A Little Book On Linux

A Little Book on Linux
A thorough guide for Linux Beginners

Prepared by:
M. Ikram Ullah Lali, Ph.D.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the Edx and Linux Foundations for offering this open source course
of Linux for beginners.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER - 1: Linux Philosophy and Concepts.......................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives:............................................................................................................ 1
Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.
Linux History............................................................................................................ 1
1.2.
Linux Philosophy...................................................................................................... 2
1.3.
Linux Community..................................................................................................... 2
1.4.
Linux Terminology.................................................................................................... 3
1.5.
Linux Distributions: .................................................................................................. 3
Summary............................................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER - 2: Linux Structure and Installation ......................................................................... 6
Learning Objectives:............................................................................................................ 6
2.1.
Linux File Systems Basics .......................................................................................... 6
2.2.
The Boot Process ..................................................................................................... 8
2.3.
Linux Distribution Installation ................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3: Graphical Interface ......................................................................................... 20
Learning objectives ........................................................................................................... 20
3.1.
GNOME Desktop Environment................................................................................ 20
3.2.
Basic Operations.................................................................................................... 28
3.3.
Graphical Desktop.................................................................................................. 36
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 38
Chapter 4: System configuration from Graphical Interface .................................................. 40
Learning Objectives........................................................................................................... 40
4.1.
System, Display, Date and Time Settings ................................................................. 40
4.2.
Network Manager.................................................................................................. 43
4.3.
Installing and Updating Software ............................................................................ 46
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 5: Command Line Operations................................................................................ 50
5.1.
Command Line Mode Operations ........................................................................... 50
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5.2.
Basic Operations.................................................................................................... 54
5.3.
Searching For Files ................................................................................................. 61
5.4.
Working with Files ................................................................................................. 66
5.5.
Installing Software ................................................................................................. 70
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter 6: Finding Linux Documentation............................................................................ 73
6.1.
Documentation Sources ......................................................................................... 73
6.2.
The Main Pages ..................................................................................................... 73
6.3.
GNU Info ............................................................................................................... 76
6.4.
Help Command...................................................................................................... 76
6.5.
Other Documentation Sources................................................................................ 77
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 7: File Operations ................................................................................................. 80
7.1.
Accounts ............................................................................................................... 80
7.2.
Environment Variables ........................................................................................... 85
7.3.
Recalling Previous Commands ................................................................................ 89
7.4.
Command Aliases .................................................................................................. 93
7.5.
File Permissions ..................................................................................................... 93
Summary.......................................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 8: Text Editors ...................................................................................................... 99
8.1.
Basic Editors: nano and gedit.................................................................................. 99
8.2.
More Advances Editors: vi and emacs ....................................................................102
Summary.........................................................................................................................115
Chapter- 9: Logical Security Principles..................................................................................116
Learning Objectives..........................................................................................................116
9.1.
Understanding Linux Security ................................................................................116
9.2.
Understanding the usage of the Root Account ........................................................119
9.3. Using Sudo, the Importance of Process Isolation, Limiting Hardware Access and
Hardware Resources ........................................................................................................121
9.4.
Working with Passwords .......................................................................................125
9.5.
Securing the Boot Process and Hardware Resources ...............................................126
Summary.........................................................................................................................128
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Chapter 10: Network Operations ......................................................................................129

10.1.
Introduction to Networking ...............................................................................129
10.2.
Browsers...........................................................................................................137
10.3.
Transferring Files...............................................................................................138
Summary.........................................................................................................................140
Chapter- 11: Manipulating Text ..........................................................................................142
11.1.
Cat and echo.....................................................................................................142
11.2.
Sed and awk......................................................................................................145
11.3.
File Manipulation Utilities ..................................................................................149
11.4.
Grep .................................................................................................................156
11.5.
Miscellaneous Text Utilities................................................................................157
11.6.
Dealing with Large Files and Text Related Utilities ...............................................159
Summary.........................................................................................................................162
Chapter 12: Printing .........................................................................................................164
12.1.
Configuration....................................................................................................164
12.2.
Printing Operations ...........................................................................................169
12.3.
Manipulating Postscripts and PDF Files...............................................................172
Summary.........................................................................................................................177
Chapter 13: Bash Shell Scripting........................................................................................179
13.1.
Features and Capabilities ...................................................................................179
13.2.
Syntax...............................................................................................................183
13.3.
Constructs ........................................................................................................190
Summary.........................................................................................................................195
Chapter 14: Advanced Bash Scripting .............................................................................196
14.1.
String Manipulation...........................................................................................196
14.2.
Boolean Expressions ..........................................................................................198
14.3.
Case Statement.................................................................................................200
14.4.
Looping Constructs............................................................................................201
14.5.
Script Debugging ...............................................................................................202

