Ore Geology Reviews, 8 (1993) 3-22

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Nomenclature, concepts and classification of oreshoots in vein

deposits
Stephen G. Peters
Central Norseman Gold Corp. Ltd., P.O. Box 56, Norseman, WA 6443, Australia
(Received October 15, 1991; revised version accepted October 2, 1992 )

ABSTRACT
Peters, S.G., 1993. Nomenclature, concepts and classification of oreshoots in vein deposits. In: D.I. Groves and J.M.
Bennett (Editors), Structural Setting and Controls on Mineral Deposits. Ore Geol. Rev., 8: 3-22.
Oreshoots are discrete hypogene masses usually hosted within a planar channel, surface, lode or conduit which may be
either a shear zone, fissure, fault zone, or lithologic bed or unit such as a contact. Oreshoots are characterized by breadth,
strike ( > 1000 m) and dip, and plunge ( 100-500 m) lengths and have higher metal contents than the adjacent parts of
the host conduit. The mass of most oreshoots ranges between 1 X 104 and 2 X 104 tonnes. There is a tendency for oreshoots
to be thicker and richer in the center, rather than to have uniform grade distributions. The thickness of the oreshoots may
be between 0.25 and 1.75 m in shear-zone-hosted deposits, to up to 60 m in replacement deposits. Several conduits may
connect to form vein systems. Vein systems have common fluid sources which result in general homogeneity of alteration,
mineralization types and oreshoot control, and, therefore, commonly share the same plumbing system. The internal constituents usually reflect unique episodes relating to ore formation. The main intern constituents in oreshoots are mineralization, gangue and alteration. These constituents usually mix with each other in complex patterns, the relationships between which may be used to interpret the processes of oreshoot formation.
The term "ground preparation" represents the effect of various events in the geologic history of an ore district or oreshoot area that have assisted in enhancing the rocks so that oreshoots can preferentially form in certain areas or geometries.
Several types of ground preparation can be recognized: ( 1 ) sequential deformation that produces a grain in the rock, (2)
severe faulting and jointing which augments permeability and areas where ore minerals can precipitate, and (3) interplay
between ore fluid and deformation to produce an oreshoot.
Controls of oreshoot location and shape are usually due to dilatant zones caused by changes in attitude, splays, lithologic
contacts and intersections. In addition, conceptual parameters such as district fabric, magic distances and stacking are also
used to describe the geometry of oreshoots. Controls in vein systems and the location and geometry of oreshoots within
vein systems can be predicted by a number of qualitative concepts such as internal and external plunges, district plunge,
district stacking, conduit classification, gradients and warps. These concepts have a practical and empirical application in
most districts where they are useful in the exploration for ore, but are of such broad and general application that they can
rarely be explained definitively.

Introduction
The knowledge of oreshoots in epigenetic
deposits and the prediction of their location
and plunges has always been a major concern
Correspondence to: S.G. Peters, United States Geological
Survey, Reno Field Office, Mackay School of Mines, Reno,
NV 89557-0047, USA.

0169-1368/93/$6.00

of economic geologists (Penrose, 1910; Hulin,

1929; Blanchard, 1931; McKinstry, 1941 ). Because each mining district or camp has its
unique geologic characteristics and history, a
diverse terminology evolved concerning the
orebodies and their geometries around the
world. However, because of common characteristics there are many simple names and concepts that are applicable in most vein deposits.

1993 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

S.G. PETERS

The objectives of this paper are to catalogue,

in increasing scale, the most commonly used
names and concepts and to propose a nomenclature that can be used to bridge the gap between applications for practical mine geologists and the research of academicians. A
c o m m o n nomenclature facilitates the communication between upper management in mineral exploration and production where clear
ideas are necessary to insure productive budget
levels and to enable realistic business decisions. A unique nomenclature would also facilitate the communication between and among
corporations. This paper addresses and classifies the c o m m o n empirical concepts and associated terminology in order to link the many
areas of expertise in vein mining. Processes
pertaining to these concepts are not addressed
here; they are discussed in a companion paper
by Peters (1991a). This paper focuses on epi-

genetic, vein-type mineralization in situations

where oreshoots can be identified. Syngenetic,
stratiform, and stratabound orebodies are not
considered as they have their own nomenclature and concepts.
Orehoots in veins are discrete hypogene
masses usually hosted within a planar structure which has acted as a conduit for the ore
fluid. These structures are commonly referred
to as a channel, surface, or lode which may be
a shear zone, fissure, fault zone, or a lithologic
boundary. The geometry of oreshoots is expressed with reference to breadth and strike
lengths ( > 1000 m ) , and by dip (Lindgren,
1933; Jensen and Bateman, 1981 ) and plunge
lengths ( 100 to 500 m; Fig. 1 ). Oreshoots are
characterized by a higher metal content than
the adjacent parts of the host conduit. The mass
of most oreshoots containing precious metal
veins ranges between 2 10 4 and 1 10 6

C,

SPLAY

B,
b

C
~\~/

! RAKE

OR

PITCH

CHANNEL,
S U R F A C E LOD
OR C O N D U I T

GASH OR LADDER
VEINS

Fig. 1. Sketch of anatomy and nomenclature of oreshoot elements. Stereo net depicts planes (upper case letters) and
angles (lower case letters) in block diagram.

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORESHOOTS IN VEIN DEPOSITS

" 75-\\

,-,~ ~\

.,

~--~.

