive feedback section.

Circuit Simulator
On circuit design process, circuit simulation software like Multisim (made by National
Instruments) is popular among academia. Often used in electronics course labs by
students, Multisim constructs (schematic entry) analog and digital electronic circuits at the
device level. You can easily place schematic symbols and connect them by wires in
software. Multisim offers simulation capability (DC, transient, and AC). The simulation

results can be displayed on computer monitors in graphs and waveforms. You can place
test probes on nodes (nets) to measure V and I anywhere in the schematic. Adding
electronics instruments (DMM, oscilloscope, function generator, etc.) is convenient with a
few mouse clicks. Its a great way to confirm theories and verify applications before
building the physical circuits. Figure 4.80 and 4.81 show an op-amp simulation bench,
component selection window, and scope waveform window.

Figure 4.80: Multisim schematic capture (Courtesy of National Instruments)

Figure 4.81: Multisim component selection and oscilloscope simulation waveform

The commercial version of Multisim is available with more advanced features such as
device model modifications. This means the software will include real world parasitic
parameters into transistor, resistor, diode, capacitor, and inductor models. The computer
simulation software then uses these parameters and feeds them into the simulation
algorithm to reflect what could be the realistic circuit behavior. The results can be verified
using graphical waveforms and probes in the schematics. This design-check process offers
tremendous costand time-saving benefits in terms of making sure the design on paper
performs closely to the final hardware. Being able to verify the design to a certain degree
using computer simulations before running through the manufacturing saves time and
money. On the other hand, simulations could only mimic the real-world scenario to limited
degrees, depending on how accurate the models are. In spite of model imperfections, new
chip design (first silicon) coming out of fab usually meet basic specifications. Beside
National Instruments, Cadence Design Systems, Mentor Graphics and Synopsis are
market leaders in IC design and simulation software. On the test front, in addition to
DMM, power supplies, and function generators, oscilloscopes are standard equipments to
measure AC circuits. Oscilloscopes (scopes) are time-measuring test equipment taking
input from an AC signal. They come in a wide variety differentiated by the channel

numbers, resolutions, and speed. Many high-end scopes are capable of measuring in
gigahertz (GHz) or gigabits per second (Gbps) with built-in printers and touch screen
displays. Scopes have connectors (plugs) that allow Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)
cables to be connected to it. At the other end of the cable would be the AC signal being
measured. The scope displays X-axis as time, Y-axis as either the current or voltage. Users
can zoom in and out of the waveform using voltage and time scales knobs. Figure 4.82
shows an Agilent DSO5012A Series Oscilloscope with dual channel, 100 MHz, 2G
sample/s. The voltage probe in the figure connects electronic circuits and oscilloscopes.
One end of the scope probe connects to the scope connector. The probe tip on the other
end connects to the circuit of interest. Probes are divided into categories such as active or
passive. Active types contain amplifiers to amplify signals. Passive ones are less
expensive with resistors and capacitors built into them. Many probes come with
switchable attenuation settings, e.g., 1X, 10X. The X represents the attenuation ratio. For
1X, the signal at the test pin to scope connector is 1:1 (no attenuation). 10X means the
signal arriving at the scope is reduced by 10 times relative to the test pin signal. Probe
datasheets list probe parameters including input resistance, capacitance, bandwidth,
voltage range, etc. 1X and 10X probes parameters may differ greatly. The 10X setting
offers lower capacitance (<20 pF) with much wider bandwidth.

Figure 4.82: Agilent DSO5012A Series Oscilloscope with scope probe

Getting familiar with these parameters helps engineers and technicians select the right
probe type for a specific test or measurement task. Another popular electronic apparatus is
the function generator. It generates AC signals driving to a load as an AC signal source.
Most function generators are capable of producing signals such as sine, square, or
triangular waves. Frequency adjustment, offset dial knobs, and output connectors can be
found in function generators. Tektronix and Agilent are leading function generator
suppliers. Figure 4.83 shows a Tektronix AFG2000 Function Generator with 20 MHz
bandwidth, 14-bit resolution, and 250 MS/s sample rate.

Figure 4.83:
Tektronix AFG2000 Function Generator (Courtesy of Tektronix)

Hysteresis
Test equipment and electronic systems require the use of hysteresis to reduce false trigger
caused by system glitches. An example is household air-conditioning (A/C) and heating
systems using a thermostat. Figure 4.84 shows the temperature profile of a room over
time. When the temperature rises above a 27C set point, the A/C system turns on to bring
the temperature down. Meanwhile, when the temperature falls below the set point, the
heating system turns on to bring the temperature back up. The single temperature set point
triggers many on-off pulses (false trigger denoted by the dotted circles in figure 4.84).
This increases the wear and tear of the system over time. To prevent that, a hysteresis zone
can be implemented. In figure 4.85, the hysteresis zone consists of two thresholds (upper
and lower). The A/C system only turns on when the temperature goes above the upper
threshold. If it falls below the upper limit, the system ignores it and the output remains
high. When it crosses the lower threshold, the heating system turns on to bring the
temperature up. The detailed implementation of hysteresis will be discussed in the next
section (positive feedback).

Figure 4.84: Temperature control with single temperature set point

Figure 4.85: Temperature control with hysteresis

Using positive feedback in an op-amp can implement the hysteresis technique. Figure
4.86a shows a sampled op-amp hysteresis circuit with Vin and Vout waveforms. This opamp is an inverting comparator with Vin connecting to the negative terminal (V) while
the positive terminal (V+) ties to the midpoint of the voltage divider (R1 and R2) forming
a positive feedback network. V+ becomes the upper and lower thresholds of the
comparator set by the R1, R2 voltage divider. When Vin starts at 0 V (Low) and rises,
Vout flips to the positive rail 5 V saturating the op-amp output stage (V < V+, inverting
amplifier), as shown in figure 4.86b. The upper threshold is now set at 2.5 V by the
voltage divider. While Vin continues to increase from 0 V

Figure 4.86a:
Op-amp with hysteresis, Vin
(before 2.5 V), Vout stays at 5 V due to the comparators high gain. Once Vin rises slightly
above 2.5 V, Vout flips to the 5 V rail (V > V+). Now, the comparators threshold V+ is
at 2.5 V (set by the voltage divider). Vin continues to increase above 2.5 V while Vout
remains at
5 V (V > V+). As Vin (V) starts to fall from its peak just below 2.5 V, it continues to
stay low. V remains less than V+. Once Vin (V) falls below 2.5 V (V < V+), Vout
flips to the positive rail. The same mechanism repeats to the next cycle. The upper and
lower thresholds can be easily set by varying the sizes of R1 and R2.

Figure 4.86b: Hysteresis waveform

Positive Feedback (Oscillation)

The positive feedback in the previous configuration is intentional. However, in any opamp feedback topologies where the feedback resistor network is used, unwanted
oscillation can occur under certain conditions. Circuit oscillations are periodic signals,
which can be intentional (oscillator) or unintentional. If they are unintentional, oscillations
become unwanted noise to the system,
adversely impacting overall circuit
performance. You need to make sure
circuit oscillation does not occur unless
it is intended. To understand
oscillation, we first need to understand
why and how oscillation occurs; then
we examine how to prevent it from
happening. The cause of circuit
oscillation is due to positive feedback.
For example, assume an op-amps input
is an AC source. The op-amp employs
resistor feedback architecture (see

Figure 4.87: Non-inverting amplifier, poles

figure 4.87). In this example, an inverting amplifier is used. There are capacitors inside
and outside of the op-amp. The internal capacitors can be by design or parasitic. The
external capacitor is the capacitive load (CLoad). The capacitors present poles in the
signal chain are imposing phase shift on the signal (chapter 3, AC). Capacitor voltage is
lagging resistor voltage by 90 degrees. This phase shift becomes the criteria for circuit
oscillation. The second effect from the pole is signal attenuation (low-pass filter), where
signal is reduced by 20 dB per decade. Each time a signal passes through a pole
(capacitor), it attenuates by another 20 dB. The larger the capacitor, the more attenuation
is asserted. Both phase shift and signal reduction form the basis of oscillation. This
phenomenon is explained by the bode plot shown in figure 4.88.

Figure 4.88: Gain, phase bode plot

This amplifier presumes to have 100 dB of open-loop gain and 60 dB closed-loop gain at
90 kHz. There are two poles. The first pole (CLoad) rolls off the amplifier gain by 20 dB
and causes a 90-degree phase shift. The second pole gives yet another 20 dB totaling
40 dB roll off. This second pole contributes to another 90-degree shift that gives a total
180 degrees. Because capacitors lag resistor voltage by 90 degrees, two poles (90 + 90)
plus the capacitor lag voltages (90 + 90) yield a total of 360-degree phase shift. Both
feedback and the output signal are now superimposed with each other (positive feedback).
With the gain at the second roll off still above unity gain (0 dB), this circuit is now in
unstable condition (oscillation).
To ensure stability, phase shift needs to be less than 180 degrees for any gain larger than
unity (0 dB). In other words, amplifier gain at a 180-degree phase shift needs to be less
than 0 dB gain. These conditions become the stability criteria. To achieve this, we add a
dominant pole (external or internal) at the low frequency, deliberately moving the gain
curve to the left so that by the time it rolls off to unity, phase shift is less than 180 degrees.
This technique is called dominant pole compensation (see figure 4.89). The downside to
this frequency compensation technique is that desired gain is now at a lower frequency,
reducing amplifier bandwidth. Essentially, you are trading gain for bandwidth by adding a
dominant pole. There are other types of compensation schemes to ensure amplifier
stability such as lead, lag, and feed-forward compensations. The details of these
techniques are beyond the scope of this book and will be discussed in other publications
by the author.

Figure 4.89: Dominant pole compensation

Instrumentation Amplifier
So far, to control gains, all op-amps were constructed with external feedback. An
instrumentation amplifier (INA) allows gain control with external feedback while
maintaining high input impedance. The primarily use of INA is to offer high differential
gain and reject common mode signal originating from noise. INAs come in many forms.
One of the most popular one is the two op-amp INA shown in figure 4.90.

Figure 4.90: Two op-amp instrumentation amplifier

Both inputs VIN1 and VIN2 connect directly to the op-amp inputs offering extremely high

input impedance. The differential gain transfer function of the above INA is as follows:

Linear Regulator
As previously discussed in chapter 2, Diodes, and 3, AC, a zener diode is a linear
regulator. The circuit from figure 2.12 is shown again in figure 4.91. A zener regulator
comes with deficiencies: zeners cathode (node Z) is high impedance. Unless a loads
impedance is extremely high, output degrades substantially (voltage divider). This
problem can be solved by using low-output impedance of emitter or source followers as
buffer shown in figure 4.92. The dotted rectangle represents the impedance transformation
model from highto low-output impedance
(upper right of figure 4.92). There are two
voltage dividers. The

Figure 4.91: Zener regulator

Figure 4.92: Buffered zener regulator

Figure 4.93: Multiple internal zener supplies with NFET buffer

zeners cathode is high impedance (RZ + Rgate). After buffering it with an NFET, the
source is now the output offering low impedance (RS). Rs forms yet the second voltage
divider with RLoad. The second divider retains as much VZ as possible. The trade-off of
this design is the loss of one VGS. Assume VGS = 1 V for a given NFET size:
VOUT = 5 V 1 V = 4 V
If sizing the NFET properly, VGS and drain current optimize the output voltage while
meeting output current requirements. In mixed-signal IC design, its desirable to have
multiple internal voltage sources. The motivation is to isolate noise (highspeed digital
circuits) coupling to the analog circuitries and vice versa. With superb transistor-matching
capabilities in microelectronics, high accuracy internalvoltage regulators are possible.
Figure 4.93 shows an implementation example. VDD_A is the internal supply to analog
circuits; VDD_D power the digital circuits.

Low Drop-out (LDO) Regulator

Figure 4.94: LDO functional block diagram

A low drop-out regulator is a linear regulator operating by feedback network with sensing
circuits. Figure 4.94 shows a functional block diagram of LDO. RLoad could change
regularly. For example, fan speed varies causing its load current to fluctuate. These
changes result in load current change, ultimately changing Vout. LDO has a feedback
network that senses the output voltage (voltage divider). This
voltage (error voltage) is then used to adjust the input current (Iin = Isense + ILoad)
accordingly to keep Vout at its desired value. Its merely a negative feedback system
where the input current modulates from the results of the sense circuit. If the Vout falls, Iin
increases to bring Vout back up. It also works the opposite way. If Vout goes up, Iin
decreases to bring Vout down. Its called low drop-out because transistors are used as a
current source in LDO. By forcing a transistor into saturation, Vout can get fairly close to
Vin before dropping out of regulation. This is advantageous from a power efficiency
standpoint. As a transistor goes into saturation, it dissipates the least power amount
increasing efficiency. For this reason, LDO is suitable for battery-powered applications
where low power consumption is desirable. The trade-off of LDO is the need for
compensation to keep the negative feedback loop stable. Figure 4.95 shows an LDO
example. It uses a PNP transistor called the pass device as a switch. The on-chip error
amplifier senses the output by the voltage divider R1 and R2 at Vsense. This feedback
voltage feeds into the negative terminal of an op-amp (error amp). Vsense is constantly
comparing against the reference voltage (Vref). The error amplifier will do whatever it
takes to make the two input terminals equal (op-amp rule).

Figure 4.95: LDO example

For example, the lead-acid battery, a popular battery type for portable devices such as
rechargeable radios and lamps, is used as Vin. If the battery operates at 6 V nominally,
Vout regulates at 5 V by the LDO. As RLoad changes, Vout falls below 5 V (Step 1).
Vsense is now lower than Vref (Step 2). The error amp is an inverting amplifier. When
input goes low, output rises. The error amp effectively captures a sample of the error,
lifting its output (Step 3). The op-amp output then raises Q1 base turning it on more (Step
3), pulling its collector down (Step 4). Because Q1s collector ties to Q2s PNP base, PNP
now turns on more as the base gets pulled down. As a result, Q2, now supplies more
current (Step 5) to RLoad, bringing Vout back up until Vbe = Vref again. The same
concept applies when Vout goes higher making Vsense > Vref. To set the output voltage, a
simple divider rule is used. For example, if 2.5 V is the desired output voltage, Vref = 1.25
V, R1 = 1 k, R2 would be:

R1 = 1 k, R2 =
1 k
The voltage where the Vout starts to fall out of regulation is called the drop-out voltage.
Its a critical LDO design parameter. The drop-out voltage is the minimum voltage across
the collector and emitter. The lowest drop-out voltage of this example is the VCEsat
(saturation voltage between collector and emitter). This is the voltage at which LDO is

still able to maintain regulation. The smaller this voltage, the better the LDO is because
the it utilizes the most available Vin before falling out of regulation. In this design, the
PNP VCEsat can be as low as 0.7 V. Drop-out voltage relates strongly with load current.
For low load current, VCEsat can be as low as 50 mV. Such low drop-out voltage has
propelled LDO applications to portable, handheld devices in recent years. In addition to
drop-out voltage, transient response is also a design parameter. Output could change
quickly. It takes time for LDO to respond. This time delay is an important consideration,
especially in timing-critical applications. The type of Vin is another design consideration
where Vin could be rectified AC or pure DC. Most LDOs are able to regulate Vout to as
close as + / 5% of the nominal value. LDO by itself draws current even though the
RLoad is disabled or idle. This quiescent current becomes the dominating factor of
draining input battery. Many modern LDOs integrate special features including thermal
shut down and current limit capabilities to prevent damage from excessive temperature
and current to the LDO ICs. For example, load could suddenly drop significantly,
overloading the output. This excessive current could damage the pass device if current
limit capability does not exist. Excessive current can also be caused by the input voltage
(inrush current). The detailed design implementation of thermal shutdown and current
limit is beyond the scope of this book. However, the functional block diagram of these
features is shown in figure 4.96.

Figure 4.96: LDO with current limit and thermal shutdown features
In this example, a current limit resistor, V_iLimit (between Q2 collector and Vout) is
added to the LDO. The size of the resistor determines the current limit threshold. The
internal current limit comparator (iLimit) controls Q2. If over current is detected by the
voltage drop across the V_iLimit resistor, for example, Vout suddenly shorts to ground.
Q2s base will then pull up, shutting itself off. As a result, no current will flow to the load
without damaging the pass device (Q2). The thermal shutdown circuit uses the positive
temperature coefficient of the resistor to combine with the negative temperature

coefficient of VBE diode. A temperature transfer function and threshold can be developed.
Once the temperature goes above the designed trip point, the temperature sensors
collector pulls up, yanking Q1s base down. Q1 collector pulls up turning off Q2. LDO is
then disabled. Both features prevent current flow to the load reducing the possibility of
damaging the pass device.

Summary
Analog electronics interface, transform, and process many analog quantities in all kinds of
applications. Analog electronics should be treated as an extension of DC, diodes, and AC,
because bipolar transistors are made of two diodes. Without a complete understanding of
diodes, its difficult to get a good grasp of transistors. Full analog electronics
understanding leads us to advanced digital signal processing (DSP) and more complex
electronic systems. The building blocks of analog electronics are transistors. Transistors
come in many shapes and forms. Bipolar and CMOS are the most popular types. Switches
and amplifiers are common applications built by transistors. Transconductance smallsignal models are suitable for finding out the exact voltage, current, and power gains of an
amplifier depending upon the amplifier topologies. The op-amp is by far the most widely
used electronic device that is implemented in a large number of designs. This chapter only
covers a few op-amp circuits. Its up to the reader to further explore other circuit
implementations as well as design techniques and tradeoffs. With a solid understanding of
transistors and op-amps, complex circuits can be easily built, tested, and analyzed.

Quiz
1) Design a simple current source. Use one diode, one resistor, and one voltage source.
Your design target is 10 uA from a 5 V supply. Assume VBE = 1 V. Hint: Short the NPN
base and the collector together to form a diode.
2) An amplifier has the following open-loop frequency response (see figure 4.97). From
DC to 10 kHz, gain is at 100 dB. Estimate unity-gain frequency.

Figure 4.97: Amplifier frequency response

3) Vin = 5 V, R = 1 k. Calculate 1) Output current (Iout), 2) NPN base voltage. VBE = 1
V. Hint: IB = 0 A. Op-amp is connected as a voltage follower (see figure 4.98).

Figure 4.98:
Op-amp current source
4) Many analog applications involve measuring temperature. A thermocouple is often used
to measure temperature and produce an analog voltage. Thermocouple devices consist of
two pieces of wire (conductor) made of different kinds of materials. The first conductor
generates a voltage change from temperature change. The second conductor type would
generate a voltage giving a different temperature gradient change. The transfer function of
temperature per degree depends on the thermocouple type. A K-type thermocouple gives
about 40 uV per C while an S-type would give roughly 7 uV per C. Figure 4.99 below
shows a typical thermocouple application.

Figure 4.99: Thermocouple application

Thermocouples are generally small with fast response time. The major issues with
thermocouples are small output impedance. A signal conditioning circuit may be required
before driving the next stage. If the thermocouples output impedance is 50 k, it connects
to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) that has 1 M input impedance. The VOUT
measured by the thermocouple is 450 mV. What is the voltage that appears at the ADC
input? If the minimum ADC input voltage requires 99% of the thermocouple output
voltage, what do you need to add in the system to meet the ADC input requirement?
5) A Schottky diode is a special diode that features low forward bias voltage (150 mV to
450 mV) and fast response time (100 ps to 10 ns). Figure 4.100 shows a Schottky diode
schematic symbol.

Figure 4.100: Schottky diode schematic symbol

These two features made the Schottky diode a good candidate in the switch mode buck
regulator described in chapter 3, AC. One other practical use of the Schottky diode is to
avoid bipolar transistor saturation. Recall the NPN symbol from figure 4.7. Figure 4.101
below shows a base-collector diode and common emitter amplifier.

Figure 4.101:
Common emitter amplifier
As Vin goes up, voltage across the collector resistor increases, causing VC to decrease.
Excessive Vin increase could cause VC to go too low forward biasing the base-collector
diode. How do we utilize the Schottky diode to avoid NPN saturation knowing that the
Schottky diode offers low forward voltage drop?
6) A popular circuit technique is the open-collector (bipolar) or open-drain (CMOS),
shown in figure 4.102. One of the applications of this circuit technique is I2C (i square c)
communication protocol for clock and data lines. The drain in this circuit connects to an
external R1 (pull-up resistor). Its called pull-up because when Q1 is off, the external pin
pulls up to the rail generating a logic 1 (true) signal and vice versa. By knowing the onresistance of Q1 and R1 sizes and the precise voltage, current consumption can be
obtained. Assume the rail voltage is 5 V, Q1 on-resistance is 200 m and R1 is 4.7 k
(the typical size of I2C implementations). What is the voltage at the external pin when the
control signal goes high?

Figure 4.102: Open-drain circuit

7) Figure 4.103 shows an open-loop inverting comparator circuit using a CMOS-based
input op-amp. Reference voltage (Vref) is assumed to be 2 V. Vin is a sinusoidal voltage
input with Vpeakpeak = 0 V to + 4 V. Positive and negative rail voltages are 5 V, 5 V
respectively. Draw a Vout waveform. (Hint: As soon as Vin goes above Vref, Vout flips to
the negative rail and vice versa.) The purpose of Ri is to reduce dynamic gate current due
to the CMOS transistor gate being prone to damage.

Figure
4.103: Open-loop
Op-amp comparator
8) Design an active low-pass filter with f 3db at 10 kHz and a fixed gain of 10 starting at
1 MHz (see figure 4.77), assuming Ri = 100 k.
9) Figure 4.104 shows the package of a standard MOSFET, 2N7002 by NXP
Semiconductor. This MOSFET is spec at 60 V, 300 mA NFET. 60 V is the maximum
drain-to-source voltage. 300 mA means that this NFET is capable of supplying 300 mA
drain current (ID) at a specific VGS. Use the datasheet below and find the VGS value so
that 2N7002s drain current is 300 mA.
http://www.nxp.com/documents/data_sheet/2N7002.pdf

Figure 4.104
2N7002 MOSFET (Courtesy of NXP Semiconductors)
10) On-resistance (RDSon) is non-zero in real transistors. What is the RDSon and drain
current (ID) of 2N7002 if VGS = 5 V?
11) Use PFET to design a Wilson current mirror. The current mirror will produce a 10 uA

reference current assuming ID is 1 uA when VGS = 1 V.

Chapter 5: Digital Electronics

Digital electronics are found in all kinds of electronic systems. Digital signals differ from
analog signals in that analog quantities are non-discrete with a limitless number of
possibilities, potentially leading to unwanted noise. Digital signals deal only with two,
simple, well-defined, discrete levels: low (false) and high (true). The binary number
system is used to describe these two levels: digit 0 (low) and digit 1 (high). The timing
diagram describes the digital signals in figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Digital signal timing diagram

With the simplicity of digital signals, they become the preferred choice to process large
amounts of information (data) with high clock speed. Due to increasing demand for
handling large data amounts from process-intensive applications such as high-bandwidth
internet data communications, next-generation wireless technology, videos, and CPUs in
computing applications, large transistor counts are needed. A CMOS transistor can be
made very small and relatively inexpensively using sub-micron (less than a micrometer)
manufacturing technology. Dense digital circuits like the Intel i7 Core CPU has a die
(chip) size measured approximately 300 mm2 (see figure 4.32). It contains over 1 billion
transistors. Many digital circuits are called logic circuits. The exact voltage levels of the
two binary digits depend on the technology. Advanced CMOS technology can have logic
1 defined as 0.5 V; logic 0 as 0 V. Basic logic circuit building blocks are collectively
called logic gates. In the next few sections, we will focus on these basic logic circuits.
Then we will move on to more complex digital systems. Logic gates come in wide
varieties. The most basic type is the NOT-gate, discussed in next section.

1s and 0s: The Inverter

The logic NOT gate schematic symbol is shown in figure 5.2. The left-hand side of the
symbol represents the input. The small circle on the right-hand side represents the output.
A NOT gate can also be called an inverter.

Figure 5.2: Inverter schematic symbol

An inverter is a singled-ended input and output device. When the inverter input is high,
output is low, and vice versa. A truth table is often used to examine how logic gates work.
A truth table lists all input, output, terminal names, and the input-output combinations. See
inverter truth table (table 5-1).