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14.6.
Some Additional Useful Techniques....................................................................204
Summary.........................................................................................................................207
Chapter 15: Processes.......................................................................................................208
15.1.
Introduction to Processes and Process Attributes ................................................208
15.1.
Listing processes ...............................................................................................212
15.2.
Process Metrics and Process Control ..................................................................217
15.3.
Starting Processes in the Future .........................................................................220
Summary.........................................................................................................................223
Chapter 16: Common Applications....................................................................................224
16.1.
Internet Applications .........................................................................................224
16.2.
Productivity and Development Applications ........................................................226
16.3.
Multimedia Applications ....................................................................................228
16.4.
Graphic Editors and Utilities ...............................................................................230
Summary.........................................................................................................................231
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CHAPTER - 1: Linux Philosophy and Concepts

Learning Objectives:
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the history and philosophy of Linux.
Describe the Linux community.
Define the common terms associated with Linux.
Understand the components of a Linux distribution.
Introduction:
Linux is a free open source computer operating system initially developed for
Intel x86-based personal computers. It has been subsequently ported to many other
hardware platforms. In this section, you will become familiar with how Linux evolved
from a student project into a massive effort with an enormous impact on today's world.
1.1.
Linux History
Linus Torvalds was a student in Helsinki, Finland, in 1991 when he started a
project: writing his own operating system kernel. He also collected together and/or
developed the other essential ingredients required to construct an entire operating
system with his kernel at the center. This soon became known as the Linux kernel.
In
1992,
Linux
was
re-licensed
using
the General
Public
License
(GPL) by GNU (a project of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) which promotes freely
available software) which made it possible to build a worldwide community of
developers. By combining the kernel with other system components from the GNU
project,
numerous
other
developers
created
complete
systems
called Linux
Distributions in the mid-90s. The Linux distributions created in the mid-90s provided
the basis for fully free computing and became a driving force in the open source software
movement. In 1998, major companies likeIBM and Oracle announced support for the
Linux platform and began major development efforts as well.
Today, Linux powers more than half of the servers on the Internet, the majority of
smart-phones (via the Android system which is built on top of Linux), and nearly all of
the worlds most powerful supercomputers.
1.2.
Linux Philosophy
Every organization or project has a philosophy that works as a guide while
framing its objectives and delineating its growth path. This section contains a description
of the Linux philosophy and how this philosophy has impacted its development.
Linux is constantly enhanced and maintained by a network of developers from all
over the world collaborating over the Internet, with Linus Torvalds at the head. Technical
skill and a desire to contribute are the only qualifications for participating.
Linux borrows heavily from the UNIX operating system because it was written to
be a free and open source version of UNIX. Files are stored in a hierarchical filesystem,
with the top node of the system being root or simply "/". Whenever possible, Linux makes
its components available via files or objects that look like files. Processes, devices, and
network sockets are all represented by file-like objects, and can often be worked with
using the same utilities used for regular files.
Linux is a fully multitasking (a method where multiple tasks are performed during the
same period of time), multiuser operating system, with built-in networking and service
processes known as daemons in the UNIX world.
1.3.
Linux Community
Suppose as part of your job you need to configure a Linux file server, and you run
into some difficulties. If you're not able to figure out the answer yourself or get help from
a co-worker, the Linux community might just save the day! There are many ways to
engage with the Linux community: you can post queries on relevant discussion forums,
subscribe to discussion threads, and even join local Linux groups that meet in your area.
The Linux community is a far-reaching ecosystem consisting of developers, system
administrators, users and vendors, who use many different forums to connect with one
another. Among the most popular are:
Linux User Groups (both local and online)
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) software (such as Pidgin and XChat)
Online communities and discussion boards