,
"~

\x.\

I'

Fig. 2. Examples of vein systems in some ore districts: (a) Cripple Creek, Colorado. Vein systems are clustered in and
around a Tertiary circular sedimentary-volcanic basin within Precambrian crystalline rocks. Each vein system has distinct
ore controls (Lindgren and Ransome, 1906; Koschmann, 1949). (b) Charters Towers, Northeastern Queensland. Several
clusters of east-striking and shorter north-striking vein systems have ore controls affected by host plutons (outlined in
thinner pen) in a composite batholith. Ore controls are also different in each cluster and sub-cluster (Peters, 1990). (c)
Hodgkinson goldfield, Northeastern Queensland. Vein systems are clustered along structural domains. Local tungsten is
restricted to the vein systems along domain boundaries (Peters et al., 1990). (d) Butte, Montana. Multiple overprinting
hydrothermal events have selectively invaded this complex vein system (Meyer et al., 1968).
tonnes. Parts o f the oreshoot and conduit systems are n a m e d as if they were parts of fault
systems (cf., R a m s a y and Huber, 19 8 7 ).
There is a tendency for oreshoots to be
thicker and richer in the center, in a lobe, or
along one side (cf., Dickinson, 1942), rather
than to be uniform in grade distribution. Oreshoots m a y terminate abruptly or m a y taper in
thickness or grade to assay cut-offs. Usually the
terminations are caused by geologic features,
such as shear zones, quartz or alteration
boundaries. The thickness o f oreshoots is typically between 0.25 and 1.75 m in shear-zonehosted precious-metal veins, and up to 60 m

thick in vein-associated replacement deposits.

Subsidiary veins, which connect to the main
oreshoot, are referred to as spur, cross or caunter veins (Finucane, 1948) or as links
(O'Driscoll, 1953), and leg and neck reefs
(Hodgson, 1989). U n i q u e oreshoot configurations m a y take the form of ladder veins, gash
veins, or even stockworks. The plunge of an oreshoot is defined as the direction and inclination o f its central (best-fit) axis. The rake or
pitch of an oreshoot refers to the angle between
its central axis and the horizontal within a
planar surface, such as the host conduit or a
projection plane (Fig. 1 ).

The most characteristic feature of many oreshoots is its complexity. Internal constituents
usually reflect unique episodes relating to ore
formation. Oreshoots are composed of specific
mineral assemblages that are distinct from assemblages and rock types outside the oreshoot.
Gangue and alteration mineral assemblages
and gouge between oreshoots define the barren
or lower-grade portions of the host and conduit (Fig. 1 ).
Several oreshoots clustered together can be
taken to define an orebody. Several conduits
can connect to form vein systems. An individual vein system will typically represent a single, connected plumbing system with a common fluid source and, therefore, oreshoots
within one vein system commonly show a similarity in alteration, mineralization and structural controls which distinguishes them from
other vein systems. The plunges of individual
oreshoots within a vein system may be related
to the geometry of the entire vein system (cf.,
Fig. 2 ).
Internal constituents

The main internal constituents of an oreshoot are the products of ore mineralization,
gangue minerals, and assemblages formed by
hydrothermal alteration. These constituents are
usually closely related with each other in complex patterns (cf., Robert and Brown, 1986a;
Peters, 1991 a). Their relationships can be used
to interpret processes of oreshoot formation
and paragenesis (Ramdohr, 1969; Stanton,
1972). Recognition of zoning, growth types,
intergrowths and contact rims, impurities and
repetitions allow inferences concerning the
geologic history of the oreshoot, as discussed
by Peters ( 1988, 1991a).

Mineralization
Mineralization in oreshoots is composed of
ore minerals such as sulfides, tellurides or native gold. These ore minerals are usually asso-

S.G. PETERS

ciated with one main gangue mineral such as

quartz, a silicate, or a carbonate. Mineralization occurs within the vein, disseminated in
wall-rock inclusions, or within the wall rock itself, i.e., in the alteration zone surrounding the
main conduit. Deposition of ore minerals may
be simultaneous, successive or overlapping.
Post-mineralizing events such as overprinting,
decomposition and supergene enhancement
must be filtered out of any interpretation prior
to genetic modelling.

Gangue
The texture of gangue minerals helps the
interpretation of the history of the oreshoot.
Quartz, the most common gangue mineral in
many kinds of veins, has genetically diagnostic
aspects as discussed by Adams (1920) and
Dowling and Morrison ( 1989 ). Comb, ribbon
(laminated), assimilation and breccia quartz,
together with microscopic secondary veinlets
occur in mesothermal gold-quartz deposits
(McKinstry and Ohle, 1949; Peters, 1991a).
Banded, crustiform and open-space filling
quartz are more typical of the epithermal environment (Bodnar et al., 1985; Berger and
Bethke, 1985 ). Open-space filling textures are
also observed in both extensional and shear
veins in many ductile environments (Robert
and Brown, 1986b). Fibrous quartz is characteristic of high fluid pressure and crack-seal
mechanisms (Secor, 1965; Beach, 1977; Ramsay, 1980b), and is typical of more deeply
formed deposits with high fluid pressures that
may pump open the host rock, usually in a
ductile environment (Poulsen and Robert,
1989; Sibson et al., 1988). Similarly, sheeted
veins with pervasive alteration are typical of
the porphyry environment. The term "buck or
bull" quartz is used to represent several quartz
types, such as remnant quartz from host mylonite, pre-gold, dense equivalents of comb or
ribbon quartz, or crushed and annealed varieties of quartz.