Table 5-1: Inverter truth

table
The NOT gates truth table is divided into input and output columns. There are two
possible input combinations (high or low) expressed in two rows. When the inverter input
is 1, the inverter outputs 0. When the input is 0, it outputs 1. Figure 5.3 shows an AC
square waves logic input and output after being processed by the inverter.

Figure 5.3: Inverter AC square wave

NMOS Inverter
In figure 4.38 from chapter 4, Analog Electronics, an NFET and resistor are used to
construct an inverter. When VIN is high (e.g., 5 V logic), VOUT at the drain is low. In
high density CMOS design, two CMOS complimentary transistors (NFET, PFET) are used
instead. The reason for that is because of power consumption. Compared to a PFET and

NFET type of inverter, an NFET and a resistor inverter draw more power. This is not an
ideal situation for powersensitive applications such as high-speed CPU design. When
input is high, NFET is enhanced, and current flows through the resistor; NFET and the
resistor are burning I2 R power.

NFET and PFET Inverter

An N, PFET inverter, on the other hand, works differently. Figure 5.5 shows that the PFET
connects to NFET in series. Both gates tie to each other as the input. The drains are
connected together as the inverter output.

Figure 5.4: NMOS

inverter

Figure 5.5: N, PFET

inverter
Using table 4-4 below from chapter 4, Analog Electronics, inverter operations can be
easily explained (see table 5-2).

Table 5-2: Inverter truth table with N, PFET on, off requirements

Inverter Action
To understand NFET and PFET inverter we need to model the transistors as a switch. The

following switch modes in figure 5.6 further describe these circuit operations. If the FET
is on, its enhanced (switch closed). If the FET is off, its cut-off (switch is open). If the
gate is fed high at VIN (left-hand side of figure 5.6), PFET turns off (top switch opens),
NFET is enhanced, and VOUT pulls down due to a non-existing current path. When VIN
is low (right-hand side of figure 5.6), NFET turns off (bottom switch open), PFET
enhanced, and VOUT pulls up due to a nonexisting current path.

Figure 5.6: Inverter switching action

This inverter works much better compared to the NFET inverter in figure 5.4. First of all,
it doesnt draw much current saving substantial power. Secondly, the size of FET can be
drawn relatively smaller than a resistor (saving area, hence costs).

Shoot-Through Current
At first glance, it appears that this inverter does not draw any current at all. But if you look
closely, youll see that it draws transient current during VIN transitioning from high to low
and vice versa. This current is called shoot-through current. Figure 5.7 shows the VIN
transition causing the shoot-through current. Pay attention to the VIN midpoint (2.5 V).
Both P and NFETs are enhanced at the midpoint of VIN causing current to flow through
both transistors. The result of that is the shoot-through current occurring at each VIN
transition. Figure 5.8 is a shoot-through

current waveform with respect to VIN transitions.

Figure 5.8: Shoot-through current waveform

Figure 5.8a: Dead zone Figure 5.7: Inverter shoot-through current

Depending on the impedance of the two transistors and the components attached to them,
the shoot-through current amount can be a significant source of transient noise. To avoid
this, the inverter can be designed such that threshold voltage (VT) is different between N
and PFETs. It means that they are no longer enhanced (on) at the same time. Varying
(skewing) the width and length of the transistors could achieve just that by using the drain
current equation found in chapter 4, Analog Electronics. Some refer to this technique as
break-before-make or dead zone (see figure 5.8a). The shaded area is the dead zone.
Within the zone, both NFET and PFET are off. This prevents shoot-through current at the
expense of slower transition time. There are many other design techniques and trade-offs
in designing transistor circuits. In-depth understanding of transistors is the key to design
success meeting both design and tapeout target.

Ring Oscillator
A popular circuit called a ring oscillator is made of inverters. Ring oscillators can be used
in semiconductor process development to characterize device performance. A ring
oscillator comprises three inverters (see figure 5.9). Suppose the input signal level (far
left) is logic 0 (dotted oval), the NOT gate inverts it and yields logic 1 (first inverter
output). This logic 1 feeds into the input of the second inverter. This inverter changes it to
logic 0. At the third stage output (far right), it yields logic 1 again. This logic 1 (far right
inverter output) resets the input of the first stage from 0 to 1 (dotted line). The logic level

continues to toggle between 0 and 1. As a result, a periodic AC square wave is generated.

Notice that the ring oscillator requires an odd number of inverters to function properly. If
an even number of inverters were used, the ring oscillator output would be locked
(latched) in one state (DC level).

Figure 5.9: Inverter-based ring oscillator

Although the ring oscillator waveform is a square wave, its hardly a perfect one, meaning
that the rising and falling edges of the waveform are not infinitely fast. Recall that
transistor gates form a capacitor between gate, oxide, and substrate. As inverter input rises
from low to high, it literally charges the gate capacitor, resulting in time delay. This delay
is easily explained by:
t = C (V) / I
For example, N, PFET gates capacitance for a 3.3 V CMOS process is 10 pF. Dynamic
gate current is 200 nA. The frequency of this oscillator is:

A
real inverter waveform is shown in figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10: Real inverter waveform

To adjust inverter frequency, you simply increase or reduce the inverter number (increase
or decrease total time delay), hence the changes in frequency. The other techniques to vary
ring oscillator frequency are adjusting the width and/or length of the transistors, and
adding capacitors in between inverters (see figure 5.11).

Figure 5.11: Use a capacitor to increase delay and lower frequency

OR Logic Gate

There are other logic gates that are in the mix of digital building blocks. They are OR,
NOR, AND, NAND, and XOR gates. Below is the OR gate schematics symbol (see figure
5.12).

Figure 5.12: OR gate schematic

symbol
There are two inputs (A, B), one output (O) in an OR logic gate. We use the binary
number system to analyze digital circuits such as an OR gate. Binary numbers use the base
of 2. With two inputs, the total input combinations is 22 = 4. The OR gate truth table is
shown below (see Table 5-3).

Table 5-3: OR gate truth table

OR Gate Schematic
Several transistors are needed to construct
the OR gate. Figure 5.13 shows the schematic
of an OR gate. Two PFETs are connected in
series. Two NFETs are connected in parallel.
Recall the transistor on/off table in chapter 4,
Analog Electronics. The OR gate operation is
understood as such: If either A or B input is
high, the NFET drain (inverter input) gets
pulled down, and the inverters output is
high. The output only goes low if both A and
B inputs are low. When this occurs, NFETs
turn off and PFETs are enhanced, yanking the
inverter input high. This results in inverter

output being low. This satisfies the OR truth

Figure 5.13: OR gate schematic table. By combining N/PFETs in series and

parallel form, logic gates are easily constructed.

Three-Input OR Gate
An OR gate, or any other logic gate for that matter, can have more than two inputs. A
threeinput (A, B, C) OR gate symbol is shown in figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14: Three-input OR

gate schematic symbol
With three inputs, the total number of input combinations is 23 = 8. The three-input OR
gate truth table is shown below (see table 5-4). There are eight input combinations starting
from 000. By adding 1 to 000, it yields 001 (second row). Starting from the
second row, it again increases by increments of 1. Essentially, the next row is the result of
adding 1 to the previous row. This process continues until it reaches the highest value
111 (bottom row).

Table 5-4: Three-input OR gate truth table

From the OR gate truth tables, you can devise that the output of an OR gate is high if any
of the input is high. The output only goes low if all inputs are low (first row).

LSB, MSB
Among the three digits in the OR gate truth table, the number on the far right-hand side
represents the least significant bit (LSB). It carries the smallest weight amount. The
number on the far left-hand side is the most significant bit (MSB). It carries the largest
value. This weighted approach can be explained by converting 110 back to decimal. The
LSB currently has a value of 0 and has a weight of 20. The second digital 1 has a
weight of 21. Finally, the MSB carries a weight of 22. To covert 110 back to a decimal
number, multiply the corresponding binary digit by its weight, then add them up:
MSB LSB

(22 X 1) + (21 X 1) + (20 X 0) = 6
All combinations of gate input numbers yield an output of logic 1, except for an input of
all 0s. The name OR gate comes from the fact that the output yields a logic 1 if one or all
of the inputs is high. To fully understand logic gates, we cant just memorize the truth
table. Instead, we need to fully understand the input and output conditions of a specific
logic gate. With the understanding of these conditions, we can then come up with the truth
table values.

NOR Gate
By adding a dot at the OR gate output, NOR gate is obtained (see figure 5.15).

Figure 5.15: NOR gate

schematic symbol
The dot simply means that all the NOR outputs are exactly opposite (inverted) from the
OR gate outputs. You can imagine there is an inverter at the output of an OR gate. The
NOR gate truth table is shown below (see table 5-5).

Table 5-5: NOR gate truth table

AND and NAND Gates

An AND gate is an important gate worth discussing. The AND symbol in figure 5.16
contains two inputs (A, B) and a single-ended output (O).

Figure 5.16: AND gate

schematic symbol
The truth table below demonstrates the AND gate operations (see table 5-6).

Table 5-6: AND gate truth table

The AND gate only yields high output when both A and B inputs are high (bottom row).
The NAND gate is the opposite of the AND gate, where output goes low when ALL
inputs are high. The NAND gate is simply an AND gate plus a NOT gate. The NAND
gate symbol (solid dot at the output) and truth table are shown in figure 5.17 and table 5-7.

Figure 5.17: NAND gate

schematic symbol

Table 5-7: NAND gate truth table

XOR Gate
The last basic logic gate is the exclusive OR (XOR) gate. XOR outputs go high if the
inputs are different (rows 3 and 4). If the inputs are the same, outputs stay low. The XOR
symbol and operation table are shown in figure 5.17 and table 5-8.

Figure 5.17: XOR gate

schematic symbol

Table 5-8: XOR truth table

Combinational Logic
Combing logic gates together create an endless number of possible combinations. These
logic circuits are created using combinational logic. Figure 5.19 below shows a practical
example. For safety reasons, automotive makers implement the windshield wiper
operation in such a way that the windshield only works if three conditions are met. First,
the front hood is completely closed, and both the windshield wiper switch and the ignition
key are turned to ON positions. This leads to a simple three-input AND operation.
Meanwhile, to make it easier for automotive technicians to work on the windshield wiper,
there is a bypass switch in place to turn the wiper on regardless of the three conditions. An
OR gate combined with an AND gate could accomplish that.

Figure 5.19: Combinational logic practical example

Boolean Algebra
To express the operations more logically, we apply Boolean algebra. For an AND gate,
inputs are multiplied (solid dot) by each other. For an OR gate, inputs are added to each
other. Figure 5.20 describes the logical circuits in Boolean algebra and the symbol
definitions: F (front hood), WS (wiper switch), I (ignition key), B (bypass switch), and
WM (windshield motor).

Figure 5.20: Logic circuits described by Boolean algebra

Using Boolean algebra, a bar on top of the letter is used to show inverted output. The
inverters Boolean equation is shown below.

The application below shows another example of a Boolean circuit expression. Two
temperature sensors are used to control a heating system. If the first or second temperature
falls below a certain temperature (logic 0), the heating system turns on. The logic circuit
and Boolean algebra are shown in figure 5.21.

Figure 5.21: Boolean expression of a heating system application

For NAND and NOR gates, the Boolean equations can be found below (see figure 5.22).

Figure
5.22: NAND and NOR gates Boolean equations

Latch
Combinational logic output does not require any previously stored information (memory)
to obtain a valid output. Many electronic systems, however, require memory to be used for
desired operations. For example, when the user of a microwave oven enters the cooking
time, the time is stored as memory within the microwave oven electronics. Many

automobiles nowadays have memory seats. The passcode of a home security system is
stored as memory within the system. Smartphone cameras store images or videos as
memories. There are many more electronic applications that use memory. Digital circuits
such as the latch and flip-flop are basic building blocks of digital systems and data storage
elements. Digital systems combined with standard logic gates and memory are called
sequential logic. The difference between a latch and a flip-flop is that a flip-flop uses a
clock to determine the output states, a latch does not. A latch consists of two inputs, a set
(S) and reset (R), and a differential output pair (Q, Q_bar). Figure 5.23 shows the latch
schematic symbol.

Figure 5.23: Latch schematic symbol

Figure 5.24: Latch made up of two NAND gates

Figure 5.25: Latch made up of two NOR gates

A latch could include two NAND gates (see figure 5.24). Other than NAND gates, a latch
can be constructed using NOR gates (see figure 5.25). The latch operations are described
using a timing diagram below in figure 5.26. S is fed externally. When S goes high, Q
goes high while R remains low. First, the rising edge of S causes Q to pull up. Q_bar is a
complement (opposite) of Q, i.e., 180-degrees out of phase from Q. Q continues to stay
high (shaded area) even though S goes from high to low. This shaded area represents the
memory is now stored. Q only goes low when R goes high, resetting the Q output. This
reset occurs at the first rising edge of R. While R is purposely set high, S goes up.
However, Q remains low resulting in data stored (second shaded area) on the right-hand
side. Triggered by external signal, R eventually goes low while S remains high.
Ultimately, the falling edge of S sets the output low on the far right.

Figure 5.26: Latch timing diagram

The latch has the capability to retain information. Its free running and doesnt require any
timing-specific requirement (clock) to produce a valid output. In some cases, we would
like to control the output only under some particular timing constraints. This is where flipflop comes in.

Flip-Flop
In the previous latch example, flip-flop would be an ideal choice to control output with
timing requirements. The S-R edge-triggered flip-flop symbol (see figure 5.27) is similar
to that of the latch except that there is an additional pin for the clock input (C). With the
additional clock pin, this flip-flop triggers the output in response to the rising or falling
edges of the clock, hence the name edge-triggered flip-flop.

Figure 5.27: S-R edge-triggered

flip-flop symbol
The operation of the S-R edgetriggered flip-flop is that the output responds only when
clock is high. When clock source is low, outputs remain in their previous states. The
timing diagram in figure 5.28 shows how flip-flop operates. Clock pulse C runs at a fixed
frequency with a 50% duty cycle. S and R signal levels are randomly assigned. During the
first rising edge of S, Q should have been set to high; instead, it stays low because the
clock pulse is low. Q goes high right after the rising edge of the clock. Q continues to stay
high while S remains high. After the first S falling edge, Q resets to low during the high
clock. The first rising edge of R has no effect on Q because S is low. On the second rising
edge of S, Q remains low due to clock being low. Q rises upon the next subsequent high
clock. Q finally gets reset when R goes high. Some flip-flops respond to the falling edge
of clock instead of a rising one. Such a flip-flop symbol is shown in figure 5.29 (dot at the
C pin).

Figure 5.28: Flip-flop timing diagram

Figure 5.29: Falling

edgetriggered flip-flop symbol

D and J-K Flip-Flops

Figure 5.30: D-flip-flop

symbol
Another flip-flop type is the D-flip-flop. It consists of a single-ended input (D). From a
timing-function standpoint, it works exactly the same as the previous flipflops. There are
two inputs internally in the D-flip-flop. There is an internal inverter from the D input to
ensure that two inputs are compliment to each other. The D-flipflop symbol in figure 5.30
shows the internal inverter. Latches and flip-flops are just building blocks of digital
circuits. J-K flip-flops, on the other hand, are a variant of edge-triggered flip-flops. They
work almost exactly as S-R flip-flops except that the output toggles when the clock
signal is high. The schematic symbol for the J-K flip-flop is shown below (see figure

5.31).

Figure 5.31: J-K flip-flop

Frequency Divider

Figure 5.32:
Divide-by-two frequency
divider
One popular application of J-K flip-flops is the frequency divider. A divide-by-two
frequency divider is shown in figure 5.32. Its a 2-bit divider. The bit is the basic unit of
digital information. Its the smallest addressable unit in digital system. A bit could be
assigned either 1 or 0 (transistor on or off). Digital electronics use bits and bytes to
quantify memory size. For example, 8-bits of memory is equivalent to 1 byte. A bit in the
frequency divider represents the number of
possible combinations there are in binary system. For a 2-bit system, there are 22 = 4
combinations. For a 4-bit system, there are 24 = 16 combinations. Table 5-8 shows the
number of possible states in decimal up to 8 bits.

Table 5-8: Bit numbers and number of outcomes

Both flip-flops of the frequency divider inputs are tied to VCC (logic high). The dividing
action can be seen in the timing waveform below in figure 5.33.

Figure 5.33: Frequency divider timing diagram

As clock goes high, QA responds by pulling up. QB goes high as well when QA is now
the clock source at the second flip-flop. QAs high level is stored even after C goes low.
The same goes for QB where it stays high. When C goes high again, QA now toggles back

to low. QB remains high even when QA (QBs clock source) goes low. The process then
continues. You can see that the clock frequency of C is divided by half through QA. QBs
frequency is four times less than C. Additional dividing action can be achieved simply by
adding flip-flops in series. This flip-flop utilizes the clock connected in series, i.e., each
clock is independently operated. This could potentially create a timing error as one flipflop has to wait for the output to respond before triggering the clock of the next flip-flop.

Shift Register
Flip-flops clocks can be connected on a dedicated line making it common among all flipflops. A well-known circuit called a shift register accepts data serially, one bit at a time on
a dedicated line. The shift register output is in the exact form of the input, in this case,
serially. An example of a 3-bit shift register is shown (see figure 5.34). This connection is
a daisy-chain connection. Its name came from the fact that multiple devices are connected
as a chain.

Figure 5.34: 3-bit shift register

The shift register waveform is shown below in figure 5.35.

Figure 5.35: Shift register timing diagram

The first SDIN (data input) rising edge did not cause QA to rise immediately due to the
clock signal being low. QA then goes high at the next rising edge. In other words, QA is
delayed by one clock cycle before able to clock the data in from SDIN. Shift register is
widely used in serial communications. Universal serial bus (USB) is a popular type.
Others are synchronous peripheral interface (SPI), Integrated-integrated circuit (I2C) and
Control Area Network (CAN). These serial transfer protocols will be discussed in chapter
7, Microcontrollers.

Parallel Data Transmission

Data can be transmitted and received via parallel communication protocols. Parallel data
transmission trumps serial transmission because parallels higher data rate with multiple
data transmission can occur simultaneously. The downside to parallel data operation is the
need for more transmission buses and cables, resulting in higher costs. In the 3-bit shift
register example, QA, QB, and QC (SDOUT) can be retrieved in parallel while SDIN
supplies data serially. A practical example in figure 5.36 shows how parallel data output
gets implemented. This is a variable-gain op-amp design with gain controlled digitally by
QA and QB. There are four individual gains. By clocking in SDIN serially and extracting
QA and QB in parallel, four possible gain combinations can be easily selected.

Figure 5.36: Parallel data output using opamp

Gain 1: QA high, QB low

Gain 2: QB high, QA low

Gain 3: QA, QB both high

Gain 4: QA, QB both low,

gain of 1

 >> Vin and R1:

This design example shows that electronic systems can combine both analog and digital
electronics in one design. While analog output is achieved by the op-amp, low-cost and
highspeed digital electronics control gain. This is a classic example of mixed-signal
design.

Multiplexer
A more intuitive way to control gain is to use multiplexer (MUX). A multiplexer has
multiple inputs. It selectively uses only one specific output channel depending on the
control signal (CTRL). A simple MUX symbol and circuit are shown in figures 5.37 and
5.38.

Figure 5.37: Multiplexer

schematic symbol

Figure 5.38: MUX

made of AND and OR gates and inverter
This MUX consists of two AND gates, one OR gate, two input channels (A, B), one
control pin (CTRL), and an output (either QA or QB). When the CTRL pin is high,
channel A is selected while B is ignored using the AND gate logic. When CTRL is low,

channel A is ignored and B channel is selected. The final gain control circuit
implementation using MUX is shown below (see figure 5.39).

Figure
5.39: Gain control circuit using MUX and op-amp

Mixed-signal
If the op-amp on the previous page is bipolar-based, this is a mixed-signal system,
meaning it combines both analog and digital circuits. Both CMOS and bipolar devices can
be used in digital and/or analog designs. The trade-off comes down to power,
performance, and cost. Many applications require interfacing between analog and digital
quantities. For example, when you are talking on a cell phone, your voice is an analog
quantity. Using analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), the voice is digitized and upconverted to a much higher frequency before transmitting as radio-frequency waves in the
air. Once the signal is received by the receiving phone, the process is reversed using
digital-to-analog converters (DACs) where the digital signal is converted back to sound as
analog signals. This analog-to-digital, digital-to-analog concept is shown below in figure
5.40. Electronic systems such as the one below require engineers ability to determine
what type of device to use in either analog or digital systems.

Figure 5.40: Analog-to-Digital-to-Analog concept

For industrial applications such as motor controls, you need to be cautious when
integrating analog and digital designs. From a system spec standpoint, a motor takes more
power and heavier load (current) to operate. CMOS devices are generally insufficient as
output devices to drive a motor. Although there are special MOSFET types such as power
MOSFETs that are capable of driving higher loads, bipolar devices are usually better
choices when it comes to driving heavier loads. In other words, using a logic gate to drive
a motor most likely would result in lack of driving capability.

Level Shifter
To resolve this load issue, a driver (level shifter) circuit can be used. A level shifter
translates (shift) voltage levels from V+ to higher V++ increasing current driving
capability. Figure 5.41 demonstrates this concept.

Figure 5.41: Drive as voltage level shifter

If both digital and driver circuits reside in the same system, its a common practice to have
multiple power supplies and grounds to isolate noises and minimize coupling.
Undesirable, high-speed noise comes mostly from high-speed digital circuits within the
systems. In microelectronic design, multiple power supplies can be generated as described
in chapter 4, Analog Electronics. In addition to creating multiple supplies, digital and
analog grounds can be designed to run separately so that ground currents could return to
other paths. Obviously, these measures increase complexity and circuit cost with increased
performance.

Multi-Layer Board
For printed circuit board design, multiple layers of power supplies and grounds are
regularly implemented in printed circuit boards (PCB) with the same idea above
(segregating noises). Figure 5.42 shows a student-designed circuit board (a temperature
sensor application) using a microcontroller, seven-segment display, AC-DC conversion,

and transformer. The bottom of figure 5.42 shows a Microchip Technology audio
development board for audio applications. This board divides the power and ground into
multiple layers. The input and output jacks (connectors) of this board are 3.5mm.

Figure 5.42: Temperature

sensor PCB (Top), Audio development board (Bottom)
Many logic gates in the marketplace are grouped together into a single semiconductor
package. Major IC manufacturers sell digital chips in various types. Reading device
datasheets thoroughly and clearly ensures the correct chip types are used to meet your
system specifications.

Digital Voltage Levels

Among digital IC specifications, you need to know the exact voltage level that defines
whether its logic 0 or 1. Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL), CMOS, and Emitter-CoupledLogic (ECL) are popular voltage standards found in digital designs. Among these logic
families, propagation delay, toggle speed, and supply voltage are the main parameter
comparisons of these three families. Each iterations over the years. The numbers were
assembled from the latest versions. parameters. Table 5-9 shows the
family has gone through multiple

Table 5-9: TTL, CMOS, and ECL specifications

Analog-to-Digital Converter
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) and digital-to-analog converters (DACs) are found in
literally all kinds of electronic products. Lets first look at ADC. The ADC schematic
symbol is shown in figure 5.43. ADCs come in wide varieties and they are categorized by
performance parameters such as speed (sampling rate in Hz) and resolution (number of
bit) in addition to channel numbers, noise levels, temperature, voltage ranges, and
accuracy. Analog Devices, Texas Instruments, Linear Technology, Maxim Integrated
Circuits, and Microchip Technology are among major ADC suppliers. Most offer online
parametric product search such as this site from Analog Devices:
http://www.analog.com/ps/psthandler.aspx?pstid=10169&la=en to help customers choose
the right parts for their designs. Typical resolution ranges from 8-bit for low-end ADCs to
high-end 24-bit ADCs. The higher the resolution, the more accurate the ADCs are. For
example, an 8-bit ADC with 5 V analog reference voltage yields 256 steps, 28 = 256. Each
step, therefore resolves to 5 / 256 = 19.5 mV. If it were a 24-bit ADC, a 5 V reference
voltage results in 298 nV per step, a much more finer and accurate ADC. The analog-todigital conversion of an 8-bit ADC is described in figure 5.44. The analog input signal is
reproduced then converted to a digital signal as seen in the waveform. ADCs can be
classified in different market segments. From industrial measurement, video, audio, and
data acquisition, to highspeed instrumentation and radio-frequency applications, ADC
topologies are categorized by architecture. Popular ones are sigma-delta (-), successive
approximation (SAR), and pipeline. The differences among their architecture are
characterized by resolutions and sampling rate. Sigma-delta ADCs operate high
resolutions (12 to 24-bit) operating at low sampling rate (10 to 10 kHz). SARs operate in
mid range performance (12 to 16-bit, 100 kHz to 10 MHz). Pipeline runs in the highest
sampling rate (10 MHz to 1 GHz) with the lowest resolutions (8 to 16-bit).