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Newsgroups and mailing lists
Community events (such as LinuxCon and ApacheCon)
1.4.
Linux Terminology
When you start exploring Linux, you'll soon come across some unfamiliar terms
like distribution, boot loader, desktop environment, etc. So let's stop and take a look
at some basic terminology used in Linux to help you get up to speed before we proceed
further.
1.5.
Linux Distributions:
Suppose you have been assigned to a project building a product for a Linux
platform. Project requirements include making sure the project works properly on the
most widely used Linux distributions. To accomplish this you need to learn about the
different components, services and configurations associated with each distribution.
We're about to look at how you'd go about doing exactly that.
So, what is a Linux distribution and how does it relate to the Linux kernel?
As illustrated above, the Linux kernel is the core of a computer operating system.
A full Linux distribution consists of the kernel plus a number of other software tools for
file-related operations, user management, and software package management. Each of
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these tools provides a small part of the complete system. Each tool is often its own
separate project, with its own developers working to perfect that piece of the system.
As mentioned earlier, the current Linux kernel, along with past Linux kernels (as
well as earlier release versions) can be found at the www.kernel.org web site. The various
Linux distributions may be based on different kernel versions. For example, the very
popular RHEL 6 distribution is based on the 2.6.32 version of the Linux kernel, which is
rather old but extremely stable. Other distributions may move more quickly in adopting
the latest kernel releases. It is important to note that the kernel is not an all or nothing
proposition, for example, RHEL 6 has incorporated many of the more recent kernel
improvements into their version of 2.6.32.
Examples of other essential tools and ingredients provided by distributions include
the C/C++ compiler, the gdbdebugger, the core system libraries applications need to link
with in order to run, the low-level interface for drawing graphics on the screen as well as
the higher-level desktop environment, and the system for installing and updating the
various components including the kernel itself.
Service Associated With Distributions
A vast variety of Linux distributions cater to different audiences and organizations

depending on their specific needs. Large commercial organizations tend to favor the
commercially supported distributions from Red Hat, SUSE and Canonical(Ubuntu).
CentOS is
popular
(RHEL). Ubuntu and Fedora are
free
alternative
to Red
Hat
Enterprise
Linux
popular in the educational realm. Scientific Linux is
favored by the scientific research community for its compatibility with scientific and
4
mathematical
software
packages.
Both CentOS and Scientific
Linux are
binary-
compatible with RHEL; i.e., binary software packages in most cases will install properly
across the distributions.
Many commercial distributors,
including Red
Hat, Ubuntu, SUSE, and Oracle,
provide long term fee-based support for their distributions, as well as hardware and
software certification. All major distributors provide update services for keeping your
system primed with the latest security and bug fixes, and performance enhancements, as
well as provide online support resources.
Summary
You have completed this chapter. Lets summarize the key concepts covered.
Linux borrows heavily from the UNIX operating system, with which its creators
were well versed.
Linux accesses many features and services through files and file-like objects.
Linux is a fully multitasking, multiuser operating system, with built-in networking

and service processes known as daemons.
Linux is developed by a loose confederation of developers from all over the world,
collaborating over the Internet, with Linus Torvalds at the head. Technical skill and a
desire to contribute are the only qualifications for participating.
The Linux community is a far reaching ecosystem of developers, vendors, and users
that supports and advances the Linux operating system.
Some of the common terms used in Linux are: Kernel, Distribution, Boot loader,
Service, File system, X Window system, desktop environment, and command line.
A full Linux distribution consists of the kernel plus a number of other software tools
for file-related operations, user management, and software package management.
CHAPTER - 2: Linux Structure and Installation

Learning Objectives:
Identify Linux files systems.
Identify the differences between partitions and file systems.
Describe the boot process.
Know how to install Linux on a computer.
2.1.
Linux File Systems Basics
Think of a refrigerator that has multiple shelves that can be

used for storing various items. These shelves help you
organize the grocery items by shape, size, type, etc. The
same concept applies to a file system, which is the
embodiment of a method of storing and organizing
arbitrary collections of data in a human-usable form.
Different Types of File Systems Supported by Linux:
Conventional disk file

systems: ext2, ext3, ext4, XFS, Btrfs, JFS,NTFS, etc.
Flash storage file systems: ubifs, JFFS2, YAFFS, etc.
Database file systems
Special purpose files

ystems: procfs, sysfs, tmpfs, debugfs, etc.
This section will describe the standard file system layout

shared by most Linux distributions.
Partitions and File Systems

A partition is a logical part of the disk, whereas a file system is a method of
storing/finding files on a hard disk (usually in a partition). By way of analogy, you can
think of file systems as being like family trees that show descendants and their
6
relationships, while the partitions are like different families (each of which has its own
tree). A comparison between file systems in Windows and Linux is given in the following
table:
The File system Hierarchy Standard