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORESHOOTS IN VEIN DEPOSITS

Conduit petrology
Ore conduits are filled with a mixture of
crushed and brecciated wall rock, gouge, phyllonite, clay seams and foliated rock mixed with
gangue and altered wall rocks. These constituents are important indicators of the formation
of an oreshoot in shear zones. In many cases, a
fault rock type can be directly related to a wall
rock type, as discussed by Sibson (1977). For
instance, quartz gouge (Engelder, 1974) is
most common in granitoid or sandstone host
rocks, whereas pelitic rocks more commonly
alter to montmorillonite, illite and muscoviterich phyllonite and clay seams (fluchan).
The type, amount or thickness of gouge,
proximal to or within a segment of the host
conduit, may be proportional to the relative
amounts of movement in that specific area of
the fault plane (Hull, 1988; Walsh and Watterson, 1988, 1989), and may also indicate specific areas of greater shear or compressional
strain compared to dilated zones.

Hydrothermal alteration
Patterns of alteration zones on oreshoot scale
define the dilated zones that have attracted and
concentrated fluid flow (Rose and Burt, 1979;
Robert and Brown, 1986b). Typically, a central elliptical core zone occurs in the wall rock
as productive alteration adjacent to the oreshoots, and fringe zone alteration occurs outside, along dip or strike, of the oreshoots within
the same vein system. Fringe zone alteration is
chemically or thermally related to productive
alteration and commonly contains low-grade
mineralization. Barren alteration may also occur along the same conduit, and although part
of the same mineralizing event, indicates thermal and chemical conditions where mineralization could not occur. Unrelated alteration is
alteration that came before or after the mineralizing event (i.e., early- or mid-barren alteration of Lovering, 1949) and commonly lies
outside the host conduit (Fig. 3). Magmatic

hydrothermal systems, such as porphyry or

volcanic hot spring environments, usually have
several distinct hydrothermal events overprinting each other and creating complex alteration styles.
The restriction of alteration assemblages to
narrow selvages implies that fluid flow was restricted to high-permeability zones within a
host conduit (Lindgren, 1896). Broader alteration envelopes around oreshoots suggest that
the oreshoots were the sites of maximum fluid
flow in the fissure plane, and were also the sites
of greatest porosity and greatest lateral dispersion in the wall rock. In addition, more "reactive" wall rocks lead to wider alteration haloes
than lesser reactive rocks along the same
conduit.
Hydrothermal alteration may directly affect
the growth of oreshoots, by causing mechanical and chemical changes to the wall rocks in
these areas of high fluid flow. These changes
produce local ground softening or hardening
(ground preparation). Ground softening
(chloritization or pervasive clay alteration)
will result in weaker zones which may control
the localization of subsequent faulting and
shearing. Ground hardening will lead to competency and will favor fracturing, brecciation
and increased porosity. Chemical ground
preparation also results from hydrothermal alteration. Muscovite alteration liberates silica
into the passing fluid (Coveney, 1981) and
phyllic alteration assemblages adjacent to the
conduit often develop in zones of wall-rock assimilation and silicification. The alteration
process may also add heat to the system if it
involves exothermic reactions (Cathles, 1977 ).
Potential effects such as ground preparation,
fault enhancement, silica introduction, and
heat generation, suggest that alteration plays
both a physical and chemical role in oreshoot
development.

Oreshoot textures
The textural relationship between gangue,
ore minerals and wall-rock alteration assem-

S.G. PETERS

Fig. 3. Sketch of a plane or section of an hypothetical oreshoot at a contact between two rock types ( + ' s and v's). The
barren pre-ore alteration may have contributed to early ground preparation. Productive alteration surrounds and is in
direct contact with the oreshoot, which contains gangue and mineralization. Fringe-zone alteration occurs outside the
productive alteration. Barren alteration may also be related to the same fluid or mineralizing event, but may signify
different chemical or physical conditions. Post-ore alteration is usually unrelated but may locally overprint mineralization.

blage allow discrimination of the processes of

oreshoot formation. Textures found in oreshoots may represent pre-ore, syn-ore and postore events in the host conduit. Multiple-fluid
episodes, different fault movements and
chemical replacement may all have specific
textural signatures. Ore fluid is usually circulating in these areas of multiple episodes where
high complexity and porosity may predate the
main mineralization. Comb, ribbon, buck and
breccia quartz and microscopic textures indicate different processes and stages of oreshoot
formation. Quartz deposition is due to changes
in silica solubility resulting from temperature
and pressure fluctuations. Local pressure
changes are due to reduced velocity of the fluid
in dilated zones according to Bernoulli's equation. At restricted or dilated portions of the fissure, throttling and adiabatic cooling are common and result in quartz deposition and

channel choking, which lead to pressure and

temperature build-ups and faulting.
The long dip lengths in many mesothermal
oreshoots may also account for substantial
pressure and temperature reductions in the
fluid from bottom to top. Pressure and chemical aspects of the ore fluid may also have caused
fault movement and dilation to further develop in specific areas that form into oreshoots. Skinner (1979) has suggested four
main causes of mineral deposition: (1) decrease in temperature, (2) boiling through decrease in pressure, (3) chemical changes due
to hydrothermal alteration, and (4) chemical
changes due to fluid mixing.
Textural variation is common within, between and along oreshoots and conduits. For
example, brecciated wall-rock material may be
cemented by ore and gangue minerals, or brecciated ore and gangue minerals may be ce-

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORESHOOTS IN VEIN DEPOSITS

mented by later stages of mineralization. In

other cases, banded and crustiform quartz of
oreshoots in epithermal vein deposits may give
way to chalcedony and agate within the host
conduit at levels above the oreshoot (Berger
and Eimon, 1982).
Interpretation of oreshoot features
As Bateman (1942) noted, the precise nature of oreshoot control and genesis is unsolved in the majority of cases. However, it is
often possible to make an interpretation of the
effects of ground preparation and the various
stages of oreshoot growth from analysis of the
internal constituents of an oreshoot.