Figure 5.43: ADC schematic

symbol

Figure 5.44: Analog-to-digital conversion of an 8-bit ADC

From figure 5.44, due to low bit number and resolutions of the 8-bit ADC, the digital
output did not represent the analog input waveform quite accurately. With a 24-bit ADC,
the waveform in figure 5.45 shows that the digital representation is closer to the analog
input, offering much higher accuracy and a better replication of the input.

Figure 5.45: Analog-to-digital conversion of a 24-bit ADC

Nyquist Frequency
When we talk about sampling rate, its identified as how often the ADC takes an analog
signal sample. The higher the sampling rate, the more accurate the output would be.
Another ADC spec is throughput rate. Its defined as mega-sample per second (MSPS).
Low end, low cost ADCs run in the 100 Hz range, with high-end ones running in the 1
GHz range. The waveform below (see figure 5.46) shows that the sampling frequency is
running twice as fast as the input signal. Its converting the analog-to-digital signal twice
in every input signal period. The twotimes sampling frequency is the Nyquist frequency.
Its the minimum frequency that the sampling signal needs, i.e., at least twice as fast as the
input signal (and preferably more than twice), in order to convert an analog value into a
digital value with less error.

Figure 5.46: Nyquist frequency

The analog-input to digital-output transfer function of an 8-bit ADC is demonstrated in the
graph below in figure 5.47, assuming the reference voltage is 8 V.

Figure 5.47: 3-bit (8 levels) analog input to digital output transfer function
The digital outputs look like ladder steps. These outputs are 3-digit binary numbers with 8
possible output combinations (2 3 = 8). Starting from 000, the value corresponds to 0 V
analog input. Going up one step in the ladder, 001 will be resolved to 1 V input, so on
and so forth. There are eight individual analog input ranges: 0 to 1 V, 1 V to 2 V, etc.
These produce a discrete output code for each analog input. Each analog input voltage
range can literally take an infinite number of values (the definition of an analog signal),
causing differences between the actual analog input and the exact value of the digital
output. This uncertainty is collectively called quantization error. This error ultimately
leads to quantization noise with the ADC.

ADC Gain and Offset Errors

Like any other analog circuits, ADCs come with imperfections originating from design
errors and the manufacturing process. Understanding these errors gives engineers
knowledge about ADCs capabilities and limitations through testing and characterizations.
Gain and offset errors are the main sources of inaccuracies (see figure 5.48). The original
digital output is linear where analog input precisely maps to the digital output code. With
gain error, the ladder step output is shifted to the right, resulting in the wrong digital code
from the analog inputs.

Figure 5.48: ADC gain error

Offset error, on the other, hand gives a tilted digital output as shown in figure 5.49. Both
offset and gain errors are categorized as drift (changes with respect to temperature). Offset
drift is measured in V / C (voltage per degree Celsius). A 24-bit sigma-delta ADC could
feature less than 5 nV / C offset drift. Gain drift is measured in parts-per-million per C
(ppm / C). A high resolution 24-bit ADC could have gain drift as low as 1 ppm / C.
Parts-per-million is simply a way to interpret percentage. 1 ppm means (1 / 1 million) X
100 percent. 24-bit sigma-delta ADCs are good candidates for measurement equipment
applications such as temperature, pressure or weight measurements.

Figure 5.49: ADC offset error

Both gain and offset errors and quantization noise contribute to the non-linear ADC
behavior. Other ADC specifications include signal-noise ratio (SNR) measured in dB.
Ideally, SNR would be infinite if noise is zero. Other specs are power supply rejection
ratio (PSRR), common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), power supply voltage ranges, phase
noise in frequency domain (jitter in time domain), supply currents, clocking schemes, and
interface types. Many ADCs in the market include signal conditioning circuits such as
internal input and output amplifiers, buffers, and sampling clocks. The large number of
ADCs makes system-level design challenging when it comes to selecting the right part for
the applications.

Digital-to-Analog Converter
Digital-to-analog converters (DACs) are the reversal of ADCs, converting digital signals
to analog ones. The DAC output is the proportional value of the digital inputs based on a
reference voltage. The DAC schematic symbol is shown below (see figure 5.50).

Figure 5.50:
DAC schematic symbol
DACs can be found in all kinds of applications: audio, video, digital processing, wireless
systems, manufacturing, motion, process controls, data acquisition, and measurement that
require digital programming capabilities, just to name a few. The DAC transfer function
can be derived below:

Vout: Analog output; Vref:

Reference voltage; D: Digital input code; n: Bit numbers. For example, a 3-bit DAC with
5 V reference voltage (Vref) with digital input code 101 results in:

The 101 digital inputs are first converted to a decimal number using a binary-to-decimal
conversion method. Regarding DAC architecture, many academic texts cover resistive
dividers and binary weighted and R-2R ladder DACs. As with ADCs, DACs applications
are widespread, from cameras, audio and video processing, and medical imaging, to
wireless communications and advanced TV applications. Many end-system designs now
incorporate system-on-chip (SOC) methodology where analog, digital function and
circuits are integrated in one single piece of silicon, motivated by small die sizes, less
board space (lower costs). Majority of high end IC suppliers design, manufacture systemon-chip ICs. One example is in the wireless industry where transceivers (transmitter and
receiver combined in one design) transmit and receive radio signals. Individual circuit
blocks could include ADCs, DACs, amplifiers, buffers, phase lock Loop, multiplexers,
filters, voltage-controlled oscillator, voltage, current references, and other logic circuits all
on one single die. To successfully design highly integrated products, engineers must
understand the entire system-level specifications. Many designs involve circuit and

behavioral blocks simulations to verify design functionality prior to manufacturing.

Binary-Weighted DAC
Figure 5.51 is a simple DAC example called binary-weighted DAC. Its based on a closedloop inverting opamp using summing amplifier topology. D0, D1, and D3 are digital
inputs making it a 3-bit DAC. VOUT is the analog output. All three digital inputs will
have the same voltages. Since D0 input has the largest resistor resulting in the least
amount of current, its the LSB of the DAC where D2 is the MSB. Applying the inverting
amplifier gain rule from chapter 4, Analog Electronics, if all D0 to D3 are high 111 at 5
V, the VOUT is derived as below.

Figure 5.51: Binary-weighted DAC

For
example, if R = 10 k, and RF = 5 k, VOUT = (5 / 10 k + 5/ 20 k + 5 / 40 k) X
5 k, VOUT = 4.38 V

Figure 5.52: DAC transfer function

The analog output versus digital input transfer function graph is shown in figure 5.52.
Many DAC design parameters are similar to those of ADCs. Gain, offset errors, PSRR,
CMRR, temperature, supply voltage variations, system noise, and sampling clock rate
error all affect analog output accuracy. Regardless of DAC parameters, engineers and
technicians need to be concerned with the type of load the DAC is driving. In many cases,
an interface device or circuit is required to provide sufficient load. Some loads require
current or voltage output, hence the need of V-I or I-V conversion at the DAC output. In
some cases, a separate
clock or voltage reference IC is needed for clocking and providing voltage supply to the
DAC or ADC, because there may not be one single data converter that is able to meet all
design requirements.

555-Timer
Perhaps the most widely discussed IC in college curricula is the 555-timer. It can be
implemented in many applications, e.g., precision timing, oscillation, pulse generation,
and pulse width modulation (PWM) with an adjustable duty cycle. The original 555-timer
was invented by Mr. Hans Camenzind who passed away in 2012 at the age of seventyeight. Its one of the most successful ICs ever invented. It remains widely used in
academics and commercial applications. Figure 5.53 shows the 555-timer block diagram
and pin names.

Figure 5.53: 555-timer block diagram (Courtesy of Texas Instruments)

The electrical specification of the 555-timer is shown in table 5-10 below.

Table 5-10: 555-timer electrical specifications

Figure 5.54 shows the simplified internal circuit diagram of the 555-timer.

Figure 5.54: Simplified internal 555 schematic (Courtesy of Texas Instruments)

Lets take a look at a simple 555-timer monostable application (see figure 5.55) using the
simplified schematic. A monostable circuit has only one stable logic state while the other
state is unstable (always in transition). The presence of a trigger signal forces the 555timer into an unstable state (R1, C1, time constant). In this example, the 555-timer
functions as a one-shot timer. The reset pin connects internally to the base of the PNP
(Q25 in figure 5.54)), which controls the discharge pin. Pulling the reset pin low turns on
PNP. This pulls the discharge pin low, forcing output to stay low. Tying the reset pin to
VCC keeps PNP off and the part out of reset state. The output pin connects to a VCC, R2,
and R3 voltage divider as output load. Keep in mind, the 555-timer can source or sink
only up to 200 mA to the load. A 555-timer is not suitable to drive high loads. The control
voltage pin connects to an internal voltage divider (R3, R4, and R5) used as a comparator
threshold. The threshold voltage is set by the internal resistor ratio (1 / 3 X VCC or 2 / 3 X
VCC). The external 10 nF capacitor (C1 in figure 5.55) is mainly for noise reduction and
decoupling purposes. The threshold and discharge pins are tied together upon receiving a
negative pulse at the trigger pin. When the threshold and discharge pins (tied together) fall
below (1 / 3 X VCC), the discharge and threshold pins charge up. The charging time
depends on the R1, C1, time constant value. During this time, the internal flip-flop sets the
output high. When the discharge and threshold pins rise to (2 / 3 X VCC), they trip the
comparator resetting the flip-flop. This lifts the base of internal NPN, pulling the collector
down and discharging C1. The output stays low (stable state) until next time there is a
negative pulse at the trigger pin. This one-shot only works if the negative pulse occurs
slower than the R1, C1 charge time. The trigger pulse, output, and discharge/threshold
waveforms are shown in figure 5.56.

Figure 5.55: One-shot 555-timer application

Figure 5.56: One-shot 555-timer waveforms

Summary
In this chapter, digital electronics were discussed from the ground up. We started from bits
1 and 0 and the definitions of logic gates, and then explained operations from the
device perspective. Spanning from simple logic circuit blocks to popular digital and
analog circuits, ADCs, DACs, multiplexers, digitally controlled variable gain amplifiers,
555-timers, summing amplifiers, and other practical circuits were presented and explained
in a simple manner combining real world quantities and parameters.

Quiz
1) Construct an AND gate using CMOS transistors.
2) Design a frequency divider that generates a 2 MHz square wave signal from a 16 MHz
input clock. Hint: Use three J-K flip-flops.
3) Create a 1 GHz output clock from a 0.5 GHz clock source. Verify it using timing
waveform. Hint: Use a two-input XOR. Separate the 0.5 GHz into two signals. Feed them
to the inputs of the XOR. Make the inputs 90 degree out of phase from each other.
4) Design a variable-gain op-amp (see figure 5.36) with the following gain options: 2, 4, 8,
and 16.
5) How many levels of digital outputs does an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
have? What is the output code of the first and last levels?
6) Calculate the resolution of a 16-bit ADC if the analog reference voltage is 1.8 V.
7) Design a 555-timer application that is astable-based meaning its unstable in both states.
Draw trigger, discharge, threshold, and output waveforms Hint: Connect the trigger, and
threshold pins together.
8) A 3-bit Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) has the following transfer function:
Vout = (Vref X D) / (2n 1)
D: Digital input; Vref: Reference voltage; Vout: Analog Output voltage; n: number of bits
Calculate Vout using digital inputs below. Vref = 2.5 V.
a) 010
b) 111

Chapter 6: Communications
An electronic communications systems function is to transmit and receive information
from one end to another and vice versa. Some communications are one-way (simplex)
meaning one end can only transmit, the other can only receive. Radio and television
broadcast are examples of simplex communications. Other communications techniques are
occurring in both directions (bi-directional). In bi-directional systems, information can be
communicated in two ways: 1) occurring at the same time (full duplex), and 2) one
direction at a time (half duplex). Cell phones and computer networks are prime examples
of full-duplex systems while walkie-talkies (two-way radios) are examples of half-duplex
communications. Communication systems that are able to transmit and receive signals are
called transceivers. A cell phone is a classic transceiver example. Communication systems
comprise a series of analog-to-digital, digital-toanalog conversions where information is
transmitted and received via a communication medium (channel). The medium could be in
the form of wired or wireless (signal travels through the air). The raw material of any
wired medium is typically copper. Fiber optics have gained popularity in recent years.
Most wired communications are standardized as protocols by organizations such as The
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Well-known protocols are RS232 (computer serial port), RJ-45 (phone connector standard) and coaxial cable. Voltage
levels, attenuations, impedances, and frequency ranges are clearly specified by each
standard. A wireless signal goes through the air as the medium is an AC signal called a
radio-frequency (RF) signal. Before transmitting through the air, signals in the
communication systems are first up-converted to much higher frequencies of RF signals
frequency. The RF signal frequency ranges are wide-ranging from 3 kHz to 300 GHz. This
chapter primarily focuses on wireless communications. In the US, each individual
frequencies region (band) hold specific purposes, from phone, radio, satellite, and
television, to broadband communications. Each type occupies a specific frequency region
called a frequency band (spectrum). Frequency band allocations are controlled by the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), a government agency. The picture below
shows a portion of the frequency spectrum designated by the FCC. The numbers on the
top represent the frequencies in Hz. Each rectangle defines the names of usage and
frequency ranges. Communication systems work mostly on frequency domain.

Time versus Frequency Domains

There is a strong relationship between time and frequency domains (frequency = 1 / time)
as described in chapter 3, AC. A periodic sine wave running at 10 kHz with 10 V peak-topeak is displayed in figure 6.1 as a time domain waveform (top). To express it in
frequency domain, a spectrum analyzer displays voltage, current, or power as a function of
frequency (bottom). The spectrum analyzers X-axis is the frequency in Hz. The Y-axis
could be voltage, current, or power.

Figure 6.1: Time, frequency domain of a 10 kHz signal

In the spectrum analyzer display window, it shows that there is a sharp jump characteristic

in the middle at 10 kHz. The rest of the spectrum span from 0 Hz to 20 kHz does not show
any visible shapes. This demonstrates that the signal frequency is constant at 10 kHz.
Recall that in chapter 3, AC, we derived resonant frequency using LC tank circuit. Using
such a circuit is a good example of producing a signal with sharp frequency response
similar to figure 6.1. Most radio signal transmitters implement some type of resonant
circuits to generate filtered, amplified, frequency-sharp response such as series L C where
maximum current occurs (XL Xc = 0), i.e., minimum impedances. This type of design is
called a band-pass filter. It allows a signal to pass through only within a specified
bandwidth (frequency range). Figure 6.1a shows the band-pass current and impedance in
frequency domain.

Figure 6.1a: Band-pass current, impedance frequency domain

On the receiver side, the same technique can be used to filter signals outside of a specific
frequency range called a band-stop. Figure 6.1b shows the frequency response of
frequency modulated (FM) bandwidth. FM will be further discussed later in the chapter. In
figure 6.1b, it shows that the FM bandwidth is limited between 88 MHz to 108 MHz by
band-stop filter.

Figure 6.1b: Band-stop filter in FM receiver

The spectrum analyzer mentioned previously is the equipment of choice to test and
measure band-pass and band-stop filters in frequency domain. There are several
adjustments similar to the oscilloscope allowing users to zoom in and out of the frequency
waveform. In figure 6.1, the display window starts at 0 Hz (far left) and ends at 20 kHz
(far right). The starting, ending, and center frequencies (currently at 10 kHz) can be
adjusted at any time. The Y-axis can also be scaled up and down. In the real world, its
rare to have the sharp waveform characteristic seen in figure 6.1 due to noise that exists in
many places and in various forms. The noise source is usually in electrical form generated
by devices in operations. The circuit (see figure 6.2) shows the noise found in the halfwave rectifier shown by the spectrum analyzer. Connecting the Vout to a spectrum
analyzer, the Vout frequency waveform now shows multiple shapes.

Figure 6.2: Half-wave rectifier noise

Harmonics, Distortion, and Inter-modulation

The signal at the center is called the fundamental frequency (center frequency) where the
others are called harmonics. Harmonic frequency components are caused by non-linearity
within the system, in this case, by the half-wave rectified waveform. The harmonics
frequency signature is constant integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. If the
fundamental frequency (see figure 6.2) is 1 MHz, the first harmonic is located at 2 X 1 M
= 2 MHz, the second harmonic would be 3 X 1M = 3 MHz, and so on. All harmonic
frequencies are periodic while the harmonics amplitude is always less than the
fundamental frequency. Due to the multiplefrequencies nature of harmonics, it becomes a
major source of noise causing distortion to the original signal in an electronic system.
Distortions are deviations or changes made to the original signal. Keep in mind that each
harmonic by itself creates its own harmonics although these sub-harmonics have much
less amplitude than the center frequency. Other sources of distortion in communication
systems are inter-modulations, caused by the sum and difference of two frequency
components. An inter-modulation products table examines the relationships between
fundamental frequencies and individual products designated by order numbers (see table
6-1). Two fundamental frequencies, f1 and f2, are 100 kHz and 101 kHz, i.e., f1 and f2 are
1 kHz apart from each other.

Table 6-1: Order number, F1, F2, and Inter-modulation

From table 6-1, only odd number orders (the first, third, and fifth) are close to f1 and f2.
The odd numbers become the significant noise components of the system within the
spectrum. An inter-modulations spectrum is shown below (see figure 6.3).

Figure 6.3: Inter-modulations spectrum

There could be numbers of harmonics and inter-modulations in non-linear systems. These
components, sometimes referred to as side bands, are undesirable and need to be filtered
out. Low-pass, high-pass and band-stop filter techniques can be applied. Sophisticated
filter types include Butterworth, Chebyshev, and Bessel. Although the details of these
filters are beyond the scope of this book, you should at least take note of their existence.

Modulation
Regardless of wired or wireless signal, most systems go through a modulation process,
which is defined as combining the original information of interests with a carrier signal. A
carrier frequency needs to run at a much higher frequency than the information signal. The
result of this combination yields a modulated signal that includes both the original
information riding along with the carrier signal. This technique squeezes more information
within a certain bandwidth, raising the data rate before the signal was transmitted.

Bit Rate, USB, and Baud

In telecommunication electronics, data rate (bit rate) is quantified by the number of bits

per second (bps). It a measure of how many bits are processed, transmitted, or received
per one second. A popular serial data transfer protocol such as USB version 2.0 (high
speed) data rate is about 48 Mbps. The newer USB 3.0 (super speed) is specified at
maximum 4 Gbps. Figure 6.4 shows a USB logo commonly seen on electronic products.

Figure 6.4: USB logo

Baud rate can also be used to measure data speed. Its different from bit rate in that baud
rate counts the number of symbols per second instead of the number of bits. For example,
if the baud rate is 4,800 baud and each symbol represents two bits, the bit rate is 9,600 bps
(4,800 X 2). Figure 6.5 demonstrates an example of 4 bauds (8 bits/second).

Figure 6.5: Baud vs. bit rate

Modulation is used in all kinds of transmission systems including wired and wireless
internet communication (use of modems) and analog transmission such as radio
transmission (amplitude modulation, frequency modulation). AM frequency bandwidth
ranges from 530 kHz to 1,700 kHz. FM ranges from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Modulation
technique makes it possible by altering the original signal, i.e., by adding an information
signal to the carrier signal creating a modulated signal.

C = F
To further understand why modulations are used, we need to discover the relationship
between frequency, wavelength, and light speed. RF signals are simply electromagnetic
waves that travel through air space at the speed of light. Wavelengths unit of
measurement is the meter. Its the fundamental frequency period. The transfer function of
frequency (F), wavelength (), and light speed (C) is defined as:
C = (F) X ()
Speed of light (C) is a constant that is equal to 3 X 108 meter / second. From the transfer
function, if F goes up, needs to go down so that C remains constant. In wireless
communications, antennae are used frequently. determines the antenna size, i.e., and
antenna size are proportional to each other. To reduce antenna costs, its desirable to keep
the as small (frequency as high) as possible. The other incentive of keeping the antenna
smaller in size is to prevent additional noise captured by the large antenna size. For
example, the wavelength () of a 90 MHz frequency modulation (FM) radio signal is,
C = (F) X ()
= C / F
= 3 X 108 / 90 X 106 = 3.33 meters
From this example, you can see that in order to keep antenna size small, frequency would
need to increase with the constant speed of light (C). By using modulation technique, high
frequency modulated signal can be created by adding a higher frequency carrier signal to
the original signal. We will first see how amplitude modulation works in the next section.

Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM), often used in radio system, best describes how modulation
works. In the US, the AM radio is broadcast on multiple frequency bands. The range of
frequencies goes from 535 KHz to 1,705 KHz. We will figure 6.6 to further understand
AM. In this example, the audio signal operates at f1; the sinusoidal carrier frequency
operates at f2. We assume f1 is also a periodic sinusoidal wave for simplicity reasons. In
reality, the audio signal will be in the form of random voice (analog) signals. The
minimum frequency of the carrier signal (f2) needs to follow the Nyquist theorem, i.e., f2
needs to be at least twice as much as f1. The f1, f2 waveforms are shown in figure 6.6. By
adding f1 and f2 together, the modulated signal can be obtained (see figure 6.7). This
signal contains the original information and the carrier signal running at higher data rate
than the original signal (f1). Note that the amplitude of the modulated AM signal changes
with the f1s amplitude. The modulated signal is enclosed with a sine wave shape, the AM
envelope. The AM envelope is not actually present in the modulated signal. It
characterizes how well the modulated signal is created. To determine the quality of the
modulated output signal, some criteria such as modulating index or the modulation factor
are used. Figure 6.7a on the next page shows Emin, Emax, the minimum and maximum
peak-to-peak levels.

Figure 6.6: Audio

and carrier signals

Figure 6.7: Modulated signal

Modulation Index and Bessel Chart

By definition, modulation index (M):

Figure 6.7a:
Minimum and maximum peak-to-peak levels
Ideally, the modulation index is 1 (Emin is zero). Emin is the major error source regarding
AM transmission. It represents crossover distortion where the signal is transitioning
through the horizontal axis. To further quantify distortions, a Bessel chart can be used in
the table 6-2 below. The table consists of the modulation factor in the far left column. The
smallest factor is zero, meaning there are no harmonics, sideband components, or intermodulation. They practically represent a DC signal. As frequency increases, so do the
harmonic appearances and side bands. These cause the number of side band increases
expanding to the right-hand side of the table. This chart is only showing the modulation
factor up to 1.5 as an example. The modulation index could effectively go up to 10. The
values in the sidebands are normalized sideband amplitude values. The side bands at the
farther right-hand side would have the lowest amplitude compared to the left, e.g., 0.56,
0.23, 0.06, and 0.01 on modulation factor 1.5.

Table 6-2: Bessel Chart

AM Transmitter
The circuit below (see figure 6.8) is an AM transmitter circuit example. This circuit can be
used to create the AM modulated signal in figure 6.7. It is simply a common emitter
amplifier where the collector voltage is the resulting signal modulated by adding the
carrier and audio signals together. By varying the collector resistors, the modulation factor
can be adjusted. The LRC circuit fine-tunes the AM signal frequency using resonant
frequency and band-pass techniques.

Figure 6.8: AM transmitter circuit

On the receiving side, once the AM signal is captured, it needs to be converted back to an
audio signal via demodulation process. An AM detector (demodulation circuit) is needed
to perform such task. A diode, resistor, and capacitor could achieve that in figure 6.8a.

