CA ABHISHEK AGGARWAL

MCOM, ACA

Negotiable instrument act, 1881

Meaning: - a negotiable instrument means an instrument the property in which
is acquired by any one who takes it bonafide and for the value notwithstanding
any defect in the title of the prior party.
Definition [sec 13]
A negotiable instrument means
- A promissory note; or
- Bill of exchange; or
- Cheque
- Payable either to order or
bearer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT

{SEC 13}
1. Freely transferable from one person to another person.
2. The holder in due course obtains good title of the instrument notwithstanding
any defect in the previous holder.
3. HDC of a negotiable instrument can sue on the instrument in his own name.
4. Transferable infinitum.
PRESUMPTIONS AS TO NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT {sec 118}
1. CONSIDERATION:-Every negotiable instrument was made,
endorsed or drawn for consideration

accepted,

2. DATE: - every negotiable instrument bearing a date was made or drawn on

that date.
3. Time of acceptance: - every bill of exchange was accepted within a
reasonable time after the date mentioned on it but before of its maturity.

4. Time of transfer:- every transfer of negotiable instrument was made before

its maturity.
5. STAMP:-lost promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque was duly stamped.
6. HDC: - that the holder of N/I is a HDC.
Promissory note
{sec. 4}
A promissory note is an instrument in writing {not being a bank note or
currency note} containing an unconditional undertaking signed by maker to pay
a certain some of money only to
{a}a certain person; or
{b} the order of a certain person.
Promissory Note
{Sec. 4}
Definition: - A Promissory note is an instrument in writing (Not being a bank- note
or a currency note) containing an Unconditional undertaking signed by the
maker to pay a
Certain sum of money only to a certain person; or the Order of a certain person.
Essentials Characteristics of a Promissory Note
1. Writing: - Promissory note must be in writing. Writing includes print and
typewriting. Oral promise can not
Constitute a valid promissory note. Generally consideration, Place and date of
making need not be mentioned on the promissory note.
2. Promise to pay:(a) A Promissory note must contain an undertaking/
Promise to pay.
(b) Mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient.
(c) Use of word promise is not mandatory, but the maker should bind himself to pay.
EX.:- I have received a sum of Rs. 5,000 from Sohan. This amount will be
repaid on demand.
3. Unconditional promise:(a) The undertaking/ promise to pay should be unconditional and definite.
(b) Unconditional event means an event which is certain to happen but the time of its
occurrence is uncertain.
Examples:- I promise to pay B Rs. 500, seven days after may marriage with
C cannot constitute a promissory note because a condition as to marriage is
attached. A writes I promise to pay

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

C Rs. 25,000, 7days after the death of B. This is a valid promissory note and is
not conditional, since only the time of death of B is uncertain, but is sure to
happen.
Signed by the maker:-Promissory note should be signed by the maker himself.
Where it is written and the name of the maker appears in the instrument, but is
not signed, it shall not constitute a valid promissory note.
Payee to be a certain person: - Promissory note should specify the payee in
clear terms i.e. by name, son of, and resident of, etc. The payment can also be
identified by description.
Certain some of money:- Sum payable must be certain or capable of being
made certain. The sum shall be deemed to be certain when the rate of interest is
specified. Money may be payable in installments is also a valid promissory
note.
Examples:- I promise to pay Balu, Rs. 10,000, and all other sums which shall
be due is not valid since the sum is not certain.
Payment of Money only:- There must be a promise to pay only money and not
other consideration, e.g. I promise to pay B a sum of Rs. 50,000 and deliver
him my Scorpio Car is not valid.
Duly stamped and dated:- Stamps of requisite amount and description must be
affixed on the instrument and duly cancelled either before or at the time of its
execution. If the promissory note is not dated, it is presumed to have been made
on the date of its delivery.
Bill of exchange

{Sec. 5}

Definition: - A bill of exchange is an instrument in Writing containing an

unconditional order, singed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a
certain a sum of money only to, a certain person; or the order of a certain
person; or the bearer of the instrument.
Essentials Characteristics of a Bill of Exchange
(a) It must be in writing
(b) It must contain n expresses order to pay
(c) The order to pay must be definite and unconditional
(d) It must be signed by the drawer
(e) The sum contained in the order must be certain
(f) The order must be to pay money only

(g) Drawer, drawee and payee must be certain (usually, same person is the drawer and
payee)
(h) It must be stamped.
Parties to a Bill of Exchange
(i) Drawer:- The person who draws the bill (i.e., the person who makes the bill) is
called a drawer. His liability is secondary and conditional. His liability is
primary and conditional until the bill is accepted.
(ii)

Drawee:- 1. The person on whom the bill is drawn is called as drawee.