Ground preparation
Ground preparation refers to local changes,
which will later favor ore deposition that occur
prior to the arrival of the ore-forming fluid.
This concept is distinctly different from that of
dynamic interaction of the ore fluid with the
wall rock to promote oreshoot growth during
mineralization. The difference between these
two concepts is illustrated by the distinction
proposed by Poulsen and Robert (1989) between geometric oreshoots, those that are the
result of the intersection of the host conduit
with favorable geologic elements, and kinematic oreshoots, those related to active shear
zones and vein development by conduit/fluid
interaction.
Several types of ground preparation can be
recognized: ( 1 ) physical preparation of the ore
conduit to enhance permeability and prepare a
trap site; (2) chemical preparation of a trap
site or district; and (3) development of a
unique district fabric and trap site due to events
throughout the geologic history. An example of
the first and second type is localized faulting
or crackling, and alteration, at the top of a
cupola.

Stages of oreshoot growth

Oreshoots usually occur in zones of dilation
and high fluid flow. The internal constituents
of an oreshoot (such as quartz, gouge and hydrothermal alteration minerals), commonly
indicate a complex history of development (cf.,
Laffitte, 1962). Models for oreshoot formation in brittle-ductile shear-zone-hosted goldquartz veins are provided by Lang (1979),
Foster (1989), Bouchet et al., (1989), and illustrated by Peters ( 1988, 1991a ) based on the
integration and interpreted study of quartz
textural types, structural controls and timing
relationships between oreshoot components.
Typical oreshoot growth sequences consist of:
(1) ground preparation and nucleation, (2)
overprinting and reinjection, (3) fault movement and (4) consolidation. Mineralization
can be continuous throughout these four stages
of oreshoot growth, or it may be confined to
only one stage. Complex oreshoots that display
multiple episodes of mineralization may grow
to become relatively large, and, therefore, have
the chance to develop high metal contents. The
early ground preparation and nucleation stage
involves hydrothermal alteration, at relatively
high fluid pressure with resultant fluid diffusion away from the central conduit and its focusing in zones of earlier weakness, such as existing mylonites, dikes, cleavage or igneous
apophyses. Fluid pressure may also be lowered
at releasing bends (Sibson, 1990 ) or dilational
jogs along strike slip faults in the near-surface
environment. In this case, fluid-pressure
changes are a consequence of faulting rather
than a trigger for faulting.
The overprinting and re-injection stage involves wall-rock assimilation and the development of a lode zone and is typified by a major chemical transformation of the conduit. At
this stage, gangue and mineralization precipitation begins to choke the conduit in the dilated zones and leads to early pressure buildups which enhance fault movement along slip
planes.

10

The fault movement stage is typified by major fault movement within the earlier prepared
lode zone. This results in mechanical deformation of the internal constituents of the early
stages. The amount of displacement along
faults is not uniform but varies. There may be
a tendency for those parts of the faults near oreshoots to have increased displacement and
this results in gouge, clay seams and pods of
brecciated gangue and mineralization mixed
together. Microscopic secondary veinlets develop in the cracks and sheeted zones, especially near the peripheries of the oreshoots.
Repeated movement and deposition lead to
meter-scale cuspate shapes in the developing
oreshoots. These cuspate shapes locally gape
where offset by prior fault movement, forming
open pockets for further precipitation, similar
to the mechanisms proposed for the formation
of gold-bearing quartz veins at Grass Valley,
California (Johnston, 1940 ).
The consolidation stage involves growth of
several zones, which may be joined together
within and along the conduit into larger, composite, mature oreshoots. Plucking of wall rock
and old vein material, rotation, brecciation and
gouge development are diagnostic of this stage
and responsible for complex oreshoot shapes.

S.G.PETERS

Changes in attitude
Changes in strike and dip of a host conduit
have been shown to be favorable loci for dilation (Fig. 4) and, in a dip sense, are usually
attributed to reverse or normal movement on
properly oriented kinks with S or Z symmetry
in the fissure plane (Newhouse, 1940; Emmons, 1948; Garnet, 1966). Dilation due to
attitude changes has also been recognized in
tensional openings within shear zones in vein
tungsten (Brown, 1957), silver veins (Lyons,
1988), and Archean gold deposits (Kerrich
and Allison, 1978; Guha et al., 1983). Oreshoots also occur in dilated shear settings or in
disturbed areas of complex structures (Blanchard, 1936 ), such as pre-existing folds or ductile pre-gold shear zones (Fig. 4 ). A special type
a

Controls of oreshoot location and shape

\
ilOOm I

d.

Oreshoots are most common in dilatant

zones caused by changes in attitude, splays,
lithologic contacts, and intersections (cf., Hulin, 1929; Hulin and Goddard, 1950; McKinstry, 1955; Bursnall, 1989; Hodgson,
1989). In addition, conceptual parameters
such as district fabric, magic distances and
stacking are also useful to describe the geometry of the oreshoots. Favorable sites are usually
found in areas of low mean stress, of tensile or
shear failure, within large strain zones, or in
areas of tensile stress.