Figure 6.8a: AM demodulation circuit

Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) works fundamentally different than AM. FM radio signal
allocation in the US ranges from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. Although both AM and FM add
audio and carrier signals together before transmitting via the air, unlike AM, FMs
modulated signals amplitude does not change when frequency changes with respect to the
audio signal amplitude. This phenomenon was described in figure 6.9. f1 is the original
audio signal adding to the carrier signal (f2). As the audio frequency (f1) reaches the peak,
the frequency of the FM modulated signal is the highest. When it crosses the zero
horizontal axis, it runs at the lowest frequency. Its due to this nature that FM is far
superior to AM in terms of signal quality, because the AM amplitude fluctuates with the
original signal. These fluctuations greatly contribute to noise. On the contrary, the FM
amplitude stays roughly constant, eliminating the majority of noise components. Its for
this reason radio stations use FM to broadcast higher-quality music. On the other hand,
AM is used mainly for audio (talk shows) broadcast. To achieve unchanged amplitude,
FM noise clipper circuit discussed in chapter 3, AC, can be used (see figure 3.44a).

Figure 6.9: FM modulated signal

Keep in mind AM and FM transmission techniques not only apply to radio transmissions
but are applicable to all other wired and wireless transmission applications including high
frequency, internet, broadband, cellular, RF, and even satellite applications. Especially on
RF, many mobile phones now carry multiple bands in one phone. Depending on the phone
locations, it may have to switch from one band to another to receive and transmit signals.
Popular cellular bands are Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Global System for
Mobile (GSM) and Long Term Evolution (LTE). Each standard specifies a set of protocols
regarding frequency band, carrier frequencies, voice encoding, decoding, and phone
service security. Due to the needs of having multiple signals at other frequency ranges on
one system, frequency generation or synthesis capability is needed. A popular method of
doing so is phase lock loop (PLL).

Phase Lock Loop (PLL)

A typical PLL generates a very accurate clock, for example a carrier signal in an AM or
FM transmission. A signal generated by a PLL would be used internally within the chip
(on-chip) or supplied to other systems. PLL is a key component of radio, wireless,
telecommunication, computing technology, and more. Advanced PLLs generate signals at
different frequencies. Figure 6.10 shows the basic PLL building blocks including phase
detector, low-pass filter, and voltage-controlled oscillator. You can see there is a feedback
loop in the PLL functional block diagram. The phase detector compares the external signal

to the output of the internal voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). PLL is a negative
feedback system. Its task is to self-correct phase difference between the two phase detector
inputs until the difference is zero. When this happens, the internal signal is phase locked
with the external signal. At first glance, PLL does not look that practical. One might say I
could use the external signal as my clock source directly. Why do I need a PLL? From a
practical point of view, that is a correct statement and legitimate question. To answer the
question, you should understand that a practical PLL is implemented with a binary divider
to create signals at multiple frequencies. Figure 6.11 shows the actual implementation.

Figure 6.10: PLL functional block diagram

Figure 6.11: PLL implementation

D1, D2, and D3 are divider bits that can be controlled by a microcontroller. We will
discuss microcontrollers shortly in chapter 7, Microcontrollers. If we assume the divider
bits D1, D2, and D3 are 0, 1, and 2, the frequency divider is then able to divide incoming
frequency by one, two, and four times shown in table 6-3. When the external signal arrives
at the phase detector input, the VCO is running at its designed frequency. The phase
detector output generates a digital pulse that represents the difference between these two
frequencies in terms of phase shift. The low-pass filter converts this difference into a DC
voltage called error voltage (see figure 6.11). This error voltage adjusts the VCO
frequency until both phase detector inputs are the same, i.e., phase locked. At this point,
the output of the phase detector is a DC voltage. It passes through the low-pass filter
keeping the VCO running at the same frequency as the external signal. At any point in
time, if the external signal runs differently than the locked VCO signal, the phase detector
would again capture the phase difference generating a new error voltage. This voltage then
skews (changes) the VCO to phase-lock the input signal again. The error voltage
modulates according to the input signal variations. This topology applies the same
feedback self-correction mechanism similar to what we discussed in op-amps and low
drop-out regulators. Lets apply what we know to a practical scenario. Suppose the
external signal comes from a 50 MHz crystal oscillator (see figure 6.12 on the next page).
The divider bit, D2, is selected. The VCO output will have to be twice (100 MHz) as fast
as the crystal before dividing by two to 50 MHz when the signal is phase locked. This in
turn makes the PLL a frequency multiplier from the crystal. The 100 MHz signal from the
VCO output can then be used to clock other circuits within the system. By using other
divider bits (D1, D2, D3), multiple signals at different frequencies can be synthesized.
PLL in this application becomes a frequency synthesizer, which is widely adopted in

computers, high-speed digital design, microprocessors, and systems that use clock
distributions.

Table 6-3: Binary bit and divider factor

Figure 6.12: PLL frequency multiplier

The number and variety of PLL parts is staggering. Analog companies offer series of PLL
chips with a variety of functions. Figure 6.13 shows an Analog Devices PLL
(ADF4116/4117/4118) functional block diagram, package outline, and dimensions.
According to the datasheet, The ADF411x family of frequency synthesizers can be used
to implement local oscillators (LO) in the up-conversion and down-conversion sections of
wireless transceivers. They consist of a low noise digital phase frequency detector (PFD),
a precision charge pump, a programmable reference divider, programmable A and B
counters, and a dual-modulus prescaler (P / P + 1). This PLL does not include VCO,
which is external to the part.

Figure 6.13: ADI

PLL, ADF4116/4117/4118 block diagram, and package outline

Summary
We covered basic communication systems at the component and system levels in this
chapter. Communication engineering standards, protocols, and specifications were covered
emphasizing time, frequency domain, frequency, wavelength, and speed-of-light
modulation and demodulation techniques, amplitude modulation modulation (FM) were

described at the device and system levels. AM and FM circuits such as AM transmitters
and receivers were reviewed. Communication system parameters such as bit rate, baud
rate, harmonics, inter-modulations, modulation index, and Bessel charts were discussed.
The chapter closes with phase lock loop theory and applications.
relationship. Among
(AM) and frequency

Quiz
1) From the spectrum analyzer display shown in figure 6.14, determine approximately
total bandwidth needed transmit such a signal. Span: The difference in frequency between
far left to right of the display window. Start, Center, and End are the absolute starting (far
left), center (middle), and ending (far right) frequencies in the display window. the
to

Figure 6.14: Spectrum analyzer display window

2) If the signal frequency is 300 kHz transmitted using AM, what is the minimum
frequency of the carrier signal?
3) Assuming Emin, Emax are 100 mV and 2 V, what is the modulation index, M?
4) According to figure 6.11, PLL, if the external crystal frequency is 20 MHz, and control
bit D3 is high, what is the output frequency of the VCO?
5) Use the Bessel chart below in table 6-4 and determine how many significant sideband
pairs a transmission would generate with a modulation factor of 0.5.

Table 6-4: Modulation factor, Bessel chart

Chapter 7: Microcontrollers
Microcontroller Units (MCUs) are silicon chips that act as the brains of many electronic
systems. They are found in commercial, industrial, consumer, and military electronic
products. Automobiles, computers, audio, video, lighting, wired/wireless network
communication, LCDs (liquid crystal display), touch screens, medical devices, motor
controls, temperature controls, power management, mechanical systems, childrens toys,
and home appliances (airconditioners, washer, driers, microwave ovens, and refrigerators)
are all controlled by MCUs. The systems containing MCUs are called embedded systems.
The MCUs are embedded inside without direct access by the end users. The end users
do not have access to the design source code (computer programs). Users only have
limited numbers of programming capability. One example is a microwave oven where
users program the cooking time by inputting the time. Users cannot change how the
time is inputted (e.g., which button to use to input the time). The button locations and the
beep volume and frequency are hard coded in the source programs by the embedded
system designers. The source code was downloaded to the MCUs during design and
manufacturing. MCUs therefore are field programmable. One MCU could have many
applications as long as the source code is different, making MCUs highly configurable.
Embedded system engineers use software development tools to develop and debug
programs. We will discuss development environments later in the chapter. The worldwide
MCU market share was US $13 billion from 2011 data. The top ten worldwide MCU
vendors account for 70% of total MCU sales. They are Renesas Electronics, Freescale
Semiconductor, Atmel, Microchip Technology, Infineon Technologies, Texas Instruments,
Fujitsu, NXP, STMicroelectronics, and Samsung. Among major MCU markets, the
automotive market accounts for almost half of the total market size. Popular programming
languages used by embedded system engineers are assembly, C, and C++. In terms of
MCU types, MCUs are similar to conventional microprocessors in a sense that they both
have CPUs. The difference is in the peripherals (external components). Although both
CPUs and MCUs communicate with peripherals through data and address communication
buses, CPU peripherals are external while MCU peripherals are internal on the same chip
(on-chip). With CPUs, peripherals such as volatile Random-Access Memory (RAM), nonvolatile Read-Only Memory (ROM), clocks, printers, disk drives, monitors, keyboards, or
mice are external devices. In MCUs, RAM (data memory) and ROM (program memory),
along with other peripherals, are on-chip with the CPU. Some examples of MCU
peripherals are comparators, ADCs, DACs, and timers. Depending on the type of MCU,
some come with data bus interfaces including Universal Synchronous Asynchronous
Receiver Transceiver (USART), Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), Inter-Integrated Circuit
(I2C), Universal Serial Bus (USB) and Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) channel. Newer
MCUs come with networking protocols such as TCP/IP, Ethernet, and many other wireless
network capabilities. Due to a large number of peripherals available on MCUs, they are
highly configurable through software programming to control their functions. MCU
datasheets that are several hundred pages are quite common. Figure 7.1 on the next page
shows a simplified block diagram of a CPU and MCU.

Figure 7.1:
Simplified CPU and MCU block diagrams

MCU Parameters
The CPU performance within MCUs is usually lower than conventional computing ones
because there is no need to design embedded systems running in multiple GHz speed.
CPUs in computers often use a passive heat dissipation device called a heat sink to help
disperse heat into the surrounding air due to excessive heat generated by fast clock speed.
Many embedded designs involve human interactions, (e.g., by pushing a button or
inputting on a touch screen). The time delay may be in the milliseconds. MHz clock is
quite sufficient to meet the requirements. For this reason, a heat sink is seldom needed. An
MCU with a CPU that runs above 100 MHz is considered high performance. Many
MCUs CPUs implement ARM (Advanced RISC Machines) architecture. ARM is a
microprocessor family designed according to ReducedInstruction-Set-Computing (RISC).
RISC-based CPUs require a lot fewer transistors than conventional CPUs. This leads to
relative slow clock speed and lower power consumption. This low power methodology
ultimately benefits MCUs from a lower unit price, making it ideal for low-cost designs.
This explains the large MCU application numbers in the market. Figure 7.2 shows a
wireless smoke detector design reference by Microchip Technology using a conventional 9
V alkaline battery.

Figure 7.2: Wireless smoke detector (far right); smartphone, home security system
(bottom)
In addition to the standard parameters such as supply voltage and temperature ranges,
there are vast numbers of MCUs to choose from differentiated by types, product families,
peripherals, and packages. Major MCU vendors like Microchip Technology offer close to
1,000 MCUs to customers. Table 7-1 attempts to list some MCU parameter metrics. Most
MCU vendors have parametric search websites so engineers can look up parts fairly easily
based on their needs.

Table 7-1: MCU parameter metrics

To select the right part for your design, you need to first know the MCU familys
definitions. Popular ones are 4-bit, 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. Embedded system engineers
need to to and 8-bit families (cores) run at low frequencies for general-purpose
applications. Mid- and high-end cores offer high speed and draw more power. A high-end
32-bit core offers higher performance, pin counts, power, and functionality, at a higher
cost. Target application examples of high-end MCUs are accurate commercial, industrial
controls, test, scientific, and medical equipment. To further understand this concept, lets
take a deeper look at the MCU architecture. Most MCUs mentioned in this chapter are
Microchip Technology parts. Be cautious that other MCU vendors may utilize different
architectures. Engineers need to read the specific MCU datasheet for details. Microchip
Technologys MCUs are named PIC (Peripheral Interface Controller) MCUs (PIC
MCUs). Figure 7.3 shows Microchips 8-bit product family. The graphs X-axis is the
number of pins; the Y-axis is the memory size (KB). Bytes are memory units. Each byte of
memory contains 8-bits of data. The bit is the basic unit of digital information (chapter 5,
Digital Electronics). A bit can have a value of either 1 or 0. PIC18 is the highest
performing among the 8-bit family offering the highest pin count and KB of memory.

Figure 7.3: PIC 18 architecture

Figure 7.3a shows a 20-pin PIC18(L)F1XKK22 part pin package diagram and pin
summary.

Figure 7.3a: PIC18(L)F1XKK22 pin definitions (Courtesy of Microchip Technology)

Harvard Architecture
PIC implements Harvard architecture. The special feature of this architecture is the
separation of program and data memory. Program memory (flash) stores user programs.
The CPU fetches (retrieves) program instructions (commands) from the program memory
on a dedicated bus. Data memory writes or reads data (file registers) to and from RAM
and the CPU on a separate bus. The advantage of the Harvard architecture is that the CPU
fetches and executes program instructions at the same time maximizing timing efficiency.
These instructions perform mathematical, arithmetic, and logic operations upon interacting
with the program and data memory. Figure 7.4 demonstrates the Harvard architecture.

Figure 7.4: Harvard architecture conceptual view

Data and Program Memory

The advantage of Harvard architecture is that it improves operating bandwidth allowing
different bus width. The PIC bit numbers refer to the word length of the data bus. An 8bit PIC would have an 8-bit file register (data memory) size representing one-byte of
data (contents). If, for example, the total 8-bit PIC data memory size is 4 KB (4,096
bytes), there would be 512 file registers (8 X 512 = 4,096). The last (bottom) register is
4,095 and not 4,096 because the first registers address starts with 0. Each file register
occupies 8-bits (1 byte) of data. Figure 7.5 shows a simplified 8-bit PIC data memory
block diagram.

Figure
7.5: Simplified 8-bit PIC data memory block diagram
Each register needs to have an address so that the CPU knows where to access (fetch) it.
This is achieved by using the address bus between the RAM and the CPU. Once the
specific registers location is known, data is then transferred between the RAM and CPU
on the data bus. This addressing scheme applies to both data and program memory. To
strike this point clear, the revised Harvard architecture in figure 7.6 shows the address and
data bus in conjunction with the instruction bus.

Figure 7.6: Address and data bus

As previously stated in figure 7.3, PIC18 is an 8-bit PIC family. PIC10, 12, and 16
families all fall under the 8-bit category. The address bus for the PIC18 data memory is
12-bits wide and able to address 212 = 4,096 file registers. The address bus for the
program memory is 21-bits wide, capable of addressing 2 MB (221) program memory
space. Each instruction therefore takes up one program memory address. Figure 7.7 on the
next page describes PIC18s program memory map that shows the instruction bus is 16-bit
wide. In addition to user programs, program memory contains a reset vector, an interrupt
vector, an interrupt service routine (ISR), user programs, a device ID (identification), and
configuration words. The reset vector is the starting point of each program execution
(address 0). The interrupt vector contains the ISRs address and contents. Interrupts will be
discussed later in this chapter. User memory contains source code that engineers write in
their choice of programming language. Program counters and instructions work directly
with the program memory. The program counter keeps track of which instruction to fetch
and execute next for the CPU. Each instruction has a unique program memory address that
is incremented or decremented by the program counter during code execution. After
resetting the device, the program counter is clear, forcing code execution to begin at the
reset vector. An External Master Clear (MCLR) pin can be used. MCLR is an active low
(enabled only when low) pin that needs to pull low for a reset.

Figure 7.7:
PIC18s program memory map
As mentioned previously, there are large numbers of PICs offered within a specific family.
The data and program memory space is device specific, i.e., the sizes vary from one part
to the next. The byte numbers shown are an example only. On PIC18 paging and banking
are used in addressing memory. Program memory is divided into pages while banks divide
data memory. Using the data memory map in figure 7.5 on page 251 as an example, there
would be total of 16 banks with each bank occupying 256 file registers, adding up to 4,096
file registers. 256 X 16 = 4,096. In the data memory, there are two main register types:
general-purpose registers (GPRs) and special-function registers (SFRs). GPRs hold
dynamic data during the execution of a program while SFRs are mainly for peripheral
configurations and operations such as input and output ports (I/O), timers, ADCs, DACs,
and PWMs. The SFR addresses are fixed in the data memory, and start from the lowest
address (see figure 7.8 on the next page).

Figure 7.8: SFR,

GPR in data memory
To summarize MCUs, CPUs, data memory, program memory, and peripherals, figure 7.9
shows a conceptual block diagram of PIC18F containing memory, a CPU core, and
peripherals.

Figure 7.9: PIC18F block diagram

MCU Instructions
The MCU instruction word length varies from one PIC family to another. The PIC18
instructions are 21-bits wide whereas the PIC16 instructions are 14-bits wide. Regardless
of bit size, all instructions consist of operation code (op-code) and operand. Op-codes are
the instructions that perform arithmetic and logic operations. Operands are file registers
addresses. Some instructions are byte-oriented while others are bit-oriented. Byte-oriented
instructions operate on the entire register. Addition, subtraction, logic operations, data
moving, and branching operations are examples of byte-oriented instructions. Bit-oriented
operations perform bit operations. Bit shifting and clearing are examples of bit-oriented
operations. An instruction set is a collection of all instructions. The instruction numbers in
the instruction set is family-specific and may differ greatly. Table 7-2 below lists some
common byte- and bit-oriented instructions in assembly language. Mnemonics in the left
column represent the operands names.

Table 7-2: Byte- and bit-oriented instructions in assembly

F and W in the table represent the file register address and the destination. Below is an
actual assembly code example:
addWF GPIO, F
This byte-oriented operation adds two 8-bit numbers together and produces an 8-bit result.
The F on the far right designates the result destination. In this instruction, we are adding
the values in the working register (W) and GPIO (file register). GPIO stands for generalpurpose input output. GPIO pin functions can be changed by software to input or output
pin. GPIO and W reside in the CPU core and they can store literal values (numbers,
characters, or strings). Lets say the working register contains a value of 3. GPIO
presumes to have a value of 2 prior to executing this add instruction. After this
instruction is executed, the result (2 + 3 = 5) will be stored in the file register (F), which in
this case, is the GPIO register. The value in the working register will remain the same. If
you want to store the result in the working register instead, the following code can be
used:
addWF GPIO, W
In this case, the value of the working register will be replaced with the addition result.
GPIO remains at its original value after the instruction is performed. Using GPIO to drive
a 7-segment display is a common application. A PIC18(L)F1XKK22 can be used to drive
a 7-segment display (see figure 7.10). Each segment is an LED. A 7-segment display can

be common anode (CA) or cathode (CC) type. All anode nodes are connected together in a
common anode-type display. Turing it on requires power (5 V) to the CA node, and an RC
pin to get pulled down. The resistors functions are to limit the LED current.

Figure 7.10: PIC18 drives a 7-segment display

On bit-oriented operations, the following assembly code clears GPIO registers bit number
3. bcf GPIO, 2
The third type of operation is literal control. Table 7-3 shows some examples.

Table 7-3: Literal and control operations

movlw 0xFF
The above literal operation copies the value FF in hexadecimal (0X) to the working
register (W). The control operation below takes program execution at the reset vector.
goto START

Instruction Clock
Every instruction takes time to complete. The instruction clock is derived from an external
clock source that could come from two sources: 1) mechanical resonant devices, such as
crystals and ceramic resonators, or 2) electrical phase-shift circuits such as resistors and
capacitor oscillators. The trade-off between the two is that mechanical oscillator runs at
much higher accuracy with low temperature drift (change). RC oscillators, in contrast,
suffer from poor accuracy (more than 5%) over temperature. The precise instruction clock
frequency is device specific. In the 16-bit PIC24 family, the internal instruction frequency
is 2X slower than the external clock. The dsPIC30 has four external clock cycles per
instruction clock. Figure 7.11 on the next page shows a PIC24s oscillator (FOSC) and
instruction (FCY) frequencies. It takes two external clock cycles for one instruction period
(TCY).

Figure 7.11: PIC24s oscillator (FOSC) and instruction (FCY) frequencies

The instruction clock is significant in embedded design. Instead of using frequency,
MCUs use millions of instructions per second (MIPS) to define its performance. MIPS is
defined by instruction clock, e.g., a 16 MIPS PIC would need a 32 MHz external clock
to operate according to figure 7.11. As for the number of cycles it takes per instruction, it
depends on the instruction type. The majority of instructions take only one cycle; some
take two. Mathematical instructions like division could take as many as twenty instruction
cycles.

Internal Oscillator
MCUs come with internal oscillators; some even have a PLL frequency synthesizer onchip. Designers can select, via software, an internal oscillator to supply the system clock,
the clock for the CPU, and other peripherals. The flexibility of selecting the clock sources
gives designers the flexibility to tailor their applications for optimal performance and
power consumption. Figure 7.12 is a simplified PIC MCU clock source block diagram.
The LP, XT, HS, RC, and EC designations are as follows: EC (quartz crystal resonators),
LP, XT, HS modes (ceramic resonators), and RC mode (resistor-capacitor circuits).
Among ceramic resonators, LP: lowpower crystal, 0 to 200 kHz, XT: crystal or ceramic
resonator, 0 to 4 MHz, HS: high gain setting for the crystal.

Figure 7.12: Simplified PIC MCU clock source block diagram

The timer is an important peripheral in MCUs. The timer could run in the background
without interfering with the main program. It can be used to time an event on an input and
generate an output. During timing, the timer increments on every instruction clock with
delay time determined by the timer register. You can think of the timer as a step counter.
The step size depends on the internal or external clock source. Figure 7.13 shows a timing
function. The start and stop time are fully configurable. The delay time is stored in the
timer registers for retrieval.

Figure
7.13: Timers function
Other than timing, the timer can be used as a counter to count an event. When counting,
the timer increments on every inputs rising or falling edge independent of the internal
clock. In this case, the timer is effectively counting signal transitions. Timers can record
an events arrival time; generate periodic interrupt; and measure pulse width, period,
frequency, or duty cycle. Moreover, we can use a timer to generate a waveform. A simple
application example using a timer could be toggling the LED connected to a GPIO pin
many times per second. This requires timer configuration to overflow the number of times
per second generating an interrupt. The ISR would include the code to blink the LEDs
accordingly. Some programming examples will be shown later in the chapter.

Interrupt
Interrupt is another major MCU feature. It provides a real-time response to the MCU from
either external or internal events. When an interrupt occurs, the main program stops and
the interrupt flag goes high. MCU is instructed to jump to and then run the interrupt
service routine (ISR). ISR is a user-defined program and can implement any MCU
features the programmers would like. Upon ISR completion, the program resumes running
the main program from where it was stopped by the interrupt. The interrupt flag then
needs to be cleared by software. If interrupt is not enabled or if the interrupt never occurs,
ISR will not be called and the interrupt flag will never be set. You can think of ISR as a
program waiting to run under special conditions. These conditions are fully configured by
the programs. There are many interrupt sources; table 7-4 lists some of them. The external
interrupt is a dedicated external pin used exclusively for interrupt. See figure 7.14 for a
practical external interrupt example.

Table 7-4: External

interrupt example
In this example, an RA2 pin is an external interrupt pin. If this pin is set up as the fallingedge triggered, then when the switch closes, RA2 gets pulled down. The interrupt flag
then sets. The program stops and will jump to ISR. In the ISR program, its written that
the LED turns on by pulling up pin RC7 then turns off only if RA2 is high (switch opens).
A second example could be that the switch is replaced by a push button. The ISR can be
written such that once the interrupt flag is set, the LED turns on for a predetermined
period of time using a timer, then turns off.