2. On acceptance of the bill- He is called as Acceptor, he becomes liable for
the payment of the Bill; his liability is primary and unconditional.
(iii) Payee: - The person to whom money is to be paid is named in the bill. He is
called as payee.
Cheque
{Sec. 6}
Definition:- cheque is a bill of exchange, drawn on a specified banker and not
expressed to be payable otherwise than on demand. It includes, the electronic
image of a truncated cheque; and a cheque in the electronic form.
Meaning of Truncated cheque:- A Truncated cheque means a cheque which is
truncated during the course of a clearing cycle, either by the clearing house or
by the bank whether paying or receiving payment, immediately on generation
of an electronic image. For transmission, substituting the further physical
movement of the cheque in writing.
Meaning of a cheque in electronic form:- A Cheque in the electronic form
means a cheque which contains the exact mirror image of a paper cheque, and is
generated, written and signed in a secure system ensuring the minimum safety
standards with the use of digital signature and asymmetric crypto system.
Essentials characteristics of a cheque:(a) The definition starts with the cheque is a bill of exchange so it must satisfy all
the essential features of a valid bill of exchange.
(b) It is always drawn on a specified banker. Banker includes any person acting as a
banker and any post office saving bank [Sec. 3].
(c) It is always payable on demand and not otherwise
Form of cheque: - A cheque may be drawn in 3 forms:(1.)

Bearer cheque: - Expressed to be payable to bearer or the last endorsement is

an endorsement in blank.

(2.)
(3.)

Order cheque: - Expressed to be payable to order, or which is expressed as

payable to a particular person with no prohibition on its transfer.
Crossed cheque: - Cheque that can be collected only through a banker.

Meaning of crossing:- Crossing means a direction given By the drawer of the

cheque to the drawee bank, not To pay the cheque at the counter of the bank.
The Payment can be collected only though a banker.
Types of crossing
Nature of crossing
General crossing

{Sec. 123 to 131 A}

Requirements
The cheque must contain two
parallel Transverse lines
The cheque must contain the
name of a banker. Special
crossing may be made only
once

Effects
The cheque must be paid
only to a banker
Cheque must be paid
only to the banker to
whom it is crossed.
Special crossing can not
be converted into general
crossing.

Not negotiable
crossing

The cheque must contain the

words not negotiable. The
cheque must be crossed
generally or specially

The cheque nevertheless

remains negotiable. The
title of the transferee
shall not be better than
the title of the transferor.

A/c payee crossing,

i.e. restrictive
crossing

The cheque must contain the

words A/c payee or A/c
payee only. The cheque must
be crossed
Generally or specially

The cheque does not

remain negotiable
anymore.
Based on transfer
procedure

Special crossing

Bearer Instrument [Sec. 13]:- An instrument which is expressed to be payable

to bearer or an instrument on which the last endorsement is in blank.

Promissory note can not be made payable to bearer. Bill of exchange- can not
be made payable to bearer on demand.
Order Instrument:- An instrument payable to a specified person or his order.
Order instrument can be transferred by endorsement and delivery.
Based on location:Inland Instrument:- A negotiable instrument is an inland instrument if, it is
drawn or made in India;
It is payable in India or is drawn on a person resident in India. An inland
instrument remains inland even if it has been endorsed to a foreign country.
Foreign Instrument [Sec. 12]:-A negotiable instrument which is not an inland
instrument is called as foreign instrument.
Based on payment:Demand Instrument:- An instrument which is expressed to be payable on
demand. An instrument on which time for payment (i.e. maturity date) is not
specified.
Time Instrument:- An instrument in which time for payment(i.e. maturity
date) is specified. A time instrument may be payable- on a specific day; or after
a specified period; or certain period after sight; or on happening of an even
which is certain to happen.
Maturity of a Negotiable Instrument {Sec. 22}
Meaning:- It means the date on which the negotiable instrument falls due for
payment.
Days of grace:- A negotiable instrument which is payable otherwise than on
demand is entitled to 3 days of grace.
Calculation of days of maturity {Sec. 23 to 25}
CASE

DATE OF MATURITY

Negotiable instrument payable on a

specified day.