CHANGES
IN

ATTITUDE

Fig. 4. Changes in attitude. Sketches of oreshoots related

to local changes in strike and dip (rolls and warps in host
conduit). (a) Oreshoot at short section of attitude change;
(b) composite oreshoot in long portions of attitude
change; (c) oreshoot in concave roll in vein; (d) oreshoot
in convex roll in vein accompanied by intersection of an
auxiliary fissure. (From Peters, 1987b.)

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATIONOF ORESHOOTS 1N VEIN DEPOSITS

of change in strike and dip is refraction where

attitude change of the host conduit is coincident with a change in the host-rock type as described by Knopf (1929) and Reid et al.
( 1975 ), and discussed by Treagus ( 1988 ) and
Peters (1987c).

Splaying
Secondary faulting or horse tailing has also
been shown to generate tensional fields and localize oreshoots (Fig. 5 ). The local mean stress
reduction at the points of splay is indicated to
be as high as 20% by Chinnery ( 1966a,b ). Segall and Pollard (1980) suggest that splays may
be focal points for seismicity, dilation and heat
SPLAYS

11

flow. Cymoid loops enclose cymoid lenses

where two major veins are connected by shear
splays to form a duplex structure (Sibson,
1990). Ore is common in the horse between
two veins, or adjacent to bends, close to the
closure of the duplex or in proximal tensional
gashes (cf., Gemmel et al., 1988; Lyons, 1988;
Harley and Charlesworth, 1990; Teagle et al.,
1990). Geometric complexity and multiple
movement in splaying areas (Lajtai, 1969)
may result in local tensile stresses (Gamond,
1987 ). This may encourage fluid pressure and
stress gradients to develop through the fault
network, enhancing permeability and channel
fluid flow through the splayed portions of the
faults. Standard vein and fissure orientations
based on models of Tchalenko (1968) can
predict or differentiate tensional or compressional orientations in a complex array of faults
or shear zones (cf., Mueller et al., 1988).

Lithologic contacts
a.

b.

C.

Fig. 5. Splaying.Sketchesof oreshoots related to splaying

in host conduits. (a) Oreshoot on short hanging-walt
splayssandstone; (b) and (c) oreshootson footwallsplays;
(d) oreshoots located in complex splaying, intersection
and changein strike; (e) oreshootsalong multiple splays,
and (f) oreshoot at splay intersection. (From Peters,
1987b.)

Many oreshoots occur on one side or the

other of lithologic contacts (Fig. 6), and the
plunge of the oreshoot may coincide with the
intersection of a host fissure and a lithologic
contact (Knopf, 1929; McKinstry, 1955; Reid
et al., 1975 ). When lithologic contacts in a layered rock sequence are offset by a perpendicular fault, complex relationships between the
oreshoot and the wall rocks may develop (Fig.
6 ). Lithologic contacts represent zones of contrasting competency, chemistry, thermal conductance and porosity. Lithology may influence conduit and vein style, such as at the
Arltunga goldfield, Northern Territory (Dirks
and Wilson, 1991 ), where tensional veins are
parallel to kink-zone boundaries in competent
units, and tension gashes or dilational veins are
formed in incompetent units. Special types of
ore deposits in host structures interacting with
lithologic contacts are represented by beddingplane faults and saddle reefs, as described by
Behre (1937), Cox et al. (1986), and Tomlinson et al., (1988).

12

S.G.PETERS

plunge (Fig. 7 ). Intersections favor ore deposition and increase porosity by providing larger
surface areas and by increasing fracture density in a localized area to provide a zone where
fluids of slightly different temperature, density, pressure and chemistry may mix.

ROCK TYPE

loo~

District fabric

"~i~i~!~i iiiiiiiiii:~::%.,
I

~ - j

:.....

r."

5~

I aom I
I loom

Fig. 6. Sketches of the relationship of oreshoots to stratigraphy. (a) Oreshoots in siliceous shale at the refracted intersection with veined chert; (b) oreshoots at intersections of juxtaposed stratigraphic units; (c) oreshoot at
refracted contacts of sandstone and carbonaceous shale;
(d) local undulations within oreshoots due to juxtaposed
shale bands; (e) oreshoots generally avoiding chert and
forming in shale; (f) oreshoot along the intersection of
shear zone and carbonaceous shale band. (From Peters,
1987b.)

Intersections
The intersection of two mineralized conduits commonly results in an oreshoot (Rickard, 1902 ) and the oreshoot will plunge within
one or both of the conduits parallel to the intersection (Penrose, 1910). The geometry,
such as X, T, or Y shapes, and the angle of intersection also influences the hydrothermal alteration pattern and the development of the
oreshoot. Barren cross-faults and non-dilated
fissures near oreshoots form intersections
which may also be collinear with the oreshoot

Each district contains a variety of rock types

which have acquired fabrics due to their unique
geologic history. Hydrothermal mineralization
and oreshoot formation are most commonly
superimposed on the existing fabrics (cf.,
White et al., 1986; Raybould, 1976). Oreshoot
plunge, location and abundance can usually be
directly related to unique geometries which existed prior to mineralization. For example, a
strong mineral or intersection lineation in the
host rocks may be related to (Poulsen and
Robert, 1989) or be used by later major host
shear zones, or may also define the plunge of
some oreshoots, such as in the Messina copper
deposits, northern Transvaal (Fig. 8). In this
way, the mineralizing solutions and associated
deformation use the older fabrics. In some
cases deformation events may overprint old
shear zones and the plutonic rocks intruding
them. This overprinting deformation may lead
to reactivation of old shear zones and development of new faults in the plutonic rocks,
providing new structural sites for mineralization in both the old shear zone and the younger
faults.
In the Cripple Creek district, the mylonitized contact between PreCambrian granite
and the augen gneisses has been truncated by a
Tertiary caldera development; the mylonite
zone has been subsequently reactivated, producing new brittle faults and mineralization in
both the mylonite zone and the caldera-fllling
lithologies (Fig. 9). In other cases, vein systems of gold-quartz deposits may be localized
on older ductile structures which are oriented
subparallel to the differential stress, so that they

13

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORESHOOTS IN VEIN DEPOSITS

b.