Linux systems store their important files according to a standard layout called
the File system Hierarchy Standard, or FHS. You can download a document that
provides much greater detail here, or look up the original source documents on the Linux
Foundation website. This standard ensures that users can move between distributions
without having to re-learn how the system is organized.
Linux uses the / character to separate paths (unlike Windows, which uses \), and does
not have drive letters. New drives are mounted as directories in the single file system,
often under /media (so, for example, a CD-ROM disc labeled FEDORA might end up
being found at/media/FEDORA, and a file README.txt on that disc would be
at/media/FEDORA/README.txt).
All
Linux
and /BOOT represent
file
three
system
different
names
are
directories
case-sensitive,
(or
folders).
so /boot, /Boot,
Many
distributions
distinguish between core utilities needed for proper system operation and other programs,
and place the latter in directories under /usr (think "user"). To get a sense for how the
other programs are organized, find the /usr directory in the diagram above and compare
the subdirectories with those that exist directly under the system root directory (/).
2.2.
The Boot Process

Have you ever wondered what happens in the background from the time you press
the Power button until the Linux login prompt appears?

The Linux boot process is the procedure for initializing the system. It consists of
everything that happens from when the computer power is first switched on until the user
interface is fully operational.
Once you start using Linux, you will find that having a good understanding of the
steps in the boot process will help you with troubleshooting problems as well as with
tailoring the computer's performance to your needs.
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BIOS- The First Step

Starting an x86-based Linux system involves a number of
steps. When the computer is powered on, the Basic
Input/Output System (BIOS) initializes the hardware,
including the screen and keyboard, and tests the main

memory. This process is also called POST (Power On Self
Test).
The BIOS software is stored on a ROM chip on the
motherboard. After this, the remainder of the boot process
Master
Boot Records
(MBR)
andoperating
Boot Loader
is
completely
controlled
by the
system.
Once the POST is completed, the system control passes from the BIOS to the boot
loader. The boot loader is usually stored on one of the hard disks in the system, either in
the boot sector (for traditional BIOS/MBR systems) or the EFI partition (for more
recent (Unified) Extensible
Firmware
Interface or EFI/UEFI systems).
Up
to
this
stage, the machine does not access any mass storage media. Thereafter, information on
the date, time, and the most important peripherals are loaded from the CMOS
values (after a technology used for the battery-powered memory store - which allows the
system to keep track of the date and time even when it is powered off).
9
A number of boot loaders exist for Linux; the most common ones are GRUB (for GRand
Unified Boot loader) and ISOLINUX(for booting from removable media). Most Linux
boot loaders can present a user interface for choosing alternative options for booting
Linux, and even other operating systems that might be installed. When booting Linux, the
boot loader is responsible for loading the kernel image and the initial RAM disk (which
contains some critical files and device drivers needed to start the system) into memory.
Boot Loader in Action
The boot loader has two distinct stages:
First Stage:
For systems using the BIOS/MBR method, the
boot loader resides at the first sector of the hard
disk also known as the Master Boot
Record (MBR). The size of the MBR is just
512 bytes. In this stage, the boot loader
examines the partition table and finds a
bootable partition. Once it finds a bootable
partition, it then searches for the second stage
boot loader e.g, GRUB, and loads it
into RAM (Random Access Memory).
For
systems
the EFI/UEFI method, UEFI
using
firmware reads
its Boot Manager data to determine which UEFI application is to be launched and from
where (i.e., from which disk and partition the EFI partition can be found). The firmware
then launches the UEFI application, for example, GRUB, as defined in the boot entry in
the firmware's boot manager. This procedure is more complicated but more versatile than
the older MBR methods.
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Second Stage:
The second stage boot loader resides under /boot. A splash screen is displayed which
allows us to choose which Operating System (OS) to boot. After choosing the OS, the
boot loader loads the kernel of the selected operating system into RAM and passes control
to it.
The boot loader loads the selected kernel image (in the case of Linux) and passes control
to it. Kernels are almost always compressed, so its first job is to uncompress itself. After
this, it will check and analyze the system hardware and initialize any hardware device
drivers built into the kernel.
The Linux Kernel
The boot loader loads both the kernel and an initial RAM
based file system (initramfs) into memory so it can be used
directly by the kernel.
When the kernel is loaded in RAM, it immediately
initializes and configures the computers memory and also
configures all the hardware attached to the system. This
includes all processors, I/O subsystems, storage devices,
etc. The kernel also loads some necessary user space
applications.
The Initial RAM Disk
The initramfs file system image contains
programs and binary files that perform all actions
needed to mount the proper root file system, like
providing kernel functionality for the needed file
system and device drivers for mass storage
controllers with a facility
called udev (for User Device) which is
11
responsible for figuring out which devices are present, locating the drivers they need to
operate properly, and loading them. After the root file system has been found, it is
checked for errors and mounted.
The mount program instructs the operating system that a file system is ready for use, and
associates it with a particular point in the overall hierarchy of the file system (the mount
point). If this is successful, the initramfs is cleared from RAM and the init program on
the root file system (/sbin/init) is executed.
init handles the mounting and pivoting over to the final real root file system. If special
hardware drivers are needed before the mass storage can be accessed, they must be in
the initramfs image.
/sbin/init and Services
Once the kernel has set up all its hardware and
mounted the root filesystem, the kernel runs
the /sbin/init program. This then becomes the
initial process, which then starts other processes
to get the system running. Most other processes
on the system trace their origin ultimately
to init; the exceptions are kernel processes,
started by the kernel directly for managing
internal operating system details.
Traditionally, this process startup was done
using conventions that date back to System V UNIX, with the system passing through a
sequence of runlevels containing collections of scripts that start and stop services. Each
runlevel supports a different mode of running the system. Within each runlevel,
individual services can be set to run, or to be shut down if running. Newer distributions
are moving away from the System V standard, but usually support the System V
conventions for compatibility purposes.
Besides starting the system, init is responsible for keeping the system running and for
shutting it down cleanly. It acts as the "manager of last resort" for all non-kernel
12
processes, cleaning up after them when necessary, and restarts user login services as
needed when users log in and out.
Text-Mode Login
Near the end of the boot process, init starts a
number of text-mode login prompts (done by a
program called getty). These enable you to type
your username, followed by your password, and to
eventually get a command shell.
Usually, the default command shell is bash (the
GNU Bourne Again Shell), but there are a
number of other advanced command shells
available. The shell prints a text prompt,
indicating it is ready to accept commands; after
the user types the command and presses Enter,
the command is executed, and another prompt is
displayed after the command is done.
As you'll learn in the chapter 'Command Line Operations', the terminals which run the
command
shells can
be
accessed
using
the ALT key plus a function key.
Most
distributions start six text terminals and one graphics terminal starting with F1 or F2. If
the graphical environment is also started, switching to a text console requires
pressing CTRL-ALT + the appropriate function key (with F7 or F1being the GUI). As
you'll see shortly, you may need to run the startx command in order to start or restart
your
graphical
desktop after you