Figure 7.14:
Practical example of external interrupt

Special Features
MCUs have many built-in features making it highly field programmable. Some MCUs
have separate power supply pins to provide supply voltages to CPUs and peripherals
separately. Isolating power supplies is essential in reducing noise from one area to another.
Some MCUs have internal regulators allowing one external supply voltage (VDD) and
power up multiple blocks within the MCU. This saves on MCU pin and board space while
keeping the number of external supply components minimal. Figure 7.15 elaborates on
this concept. A watchdog timer (WDT) is an independent timer that could recover from a
software malfunction, (e.g., an infinite running loop). If the WDT is enabled followed by
an overflow before it is reset via software, it assumes software control has been lost. It
then automatically resets the PIC. It can be used to wake a device from sleep (low power
mode) without reset provided that the WDT is reset periodically before it times out.
Power-On-Reset (POR) places the MCU in reset state when power is first applied. It then
releases the device from reset after a period of time. This time is controlled by the internal
power-up timer. The PORs job is to give enough time for the VDD to rise up to the
minimum level. Both POR and WDT reset are software configurable. Brown-Out-Reset
(BOR) resets the device if the VDD for the CPU core falls below a certain threshold. A
PIC24 MCU VDD core minimum is around 2 V. During reset, if the VDD core rises up
again, there is a delay time of about 20 us the MCU needs to wait before it gets released
from reset. The idea of BOR is to prevent erratic behavior due to excessive system noise
that may change VDD levels unexpectedly. The delay timer ensures that the voltage is
stable before releasing the device from reset. The Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST) is an
external crystal or resonator. The OST will automatically count 1,024 oscillator cycles
before releasing the clock to the MCU making sure the oscillator has stabilized. Sleep
mode is used to save power by minimizing clocks. The core and most peripherals can be

stopped as a result of sleep. Some PIC MCUs have XLP (extra-low power) technology
to save power with current running as low as 20 nA in deep sleep mode. The device goes
into sleep mode by executing a SLEEP instruction. Unlike an external Master Clear reset,
there are several events that can wake up the device from SLEEP without resetting the
device. The watchdog timer timeout, I/O pin, and peripheral output changes can wake a
device up while not resetting the MCU and then resume program execution. Sleep mode is
extremely useful in battery-powered applications to extend battery life. Examples of
applications are portable medical devices such as blood pressure meters and digital
thermometers; smart energy meters such as water, gas, heat, and electric meters; LCD
drivers for graphic display; integrated USB applications; smart cards for authenticated
systems; embedded wi-fi (wireless fidelity) modules; and power radio modules such as
ZigBee or RFID (radio frequency ID).

Figure 7.15:
Internal regulator

Development Tools
Most MCU vendors offer free stand-alone software development kits (software platform)
to embedded system designers and programmers. The development kits are a collection of
software components all combined into one software package. The components include a
program (code) editor, project manager, programming language support, source-level
debuggers, and software plug-ins. Embedded system engineers can use these software
features to develop, debug applications, hardware all in one software environment.
MPLABX is the latest development tool by Microchip Technology. Its an integrated
development environment (IDE) for embedded system engineers to develop code

(software) in a single, cohesive platform. A snapshot of the MPLABX IDE is shown

below (see figure 7.16).

Figure 7.16: MPLABX IDE

The integration methodology goes beyond code development. Other than the standard file,
project creation, management, and code editor windows, IDE comes with a compiler, an
assembler, simulation, and hardware debugger functionality. A compiler is a software
program that works with high-level languages such as C, C++, or Java. It transfers written
code into machine language so that the MCU (hardware) can understand and run the
applications accordingly. Assembler works on assembly language. Its function is similar to
a compiler bridging the assembly and machine codes. Embedded system designers can
choose any language they prefer. The difference between a compiler and an assembler is
that an assembler works with low-level languages while compilers work with high-level
ones. The major difference between high- and low-level languages is that a low-level
languages syntax is closer to the machine code (0s and 1s). Assembly code is relatively
difficult to understand at first glance whereas high-level code is easier to comprehend.
Using the assembly code shown earlier,
addwf GPIO, F
It may not be obvious the above line of code add the contents of working and file
registers. Comparing it to this C program below:
if ( X == 1)

{
printf (X is equal to 1); }
You can easily see that its evaluating whether X is equal to 1. If it is, then the program
prints out X is equal to 1. Recall MCU families earlier in this chapter. Each family
requires a compiler or assembler within the IDE to convert the programs and outputs to
machines codes before the MCU can run its operations. Most compilers and assemblers
are free. Many are both companyspecific and device-specific, e.g., an 8-bit MCU design
needs an 8-bit compiler, and the same compiler would not work on 16- or 32-bit code nor
would it work in another companys IDE.

Debugger
Debugging the programs within an IDE is called simulation and debug. Simulation checks
for the programs syntax errors using its programming algorithm built within the IDE
software. The ultimate goal of any embedded design is to verify that the code works on the
actual hardware using the debug function. To do so, the debugger is supported in the IDE
to act as a bugreporting tool between the IDE and target system (hardware). The debugger
sends the code out to the hardware that runs the applications based on what the code is
written for. It then reports back to the IDE through the debugger if there are any issues. It
keeps track of data and program memory contents along with program status. If the
program did not work the way the application was intended to, the programmers could
then use the reported information to modify the program accordingly. This error reporting
and program modification process repeats until the desired operations occur at the target
hardware. Microchip Technology offers several choices of debuggers. PICKIT3 is a lowcost debugger with many useful features embedded system designers need. Many
microcontroller companies offer variety of evaluation and development boards. Arduino is
a palm-sized, single-board microcontroller popular among academia and hobbyists.
Microchip Technology also supplies a variety of evaluation and development boards.
Figure 7.17 on the next page shows PICKIT3 and an evaluation board that has a LDC
screen on it.

Figure 7.17: PICKIT3

and evaluation board with LCD screen
In-Circuit Debugger 3 (ICD3) is a CD-sized, mid-end debugger that offers a breakpoint
feature. Figure 7.18 describes the debug methodology using ICD3 as debugger (see figure
7.18).

Figure 7.18: Debug methodology using ICD3

It supports full, high-speed USB connection, wide-input voltage ranges (2 V to 5 V), and
multiple breakpoints so that engineers can pause the program during code executions.
From figure 7.18, you can see that ICD3 acts as the communication bridge between the
IDE and the target board. ICD3 allows users to add breakpoints in the program. The
debugger pauses at where the breakpoint is located during debug. The program continues
to be halted unless programmers click continue in the IDE. Breakpoint is a powerful
debugging tool for pinpointing errors in a program effectively. Figure 7.18a shows an
occurrence highlighted in a red box. When the debug starts, the program executes
instructions one line at a time. At line 13, where the breakpoint is added, the program
pauses during debugging. Programmers can now monitor and view program, data, and
memory contents as they wish. Clicking the continue button in the IDE resumes
program execution and move onto the next line of code (line 14).

Figure 7.18a: Breakpoint on line 13

Other useful features in MPLABX are view, monitor variables or register contents.
MPLABX offers several tools to show memory values used by the program at any time
called Watches and Variables windows. With few mouse clicks, Watches and Variables
windows can be displayed within the IDE. Programmers can choose any registers they
wish to view. An IDE is a major component in designing embedded systems. Engineers
and programmers need to get fully familiar with its features and functions in order to
reduce product time to market.

Design Example: Comparator

To close this chapter, lets take a look at some embedded design examples. Well start with
a comparator. Just like the comparator mentioned in chapter 4, Analog Electronics, it
compares two input voltages. Comparators are standard MCU peripherals often combined

with capture and PWM modules. In this example, the objective is to detect the portable
devices battery voltage. When the battery voltage falls below a threshold, the MCU
comparator output pin will pull up. This output pin can be used to turn on an LED,
notifying the user when the battery is low. The comparator output connects to an internal
timer as a pulse counter. In the application block (see figure 7.19 on the next page), R1
and R2 set the battery voltage threshold. Assume battery voltage is 5 V when fully
charged. 3 V is the threshold voltage you want to light up the LED. Using the voltage
divider rule, resistor values will be:
R1 = 10 k, R2 = 16.67 k
The comparator output goes to an XOR gate. The same output goes to the timer, which
acts as a counter (more on timer later). The second XOR input is a comparator control bit.
It controls the polarity of the external XOR output. If the inverter bit is set to logic 1
(true), the XOR output is inverted. If the inverter bit is set to logic 0 (false), the XOR
output is not inverted.

Figure 7.19: Comparator application

To program an MCU, engineers need to know what registers and control bits to configure.
Figure 7.20 on the next page shows the control bit names and descriptions of the
comparator control register (CMxCON). Once again, the control register name is different
among MCU parts and vendors. The name below is just an example. Many MCUs have
several comparators. The x variable used in the control bit name designates the
comparator numbers. For example, the first comparators register name would be

CM1Con. The comparator polarity selection bit is CxPOL as shown below.

Figure 7.20: CMxCON register control bit names and descriptions

MCU programming is a subject that could take an entire book to cover. Readers who are
interested in learning more about MCU programming need to first choose a programming
language and study it. Below is a series of #define statements that configure the
comparator. In C programming, #define statements are preprocessor statements. They are
used as a substitution for text within code. For example, in line 1 of the example below,
whenever COMP_INT_EN appears in the main program, it will be replaced by the bit
values in binary: 0b1000000 (0b designates the number is a binary number).
#define COMP_INT_EN
#define COMP_INT_DIS #define COMP_INT_MASK Comparator bit
//************* Comparator Output Enable/Disable ************** 0b10000000
//Enable Comparator 0b00000000 //Disable Comparator
(~COMP_INT_EN) //Mask Enable/Disable
#define COMP_OP_EN Enabled on CxOUT
#define COMP_OP_DIS Disabled on CxOUT
#define COMP_OP_MASK Enable/Disable
0b01000000 //Comparator Output
0b00000000 //Comparator Output
(~COMP_OP_EN) //Mask Comparator Output
//******************* Comparator Output Inversion Selection ******* #define

COMP_OP_INV 0b00100000 with OP invert

#define COMP_OP_NINV 0b00000000 OP non invert
#define COMP_OP_INV_MASK (~COMP_OP_INV) Output Inversion Selection bit
//Comparator
//Comparator with
//Mask Comparator
//****************** Comparator Interrupt generation settings ****** #define
COMP_INT_ALL_EDGE 0b00011000 generation on any change of the output
#define COMP_INT_FALL_EDGE 0b00010000 generation only on high-to-low transition
of the output //Interrupt
//Interrupt

Design Example: Timer

The timer is a popular peripheral in MCU. Many applications rely on timing functions.
Time is an important parameter in embedded systems. It is represented by the count of a
timer. Timer bit numbers depend on the MCU family. An 8-bit MCU comes standard with
an 8-bit timer. An MCU timer can run on its own without interfering with the rest of the
system. This feature makes MCU flexible and versatile in many applications. In terms of
applications, a timer can record an event arrival time, generate an interrupt, and measure
the pulse width, period, frequency, or even duty cycle of a signal. Most MCUs come with
more than one timer. The block diagram below in figure 7.21 shows TIMER0 in a PIC16
part.

Figure 7.21: Timer0 block diagram

A timer requires a reference clock to run. In PIC16, TIMER0 can be driven by either
FOSC / 4
(instruction clock) or external clock source (T0CK1). A T0XCS (clock select) bit decides
whether FOSC / 4 or external clock is used. TMR0SE is the source edge select bit. If set to

1, TIMER0
increments on high to low transition. If its set to zero (clear), TIMER0 increments on low
to high transition. There is a prescaler function that slows the clock down. PS<2:0> means
there could be 8 prescaler options (23 = 8). The timer rate can be divided from 1:2 all the
way to 1:256. For example, if the instruction clock runs at 1 MHz, PS bits are set to have a
decimal value of 4, and the internal clock is now running at 250 kHz (1 MHz / 4 = 250
kHz). The next timer bit is a PSA bit. It determines whether or not you want to use a
prescaler. If not used, no clock rate reduction occurs. For an 8-bit timer, when the timer
rolls over to 255, an interrupt automatically occurs (256 incrementing started from 0 and
ends at 255, 28 = 256). We can then use the interrupt signal to control other functions. The
OPTION register is the timer control register. Lets use TIMER0 to create a time delay of
2 ms. At the end of the 2 ms, an interrupt signal is generated. In this example, we are using
a 16 MHz crystal oscillator. First we need to figure out the instruction clock cycle from the
crystal. If you recall, the timer is fed by the internal clock. This clock comes from a crystal
oscillator. Wed need to divide the crystal by four to get instruction clock cycle. That turns
out to be 250 ns.

To slow down the clock, we use the prescaler value of 32. This gives us the actual
instruction clock frequency at 125 kHz (4 MHz / 32 = 125 kHz) or 8 us clock cycle (1 /
125 kHz = 8 us). Consequently, each step the timer counts is now 8 us. To achieve 2 ms
delay, we need to set TIMER0 register to start from 5 so that it will increment 250 steps
rolling over at 255 (5 to 255 = 250). Loading the option register in figure 7.22 would do
exactly what we want.

Figure 7.22: Option register

Below are the C programs implementations of this timer example. In this example, we
name the C function, delay. The delay function will accept a parameter called x as a

character type.
void delay(char x)
The void keyword means this C function does not return any values back to the operating
system. Within the function, we declare i, initialize x, and clear the TIMER0 register.
Since i is an index, we can step through 5 times. Recall that we need to roll over not just
once, but 5 times in order to get 2 ms.
int i, TMR0 = 0, x = 1;
We disable the TIMER0 interrupt by assigning 0 to the timer interrupt enable bit so that
the interrupt flag is first clear initially.
INTCONbits.TMR0IE = 0;
The next step is to load the option register with the appropriate bit values.
OPTION_REG = 0b00000111;
With a simple for loop, the program presets the TIMER0 register to 5 so that it overflows
on the
250th pulse (250 X 8 us = 2 ms).
for ( i = 0; i < x; i ++) { INTCONbits.TMR0IF = 0; TMR0 = 5
Inside the for loop, we first clear the interrupt flag, just to make sure it wasnt set from
other parts of the program. We set x to 1 so that this for loop only executes once. Indexing
it once is all we need to roll over the timer register by setting TIMER0 register started
from 5. The while statement monitors the interrupt flag. It will set if the timer register rolls
over at 255, and then the program will exit out of the for loop. The result of this function
is that we successfully create a 2 ms time delay.
while (!(INTCONbits.TMR0IF)); }

Summary
Microcontrollers market and definitions were first described in this chapter, followed by
MCU types, parameters, architecture, instruction cycle, and instruction set definitions.
MCUs equip with many peripherals that are highly configurable to allow embedded
system designers to tailor specific applications. Practical MCU applications using
comparators, timers, debuggers, IDEs, and programming techniques were covered.
Embedded system engineers need to master both hardware and software skills. A good
understanding of MCU parameters and the datasheet will lead to increased design
effectiveness and efficiency, reducing product design time to market.

Quiz
1) Name five popular MCU applications.
2) Name three differences between MCUs and computing CPUs.
3) What are the two types of memory found in MCUs? What are the differences between
them?
4) What are the most popular MCU product families in number of bits? What does this
number mean?
5) List five popular MCU peripheral modules.

6) If an MCU uses an external oscillator running at 32 MHz, what is the instruction cycle
frequency?

7) List three MCU special features and briefly describe their functions.
8) Write an assembly code that subtracts the value of 5, which is stored in the working
register, from the GPIO register. The result of the subtraction will be stored in the file
register (F).
9) If the instruction clock cycle in the timer design example (see page 269) is divided
down by a 1:8 prescaler instead of 32, what is the final clock frequency?
10) Write a C program to create a 1 ms time base using TIMER1 module.

Chapter 8: Programmable Logic Controllers

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are digital computers used in industrial and
commercial applications. Their main functions are to control machines and automate
complex processes and motions. The PLC market is fragmented with many PLC system
manufacturers. Some leading PLC suppliers are Bosch and Siemens, Allen-Bradley,
General Electric, Panasonic, and Mitsubishi Electric. Figure 8.1 shows an advanced PLC
from General Electric called the Programmable Automation Controller (PAC). Its
dimensions are approximately 4 feet long by 1 foot wide.

Figure 8.1: GE Programmable Automation Controller (PAC)

Due to the needs of operating in industrial environments, PLCs are built to be rugged
while maintaining many components found in personal computers. For example, PLCs,
like computers, have memory, CPUs, input and output terminals connecting to input and
output devices, and built-in power supplies. A PLC lacks, however, a hard drive,
keyboard, and monitor. On the other hand, PLCs come with control programming software
allowing PLC designers to create custom PLC programs on computers to tailor their
design needs. The programming language used in PLCs is ladder logic, a graphical
programming language as opposed to textbased programming languages such as C, C++,
or JAVA. In this chapter, we will cover PLC history, overview, operations, functions,
applications, ladder logic program creation, techniques, and several PLC project
examples.

History
The development of PLCs first started with General Motor (GM) in the late 1960s within
its Hydra-Matic division. The original objective of the PLC was to replace bulky, costly
relays, eliminating cables in the manufacturing systems. The benefits are that they reduce
cost and increase the range of functions, versatility, and flexibility while achieving higher
reliability. A relay acts like a switch applying electromagnetic theory to operate. Its main
function is to control mechanical movements (see figure 8.2). By closing the switch
(above the relay control AC source), an AC control signal is applied to the

electromechanical relay. It energizes the coil via the electromagnet magnetizing the
armature, causing it to deflate downward. As a result, the end points at the right-hand side
of the armature making contact achieving a normallyclosed (NC) condition. If there is no
relay signal applied to the magnet, the armature is deenergized. It then tilts upward
anchored by the spring. It now makes contact to the normallyopen contact (NO) point.
Relays are used in heavy load applications such as motors. The benefit of using relays is
that the control signal is electrically isolated by the magnet, providing isolation protection
between loads and users. This is essentially a safety measure as many industrial
applications involve high-power input and output devices.

Figure 8.2: Relay diagram

The control of electrical systems within GMs Hydra-Matic division in the 60s relied
heavily on conventional hard-wired relays. Imagine a cabinet full of these relays clogged
with cables. Figure 8.3 shows a cabinet with relays and cables.

Figure 8.3: Relay control panel

These external components added not only material and labor costs but also complexity to
the system as well as difficulty in troubleshooting, design, change, and repair. Lowering
costs, increasing flexibility, and ease of maintenance became major initiatives within GM.
GM engineers then developed the concept of PLCs utilizing computer technologies in a
system that would automate complex industrial application processes, and at the same
time the systems would operate optimally in harsh industrial environments filled with dirt,
dust, moisture, and in some cases, chemicals, shocks, and vibrations (e.g., automotive
manufacturing). Since its inception of PLCs, Allen Bradley, as a company, took the
concept further developing the PLC terminology. Allen Bradley (now a Rockwell
Automation company) PLCs have since became the industry standard.

PLC Benefits
PLC functions include timing, counting, calculating, and digital and analog signal
processing. These basic functions form the foundations of PLC structure. The major
advantage of PLCs is that the majority of the functions are contained within the PLC
hardware. This largely reduces the size of the overall systems and the likelihood of

making any wiring mistakes. The designers of the PLC programs have full capability to
create ladder logic programs through software displayed on a computer monitor. Any
program modifications are easily made by software. This is much better than physical
wiring changes, and lowers labor and material costs. Many modern PLCs are equipped
with communication capabilities allowing PLCs to communicate with each other through
wired or wireless connections. With wireless capabilities, users can remotely log into the
system for troubleshooting purposes. Each PLC must include at least one CPU
(microprocessor). This gives PLCs the ability to process data and information in a short
period of time compared to bulky relays. Many PLCs work in conjunction with sensors in
manufacturing environments. Often times, manufacturing facilities have fast-moving
conveyer belt systems (see figure 8.4). The input device is the sensor, whereas the turn
motor acts as the output device in response to the input sensor.

Figure 8.4: PLC application: Conveyor belt system

PLC Components
Figure 8.5 shows a conceptual PLC block diagram. It includes six basic
components/modules: Input and output modules, power supply, CPU, memory (program,
data), and a programming device. The input and output modules can be combined into one
module (I/O module).

Figure 8.5: PLC block diagram

The input module (slot) serves as a gateway between external devices and the internal
circuitries of the PLC. Input devices are hardwired to the input terminals of the input
module. Input modules receive electrical signals from the input devices and then transmit
them internally to the PLC for processing. Many I/O modules are scalable where an
input/output slot can have multiple terminals, from four to sixteen or more. Common input
devices are relays, toggle switches, push buttons, and sensors of all types. These types of
input devices produce signals that are either logic high or low. The I/O modules that
accept and produce discrete signals are called discrete (clearly defined level) input
modules. I/O modules that accept and output analog signals such as temperature, pressure,
or humidity values are called analog I/O modules. Figure 8.6 shows the symbols and
actual examples of PLC input devices. In some PLCs, both input and output modules are
integrated into one module. These printed circuit board (PCB) modules can be plugged
into and out of the PLC. This removable feature makes the PLC system scalable and very
easy to repair without replacing the entire PLC. Figure 8.1, shown previously, contains
multiple input/output modules. PLC input and output devices potentially carry high
current and voltage. Power protection circuits such as opto-isolators are needed to isolate
high-power field devices from lower-voltage PLC electronics. Opto-isolators rely on
lightsensitive transistors to turn on or off internal PLC circuits. Because the transistor is
triggered by an LED, which is physically isolated within the transistor, it provides
electrical isolation of the external power from the internal low-voltage PLC circuits.

Figure 8.6: Switch, push buttons, and symbols

The output modules connect to the output devices through physical wires. Just like input
slots, outputs slots can have many terminals. Examples of output devices are motor
starters, solenoid valves, and indicator lights. The output devices and symbols (motor
starter; solenoid; and red, green, yellow, and blue lights) are shown in figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: Motor starter, solenoid valves, and output device symbols
The power supply provides the electrical power to all modules converting from AC to DC.
The DC voltage supplies power to all internal PLC circuits. The PLC power supply
typically does not support external input or output devices, only internal ones. The AC
ratings are different from one country to another. Common ratings are from 120 V to 240
V AC. The way the CPU works is very similar to a conventional computing CPU in terms
of performing logic operations and interfacing with data and program memory as well as
fetching and executing commands from the PLC programs. The major difference of PLC
CPUs and computing ones are that PLC CPUs performance is generally lower than that
of computing CPUs in terms of clock speed.

PLC Programming and Ladder Logic

PLC programs are written in ladder logic. After a PLC program is written and inputted by
PLC designers using ladder logic software installed on computers (programming devices),
PLC designers can test the programs right on the computer screen without connecting to
the actual PLC. This is called software simulation. If the actual PLCs are available,
designers can upload the PLC programs to the PLCs via a standard computer interface

such as Ethernet or RS-232. End users can then run, control, and execute the programs
using the programming device. During program execution, while the PLC connects to the
programming device, it reports the program status back to the programming device and
displays it on the computer screen for troubleshooting and debugging purposes. When the
PLC programs execute, they operate in repetitive loops. First, the CPU reads the status of
all input devices. Then it executes the PLC program. Finally, the PLC programs update
and control the output devices. This process continues until the program is paused or
stopped by the programmer or end user. The programming device serves as a platform for
PLC designers to enter ladder logic programs in program mode. In the field, hand-held
devices are used in place of programming devices providing portability benefits. A ladder
logic program could include many elements such as normally-open (NO) and normallyclosed (NC) contacts, output symbols, and logical functions. An NC contact has a forward
slash symbol in it. Figure 8.8 shows an example of a ladder logic program, which is
entered by the designer. The program is stored in the program memory of the PLC. In this
example, each horizontal branch is called a rung which comprises contact and output
symbols. S1 to S4 are on rung 1. S5 to S7 are located on rung 2. A contact can be either
normally-open or normally-closed contacts (further explanations will follow shortly). It is
possible to add a parallel branch on a rung. S1 and S4 form a branch instruction. The
circles on the right end of each rung are the output symbols representing the output
devices. These output symbols ultimately control the output device via the PLCs output
terminals. The CPU processes a ladder logic program stored in the memory, one rung at a
time, starting from the top of the program and reading the inputs of contacts from left to
the right.