Specified day + 3rd day

Negotiable instrument payable on a

stated number of days after date

Date on which negotiable instrument is

Drawn + stated number of days + 3rd day

Negotiable instrument payable on a

stated number of days after sight

Date on which negotiable instrument is

presented for sight + stated number of
days + 3rd day

Negotiable instrument payable on a

stated number of days after happening
of a certain event

Date on which such event happens +

stated number of days + 3rd day.

Negotiable instrument payable on

stated number of month after date.

Corresponding day of the relevant month

(i.e., date on which negotiable instrument
is drawn + stated number of month) + 3rd
day

Negotiable instrument payable on

stated number of month after sight

Corresponding day of the relevant month

(i.e., Date on which negotiable
instrument is presented for sight + stated
number of months) + 3rd day.

Negotiable Instrument payable on

stated number of months after
happening of a certain event

Corresponding day of the relevant month

(i.e., Date on which such event happens
+ stated number of months) + 3rd day

If the day of maturity of negotiable

instrument is a public holiday

Immediately preceding business day

If the day of maturity of negotiable

instrument is an emergency or
unforeseen public holiday

Immediately succeeding business day

Note:- If in the relevant month, there is no corresponding day, the last day of
such month shall be taken.
Incomplete / Inchoate Instrument {Sec. 20}
Conditions for an inchoate instrument:(a) A person signs a negotiable instrument.
(b) The negotiable instrument is stamped.
(c) The negotiable instrument is either wholly blank or is partially blank.
(d) The person signing such negotiable instrument delivers it to another person.

Legal effect:- The holder gets a prima facie authority to make or complete the
negotiable instrument.
Liability on an inchoate instrument:Rights of a person to whom an inchoate instrument is delivered He can
recover only such amount as he was authorized to fill. Rights of holder in due
course He can recover the whole amount stated in the instrument, but not
exceeding the amount covered by the stamps.

Accommodation Bills

{sec. 43}

An accommodation bill means a bill which is

consideration.

drawn, accepted without

Provision relating to such bills: ( a) The accommodated party cannot, after he has paid the amount of the bill,
recover the amount from any person who become a party to the bill for his
accommodation.
( b) The person who become the holder of such a bill in good faith and for
consideration, after maturity, may recover the amount from any prior party.
Negotiation {sec 14}
Meaning: Negotiation means transfer of a negotiable instrument to any other person so as
to constitute that person the holder of such negotiable instrument.
Methods of negotiation: *Negotiation by delivery
1. A bearer instrument may be negotiated by delivery.
2. The delivery must be voluntary
*Negotiation by endorsement and delivery

An order instrument can be negotiated only by way of

1. Endorsement; and
2. Delivery.
Endorsement {sec 15}
When the maker or holder of a negotiable instrument signs the same
*otherwise than as such maker
*for the purpose of negotiation
*on the back or face thereof or on a slip of paper annexed thereto,
*or so sign for the same purpose a stamped paper intended to be completed as a
negotiable instrument
*he is said to endorse the same, and is called the Endorse.
The person in whose favour the endorsement made is called Endorsee.
EFFECT OF ENDORSEMENT
The endorsement of an instrument, followed by delivery, transfers to the
endorsee the property in the instrument with right of further negotiation.
TYPES OF ENDORSEMENT
1. Endorsement in blank
*Endorsement in blank means an endorsement made by the endorser without
writing the name of the endorsement.
*The instrument is payable to bearer even though originally payable to
order.
2. Endorsement in full
Special endorsement means an endorsement made by a holder by(a) Signing his name; and
(b) Added a direction to pay the amount to a specified person.
2. Restrictive endorsement
*An endorsement which restricts the right of further negotiation is called as
restrictive endorsement.

4. Partial endorsement
*An endorsement which purports to transfer only a part of the amount of the
instrument is called as partial endorsement. Partial endorsement is not valid
at law.
5. Conditional endorsement
An endorser may, by express words in the endorsement(a) Make his liability, or
(b) Make the right of endorsee to receive the amount
Depend upon the happening of a certain event, although such event may
never happen.
Negotiation Back {Sec. 90}
Meaning
When an endorser, after he has negotiated an instrument, again becomes a
holder before its maturity, the instrument is said to be negotiated back to that
holder.
Effect:1. In a negotiation back, none of the intermediate holder / endorsers is liable
to the holder.
2. The general rule, that a holder in due course may sue all prior parties to
the instrument does not apply.
3. However, where a prior party has excluded its liability on the instrument
and the negotiable instrument is negotiated back to him, he may sue all
intermediate endorsers.
Distinction between Negotiation and Assignment:Basis
Applicable
Act

Meaning

Negotiation
If a negotiable instrument is
transfer
by
way
of
negotiation,
Negotiable
Instrument Act, 1881 applies.
Negotiation means transfer of
a negotiable instrument to
any other person so as to
constitute that person the
holder of such negotiable
instrument.