INTERSECTIONS

Fig. 7. Sketches of mineralization related to intersections. (a) Intersection of early and late fissures to produce veins and
shoots (at circles); (b) intersection of master and secondary shear zones with oreshoots forming at the boundaries on
both sets; (c) oreshoots localized at the intersection of master fissures and cross-tensional fissures. (From Peters, 1987b. )

] PARAGNES
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I
T
E
SS
I 1kinI
b~

4,

...

ii.!!.

"1':"::: /

Fig. 8. Oreshoots controlled by district fabric at Messina, Northern Transvaal. Granulite-facies gramte gneiss and accompanying paragenesis have been folded in two main ductile events. The brittle Messina Fault and F3 "warping" accompany
hydrothermal copper mineralization, which is nucleated on the early fabrics. Stereo nets show contoured lineations and
common oreshoot plunges (black dots): (a) Cambell Mine: (b) Harper Mine; (c) Messina Mine where breccia pipe
plunges down conical fold fabric, and (d) Spence and Artonvilla Mines. (Adapted from Songe, 1946; Jacobsen, 1974;
and Jacobsen and McCarthy, 1976. )
were c o i n c i d e n t a l l y r e a c t i v a t e d a n d d i l a t e d b y
stick-slip faulting.
In a n o t h e r e x a m p l e i n v o l v i n g c o m p l e x district fabrics at C h a r t e r s T o w e r s , Q u e e n s l a n d

(Fig. 10), o r e s h o o t s were f o r m e d p r e f e r e n tially in o l d e r m y l o n i t i c rocks; the flat plunges

o f the o r e s h o o t s in the D a y D a w n L o d e m i m i c
the m u l l i o n a n d e l o n g a t i o n l i n e a t i o n in the

14

S.G. PETERS

E- W A4YLONITE

ORDOV/CIAN
GRANITOIDS

:!

_ ~

NWMYLONffE
DEVON~AN
GRANITOIDS

3
500 metres
J

GoldStructures

/.S Myionile

BEACON HILL DEPOSITS

Fig. 9. District fabric affecting location of lode structures
at Cripple Creek, Colorado. A northeast-trending mylonitized contact between PreCambrian granite and augen
gneiss, at Beacon Hill, has been propagated within younger
Tertiary rocks as brittle fissures. Gold mineralization has
used both the new and the old fabrics. (Adapted from
Lindgren and Ransome, 1906. )

mylonite, but along strike of the veins in undeformed rocks, postdating the mylonite, a
sympathetic fissure system has been propagated and oreshoot plunges are steep (Peters,
1990; Peters and Golding, 1987, 1989).

PRESERVED
MEGABLASTS

Fig. I0. Sketch of development of district fabric at Charters Towers, Northeastern Queensland. East-striking mylonites ( 1 ) are preferentially preserved during batholithic
development (2, 3) through various deformation and
plutonic events in inliers. These early fabrics are preferentially oriented for post-batholithic hydrothermal gold
mineralization, and where they are preserved, they served
as channelways for mineralizing fluids and dilated traps
for oreshoots. In this sketch two 2-3-km diameter circular
megablasts preserve the east-striking fabrics (4).
(Adapted from Peters, 1990. )

"Magic" distances
In some instances, oreshoots may form at
specific empirically predictable distances away
from geologic contacts or along conduits. There
may also be spatial punctuation or periodicity
between oreshoots and host conduits that define patterns (Petersen, 1990). Examples are
in the gold-quartz oreshoots at Norseman,
Western Australia (Campbell, 1990) which
systematically lie about 1000-1500 m to the
west of a banded iron formation. Gradients due
to temperature, pressure or fluid chemistry can

be applied to the geometries found in oreshoots in terms of metal ratio contours to explain magic distances (Petersen et at., 1977;
Loucks and Petersen, 1988). Other examples
are where oreshoots lie a distinct distance from
a contact along a host conduit or where veins
lie certain distances apart as discussed by Kutina et al. (1967). Magic distances are traditionally empiric qualitative concepts used in
ore districts (Fig. 11 ).

NOMENCLATURE, CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORESHOOTS IN VEIN DEPOSITS

"MAGIC D I S T A N C E "

15

sJ

dW, ORE
."0%

Fig. l 1. Sketch of magic distance in an hypothetical area

with two rock types and two vein directions. Oreshoots
tend to occur in sandstone (dots) typically a distance "d"
in from the granite contact. The concept of magic distance is empiric and does not imply process.