Figure 8.8: PLC Ladder logic program

In order for the programming elements to be entered correctly, the PLC needs to be set to

program mode. The designers need to first understand the proper operations of the NO and
NC contacts as well as the output symbols. As mentioned previously, NO and NC contacts
correspond to input devices. And the NO contact needs to be correctly addressed to an
input terminal which connects externally to an input device. Lets assume the input device
is a push button. When the button is pushed, the input status of the NO is logically high
causing the contact output status to be in a logic high state as well. When the contact is not
energized, (i.e., the push button is not pushed), then the contact input status is low leading
to logic low output status (see figure 8.9).

Figure 8.9: Normally-open contact status

If a push button is addressed to a NC contact, when the button is pushed, the input status
of the NO is logically high. Because its a normally-closed contact (the forward slash with
the contact symbol), by energizing the contact, logic low contact output is achieved. When
the contact isnt energized, (i.e., the push button isnt pushed), the contact input status is
low. In this case, the contact output status is high. You can imagine that a NO operation
works just like an inverter (see figure 8.10).

Figure 8.10: Normally-closed contact status

All contacts, outputs, and logic function elements in ladder logic programs need to be
addressed accordingly in terms of address format. For NO or NC input contacts, the
following format can be realized:

I: 0/2
This address means that it is an input device denoted by the initial I letter. Followed by
:, the number 0 corresponds to the module number. Recall that a PLC could contain
multiple input or output modules; this zero represents the very first module. The right digit
2 corresponds to the terminal number which represents the third terminal of module 0
(see figure 8.11).

Figure 8.11: Input contact address

PLC programmers need to make sure input contact is addressed correctly so the intended
input device is used according to the PLC programs. Many PLC errors stem from incorrect
contact addressing. The above format applies to Allen Bradleys brand of PLC only. Keep
in mind there are many other address formats from other PLC manufacturers.
The output symbol shares a programming technique similar to that of the input contact.
The output symbol would require the correct address (see figure 8.12). In this case, the
output symbol O: 0/2 within the PLC programs maps to the first output module (module 0)
and the third terminal (terminal number 2) which connects physically to an output device
(motor).

Figure 8.12: Output contact address

As mentioned earlier, contacts can be connected in parallel forming a branch. In figure
8.13, contacts 1 and 2 form a branch. The output symbol logic status is controlled by input
contacts outputs. The output symbol will be in a logic high state if either outputs of
contact 1 or 2 is high, (i.e., it functions as an OR gate). The output symbol status-control
mechanism is best described using continuity. It will be further explained in the next
section.

Figure 8.13: Branch = OR gate

Both NO and NC contacts can be connected as a branch (parallel). Figure 8.14 shows an
example. To enable the output, the normally-open contact input needs to be high (output
high) and the normally-closed contact inputs need to be low (output high) respectively.

Figure 8.14: Branch instruction using NC and NO contacts

If contacts are connected in series, the output is only energized when all 1, 2, and 3 contact
output statuses are high, (i.e., an AND gate operation) (see figure 8.15).

Figure 8.15: Series contacts = AND gate

Just like branch instructions, a combination of NO and NC contacts can be connected in
series. To energize output in figure 8.16, the NO contact input needs to be high while the
NC contact inputs need to be low.

Figure 8.16: Series contact with NO and NC contacts

PLC Programming Example

Lets use a practical example to further study how ladder logic programs work. This
application senses the temperature and humidity of a warehouse. If the temperature and
humidity levels go above a predetermined value, the air-conditioning (A/C) system and

fan would turn on. Additionally, there is a manual overdrive button allowing warehouse
workers to turn on the A/C system and the fan regardless of temperature or humidity
levels. For safety reasons, an emergency stop button is in place to disable all operations.
Before starting to program ladders logic, designers need to first identify what the input and
output devices are. In this design, there are four input devices: a manual overdrive button,
an emergency stop button, temperature sensors, and humidity sensors. For outputs, there
are two output devices: an A/C system and a fan. See table 8-1 for field devices names,
types, and address assignments.

Table 8-1: PLC application input, output devices, and addresses

Figure 8.17 shows the ladder logic program for the previous applications.

Figure 8.17: Air-conditioning and fan ladder logic program

When this program executes in run mode, it goes through one rung at a time reading the

input contact status moving from the left to the right on each rung. This program only
contains one rung even though the branch instruction is formed among input contacts and
output symbols. In order to enable both parallel connected outputs, continuity needs to be
established, meaning logic outputs on each contact need to be high starting from the left of
the rung and continuing all the way to the right. Figure 8.18 demonstrates one way to
establish continuity, denoted by the dotted line. The output status of I: 0/1, I: 1/0, and I:
1/1 all need to be high in order to turn on O: 0/1 and O: 0/2. Although these contacts are
connected in series, each contact is independent and does not affect the contact next to it,
(e.g., a high output at I: 0/1 does not cause the I: 1/0 input to go high). The status of each
contact solely depends on the field device associated with the contact addressed to it. In
this scenario, when the emergency button (I: 0/1) is not pushed, if both temperature (I:
1/0) and humidity (I: 1/1) sensors are tripped, A/C (O: 0/1) and fan (O: 0/2) turn on.

Figure 8.18: Continuity scenario one

There is a second scenario in which both outputs would be on. Its shown in figure 8.19,
denoted by the dotted line. In this scenario, when I: 0/1 and I: 0/0 output statuses are high,
O: 0/1 and O: 0/2 are on. This means when the emergency button (normally-closed) is
NOT pushed while at the same time the manual overdrive button is pressed, the A/C and
fan turn on. Lastly, when the emergency stop button is pressed the output of I: 0/1 goes
low, and regardless of the input status of the rest of the contacts, the outputs stay off. In
this particular scenario, I: 0/0, I: 1/0, and I: 1/1 form a parallel (branch) instruction.

Figure 8.19: Continuity scenario two

Combinational logic circuits (see figure 8.20) can be used to describe and model PLC
programs. Some PLC designers first use combinational logic as design tool before
inputting the actual PLC programs. The equivalent logic circuit of the previous example
consists of two AND gates and one OR gate. The inverter models the normally-closed
contact. If the emergency stop is not pushed, inverter input is low and output is high. If
both temperature and humidity sensors are tripped, the AND gate output is high energizing
the A/C system and fan. If the emergency button is pressed, the AND gate input is low
leading to low OR gate output. If the emergency button is not pressed and the manual
overdrive button is, the AND gate in the bottom results in logic high status turning on O:
0/1, O: 0/2.

Figure 8.20: PLC design combinational logic circuit

There are maximum limits on contact numbers on a rung. If an application requires more
than the maximum contact numbers to be on at the same time to enable an output, an
internal output symbol can be used (see figure 8.21). Suppose five is the maximum
number of contacts allowed on a rung. This design requires all eight NO contacts to be
energized to turn on O: 0/2. On rung 1, five NO contacts are used to control the internal
output (B3: 1/1). The internal output address is then used to address an NO contact on
rung 2 (far left) along with the remaining three contacts. These four contacts now control
the output symbol (O: 0/2). When the first five contacts are closed, (i.e., the outputs of 1 to
5 are all high), the output statuses of these five contacts energize B3: 1/1, which is
addressed to the first input contact on rung 2. This makes the input status of this contact
high. If the remaining three contacts inputs (6, 7, and 8) are high as well, O: 0/2 will turn
on.

Figure 8.21: PLC design using internal output

PLC Programming Syntax

Similar to text-based programming, there are syntax rules in PLC programming that
designers need to be aware of. The following diagram shows common ladder logic syntax.
First, the output symbol needs to be on the far right-hand side of a rung (see figure 8.22).

Figure 8.22: Output symbol syntax

Its valid to have one output on a rung by itself. Its invalid, however, to have only input
contacts (either NO or NC) on a rung (see figure 8.23).

Figure 8.23:
Input, Output symbol by itself syntax
To control multiple outputs at once, a parallel output symbol can be used. Its invalid,
however, to have multiple outputs in series on a single rung (see figure 8.24).

Figure 8.24: Multiple outputs

A branch instruction can be useful when push buttons are used. In most cases, push
buttons require users to hold the button down or else the button is off. In figure 8.25, if the
start button turns on O: 0/3, the user needs to hold the button down the entire time. This is
inconvenient and does not offer much flexibility.

Figure 8.25: Push button application

A special type of branch instruction called a seal-in circuit can be used to resolve this issue
(see figure 8.26). In step 1, the start button is not yet pushed (start button output is low).
Although the stop button (an NC contact) is not pressed making its output to logic high
state, there is no continuity path to turn on the O: 0/3 because the output status of the start
button is low. In step 2, the start button is pressed while stop button stays off, and output

turns on. In this case, the bottom branch contact has the same address as the output (O:
0/3). Enabling the output causes the branch contact output status to go high (dotted line).

Figure 8.26: Seal-in circuit step 1) and 2)

In step 3 (see figure 8.27), the start button is released, and the output remains on due to the
continuity path (dotted line) by the branch contact while the stop button remains off. In
step 4, the stop button is pressed causing its output status to go low breaking the continuity
path. It de-energizes O: 0/3 causing the branch contact input to de-energize.

Figure 8.27: Seal-in circuit steps 3 and 4

After inputting the PLC programs, designers can debug the programs within the software
platform without physically connecting to the field devices. The on/off state of each
device can be easily viewed in the software. This software debug feature allows designers
to focus on ladder logic program development, isolating other design variables from field
devices. When designing applications that use PLCs to control and automate processes
and motions, be sure to capture all system-level electrical and physical specifications from
all input and output devices. All control process flows first must be understood and
documented before programming. Combinational logic can be applied as pointed out
before. The following design example demonstrates the steps to designing and
implementing a successful PLC system (see figure 8.28 on the next page).

Figure 8.28: PLC Conveyor system

This design is commonly found in manufacturing and assembly facilities where conveyor
belt systems are used to transport goods. In this application, when the start button is
pressed, the motor starts to turn, moving the conveyor belt. After the box of goods moves
to the limit sensor position, the motor stops automatically. While the conveyor belt is
running, the green light is on. When it stops, the red light turns on. These process steps are
used to design PLC programs. Aside from process steps, PLC designers and programmers
must understand each and every field devices electrical specifications making sure the
proper input and output modules are capable of receiving and driving the output devices.
Questions may arise regarding start and stop button timing requirements, the red and green
lights current, voltage limitations, motor loading, power specifications, limit switch
sensitivity level, etc. A list of the field devices with corresponding addresses is shown in
table 8-2.

Table 8-2: PLC conveyor application input and output devices and addresses
Figure 8.29 is the ladder logic program of the conveyor belt system. The internal output,
B3: 0/1 on rung 1, is controlled by the start/stop buttons and the limit switch. If the start
button is pressed while the stop button and limit switch are de-energized, then the internal
output, B3: 0/1, is on. On rung 2, the same B3: 0/1 address is mapped to an NC contact
(dotted line), which is now logic high, making the second rung input contacts output low.
This logic low output keeps the red light off. On rung 3, both the green light and motor are
on as a result of B3: 0/1 being on. As the box reaches the limit switch position, input of I:
0/3 is high causing its output to be low (rung 1). This cuts off continuity on rung 1 turning
B3: 0/1 off. On rung 2, the red light turns on due to the low input and high output of the
NC contact (B3: 0/1). On rung 3, the green light and motor turn off. To start the conveyor
again, the user needs to press the start button. The box needs to be taken out of the switch
position. This PLC program design is just one way to perform the design tasks. Remember
that two completely different PLC programs could perform the same functions. A right or
wrong design is not really the question. Rather, a design that has the shortest scan time,
has higher efficiency, and is easier to troubleshoot and maintain will be the best design.

Figure 8.29: Conveyor belt system ladder logic program

Timers
Lets now go over timers in ladder logic programs. Time is a critical parameter in PLC
systems. The timer is a step counter and the step size is determined by time base, which is
easily changed in PLC software. On- and off-timers are available to perform timing
functions. The timer ladder logic symbol of an On-timer controlled by an NO contact is
shown in figure 8.30.

Figure 8.30: Timer symbol and parameters

A timer requires a unique address to differentiate itself from others. In order to program a
timer, a preset value, time base, and accumulative values need to be set up. In figure 8.30,
the timer address is T4: 1. The delay timer is calculated by multiplying the preset value by
the timer base, (i.e., 100 X 1 ms = 100 ms). If a delay time of 1 s is desired, the preset
value can be programmed to 1,000, (i.e., 1,000 X 1 ms = 1 s). The time base can be
changed to other values by software conveniently. Accumulated value represents the delay
time measured in real time. It usually starts from zero seconds. A programmer can read the
accumulated value during program mode in real time. In addition to timer parameters, a
timer comes with output bits that can control other contacts. These bits are enable (EN),
timing (TT), and done (DN) bits. The specific address of each bit is associated with the
timers address. Using T4: 1 as the timer address, timer bit names and addresses are shown
in table 8-3.

Table 8-3:
Timer bit names

On-Timer
Using figure 8.30 as a reference, we can construct a timing diagram to further understand
how a timer works (see figure 8.31). When the NO contacts output is logic high, the EN
bit follows while the timer starts to time (the TT bit goes high while the timer is timing).
At the end of 100 ms, the timer has reached the time delay value set by the preset value.
As a result, the done bit (DN) goes high, and TT now goes low because the timer is no
longer timing. If the NO contact output remains high, the DN bit stays high. If not, the DN
bit goes low, as does the EN bit. Essentially, EN follows the output status of the NO
contact.

Figure 8.31: On-timer timing diagram

On-Timer Application
Lets use an application example to further examine the on-timer (see figure 8.32). This
design equips with start and stop buttons and a motor. 10 s after the start button is pressed,
the motor turns on. B3: 0/1 on rung 1 forms a seal-in circuit. The stop button (normallyclosed) is used as an emergency stop button. B3: 0/1 on rung 2 controls T4: 1. The DN bit
controls the motor.

Figure 8.32: On-timer example

To generate a 10 s delay time, a preset value is set to 1,000. The DN bit turns the motor on
10 s after start button is pressed (see figure 8.33). The motor remains on even after 10 s.
The motor only turns off when the stop button is pressed, resetting the EN and DN bits of
the timer. This turns off the motor.

Figure 8.33: On-timer example timing diagram

Off-Timer
The second timer type is the off-timer. According to figure 8.34, the theory of off-timer
operation is that the DN bit is energized as soon as the off-timer input is high, (i.e., the EN
bit also goes high). When the timer input is false, the off-timer starts to time (TT goes
high). After a period of time set by the preset value, the timing bit (TT) and DN bit go
low. Figure 8.34 shows the off-timer symbol. In other words, the off-timer takes time to
turn the output off.

Figure 8.34: Off-timer symbol

Figure 8.35 is the off-timer timing diagram.

Figure 8.35: Off-timer timing diagram

Off-Timer Application
Lets now use a design example to better understand the off-timer. In this application,
when the switch is pressed, unlike a push button, the switch stays pushed (closed); both
lights turn on immediately. After the switch is pressed again, it opens (off). At that
moment, the off-timer starts to time. The first timer T4: 1 turns Light-1 off 10 s (1,000 X
10 ms = 10 s) after the switch is pressed the second time. Light-2 turns off after 20 s
(2,000 X 10 ms = 20 s). Figure 8.36 shows the PLC ladder logic diagram of this off-timer
application. Figure 8.37 shows the timing diagram of this application.

Figure 8.36: Off-timer application example

Figure 8.37: Off-timer application timing diagram

Counter
In addition to the timer, the counters instructions are available in PLCs. The counter in a
PLC can count items up or down. Its essential to use counters in many applications such
as counting the total number of parts produced in a factory using proximity sensors, or to
keep track of cars coming in and out of a parking lot. Proximity sensors are input devices
that produce a discrete signal when an object passes by the sensor. It can be used in
conjunction with counters. There are two types of PLC countersup and down-counters.
The ladder logic counter symbols are shown in figure 8.38.

Figure 8.38: Up- and down-counter symbols

In the up-counter, the preset value is configurable. Its now set to 5 in figure 8.38. The CU
(counter-up bit) bit goes high when the counter input is true. When the NO contact is
active, the CU bit is high and the accumulated value goes up by one. The counter DN bit
eventually goes high when the accumulated value reaches the preset value 5. A unique
characteristic of the counter is that the accumulative counter value continues to go up even
after it reaches the preset value. For example, if the NO contact is active again, the
accumulative value would go to 6. The following counter diagram shows how an upcounter operates (see figure 8.39 on the next page). In order to reset the counters DN and
accumulative value, a separate reset instruction is required to independently reset the
counters DN bit. Figure 8.40 shows an example of using a counter reset instruction. The
counter DN is reset to zero when switch 2 is closed. The down-counter works very much
like the up-counter except that the accumulated value decreases by one every time the
down-counter input is active. The DU (down-counter bit) is true every time when the
down-counter input is high.

Figure 8.39: Up-counter diagram

Figure 8.40: Counter reset instruction

Counter Application
Lets use a counter and timer to design a bottle-counting application, shown in figure 8.41.
This design involves using a conveyor belt system and a proximity sensor counting the

number of bottles passing through the sensor for a fixed period of time (one hour). Its an
important part of the manufacturing process to evaluate factory throughput.

Figure 8.41: Bottle conveyor system

The ladder logic program is shown in figure 8.42.

Figure 8.42: Conveyor counting application

When the on/off switch is pressed, its active in the ON position. When the on/off switch
is pushed again, its in the OFF position. As soon as the switch is pressed, the timer on
rung 1
starts timing for 3,600 s (one hour). During the hour, B3: 0/1 stays on making the B3: 0/1
contact on rung 3 active. The sensor contact on rung 3 detects a bottle passing through it.
It increments up-counters accumulative value on every bottle passing through the sensor.
The accumulative value of the counter increases by one when a bottle passes through the
proximity sensor. Right after the timer accumulated value reaches 3,600, the timers DN
bit goes high, breaking rung 2s continuity due to the NC contact addressed to timers DN
bit. The count value can now be read from the accumulative value in the counter. To reset
the counter value and DN bit, push the switch again to trigger rung 4s reset instruction.
To start counting for one hour again, press the switch to start the timer all over.

Program Control Instructions

There are many control instructions in ladder logic to control program flows. These
instructions allow designers to enable or disable a block of programs or call a specific
section of the program rungs. It gives flexibility in designing, implementing, and
debugging only certain part of the program, reducing development time.

Jump to Label Instructions

Jump (JMP) is an example of a program control instruction. It works with label symbol
(LBL). Once the JMP instruction is enabled, it jumps to the LBL symbol anywhere in the
program defined by the PLC program. Figure 8.43 shows an example. As the program
progresses from rung 1 to rung 2 and so on, if push button 2 is pressed, the JMP
instruction takes the PLC program to rung 4 skipping rung 3, then continues on to rung 5.
The status of the push button 3 and O: 0/3 will not be examined and processed. The input
and output status of rung 3 remains the same.

Figure 8.43: Jump-to-label instruction example

The purpose of JMP, LBL instructions may be that rung 3 does not affect the outcome of
rungs 4 and 5. By skipping rung 3, the JMP instruction isolates parts of the program
making it easier to troubleshoot and saves scan time during program executions.

Jump to Subroutine Instructions

The next control instructions are the jump to subroutine, subroutine, and return (JSR,
SBR, and RET) instructions. When the JSR is called upon, it jumps to the SBR instruction
within the program. The SBR could contain one or more rungs. At the end of the userdefined subroutine, the RET instruction is needed to return back to the rung right below

the SBR. Figure 8.44 shows the concept of using the JSR, SRB, and RET instructions.
Suppose your PLC program requires task 1 to be performed multiple times. Multiple tasks
will need to be included in the program, taking up program memory space and reduce
scanning time. This is not an efficient way to design PLC programs. If the applications
require fast timing response, the extra scan time may ultimately fail system specifications.

Figure 8.44: Same task performed multiple times

Using subroutines, only one task is needed in the entire program. If the task needs to be
performed, the jump to subroutine instruction calls the task as a subroutine. Once the task
has been completed, the return (RET) instruction takes the program back to the rung right
below the JSR instruction. The program then continues to execute (see figure 8.45).

Figure 8.45: Jump to subroutine concept

Nested Subroutines
The jump to subroutine reduces program sizes and scan time, and it eases troubleshooting
efforts. Its possible to implement a subroutine within a subroutine. Figure 8.46
demonstrates an example called a nested subroutine.

Figure 8.46: Nested subroutine (subroutine within a subroutine)

In this example, the first subroutine is called by JSR1 (Step 1). Within subroutine 1
(SBR1), JSR2 calls the SBR2 subroutine (Step 2). The RET instruction returns the
subroutine back to the rung below JSR2 (Step 3). Step 4 returns SBR1 back to the rung
below JSR1 in the main program. Note that RET returns only to the subroutine it was
called from, not the one prior to that. In figure 8.45, RET in SBR2 only returns to the rung
below JSR2, not JSR1. Careful planning is required so that the correct subroutines are
called.

Temporary End
Temporary end (TND) is yet another useful ladder logic debug feature. Temporary ends
serve as breakpoints throughout the program allowing designers to run the program to
pause and continue one section at a time. A TND can be controlled with or without input
contacts. Figure 8.47 shows a TND concept.

Figure 8.47: TND concept

As the program progresses to rung 3, if the rung 3s normally-open (NO) contact is closed,
the TND will take effect. At this point, the program pauses. When the rung 3s contact
goes low, it disables the TND, then the program continues to scan and moves to rung 4. If
rung 5s contact is not active, it continues onto rung 6. Designers have full control over
when to halt the program during debug.

Data Manipulation Instructions

PLC contains program and data memory similar to microcontrollers. The ladder logic
programs are stored in the program memory. Data, constants, and numbers are stored in
the data memory. There is a need for data to be able to move around so that ladder logic
can be used more effectively. Copy and move instructions are available for this purpose.

PLC Data Structure

We first need to understand data structure and how it is stored within the PLC memory.
Then, we will use some practical examples to understand how data manipulation
instructions increase programming effectiveness. One data word consists of multiple bits.
The 8-bit word (one-byte word) is the most common type, although a 16-bit word is found

in PLC memory. A block of an 8-bit word is shown in figure 8.48.

Figure 8.48: Bit word, weight, and number

In the same way as digital electronics, the first bit (bit number 0) on the right is the least
significant bit (LSB). The last bit (bit 7) on the left is the most significant bit (MSB). This
word has a decimal value as follows that depends on the weight of each bit:
27 X 0 + 26 X 1 + 25 X 1 + 24 X 1 + 23 X 0 + 22 X 1 + 21 X 0 + 20 X 1 = 117
If the PLC data memory size is 4 KB (4,096 bytes), it equates to 512 words, i.e., 512 X 8
= 4,096
bytes. Multiple words make up a file. The number of words in a file is user defined.
Figure 8.49
on the next page shows a 4-word file named File 0.

Figure 8.49: Word file in PLC

Each word in data memory has an address so that the ladder logic program knows exactly
where to fetch it from. Address formats are different among PLC vendors. Figure 8.50
shows a word address example.

Figure 8.50: Word address

MOV Instruction
To manipulate and move data around, we use a MOV instruction, shown in figure 8.51.
Data 01010100 is first loaded into N0: 0 by the ladder logic software. When the switch is
closed, the MOV instruction copies data from N0: 0 to N0: 1 replacing 11110001 in N0: 1
with 01010100. Note that MOV instruction is a copy instruction. The original data in N0:
0 remains as 01010100.

Figure 8.51: MOV instruction

MOV Instruction Application

A counting application that implements MOV instructions is shown in figure 8.52 on the
next page. A count button and turn switch are used as input devices. The two position
switches (positions 1 and 2) set the count values. By turning to position 1, the counter
preset value is set to 500. Position 2 sets the count to 1,000. Using a MOV instruction
easily transfers the count values to the counter without using a second counter. When the
program first starts, on rung 1, the DN bit is low because the counter preset is less than the
accumulative value. This makes the NC contact output high on rung 1. If the count button
is pushed, the up-counter accumulative value goes up by one every time the count button
is pressed.

Figure 8.52: Count application and MOV instruction

Rung 2 sets the counter preset value to 500 if the position 1 switch is closed (dotted line).
If the position 2 switch is closed, the preset value is set to 1,000 instead because both
MOV instructions and destination addresses map to the C5: 1 counter. Once the
accumulative value reaches either preset value depending on whether position 1 or 2 is
pressed, the DN bit goes high. This stops rung 1s continuity. Accumulative value and DN
get reset. A new count can now start over again.