Assignment
Where
any
right
is
transfereed by way of
assignment, the Transfer of
Property Act applies.
Transfer of a right to receive
the payment of a debt by
one person (viz., assignee)
to another person (viz.,
assignee) by way of a
written document is called
as assignment.

Scope

Negotiation can be made for

transferring
negotiable
instrument only.
Method
or A bearer instrument can be
manner
negotiated merely by deliver,
and an order instrument can
be negotiated by endorsement
and delivery.
Notice
Notice of negotiation is not
required to be given to any
party.
Consideratio It is presumed that every
n
negotiable instrument was
negotiated for consideration.
Burden
of The other party has to prove
proof
that negotiation was without
any consideration.
Better title
The transferee of a negotiable
instrument acquires a title
better than that of the
transferor, i.e; he becomes a
holder in due course.
Stamp duty
Negotiation does not require
payment of stamp duty.

Assignment can be made of

any right.
Assignment is valid only if
it is made in writing and is
signed by the assignor.

Notice of assignment must

be given by the assignee to
the debtor.
There
is
no
such
presumption in case of
assignment.
The assignee has to prove
that
there
some
consideration.
The assignee does not
acquire a title better than
that of the assignor.

Assignment
requires
payment of stamp duty.

HOLDER {Sec. 8}
A holder of a negotiable instrument is a person entitled in his own name to the
possession there of and to receive or recover the amount due an negotiable
instrument from the parties liable on negotiable instrument.
HOLDER IN DUE COURSE
{Sec. 9}
A holder in due course is a person who*must be a holder.
*must have become the holder for consideration.
*must have obtained the possession of negotiable instrument before maturity.
*must have obtained the negotiable instrument in good faith.
PRIVILEGES OF A HOLDER IN DUE COURSE
1. Every prior party to a negotiable instrument is liable to a HDC.

2. A holder who derives title from HDC has the same right as that of a HDC.
3. No prior party can set up a defence that the negotiable instrument was
drawn, made or endorsed by him without any consideration.
4. No prior party can set up a defence that the negotiable instrument was lost or
was obtained from him by offence or fraud or for an unlawful consideration.
Thus, HDC gets a valid title to the negotiable instrument even though the
title of the transferor was defective.
5. No prior party can allege that negotiable instrument was delivered
conditionally or for a special purpose only.
6. HDC can claim full amount of the negotiable instrument (but not exceeding
the amount covered by the stamp) even though such amount is in excess of
the amount authorized by the person delivering an inchoate negotiable
instrument.
Difference between holder and HDC
BASIS
Consideration

Before maturity

Good Faith

Privileges

Right to use

HOLDER
A person becomes a holder even if
he
obtains
the
negotiable
instrument
without
any
consideration.
A person becomes a holder even if
he
obtains
the
negotiable
instrument after the maturity of the
negotiable instrument.
A person becomes the holder, even
if he does not obtain the negotiable
instrument in good faith.
A holder is not entitled to the
privileges, which are available for
HDC.

HDC
A person becomes HDC only
if he obtains the negotiable
instrument for consideration.
A person becomes HDC only
if he obtains the negotiable
instrument before its maturity.

HDC, a person who obtain the

negotiable instrument on good
faith.
A HDC is entitled to various
privileges as specified under
the negotiable instrument act,
1881.
A holder can not sue all the prior A HDC can sue all the prior
parties.
parties.

PAYMENT IN DUE COURSE

1. Payment is made as per apparent tenor
2. Payment is made in good faith

3. Payment is made without negligence

4. Payment is made in money only.
ACCEPTANCE {Sec. 7 and 86}
Meaning of
acceptance
(sec.7)
Effect (sec.7)
Essential of a
valid
acceptance
(sec. 7)
Types
of
acceptance
(sec. 86)
Effect
of
qualified
acceptance
(sec. 86)

(a) The drawee signs the bill; and

(b) The drawee delivers it to the holder of the bill; or the drawee
gives notice of acceptance to the holder of the bill.
The drawee becomes the acceptor.
(a) Written (whether on the face or back of the bill)
(b) Signed (signature without the word accepted is also valid)
(c) Signing on the bill
(d) Delivery or intimation to the holder that the has been accepted.
(a) General- Acceptance of bill without any qualification.
(b) Qualified- Acceptance of bill subject to some qualification (e.g.,
accepting the bill subject to the condition that the payment of bill
shall be made only on happening of an event specified there in.
(a) The holder may object to the qualified acceptance. In such a case,
it shall be treated that the bill is dishonoured due to nonacceptance.
(b) He may give his consent to the qualified acceptance. In such a
case, all the previous parties, not consenting to it, are discharged.