Stacking
In many vein systems oreshoots tend to
"stack u p " or to be aligned along specific, predictable orientations from one host conduit to
another, such as in the K a p u n d a Mine, South
Australia (Dickinson, 1944). Cross faulting,
folding or other geologic entities can also be
aligned along the stacking direction; however,
this direction, like magic distance, is also an
empirical or qualitative concept and the link
to geologic features m a y be weak or in some
cases entirely lacking. Stacking can take place
in more than one plane (Fig. 12). Periodicity
or stacking o f oreshoots within an ore conduit
along the horizontal can be quantified as the
development ratio, which is defined by the total strike length o f the conduit divided by the
length of oreshoots along that horizon. A typical use of the development ratio is used in old
districts to measure how much underground
development might be necessary along a vein
to expose a n u m b e r o f oreshoots, based on previous production ( d r i f t s / s t o p e s ) . The develo p m e n t ratio usually differs from one conduit
to another within and between vein systems.
An example o f stacking due to a district fabric has been described by N a r a y a n a s w a m i et

Fig. 12. Sketch illustrating stacking direction in an area

with a layered sequence of rocks with crossing shear zones.
Ore zones cluster where these shear zones cross the sandstone (dots)-shale (dashes) contacts. The location of the
oreshoots straddles the contact, however. For instance,
point A would be a more likely location for the next oreshoot, rather than point B. Stacking is an empirical concept and may defy structural analysis. It is also three
dimensional.
al. (1960) in the Kolar goldfield where veins
have been localized on stratigraphic contacts
between folded competent massive amphibolite and less competent amphibolite. The veins
form en-echelon oreshoots in areas of dilation
where veins cross-cut folds and the thickest
veins occur at the crest and troughs of the folds.
The multi-generational folding produces a variety of p a t t e m s and the oreshoots are
"stacked" along a geometric fabric that has
been prepared by the folding.

Controls in vein systems

Location and geometry of oreshoots within
vein systems can be predicted by using a number o f qualitative concepts such as internal and
external plunges, district plunge, district stacking, conduit classification, gradients and warps.
These concepts have practical application in
most districts in exploration for and production o f ore, but are of such broad and general
application that they can rarely be explained
definitively. These concepts are in many ways

16

S.G. PETERS
- - z.--..]~

district-scale equivalents of those used on the

oreshoot scale and describe different predictable ways in which entire clusters of oreshoots
display geometric patterns.

.... S U R F A C ~

[] .......

Internal and external plunges

L

Within a single conduit or lode, oreshoots

may cluster in such a way that individual oreshoots plunge in one direction (internal
plunge) but the overall cluster may plunge in
another direction (external plunge). For example, the oreshoots in the Mararoa lode at
Norseman, Western Australia, plunge externally to the north, controlled by a favorable
bed, which host the oreshoots but have elongation internally to the southeast, controlled by
cross shear zones or gabbroic dikes (Fig. 13a).
In another case, oreshoots within the Bobtail
lode at Cripple Creek tend to plunge as a cluster to the north along a breccia/granite contact, although the individual oreshoots have
elongation directions plunging to the south
(Fig. 13b ).

1kin

. A . . - ~
J

MARAROA REEF

BOBTAIL LODE

District plunge

Fig. 13. Examples of longitudinal projections showing internal (small arrows ) and external (large arrows ) plunge:

Within individual vein systems, oreshoots or

clusters of oreshoots may stack or plunge in
predictable geometries, as with the oreshoots
in the Independence vein system at Cripple
Creek (Fig. 14). Another example is the tendency for most of the oreshoots at Norseman
to occur consistently more deeply toward the
north (Thomas et al., 1990). When similar geometries occur in a number of vein systems, a
district plunge can be described and may point
to a control of stratigraphy or indicate the
source or pathway of ore fluids within the district. This concept can be used to predict blind
(non-outcropping) undiscovered vein systems or repetition of vein systems at depth.

(a) Mararoa Reef Norseman, Western Australia. Four

distinct oreshoots individually plunge to the south but all
of the lodes tend to plunge as a clustered group in a predictable trend to the north. The envelope containing the
external plunge represents the trace of a specific stratigraphic bed on the reef surface (adapted from Conolly,
1936; Cambell, 1990; and Thomas et al., 1990). (b) Bobtail lode, Cripple Creek, Colorado. The main trend of mineralization is steeply to the north along the breccia-granite contact. Individual smaller oreshoots tend to plunge to
the south. Two levels of stopes are depicted in black to
illustrate how interpretation is made.

District stacking
When oreshoots cluster and plunge as a
group, these groups may be repeated or stacked

along predictable directions if the same conditions exist away from the original cluster (Fig.
14). An example of repetition of geologic conditions might be a second favorable host rock
such as a sedimentary or volcanic unit, or a
secondary cross fault, parallel to the known
controlling cross fault. At Charters Towers vein
systems stack and group with less than random
patterns within plutons (Fig. 2b). At Norse-

NOMENCLATURE,CONCEPTSANDCLASSIFICATIONOF ORESHOOTSIN VEINDEPOSITS

17

SURFACE
+

ORE ZONE

~ ll

STOPING
500m

DISTRICT PLUNGE
(CRIPPLE CREEK)

Fig. 14. Sketch of a longitudinal projection along the Independence vein system at Cripple Creek, Colorado, illustrating
district plunge. Numerous large oreshoots cluster and plunge as a group to the south as a shallow angle, similar to external
plunge but at a larger scale. This concept allows speculations of repetitions of entire oreshoot clusters or postulation of
fluid-flow pathways.

man, Western Australia major north-striking

lodes are stacked along cross-cutting northnorthwest cross faults (Campbell, 1990).
Deep conduits may guide fluid flow from
depth to the oreshoot environment and act as
high-permeability conduits as suggested by
Ethridge et al. (1983). Stacking of different
conduits or portions of conduits may represent
areas of fluid flow along separate conduits that
are connected at depth. General characteristics of mineralization are similar in each
stacked portion of a vein system or oreshoot
cluster, but differences in tenor and strength
and oreshoot control between them may be due
to local structural and chemical conditions with
separate fluid evolution that could have developed within each conduit. Fluid evolution rate
would be dependent on the depth of separation from a parent fluid and the disequilibrium of the fluid with the wall rock. These
> 1-km-scale geometries allow different or later
fluids to selectively enter the district through
individual vein systems. This allows separate
avenues of fluid flow within one ore district and
accommodates and spatially partitions sepa-

rate metallogenic episodes if they are present

( Peters, 1987a).