Data Compare Instructions

PLCs come with logic instructions to perform compare functions. Compare instructions
are input instructions. If the comparison result is true, the compare instruction output goes
high. A list of compare instructions that compare numerical values is shown on the next
page: equal to (EQ); not equal to (NEQ); less than (LES); greater than (GRT); less than or
equal to (LEQ); greater than or equal to (GEQ). Lets first examine the EQU instruction.
In figure 8.53, the EQU instruction turns on a red light when source A (10) is equal to
source B (timer accumulative value).

Figure 8.53: EQU instruction example

A not equal to (NEQ) instruction compares two source values. If they are unequal, the
instruction output is true. In figure 8.54, source A contains a value of 0.5 in the word N2:
1 data memory. Source B is assigned to I: 0/3 that connects to a thermocouple. The
transfer function of the thermocouple gives 0.5 V at room temperature 27C. If the
temperature is not 27C, the red light turns on.

Figure 8.54: NEQ instruction example

The great than (GRT) instruction compares sources A and B. If source A is greater than B,
the output is logically true. Figure 8.55 demonstrates an example.

Figure 8.55: GRT instruction example

Source A has a value of 10 in N2: 1. Source B connects to I: 2/1, which takes its value
from a weight sensor. This sensor conversion ratio is 10 lbs per 1 V. When this program

runs, as soon as the weight is greater than 100 lbs (10 V at I: 2/1, 100 lbs / (10 lbs / V) =
10 V), the red light turns on.
LES, LEQ, and GEQ work similarly according to their function definitions. As with data
manipulation instructions, PLC applications can combine data compare instructions with
any other instructions. Figure 8.56 shows an example.

Figure 8.56: Up-counter, LES, GRT application

This is again a counting application with additional functions. On rung 1, the up-counter
preset value is set to 2,000. The proximity switch triggers when an object passes through it
increasing the accumulative value by one. During the first 1,000 counts (less than 1,000),
rung 2 is true turning the red light on. Once the count value goes above 1,000, the red light
turns off and the green light turns on due to rung 3s GRT instruction being true. By 2,000
counts, the counterdone bit goes high. This causes rung 4 to reset the counter, C5: 0.

Math Instructions
Arithmetic functions can be performed using math instructions. PLC math instructions are
output instructions that include addition (ADD), subtraction (SUB), multiplication (MUL),
and division (DIV) instructions. Figure 8.57 shows a math instruction example.

Figure 8.57: Math instruction example

Rungs 1 and 2 control up-counters that are individually triggered by two proximity sensors
(1 and 2). The total counts from both counters are calculated by the add instruction on
rung 3. The result is stored in the destination N2: 1. The ADD instruction on rung 3 does
not have any output symbol connected to it. This is perfectly valid because its an output
instruction. After both counters reach preset values of 1,000, both counters get reset (rung
4).
The next math instruction example is shown in figure 8.58. Its a Vrms converter
application using a MUL instruction. I: 3/7 takes an average peak voltage as an input. The
PLC converts it to using a MUL instruction. I: 3/7 takes an average peak voltage as an
input. The PLC converts it to segment display output device (O: 0/1).

Figure 8.58: MUL instruction example

A DIV instruction example is shown in figure 8.59. It receives an input signal from a
weight transducer (I: 2/1) that produces a weight value in kilogram (kg). The DIV
instruction converts it to lbs. If the button is pressed, the weight in lbs is displayed on an
LCD display (O: 1/1).

Figure 8.59: DIV instruction example

In some cases, you may want to invert a value from positive to negative or vice versa. A
negate (NEG) instruction can perform such a function. Figure 8.60 shows its operations.

Figure
8.60: Negate instruction example
After the switch is pressed, the contents of N2: 3 are inverted from 1 to 0 and the result
gets stored in N2: 4. For example, if N2: 3 data is 00000000, it will be inverted to
11111111. The result is stored in N2: 4. Figure 8.61 is an application combining math and
data compare and manipulation instructions. This is a car wash application. In this design,
there are two car wash types for customers to choose from: standard and supreme.
Standard service takes five minutes. Supreme service takes ten minutes. This application
automates the car wash process controlling the on-time for the water, foam-dispensing
pumps, and the wind-drying motor, depending on whether the standard or supreme button
is pressed by the operator. This PLC program keeps track of the total number of cars
washed. In addition, if the total number of washed cars reaches 490 (500 10), the
maintenance light turns on. The field device names, types, and addresses are shown in
table 8-4 below. In this example, all the water, foam-pumps, and blowers are presumably
on at the same time for simplicity reasons. In reality, there will be separate timers to
control the on-time for each of the three output devices individually.

Table 8-4: Car wash device names, types, and addresses

table

Figure 8.61: Car wash PLC program

On rung 1, pressing the start button starts the timer. The TT branch forms a seal-in to keep
the timer running. Depending on whether the standard button (rung 2) or supreme button
(rung 3) is pressed, either 300 s or 600 s is copied to the timers preset value. During the
timers ontime, rung 4 turns the water, foam-pump, and blower on. Rung 5 keeps track of
the total cars washed using an up-counter. Rungs 6 and 7 determine if the total car number
has reached 490 by using a subtract instruction. If so, the maintenance light turns on (rung
7s GEQ instruction).

Sequencer Instructions
Plenty of industrial and commercial applications execute instructions continuously in a
loop. Industrial washing machines, large-scale warehouse conveyor systems, merchandiseprocessing systems, and traffic light systems are few examples. Sequencer instructions
reduce the number of rungs needed and simplify sequential operations in PLC

applications. A sequencer output instruction (SQO) symbol is shown in figure 8.62.

Figure
8.62: SQO instruction
To use an SQO instruction, PLC programmers need to assign values to the items within
the SQO instruction. These items are file number, destination address, length, and position
fields. File number corresponds to the starting address of the sequencer file. This file
contains words that PLCs execute upon. For example, figure 8.63 shows an SQO file
(#B3: 1) comprising five words. The # sign designates its a file instead of a word. The
first word (word 0) will be transferred to the destination address (e.g., an output device) if
the SQO input is logic high (push button PB is pushed). The second word (word 1) is
transferred to the output device if PB is pushed again. The 6th time PB is pushed, SQO
loops back to word 0 and the sequence repeats again. The number of words and contents
of each word are user defined. How often the data transfer occurs depends on the ladder
logic program. The length item defines the total number of words (steps) that will be
transferred. If the length is two in a 5-word file, only the first two words will be
transferred even though there are five words in the sequencer file. Position determines the
starting word location, which typically starts at position one.

Figure 8.63: Sequencer file

Lets apply an SQO instruction to a simplified traffic light application (see figure 8.64).
This application turns on and off red, yellow, and green lights in a sequence using an SQO
instruction controlled by push buttons 1, 2, and 3 (PB1, PB2, and PB3).

Figure 8.64: SQO example

In this example, #B3: 0 is the file number made up of three words starting with address
B3: 0. The second and third word addresses are B3: 1 and B3: 2. PB1, 2, and 3 are
controlled by three separate timers (not included in this example). These three push
buttons form a parallel branch which controls the SQO. The timers control PB1, 2, and 3
one at a time. The destination address O: 2 connects to three traffic lights. The first three
bits of O: 2 (O: 2/0, O: 2/1, and O: 2/2) connect to red, yellow, and green lights
respectively. If PB1 is pushed, SQO loads data from B: 3.0 (001) to the destination
address O: 2. This lights up the red light and turns off the yellow and green lights. PB2
then goes high triggered by another timer. B3: 1 (010) now loads its content into O: 2
turning on the yellow light and shutting off the red and green lights. Lastly, PB3 is pushed
loading B3: 2 (100) into O: 2, turning on the green light while turning off the red and
yellow lights. This process repeats itself. The on-time duration of the lights is easily
controlled by the timers preset values. This example demonstrates that using SQO
instructions, only one rung is needed to perform repetitive operations without the use of
multiple rungs. This reduces program complexity and eases troubleshooting efforts.

Trends

PLC technology development continues to evolve. Sophisticated large-scale industrial

control systems such as Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) have gained
popularity in recent years. SCADA is capable of controlling large and multiple sites such
as semiconductor fabs (factory) with wireless communication capabilities. In addition to
process and motion controls, SCADA systems offer real-time process information,
database creation, data analytics tools, and maintenance information for trending and
throughput analysis. Increasing CPU power allows parallel PLC processing without
sacrificing process speed and accuracy. Some modern, complex PLC systems utilize
human machine interface (HMI), which is an apparatus to show human operators real time
process data and pictures of the actual system components (input and output devices)
while the system is running. Figure 8.65 shows an HMI example of a filling system. This
system transports tanks on a conveyor belt while they are filled up by the materials stored
in the funnels. Buttons 1 and 2 control the opening and closing of the funnels. Level
sensors 1 and 2 monitor the tanks levels. Button 3 triggers the siren if the tank level
passes the level set by the sensor 2. This graphical interface is displayed on the monitor in
real time. Buttons can be pushed with a click of a mouse with a PLC controlling the
conveyor belt, on/off switch for the funnel, level sensors on the tank, and siren.

Figure 8.65: SCADA example

Summary
In this chapter, we covered PLC history, components, input, and output devices. Ladder
logic syntax and programming techniques were introduced. Several PLC instruction types
were discussed including timers, counters, math, data manipulation, comparisons, and
sequencer instructions. PLC memory structure, practical PLC program examples, and

industry trends were presented throughout the chapter.

Quiz
1) List three benefits of PLCs over traditional relay systems and five PLC components.
2) List three differences between computers and PLCs.
3) List five input and output device examples.
4) Design a PLC ladder logic program for a semiconductor fab conveyor system (see
figure 8.66). A silicon wafer box (lot) waits for 30 minutes at process point 1. The level
sensor detects whether the wafer lot has been filled up to 12 wafers. Once its filled, the lot
will be transported to the process checkpoint 2 where it stops and waits for 15 minutes for
further processing. At the end of end 15 minutes, the green light turns on.

Figure 8.66: Semiconductor fab conveyor system

5) Figure 8.67 shows a periodic clock generator consisting of three on-timers. Complete
the timing diagram on the right.

Figure 8.67: Periodic clock

signal generator

Chapter 9: Mental Math

Electronics often use basic arithmetic to solve engineering problems, identify solutions,
and perform technical analysis. Although many calculations regarding electronic
engineering deal with large numbers, most electronic engineering solutions can be
obtained quickly, efficiently, and accurately by using mental math, pen, and paper instead
of using calculators. Despite the advanced features offered by calculators, most electronics
calculation used in daily engineering tasks involves only short, simple-form calculations.
Calculators should only be deemed necessary when working with multi-order math
models. The misconception of using a calculator is undermined by the fact that numbers
and math symbols could be entered incorrectly. Combine that with improper use of
parentheses resulting in wrong answers, delaying progress, and slowing productivity.
Becoming proficient with math techniques described in this chapter enhances your
mathematic, analytic, and problem-solving skills while you demonstrate competency and
increase productivity. In this chapter, basic arithmetic and numbering systems used in
electronics calculations are first reviewed. Then, you will learn simple techniques to
improve your mental math ability to calculate electronics arithmetic. Topics include
largeand small-number multiples, submultiples, percentage-decimal conversion, dividedby-fractions, one-over reciprocals, multiply-divide power (exponent) rules, and dB-to-log
conversion. Examples are provided throughout the chapter directly related to electronic
engineering calculations.

Multiples and Submultiples of Units

Table 9-1 includes the names of the multiples and submultiples, their symbols, and the
factors frequently used in calculating for electronics. The incentive of using multiples is
the ability to
numbers
example,
express extremely large
in simplified forms. For the state-of-art CMOS transistors leakage current is measured as
low as femto (1 X 10-15) amperes. Its much easier to interpret
1 fA (1 X 10-15 A) than
0.000000000000001 A. Here is a second example: an AC sources frequency is 2,000,000
Hz. Its simpler to write it as 2 MHz because 2,000,000 Hz = 2 X (1 X 106) Hz = 2 MHz.

Table 9-1: Multiples and submultiples of units

Decimal Numbers
Decimal numbers are any numbers written with a decimal point ., such as 2.3, 5.78, or
0.005. The decimal point separates the ones place (left) from the tenths place (right) in
decimal numbers (see figure 9.1). If a DMMs resolution is 0.0001 V, it can display down
to one tenthousandth of a volt on the DMMs display.

Figure 9.1: Decimal places

Whole Numbers
Whole numbers are non-negative integers that are made up of digits to the left of the
decimal point. For example, the whole number of 1,288.00 is 1,288. To identify tens (10s),
hundreds (100s), and thousands (1,000s) easily, a comma is used at every third place,
starting at the decimal point and moving towards the left. For example, a resistor size of
17,452,223 is more easily recognized than 17452223 .

Multiples Number Conversion

Converting a low multiple to a high factor one makes it easier to read and understand. For
example, a smartphone CPUs clock speed is 2,000,000,000 Hz. Using multiples, it can be
written as 2,000 MHz. However, it would be even simpler to convert to fewer digits with a
larger factor multiple (giga). The conversion process is shown in figure 9.2. First, place
the decimal point to the right of 2,000. The difference in the power number (exponent)
between M and G is 3 (9 6 = 3). The next step (step 2) is to move the decimal point
3 times (the result of the power number difference) to the left. The last step is to rewrite
the number as 2.0 from 2,000 and replace M with G.

Figure 9.2: Small to large multiple conversion

Figure 9.3: Large to small multiple conversion

To convert a higher multiple factor to a smaller one, the process is reversed. For example,
1 MHz can be rewritten as 1,000 kHz. The conversion steps are shown in figure 9.3. M
(mega) is 1 X 106. To convert it to a lower factor (power of 3), we first find the difference
in power numbers (6 3 = 3). The next step (step 2) is to move the decimal point to the
right (instead of left) according to the result of the power number subtraction. Lastly,
rewrite the number as 1,000 and replace M with
k. From these two examples, you can see that converting a low multiple to higher one
requires moving the decimal point to the left; converting a larger multiple to smaller one
requires moving the decimal point to the right. The number of times to move the decimal
depends on the result of the subtraction between the power numbers.

Submultiples Number Conversion

Similar techniques can be applied to convert submultiples. For example, 2,500 nA is easily
converted to 2.5 uA. The conversion process is shown in figure 9.4. First, place a decimal
point to the right of 2,500. Then move the decimal point 3 places to the left. It moves 3
times because the difference between the power numbers is 3 (9 6). The last step is to
rewrite as 2.5, and replace n with u.

Figure 9.4: Small to large submultiples conversion

To convert large submultiples to smaller ones, the process is reversed. For example, 30.2
ms is rewritten as 30,200 us. The process steps are shown in figure 9.5. First identify the
decimal point. Second, move the decimal point 3 (6 3) places to the right (instead of
left). Fill in the empty spaces with zeros. Finally, rewrite as 32,000 and replace m with
u.

Figure 9.5: Large to small submultiples conversion

Table 9-2 summarizes multiples to submultiples conversion methods.

Table 9-2: Multiples and submultiples conversions

(N = Subtraction result between 2 power orders)

One-Over Reciprocal with Multiples and Submultiples

Once you get familiar with multiples and submultiples number conversions, we can apply
them to practical electronic engineering calculations. Fractions are used often in
calculating electronic arithmetic. Conversion of a fraction to a non-fraction produces
quick and accurate results. For example (see figure 9.6), an LED flashlight requires two
AA batteries connected in series (1.5 V X (2) = 3 V). When an LED turns on, its forward
voltage drop is 2 V. To limit current drawn at 10 mA for a certain brightness level, a
current-limiting resistor is placed in series with the LED. The resistor size is calculated
and shown in figure 9.6.

Figure
9.6: LED flashlight current limiting resistor size

Figure 9.7:
Fraction to non-fraction, submultiples
To convert the resistance from fraction to nonfraction, the steps are shown in figure 9.7. In
this fraction, we first convert milli to 10-3. The denominator contains a submultiple
number 10 mA (10 X 1 X 10-3 A). Since all numbers in the denominator are separated by
multiplication signs, it can be broken down into two fractions: 1 / 10 and 1 / (1 X 10-3). 1 /
10 = 0.1. For 1 / (1 X 10-3), convert negative 3 power to positive 3 power then remove the
fraction. The final result is 0.1 X 1 X 103, which is equal to 0.1 k. Using the large
multiple conversion rule, previously discussed, move the decimal point 3 times to the right
turns 0.1 k to 100 .
To convert a fraction with multiples in the denominator to a non-fraction, the conversion
process is reversed. For example, figure 9.8 calculates period from a 2 GHz clock.
Separate 1 / 2 from G (1 X 109). 1 / 2 = 0.5. The power (exponent) of positive 9 in the
denominator now becomes negative 9. We then remove the fraction. The result is 0.5 X
10-9 = 0.5 ns. If you want to write 0.5 ns to lower submultiples (e.g., pico), use the rule
described earlier. Move the decimal point 3 places to the right.
0.5 ns = 500 ps

Figure 9.8: Fraction to non-fraction, multiples

This technique enables you to convert fractions to non-fractions easily, quickly, and
accurately. Table 9-3 summarizes the fraction to non-fraction conversions.

Table 9-3:
Fraction to non-fraction conversions

Multiplication and Division with Multiples and Submultiples

Multiplication is used all the time in electronic engineering calculations. Multiplication
with multiples and submultiples works opposite to multiplication of fractions. Instead of
subtracting power numbers, multiplication involves adding power numbers (exponents).
For example, if frequency = 10 MHz, and Inductance = 25 uH, calculate inductive
reactance, XL = 2 f L. Figure 9.9 shows the steps. 2 is simply 6.28. The multiplication
of the k multiple and u submultiple involves adding exponents to each other (3 + ( 6)
= 3). The resulting exponent is 3. The rest of the calculations are simple multiplication
(6.28 X 250 X 1 m = 1, 570 m = 1.57 k). Division with multiples and submultiples in
electronic engineering math involves subtracting exponents. For example, when a push
button is pressed, there is the presence of on-resistance. The voltage across a push button
when its pressed is measured at 2 mV with 100 uA flowing through it. Figure 9.10 shows
the steps to calculate the on-resistance of the push button. 2 / 100 = 0.05. Negative 3
(milli) power less negative 6 (micro) power is positive 3, which becomes the final
exponent.

Figure 9.9:
Multiplying multiples

Figure 9.10: Dividing submultiples

Percentage to Decimals
In electronics, we often use percentages to calculate power efficiency, duty cycle, device
tolerance, accuracy, error, resolution, gain change, voltage variation, current change, and
power difference. Converting percentages to decimals quickly helps you analyze problems
effectively. A number with a percentage sign means the original number gets multiplied by
100. To convert a percentage to a decimal number, first identify the decimal point. Then
divide the number by 100 (move decimal point two places to the left). For example (see
figure 9.10), the duty cycle of an AC signal is 75%. To convert it to a decimal number,
first identify the decimal point location (to the right of 5). Then, move it 2 places to the
left and remove percentage sign. To convert the number back to a percentage, reverse the
process by moving the decimal point two places to the right and add percentage sign. The
example in figure 9.11 converts the number 2 to a percentage. After moving 2 decimal
places to the right, fill the empty spaces (dotted) with zeros, and add a percentage sign to
complete the conversion.

Figure 9.10: Percentage to

decimal number

Figure 9.11: Number to percentage

For example, a carbon resistor has a +/ 10% resistance tolerance. If the nominal
resistance is 33.33 k, what is the range of resistance values? 10% is quickly converted to
0.01:
33.33 k X 10% = 33.33 k X 0.01 = 0.33 k = 33
(33.33 k 33.33) < R < (33.33 k + 33.33)

Log to Real Number

We use logarithms (log) in voltage, current, and power dB calculations. The log of a
number is equal to the exponent (power) of the base number. For example, log10 100 = 2
because 10 to the power of 2 is 100 (see figure 9.12). The base number can also be other
numbers except for 10. Log2 16 = 4 because 2 to the power of 4 is 16. If the base number
is not shown, then by default, the base number is 10.

Figure 9.12:
Log with a base of 10

Extending from this concept, a log table is shown in table 9-4. Log 0 is invalid because 10
to the power of any value will be larger than zero. From this table, you can easily estimate
the range of log numbers. For example, if you try to estimate value of log 20, you can
easily tell its between 1 and 2.

Table 9-4: Log

table
If you recall dB calculations using log, a fraction is often used within log. For example, an
amplifier with gain of 100 dB, Vout / Vin can be quickly evaluated:

With power efficiency calculations, output power is always less than input power (Pout <
Pin) due to electrical signal losses. Using an LED as an example, its power efficiency (less
than 15%) is much higher than that of an incandescent lamp (less than 2%). A typical LED
burns roughly 6 W to 8 W of power. Incandescent lamps power ratings differ greatly
depending on the type. The most common ones consume 60 W of power. We can use dB
to express the input and output power as a ratio instead of as absolute value. For example,
the output power measured is 10 times less than the input, i.e., Pout / Pin = 1 / 10 = 0.1.
Power in dB is calculated as:
dB = 10 log (0.1) = 10 dB
From this example, you can see that when the log number is less than 1, it equates to a

negative number. A similar log table like table 9-4 is developed for the log numbers that
are less than 1 (see table 9-5).

Table 9-5: Log number

less than one

Summary
In this chapter, we first covered multiples, submultiples, decimal numbers, and
percentages. We then used practical examples using common electronic engineering tasks
to convert between higher and lower multiples to and from submultiples. We then applied
these multiples and submultiples conversion techniques to multiplication and division that
are frequently used in electronic engineering calculations. This chapter closed with using
logarithmic numbers to calculate voltage, current, and power ratios. Following these
simple rules allows you to come up with electronic engineering math solutions quickly
and accurately as well as demonstrate professional competencies.

Quiz
1) What is the submultiple name of 1 X 1012?
2) A DMM can display digits down to one thousandth of a volt. What is the smallest
change in decimal value this DMM can display?
3) Convert 2.5 uA to nA.
4) Convert 120 ns to frequency.
5) Using mental math, calculate XL = 2 X 2 MHz X 2 uH.
6) A common emitter amplifier delivers to a resistive load draws 2 mA at 12 V to ground
rails. The power measured at the load (Pout) is 10 mW. What is the power efficiency in
dB?
7) Convert 0.707 to a percentage.
8) An emitter followers voltage changes by 0.5 V while input changes by 1 V. What is the
voltage loss in dB?
9) 1 angstrom is equal to 10-10 meters, which is often used to describe the thickness of
CMOS transistor gate oxide. If the FETs gate oxide is 50 angstrom, what is the value in

nanometers (nm)?
10) If an amplifiers open-loop gain is 80 dB, what is the gain ratio of V / mV?