MATERIAL ALTERATION
Meaning:An alteration is called as material alteration if it alters*the character or operation (i.e. the legal effect) of a negotiable instrument, or
*the rights and liabilities of the parties to a negotiable instrument.
What is material alteration?
Alteration regarding(a)Date,
(b)Time of payment,
(c)Place of payment,
(d)Sum payable
(e)Opening a crossed cheque,
(f)Relationship between parties,
(g)Converting an order cheque into a bearer

What is NOT Material Alteration?

(a)Filling blank of the instrument,

(b)Conversion of blank endorsement int
endorsement in full,
(c)Crossing of Cheque,
(d)Conversion a General Crossing int
Special Crossing, like addition of word A/

cheque.

payee or Not Negotiable.

(e)Cancelling the word bearer and makin
cheque payable to order.
(f)Alternation made with the consent of th
parties.

Effect of a material alteration {sec. 87}

*Any material alteration of a negotiable instrument renders the same void as
against any
One who is a party there at the time of making such alteration and does not
consent thereto.
*But, a material alteration is valid, if it was made so as to carry out common
intention of the original parties.
DISCHARGE OF A NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT
Payment in due course:*A negotiable instrument is discharged if the party primarily liable on the
negotiable instrument makes the payment in due course.
*When the payment is made, the negotiable instrument must be cancelled or
the fact of payment must be recorded negotiable instrument.
Cancellation:Where the holder cancels the name of the party primarily liable on the
negotiable instrument, with intent to discharge him, the negotiable instrument
is discharged.
Release:Where the holder releases or renounces his right against the party primarily
liable on the negotiable instrument, the negotiable instrument is discharge.
Negotiation back:Where a party primarily liable on a negotiable instrument becomes the holders
of the negotiable instrument, the negotiable is discharged.
DISCHAGE OF A PARTY {Sec. 82 to 90}
Payment:Payment by a party who is secondarily liable on a negotiable instrument
discharges the holder and all parties subsequent to the party making payment
of the negotiable instrument.
Cancellation:-

Where the holder cancels the name of any party liable on the negotiable
instrument (other than the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument),
such a party and all parties subsequent to him are discharged.
Release:Where the holder releases any party liable negotiable instrument (other than
the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument), such a party and all
parties subsequent to him are discharged.
Allowing drawee more than 48 hours to accept:All prior parties not consenting to the same are discharged from liability to
such holder.
Qualified acceptance:Where a holder of the bill consents to qualified acceptance, all the prior
parties who did not consent to qualified acceptance are discharge.
Material alteration:Every party not consenting to a material alteration negotiable instrument is
discharged.
Negotiation back:Where a party already liable on the negotiable instrument becomes the holder
of negotiable instrument, such a party and all intermediate parties to whom
such a party was previously liable shall be discharge.
Operation of law:*A party is discharged if the negotiable instrument becomes time barred.
*A party is discharged if he is declared as an insolvent by the court.
Dishonour by Non- Acceptance {sec. 91}
A bill is dishonoured by non- acceptance if it is duty presented for acceptance,
but the drawee refuses to accept the bill.
Cases in which bill are dishonoured by non- acceptance:(a) When the drawee makes default in acceptance upon being duly required to
accept the bill.
(b) In case there is two or more drawee who are not partners, if the bills is not
accepted by all the drawee.
(c) Where the drawee is a fictitious person.
(d) When the drawee can not be found even after a reasonable search.
(e) When the drawee is incompetent to contract.
(f) Where the drawee gives a conditional acceptance and the holder does not
give his consent to the conditional acceptance.
Effect:*The holder gets an immediate right to sue all the prior parties.

*He need not wait till the maturity of the bill for it to be dishonoured on
presentment for payment.
Dishonour by Non- Payment
{sec. 92}
A negotiable instrument is dishonoured by non- payment, when presentment
for payment is excused and the instrument remain unpaid after maturityIn case of
Default in payment made by
Promissory note
Bill of Exchange
Cheque

Maker of the note

Acceptor of the bill.
Drawee of the Cheque.