have been in pure
text mode.
X Window
System
13
Generally, in a Linux desktop system, the

X Window System is loaded as the final step in the boot process. A service called
the display manager keeps track of the displays being provided, and loads the X
server (so-called because it provides graphical services to applications, sometimes
called X clients). The display manager also handles graphical logins, and starts the
appropriate desktop environment after a user logs in.
More About the X Window System
A desktop
environment
consists of a
session
manager,
which starts
and
maintains
the components of the graphical session, and the window manager, which controls the
placement and movement of windows, window title-bars, and controls.
Although these can be mixed, generally a set of utilities, session manager, and window
manager are used together as a unit, and together provide a seamless desktop
environment.
If the display manager is not started by default in the default runlevel, you can start X a
different way, after logging on to a text-mode console, by running startx from the
command line.
2.3.
Linux Distribution Installation
Choosing a Linux Distribution
14
Your family is planning to buy its first car. What are the factors you need to consider
while purchasing a car? Your planning depends a lot on your requirements. For instance,
your budget, available finances, size of the car, type of engine, after-sales services, etc.
Similarly, determining which distribution to deploy also requires some planning. The
figure shows some but not all choices, as there are other choices for distributions and
standard embedded Linux systems are mostly neither Android or Tizen, but are slimmed
down standard distributions.
Questions to Ask When Choosing a Linux Distribution
Some questions worth thinking about before deciding on a distribution include:

15
What is the main function of the system? (server or desktop)
What types of packages are important to the organization? For example, web server,
word processing, etc.
How much hard disk space is available? For example, when installing Linux on an
embedded device, there will be space limitations.
How often are packages updated?
How long is the support cycle for each release? For example, LTS releases have long
term support.
Do you need kernel customization from the vendor?
What hardware are you running the Linux distribution on? For example, X86, ARM,
PPC, etc.
Do you need long-term stability or short-term experimental software?
Linux Installation: Planning