Conduit classification
Conduits within vein systems may each have
different characteristics, some of which are
more conducive to oreshoot formation that
others. Many vein systems contain long strike
length, continuous master fissures which exhibit fabric and other signs of shear movement
(cf. Ramsay, 1980a). These are accompanied
by shorter strike length auxiliary conduits
which contain more signs of extension or tension (Ramsay and Huber, 1983), such as the
spur, link or caunter veins (Figs. 1 and 15).
There is a tendency for oreshoots to occur
within these more tensional structures where
fluid flow and porosity is increased. Exploration and mapping techniques, such as low-level
soil and rock geochemistry and alteration
studies and joint density studies allow discrimination within a district or vein system of which
areas or conduit orientation had the greatest
fluid flow. These areas may be synonymous

18

S.G. PETERS
TENSION

VEINS
I

~o

I
60

45

I
I

a.

b.

c.

ley et al., 1976; Kerrich, 1986), rock-type

changes, faulting or shear zones, folding, magmatism or other factors. The magnitude and
spatial patterns of the gradients in relation to
host conduits on a district or vein-system scale
are important features in the distribution of
oreshoots. Gradients may repeat within a district and be responsible for district plunges and
district stacking.

Warps

d.

S
e.

50m

Fig. 15. Tension veins. Types of tension and spur veins in

the Hodgkinson goldfield (Peters, 1987b). (a) Hanging
wall and footwall spur veins; (b) complex spur veins associated with auxiliary shear zones; (c) gash veins filled
with quartz; (d) large-scale parallel ladder veins filled with
quartz; (e) section oforeshoot in gash vein between two
splays; (f) gash veins between master shears.

with or are separate from traps or areas where

the fluids precipitated concentrated mineralization in oreshoots.

Broad-scale gentle folding may locally be superimposed upon host rocks and vein systems
on a district scale and may dilate large areas of
the crust, e.g., kilometer-scale dilatant areas
which trap oil and gas. These warps occur late
in deformation sequences and usually follow
older tighter folding or shear-zone development. Examples of warping occur at Messina,
Northern Transvaal where F3 folding appears
to bow a broad area which may have focused
the ore fluids to form a district centered on a
15-km length of a master fissure (Fig. 8 ). Similar-scale warps can be interpreted in many
districts by interpreting district rock distribution, contact shapes and fold symmetries.
Warps may explain why one zone of a conduit
is mineralized but another is not. The geometry of the dilation due to warping, such as dilation refraction or partitioning through lithologic or structural regimes can explain and
predict district stacking.

Gradients
Conclusions

As fluids flow through or up a conduit they

move from one geologic environment to another. Changes in fluid chemistry, temperature, or pressure are responsible for precipitation of ore and gangue minerals (cf., Edwards
and Atkinson, pp. 161-163 ). These changes of
environment can sometimes be directly correlated with lithologic contacts, metamorphic
grade or other geologic parameters. Gradients
in strain, porosity, temperature, pressure, and
chemistry can be due to m e t a m o r p h i s m (Hen-

The control of large oreshoots is complex,

and several causes of dilation are usually present. One distinct, unambiguous set of names
and concepts for different components of oreshoots, vein systems and their geometries allows the comparison of different districts and
also allows clarifying, productive communication between geoscientists interested in studying or exploiting the mineralization. Different
aspects of control of mineralization may dom-

NOMENCLATURE,CONCEPTSANDCLASSIFICATIONOFORESHOOTSIN VEINDEPOSITS

inate different portions of the same oreshoot,

may become interrelated, or may be interpreted to change with time as the oreshoot developed. In areas of multiple faulting, the distinction between splaying and low-angle
intersections, is not clear.The development of
an oreshoot changes through time; it may
progress from early broad dilation to fault
movement and quartz deposition, and then to
more complex interconnected conduit networks. The anatomy of oreshoots is displayed,
on a small scale, by the petrology and textural
relationships of the internal constituents. At
larger scales, oreshoot features are displayed by
the geometric relationships between and within
the vein systems. The systematic documentation and analysis of oreshoots and vein-system
components will, hopefully, result in the conceptualization of processes or empiric relationships which are applicable to district appraisal and ore discovery.
Acknowledgements
This paper was prepared with the knowledge
and appreciation of pressing searches for oreshoots in the Messina, Cripple Creek and
Norseman districts, and of studies of the
Charters Towers and Hodgldnson districts. The
ideas mentioned in this paper are formed in
close association with geologists, engineers and
prospectors in these districts, who also had an
avid interest in understanding, finding, and
mining oreshoots. Early drafts of this paper
where read by W.C. Peters and K. Johnson who
provided comments and suggested some
changes and additions which improved the paper. The manuscript benefited from the reviews and comments of Francois Robert, and
an anonymous reviewer of Ore Geology Reviews. Drafting was done by M. Kelly at Central Norseman Gold Corporation Ltd. and is
gratefully acknowledged.

19

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