Abbreviations and Acronyms

(less than)
% (percentage)
(a)(b) (multiply a and b)
/ (divide)
|| (parallel)
> (greater than)
(delta)
(approximately equal to)
(less than or equal to)
(greater than or equal)
C (degrees Celsius)
(infinity)
A or Amp (ampere)
A/C (air-conditioning)
AC (alternating current)
Acm (common mode gain)
ADC (analog-to-digital converter)
ADD (add instruction)
Adm (differential gain)
AM (amplitude modulation)
AMD (Advanced Micro Device)
ARM (Advanced RISC Machines)
ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) BiCMOS (Bipolar and CMOS)
BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman)
BOR (Brown-Out Reset)
Bps (bit per second)
Br (boron)
C (capacitance or coulomb)
C_eq (equivalent capacitance)
CA (common anode)
CAD (computer-aided design)
CAN (Control Area Network)
CC (common cathode)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) CDS (drain-to-source capacitance) CDSub
(drain-to-substrate capacitance) CGD (gate-to-drain capacitance)
CGS (gate-to-source capacitance)
CLoad, Cload (capacitive load)
CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)
CMRR (common mode rejection ratio)
COM (common potential)
Cox (gate-oxide capacitance per unit area) CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CSSub (source-to-substrate capacitance) Cu (Copper)

D (digital input code)

DAC (digital-to-analog converter)
dB (decibel)
DC (direct current)
Diff amp (differential amplifier)
DIV (divide instruction)
DMM (digital multi-meter)
DN (done bit)
DRC (design rule check)
DSP (digital signal processing)
e (exponential)
E (voltage potential)
e-, E (electron)
EC (quartz crystal resonators)
ECL (emitter-coupled logic)
ELI (voltage-inductor-current)
Emax (maximum peak-to-peak level) Emin (minimum peak-to-peak level) EN (enable
bit)
EQ (equal to)
EQU (equal to)
ESL (equivalent series inductance) ESR (equivalent series resistance) F, f (frequency or
farad)
Fab (fabrication)
FCC (Federal Communications
Commission)
FCY (instruction frequency)
FM (frequency modulation)
FOSC (oscillator frequency)
FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array ) fresonant (resonant frequency)
Gbps (gigabit per second)
GEQ (greater than or equal to)
GHz (gigahertz)
gm, GM (transconductance)
GPIO (general purpose Input Output) GPR (general purpose register)
GRT (greater than)
GSM (Global System for Mobile)
H (Henry)
hfe (voltage gain)
HMI (human machine interface)
Hz (hertz)
I/O (input output)
I_A (current A)
I_B (current B)
I_C (current C)
I_total (total current)

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)

Ib, IB (base current)
IBM (International Business Machine)
IC (collector current)
ICD3 (In-Circuit Debugger 3)
ICE (current-capacitor-voltage)
ICs (integrated circuits)
ID (drain current)
ID (identification)
IDE (integrated development environment) IE (emitter current)
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Iin (input current)
Iload (load current)
Iout (output current)
IR drop (voltage drop across resistor)
IS (saturation current)
IS (source current)
Isense (sense current)
ISR (interrupt service routine)
I-V curve (current vs. voltage curve)
JMP (jump instruction)
JSR (jump to subroutine instruction) K (degree Kelvin)
KB (kilobyte)
KCL (Kirchhoffs current law)
kg (kilogram)
KVL (Kirchhoffs voltage law)
L (inductor or transistor length) L_eq (equivalent inductance)
LBL (label instruction)
lbs (pounds)
LCD (liquid crystal display)
LDO (low drop-out regulator)
LED (light emitting diode)
LEQ (less than or equal to)
LES (less than)
LTE (Long Term Evolution)
ln (natural logarithm)
LO (local oscillators)
LP, XT, HS (lower speed, external, high speed)
LSB (least significant bit)
mA (milliampere)
mAh (milliampere-hour)
MCU (microcontroller unit)
MIPS (million instructions per second) mm (millimeter)
MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor)

MOV (move instruction)

MSB (most significant bit)
MSPS (mega-sample per second)
MUL (multiply instruction)
MUX (multiplexer)
MUL (multiply instruction)
n (bit number)
N (negative type)
NC (normally-closed)
NEQ (not equal to)
NFET (N-typed field effect transistor) NMOS (N-typed metal oxide semiconductor) NO
(normally-open)
Op-amp (operational amplifier)
Op-code (operation code)
OST (Oscillator Start-up Timer)
P (power or Phosphorus or positive type) PAC (Programmable Automation Controller)
Parasitic cap (parasitic capacitance) PB (push button)
PCB (printed circuit board)
PFD (phase frequency detector)
PFET (P-type field effect transistor)
PIC (peripheral interface controller) PLC (programmable logic controller) PLL (phase
lock loop)
PMOS (P-type metal oxide semiconductor) POR (Power-On-Reset)
POT (potentiometer)
ppm (part-per-million)
PSRR (power supply rejection ratio) PWM (pulse width modulation)
Q factor (quality factor)
Q# (transistor number)
q, Q (electron charge)
Q_bar (Q bar)
R (resistance)
R leakage (leakage resistance)
r (intrinsic base resistance)
R_eq, R_equivalent (equivalent
resistance)
R_total (total resistance)
RAM (read access memory)
RC mode (Resistor-Capacitor mode) RD (drain resistor)
Rdson (drain-to-source on-resistance) RET (return)
Rf (feedback resistor)
RF (radio frequency)
RFID (radio frequency ID)
Rgate (gate resistance)
Ri (input terminal resistor)

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) RJ-45 (registered jack 45)

Rms (root mean square)
TT (timing bit)
ROM (read only memory)
Rout (output impedance)
Rs (source resistor)
RS-232 (recommended standard 232) Rvin (input impedance)
Rz (zener impedance)
SAR (successive approximation) SBR (subroutine)
SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition)
SFR (special-function registers)
Si (silicon)
SiGe (silicon germanium)
Sine (sinusoidal)
SOC (system-on-chip)
Spec (specification)
SPI (synchronous peripheral interface) SQO (sequencer output instruction) S-R (set,
reset)
SUB (subtract instruction)
SW (switch)
T0CK1 (external clock source)
T0XCS (clock select bit)
TC (temperature coefficient)
TCY (instruction period)
TND (temporary end)
Toff, toff (off time)
RLoad or RL (resistive load)
TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
U (effective mobility)
um (micrometer)
UMC (United Microelectronics
Corporations)
USART (Universal Synchronous
Asynchronous Receive Transceiver) USB (universal serial bus)
V (negative terminal)
V (voltage)
V_cap (capacitor voltage)
V+ (positive terminal or positive voltage supply)
V++ (positive voltage supply)
VB (base voltage)
VBE (base to emitter voltage)
VC (collector voltage)
VCC (positive power supply)

VCE (collector to emitter voltage)

VCEsat (collector to emitter saturation voltage)
VCO (voltage controlled oscillator)
VD (drain voltage)
VDD (positive voltage supply)
Vdiff (voltage difference)
Vdiode (diode voltage)
VDS (drain-to-source voltage)
VE (emitter voltage)
VFB (feedback voltage)
VG (gate voltage)
VGS (gate-to-source voltage)
Ton, ton (on time)
TSMC (Taiwan Semiconductor Mftg. Corp.) VHDL (very high level descriptive
language) Vin, VIN (input voltage)
Vin_diff (input voltage difference)
Vout, VOUT (output voltage)
Vout_diff (output voltage difference) Vpeak (peak voltage)
Vpeak-to-peak (peak-to-peak voltage) Vref (reference voltage)
Vrms (root mean square voltage)
VS (source voltage)
Vsense (sense voltage)
VT (threshold voltage or thermal voltage) W (watt or transistor width)
WDT (watchdog timer)
WiFi (wireless fidelity)
X (multiply)
Xc (capacitive reactance)
XL (inductive reactance)
XLP (extra Low Power)
(alpha)
(beta)
(wavelength)
(pi or 3.14)
- (sigma-delta)
(ohm, unit of resistance)
(omega)

Index
20 dB per Decade, 65
3 dB, 68, 83

Q = C (V), 71

1
1 / SC, 57
1 / C, 57
120 V, 94
1N4001, 48

2
2 , 70

3
3-dimentional cross section model, 131

5
555-timer, 226
Hans Camenzind, 226
one-shot timer, 228
precision timing, 226
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), 226

6
60 Hz, 53

7
7-segment display, 256

A
AA, 7
AAA, 7
AC analysis, 63 atoms
AC choke, 74
AC parameters, 49
AC short, 56
Acm (common mode gain), 150
active loads, 151
active low-pass filter, 174
ADC
gain error, 222
offset error, 222
Adm (differential mode gain), 150
aerospace, 106
Agilent, 27
alkaline household battery, 7
Alpha, 112
alternating current, 49
aluminum, 1
AM demodulation circuit, 240
AM detector, 240
AM transmitter, 240
amplifier, 106, 140
Amplitude modulation (AM), 238
Analog Devices, 3, 24 , 219
analog electronics, 105

analog IC vendors
Analog Devices, 106
Infineon Technologies, 106
Qualcomm, 106
STMicroelectronics, 106
Texas Instruments, 106
analog market, 106
analog signals, 105
Analog-to-Digital Converter, 25, 106
ADC, 219
AND gate, 205
angstrom, 131
angular velocity, 70
anode, 41
arc, 70
assembler, 262
Asynchronous Receiver Transceiver (USART), 247
atoms, 37
electrons, 37
neutrons, 37
audio amplifier, 157

B
band-pass filter, 233
band-stop filter, 233
bandwidth, 103
base, 108
Baud, 236
Bayonet-NeillConcelman (BNC), 178 Bessel chart, 239
Beta, 112
bill-of-materials, 68
Bipolar versus CMOS, 147
bit rate, 236
bit-oriented operations, 255
bode plot,, 63
body diode, 133
Boltzmanns constant, 113
BOMs, 68
Boolean algebra, 207
boron, 37
bounce, 86
break-before-make, 199
breakpoint, 264
Brown-Out-Reset (BOR), 261 buck regulator, 97 , 156
buffer, 119 , 171
built-in diode voltage, 40
byte-oriented instructions, 255

C
C = F , 237
Capacitive load (CLoad), 182 capacitor, 136
capacitor
capacitance, 55
capacitive reactance, 55 dielectric, 55
electric field, 55
comparators, 106
compiler, 262
computer-aided design (CAD), 135 copper, 1

core, 93
coulomb, 8
CPU, 110
Cu, 1
current, 1, 8 , 329
current divider rule, 15
current lead, 89
current mirror, 152, 165
current source, 8
electrolytic, 55
passive electronic device, 55
polyester, 55
tantalum, 55
Xc, 55
carbon resistors, 2
carrier concentration, 38
cascode, 167
cathode, 41 , 108
cell phone battery chargers, 93
cellular bands
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), 241 Global System for Mobile (GSM), 241 Long Term Evolution (LTE), 241
ceramic resonators, 257
charge pump, 103
charging, 60
circuit simulation software
Multisim, 176
class A amplifier, 129
class AB, 129
class B amplifier, 129
closed-loop, 153
closed-loop voltage gain, 161
CMOS, 130
CMOS cacosde, 170
collector, 108
collector current equation, 152
color bands, 3
combinational logic, 206
common base amplifier, 120 , 128
common collector amplifier, 118
common emitter amplifier, 115, 123 common gate amplifier, 139 , 145
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 150 common mode voltage, 149
common source amplifier, 139
communications, 231
full duplex, 231
half duplex, 231
Radio Frequency (RF), 231
simplex, 231
commutating diode, 88

D
Darlington pair, 168
data compare instructions, 308 data manipulation instructions, 304 data memory, 251
dB, 64
DC, 5
DC block, 56

dead zone, 199

debugger, 263
ICD3, 264
PICKIT3, 263
decade, 65
decibel, 63
decimal numbers, 320
design example
comparator, 265
timer, 269
Design Rule Checking (DRC), 135 design systems, 135
desktop computer, 110
D-flip-flop, 211
die, 130
diff amp, 148
differential amplifiers, 153
diffusion, 110
digital circuits
flip-flop, 208
latch, 208
digital electronics, 195
digital voltage levels
CMOS, 219
Emitter-Coupled-Logic (ECL), 219
Transistor-Transistor-Logic (TTL), 219 Digital-to-Analog Converter
DAC, 224
System-On-Chip (SOC), 224
digital-to-analog converters, 106
diode circuits, 43
diode clamp, 88
diode parameters
diode output current, 42
maximum forward voltage, 42
maximum power dissipation, 42
maximum reverse current, 42
reverse voltage, 42
diodes, 37, 108
direct current, 1, 5
discharging, 60
distributors
Arrow electronics, 24
Digikey, 24
Future electronics, 24
Mouser electronics, 24
DMM, 27 , 28 , 33 , 48 , 320 , 328 , 329 dominant pole, 183
doping levels, 38
drain current, 132
drain resistor (RD), 140
duty cycle, 52, 99
dynamic gate current, 138
electronic load, 7
electrons, 8, 9
ELI, 77 , 90
emitter, 108
emitter follower, 118 , 127 Energizer, 7
engineering, 3, 323 , 325 , 328 equivalent series inductance, 83 ESL, 83
ESR, 83
Ethernet, 106

E
Early effect, 115
electric power generation, 93 electrical
current, 51
electrical engineering, 3, 4 electrical isolation, 93
electrical outlet, 51
electromagnetic theory, 93 electron charge, 42

F
f 3dB., 68
fab, 130
fabrication, 130
FCY, 257
Federal Communications Commission
Frequency spectrum, 231
feedback, 99
file registers, 251
finFET, 131
flip-flop, 210
edge-triggered flipflop, 210
Fluke, 27
FM, 85
FM noise clipper, 85
Forward-biased, 40
FOSC, 257
Fraction-to-nonfraction conversions, 324 Freescale, 24
frequency, 50
frequency divider, 211
frequency domain, 63 , 64
frequency domains, 232
Frequency Modulation, 85
Frequency Modulation (FM), 241 Fritzing, 55
full-wave rectifier, 102
function generator, 27 , 179

G
General Motor, 273
General Purpose Registers (GPRs), 253 germanium, 8 , 37 , 110
Gm, 121
ground, 8
Gummel-Poon model, 125

H
half-wave rectifier, 95
Harvard architecture, 251
height, 105
high- and low-level languages, 263 high-pass filter, 80 , 101
hole, 37
humidity, 105
hybrid model, 122
hysteresis, 179
hysteresis zone, 179

I
I (t) = C (V), 57

IBM, 3, 110
IC design and simulation software
Cadence Design Systems, 178
Mentor Graphics, 178
Synopsis, 178
IC foundries
Global Foundries, 130
Samsung Semiconductor, 130
Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company
(TSMC), 130
United Microelectronics Corporations (UMC), 130 IC layout, 134
IC package manufacturers
Advanced Semiconductor Engineering, 25 Amkor, 25
Siliconware Precision Industries, 25
IC package types
dual inline package, 25
flip-chip, 25
wire-bond, 25
IC Package types
ball-grid-array, 25
IC Packages, 24
IC versus VCE Curve, 114
ICE, 71 , 90
ideal diode, 42
Ideal voltage source, 22
IE = IC + IB, 113
impedance, 54
induce, 93
inductive load, 87
inductor
copper, 73
ferrite, 73
Henry, 73
inductance, 73
inductive reactance (XL), 73
iron, 73
magnetic field, 73
pass device, 73
XL = 2 f L, 73
inductor schematic symbol, 73
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 231
instruction clock, 257
instrumentation amplifier (INA), 184
Integrated Development Environment (IDE), 262
Intel, 134
intensity, 105
Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C), 247
internal oscillator, 258
internal regulators, 261
International Rectifier, 24
interrupt, 260
Interrupt Service Routine (ISR), 260
Intersil, 24
intrinsic resistance, 125
inverter, 196
NOT gate, 196

inverting amplifier, 158

ion implantation, 38, 110
iPod, 93

J
James Early, 115
JK flip-flop, 211
Jump to Label instructions, 300 Jump to Subroutine Instructions, 301

K
KCL, 11
Kelvin (K), 113
Kirchhoffs Current Law, 11 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, 9 KVL, 9
negative feedback, 186

L
ladder logic, 273
laptop, 93
latch, 208
memory, 208
memory seats, 208
sequential logic, 208
Layout versus Schematic (LVS), 135 LDO, 97
leakage current, 42
leakage currents, 138
leakage resistor, 83
Least Significant Bit
LSB, 204
LED, 44
level shifter, 217
light, 105
light emitting diode, 44
linear regulator
low dropout regulator, 186 zener regulator, 97, 185
Linear Technology, 24
literal control, 257
load line, 114
log to number, 326
logarithm, 63
lots, 135
low drop-out regulator
error voltage, 186
low-pass filter, 68

M
mAh, 7
mathematics, 3, 4, 49 , 61
Maxim Integrated Circuits, 24
MCU instructions, 255
MCU parameters, 248
MCU peripherals
ADCs, 247
comparators, 247
DACs, 247

timers, 247
MCU vendors
Atmel, 247
Freescale Semiconductor, 247
Fujitsu, 247
Infineon Technologies, 247
Microchip Technology, 247
NXP, 247
Renesas Electronics, 247
Samsung, 247
STMicroelectronics, 247
Texas Instruments, 247
medical equipment, 106
mental math, 319
Mentor Graphics, 135
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor, 107
Microchip Technology, 3, 24 , 25 , 217 , 219 , 248 , 249 , 250
microcontroller Units
embedded systems, 247
Microcontroller Units (MCUs), 247
microelectronics, 3
microscope, 134
milliamphour, 7
Millions of instructions per second (MIPS), 258 mixed-signal
ADCs, 216
DACs, 216
modulation, 236
modulation index, 239
monostable, 228
MOSFET cross section, 136
MOSFET parasitic
drain-to-source (CDS), 142
drain-to-substrate (CDSub), 142
gate-to-drain capacitor (CGD), 142
gate-to-source capacitor (CGS), 142
source-to-substrate (CSSub), 142
MOSFETs, 130
Most Significant Bit (MSB), 204
motor control applications, 106
MOV instruction, 306
MOV instruction application, 307
MPLABX, 262
multimeter, 27
multiples, 319
multiples and submultiples conversions summary, 322
multiples number conversion, 320
multiplexer, 215
multiplication and division with multiples and submultiples, 325
multistage amplifiers, 155
NOR gate, 204
normally-closed (NC), 278 normally-open (NO), 278 NPN, 108
NPN schematic symbol, 109 Nyquist frequency, 221 gigahertz, 178
output code, 230
output impedance, 124 output symbol, 280 oxide, 131

N
NAND gate, 205
National

Semiconductor, 3, 176
National Instruments, 176
natural log, 113
negative temperature coefficient, 46 nested subroutines, 303
neutrons, 8
NFET, 130
NFET and PFET Inverter, 197
N-junctions, 131
NMOS, 130
NMOS Inverter, 197
non-ideal capacitor, 83
non-ideal diode, 42
non-ideal voltage source, 22
non-inverting amplifier, 160

O
off-time, 52
Ohms Law, 6
omega, 57
On Semiconductor, 24
One-Over Reciprocal, 323
on-time, 52
op-amp, 99
op-amp
LM741, 164
op-amp parameters
supply and input voltage, 162
supply current, 162
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR), 162
input impedance, 162
input offset current, 162
input offset voltage, 162
open-loop gain, bandwidth, 162
output source and sink current, 162
output voltage swing, 162
power consumption, 162
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR), 162 op-amp rules
input impedance, 155
input offset voltage, 155
output impedance, 155
open-collector, 193
open-drain, 193
operand, 255
operation code (opcode), 255
OR logic gate, 202
Oscillator Startup Timer (OST), 261
oscilloscope, 27 , 177
oscilloscopes
attenuation ratio, 178
gigabits per second, 178
PLC off-timer, 295
PLC off-timer application, 296
PLC on-timer, 293
PLC on-timer application, 294
PLC periodic clock signal generator, 318
PLC program control instructions, 300
PLC programming
ladder logic, 278

PLC programming example, 283

PLC programming syntax, 286
PLC sequencer instructions, 315
PLC suppliers
AllenBradley, 273
Bosch, 273
General Electric, 273
Mitsubishi Electric, 273
Panasonic, 273
Siemens, 273
PLC timer, 292
PLC trends, 317
PLL frequency multiplier, 244
Analog Devices, 244
Low noise digital Phase frequency Detector (PFD), 244
PLL implementation
crystal oscillator, 243
PMOS, 130
P-N junction
carrier concentration, 39
concentration imbalance, 39
depletion, 39
diffusion, 39
equilibrium, 39
P-N junctions, 37
PNP, 108
PNP schematic symbols, 109
polysilicon, 131
positive feedback
bode plot, 182
positive feedback
oscillations, 182
power, 7
power efficiency, 129
power management, 76, 106
power ratio, 64
Power-On-Reset (POR), 261
pressure, 105
printed circuit board, 24
program memory (flash), 251
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), 273 programming languages
assembly, 247
C, 247
C++, 247
protons, 8
Psubstrate, 131
pull-up resistor, 193
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) channel, 247 push button, 279
Pythagorean Theorem, 104

P
parallel capacitor rule, 63
parallel circuit, 11
parallel data transmission, 214
parallel inductor rule, 78
parallel LC, 92
parallel resistor rule, 12
parasitic, 83 , 84
passive electronic device, 1

passive load resistors, 151

peak voltage, 52
Peak-to-Peak Voltage, 52
percentage to real number, 326
percentage-decimal conversion, 319 period, 50
periodic waveform, 49
PFET, 130
Phase Lock Loop (PLL), 242
feedback loop, 242
low-pass filter, 242
phase detector, 242
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO), 242
phase shift, 69, 71 , 119 , 120 , 129 , 145 phosphorus, 38
PLC benefits, 275
PLC components, 276
CPU, 276
I/O modules, 276
input modules, 276
memory (program, data), 276
power supply, 276
programming device, 276
PLC conveyor system, 290
PLC counter, 297
PLC counter application, 298
PLC data structure, 305
PLC math instructions, 311

Q
Q factor, 77 ringing, 86
ripple voltage, 95
RLoad, 129
room temperature, 123 rotation degree, 70

R
R C circuit, 104
r , 123
radian, 70
radio, 85
radio frequency, 106
Random Access Memory (RAM), 247 RC low-pass filter, 69
RC time constant, 62 , 96
reactance, 54
Read Only Memory (ROM), 247 reference current, 152
relay, 274
renewable energy, 106
resistance, 1
resistivity, 1
resistor, 1
resonant frequency, 90 , 91
reverse-biased, 40
RFID (radio frequency ID), 261 ring oscillator, 200

S
saturation, 115
saturation current, 113
sawtooth wave, 49

schematics, 8
Schottky diode, 192
scope probe, 178
seal-in circuit, 288
semiconductor, 4, 5, 38 , 106 , 218 , 317 , 318 semiconductor fab conveyor system, 318 semiconductor package, 24
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI), 247
series capacitor rule, 63
series circuit, 9
series inductor rule, 79
series resistor rule, 13
settling time, 157
sheet rho, 4
shift register, 213
shoot-through current, 199
SiGe, 110
silicon, 37
silicon dioxide (SiO2), 131
silicon germanium, 110
sine wave, 49
single-ended amplifier, 115 , 129
sinusoidal, 49
sleep mode, 261
slew rate, 157
small-signal analysis, 124
small-signal model, 121 , 128 , 140
smartphone car chargers, 93
SOC, 106
solid-state, 38
sound, 105
source follower, 139 , 143
Special-Function Registers (SFRs), 253
spectrum analyzer, 234
speed, 105
square wave, 49
step response, 86
submultiples, 319
submultiples number conversion, 321 summing amplifier, 172
superposition, 35
Superposition theorems, 19
surface-mount
resistors, 4 , 46
switching regulators, 97
Synopsis, 135
system-on-a-chip, 106
PFET, 107
PNP, 107

T
tank circuit, 91 , 103
tapeout, 135
TCY, 257
Tektronix, 27
telecommunication applications, 106 temperature, 112
temperature coefficient, 4, 23 temporary end, 304
Texas Instruments, 24
common collector amplifier, 127 thermal voltage, 113
thermocouple, 191
threshold voltage, 132

time, 50
timer, 259
touch screen, 106
transconductance (Gm), 121
transfer function, 64
transformer, 93
transistor Beta, 116
transistor types, 107
BiCMOS, 107
CMOS, 107
transistors, 107
MOSFET, 107
NFET, 107
NPN, 107
trigonometry, 49 truth table, 196 Vpeak-to-peak, 52 Vrms, 54
VT, 113

U
unity gain amplifier, 171
Universal Serial Bus (USB), 247 USB, 236

V
V (t) = L (I), 75
variable-gain op-amp, 214
VBE, 113
VBE equation, 113
vector diagram, 80 , 104
Verilog, 135
Very High Level Descriptive Language (VHDL), 135 VFB, 99
virtual ground, 158
voltage, 5
voltage divider, 16, 64 , 99
voltage follower
buffer, 171
voltage gain, 126
voltage gain (hfe), 117
voltage leads, 77
voltage source, 7
voltage-doubler circuit, 103
Vpeak, 52

W
wafer, 130
watchdog timer (WDT), 261 waveform, 5
weight, 105
whole numbers, 320
Wilson current mirror, 166 wireless network, 106
wireless smoke detector, 248

X
XOR gate, 206

Z
zener diode, 47 zener regulator, 96 ZigBee, 261

per square, 4


, 57