A partition layout needs to be decided at the
time of installation because Linux systems handle
partitions by mounting them at specific points in
the file system. You can always modify the
design later, but it always easier to try and get it
right to begin with.
Nearly all installers provide a reasonable file system layout by default, with either all
space dedicated to normal files on one big partition and a smaller swap partition, or with
separate partitions for some space-sensitive areas like /home and /var. You may need to
override the defaults and do something different if you have special needs, or if you want
to use more than one disk.
More About Planning in Linux Installation
16
All installations include the bare minimum

software for running a Linux distribution.
Most installers also provide options for adding
categories of software. Common applications (such
as the Firefox web browser and LibreOffice office
suite), developer tools (like the vi and emacs text
editors which we will explore later in this course),
and other popular services, (such as
the Apache web server tools or MySQL database)
are usually included. In addition, a desktop environment is installed by default.
All installers secure the system being installed as part of the installation. Usually, this
consists of setting the password for the superuser (root) and setting up an initial user. In
some cases (such as Ubuntu), only an initial user is set up; direct root login is disabled
and root access requires logging in first as a normal user and then using sudo as we will
describe later. Some distributions will also install more advanced security frameworks,
such as SELinux or AppArmor.
Linux Installation: Install
Source
Like other operating systems,
Linux distributions are provided
on optical media such as CDs or
DVDs. USB media is also a
popular option. Most Linux
distributions support booting a
small image and downloading the
rest of the system over the network; these small images are usable on media or as network
boot images, making it possible to install without any local media at all.
Many installers can do an installation completely automatically, using a configuration file
to specify installation options. This file is called a Kickstart file for Fedora-based
17
systems, anAutoYAST profile for SUSE-based systems, and a preseed filefor

the Debian-based systems.
Each distribution provides its own documentation and tools for creating and managing
these files.
Linux Installation: The Process
The actual installation process is pretty
similar for all distributions.
After booting from the installation media,
the installer starts and asks questions about
how the system should be set up. (These
questions are skipped if an automatic
installation file is provided.) Then, the
installation is performed.
Finally, the computer reboots into the newly-installed system. On some distributions,
additional questions are asked after the system reboots.
Most installers have the option of downloading and installing updates as part of the
installation process; this requires Internet access. Otherwise, the system uses its normal
update mechanism to retrieve those updates after the installation is done.
18
Summary
You have completed this chapter. Lets summarize the key concepts covered:
A partition is a logical part of the disk.
A filesystem is a method of storing/finding files on a hard disk.
By dividing the hard disk into partitions, data can be grouped and separated as
needed. When a failure or mistake occurs, only the data in the affected partition will
be damaged, while the data on the other partitions will likely survive.
The boot process has multiple steps, starting with BIOS, which triggers the boot
loader to start up the Linux kernel. From there the initramfs file system is invoked,
which triggers the init program to complete the startup process.
Determining the appropriate distribution to deploy requires that you match your
specific system needs to the capabilities of the different distributions.
19
CHAPTER 3: Graphical Interface

Learning objectives
Manage graphical interface sessions.
Perform basic operations using the graphical interface.
Change the graphical desktop to suit your needs.
You
can
use
either a Command
Line
Interface (CLI) or a Graphical User Interface

(GUI) when using Linux. To work at the
CLI, you have to remember which programs
and commands are used to perform tasks, and
how to quickly and accurately obtain more
information about their use and options. On
the other hand, using the GUI is often quick and easy. It allows you to interact with your
system through graphical icons and screens. For repetitive tasks the CLI is often more
efficient, while the GUI is easier to navigate if you don't remember all the details or do
something only rarely.
In this section you will learn how to manage sessions using the GUI for the three Linux
distribution
families
that
we
explicitly
cover
in
this
course: CentOS (Fedora family), openSUSE (SUSE family)

and Ubuntu (Debian family).
As
you'll
see
shortly,openSUSE uses KDE instead
of GNOME as the default desktop manager. However, since in many cases we use just a
single distro for illustration, we've used GNOME for the openSUSE visuals throughout
this course. If you are using KDE your experience will vary somewhat from what is
shown.
3.1.
GNOME Desktop Environment
GNOME is a popular desktop environment with an easy to use graphical user interface. It
is bundled as the default desktop environment for many distributions including Red Hat
20
Enterprise
Linux, Fedora, CentOS, SUSE
Linux
Enterprise,
andDebian. GNOME has menu-based navigation and is sometimes an easy transition for
at least some Windows users. However, as you'll see, the look and feel can be quite
different across distributions, even if they are all using GNOME.
Another common desktop environment very important in the history of Linux and also
widely used is KDE, which is used by default in openSUSE.
Other
alternatives
for
desktop
environment
include Unity (from Ubuntu,
based
onGNOME), Xfce, and LXDE. Most desktop environments follow a similar structure
toGNOME.
GUI Startup
When you install a desktop environment,
the X display manager starts at the end
of the boot process. This X display
manager is responsible for starting the
graphics system, logging in the user, and
starting the users desktop environment.
You can often select from a choice of
desktop environments when logging in
to the system.
The default display manager
for GNOME is called gdm. Other popular display managers include lightdm (used
on Ubuntu) and kdm(associated with KDE).
Locking the Screen
It is often a good idea to lock your
screen to prevent other people from
accessing your session while you are
away from your computer. Note this
21
does not suspend the computer; all your applications and processes continue to run while
the screen is locked. There are two ways to lock your screen:
1. Using the graphical interface.
2. Using the keyboard shortcut CTRL-ALT-L.
Note: The keyboard shortcut for locking the screen in the three distros can be changed as
indicated below:
CentOS: System Preferences Keyboard Shortcuts
openSUSE: Configure Desktop Shortcuts and Gestures
Ubuntu: System Settings Keyboard Shortcuts
Locking and Unlocking the Screen in CentOS
To lock and unlock your screen

in CentOS, perform the following
steps:
1. On the CentOS desktop
screen, click
the System menu on the top
bar.
2. Click Lock Screen. The screen is locked immediately.
3. To unlock the screen, enter the password.
4. Click Unlock and the desktop screen is displayed.
Note: When you lock the screen, GNOME will blank the screen or run a
screensaver, depending on your settings.
22
Locking and Unlocking the

Screen in openSUSE
in openSUSE, perform the following
steps:
1. On the openSUSE desktop
screen, click the power icon on
the upper-right corner of the
screen.
2. Click the lock icon. The screen is locked immediately.
3. Press Enter. The login screen is displayed.
5. Click Unlock and the desktop screen is displayed.
Locking and Unlocking the Screen in Ubuntu

in Ubuntu, perform the following steps:
1. On the Ubuntu desktop screen, click the
power icon with username on the upperright corner of the screen.
2. Click Lock/Switch Account to lock the screen.
The login screen is displayed.
23

The desktop screen is displayed.
Shutting Down and Restarting
Besides normal daily starting and stopping
of the computer, a system restart may be
required as part of certain major system
updates, generally only those involving
installing a new Linux kernel.
The init process is responsible for
implementing both restarts and shut downs.
On systems using System V init, run level 0
is usually used for shutting down, and run
level 6 is used to reboot the system. (We will
discuss system run levels later.)
Next we will discuss how to shut down and restart the system in the three different
reference distributions.
Shutting Down and Restarting in
CentOS
To shutdown and restart

in CentOS, perform the following steps.
1. On the CentOS desktop screen, click
the System menu on the top bar.
24
2. Select Shut Down from the System menu.

The confirmation box is displayed with three options,Hibernate, Restart,
and Shutdown.
3. Click Shut Down to shut down the system and click Restart to restart the system.
Note: Generally the Shut Down option is in an obvious location on the desktop. On
many laptops and desktops, you can press the on/off button on the computer to
display the shut down
confirmation box.
Shutting Down and Restarting in openSUSE
To shut down the system
in openSUSE, perform the following
steps:
1. On the openSUSE desktop
screen, click the power icon on
the upper-right corner of the
screen.
The confirmation box opens with
three options, Cancel, Restart,
and Power Off.
2. Click the Power Off button to shut down the system and clickRestart to restart the
system.
Note: Generally the Shut Down option is in an obvious location on the desktop. On
display the shut down box.
Shutting Down and Restarting in
Ubuntu
25
To shut down the computer in Ubuntu, perform the following steps:

1. On the Ubuntu desktop screen, click the power icon on the upper-right corner of the
screen.
2. Click Shut Down...
The Restart and Shutdown icons are displayed.
3. Click the shut down icon on the right to shutdown the system and click the restart
icon on the left to restart the system.
Note: Generally the shut down option is in an obvious location on the desktop. On
display the shut down box.
Confirmation
Shutdown, reboot, and logout operations will
ask for confirmation before going ahead.
This is because many applications will not
save their data properly when terminated this
way.
Always save your documents and data
before restarting, shutting down, or logging
out. The Ubuntu screenshot given here is
similar to all of the distribution confirmation
windows.
Suspending
Most modern computers support suspend
mode or sleep mode when you stop using your
computer for a short while. Suspend mode
26
saves the current system state and allows you to resume your session more quickly while
remaining on but using very little power. It works by keeping your systems applications,
desktop, and so on in system RAM, but turning off all of the other hardware. The suspend
mode bypasses the time for a full system start-up and continues to use minimal power.
Suspending in CentOS
To suspend the system in CentOS,
perform the following steps:
1. On the CentOS desktop screen,
click the System menu on the top
bar.
2. Click Shut Down to shutdown
the system.
3. Click Hibernate to switch the
system to the sleep mode.
Note: Not all computers support suspend mode properly, so its best to try this
feature out on a new, blank session before using it with applications and files open.
If your computer goes into suspend mode but fails to wake up when you attempt to
use the mouse or the keyboard, you may need to force the power off by
holding down the power button for five seconds or by using the
mechanical hardware switch if supported.
Suspending in openSUSE
To suspend the system in openSUSE,
perform the following steps:
On the openSUSE desktop

screen, click the 'Username' icon
27
on the upper-right corner of the screen.
Click Suspend to switch the system to the sleep mode.
Note:The suspend is available in GNOME3, but is not in KDE or GNOME2 on

openSUSE.
Suspending in Ubuntu
To suspend the system
in Ubuntu, perform the following
steps:
1. On the Ubuntu desktop
screen, click the power icon
on the upper-right corner of
the screen.
2. Click Suspend to switch the
system to the sleep mode.
Note: To wake your system and resume your session, move the mouse or press any
button on the keyboard. The system will wake up with the screen locked, just as if
you had manually locked it; type in your password to resume.
3.2.
Basic Operations
Basic Operations
Even experienced users can forget the
precise command that launches an
application, or exactly what options
and arguments it requires.
Fortunately, Linux allows you to
28
quickly open applications using the graphical interface.

Applications are found at different places in Linux (and withinGNOME):
In CentOS, applications can be opened from the Applications menu in the upper-left
corner of the screen.
In openSUSE, applications can be opened from the Activitiesmenu in the upper-left

corner of the screen.
In Ubuntu, applications can be opened from the Dash button in the upper-left corner
of the screen.
For KDE, and other environments, applications can be opened from the button in the
lower-left corner.
Submenus
Submenus for different types of
applications include:
Accessories
Games
Graphics
Internet
Office
Sound and Video
System Tools
On the following screens you will learn how to perform basic operations in Linux using
the Graphical Interface.
Locating Applications
29
Unlike other operating systems,

the initial install of Linux usually
comes with a wide range of
applications and software archives that
contain thousands of programs that
enable you to accomplish a wide
variety of tasks with your computer.
For most key tasks a default
application is usually already installed.
However, you can always install more applications and try different options.
For example, Firefox is popular as the default browser in many Linux distributions,
while Epiphany, Konqueror, and Chromium(the open-source base for Google
Chrome) are usually available for install from software repositories. Proprietary web
browsers, such as Opera and Chrome are also available.
Locating applications from the GNOME and KDE menus is easy as they are neatly
organized in functional submenus.
Default Applications
Multiple applications are available to
accomplish various tasks and to open
a file of a given type. For example,
you can click on a web address while
reading an email and launch a browser
such asFirefox or Chrome.
The file managing program can be
used to set the default application to
be used for any particular file type.
Default Directories
30
Every user with an account on the

system will have a home directory,
usually created under /home and
named the same as the username (such
as /home/student). By default, files the
user saves will be placed in a
directory tree starting there. Account
creation, whether during system
installation or at a later time when a
new user is added, also induces default directories to be created under the user's
home directory, such as Documents, Desktop, and Downloads. On the next few screens,
you will learn more about the default directories in CentOS, openSUSE, and Ubuntu.
Default Directories in CentOS
The Places menu contains entries that
allow you to access different parts of
the computer and the network
including
the Home directory,Desktop, Compu
ter, Network, and other attached
devices. TheNetwork option accesses
all networked and shared devices,
such as file servers and printers that
are available in the local network.
Home directory: The user's home directory.
Computer: Different drives attached to a computer such as hard disk drives,

CD/DVD, USB pendrives etc.
Network: Networked and shared devices such as Network Shares, etc.
Default Directories in openSUSE
31
To access your home directory

from the graphical user
interface
inGNOME on openSUSE,
click Activities and select File
Manager from the left panel.
The File Manager will open a

window with
your home directory displayed. The left hand panel of the File Manager window
holds a list of commonly used directories, such
as Computer, Home, Network,Root, and Trash. You can also search for files or
directories that exist inside your home directory by clicking the magnifying glass
icon on the top middle of the File Manager window.
Default Directories in
Ubuntu
To access your home directory

from the graphical user
interface
inGNOME on Ubuntu, click
the File Cabinet icon on the
left of the screen.
The File Manager (Files in

the case of Ubuntu) will open a window with your Home directory displayed.
The left panel of the File Manager window holds a list of commonly used
directories, such
asComputer, Home, Desktop, Documents, Downloads, and Trash.
You can also click the magnifying glass icon on the top-right of the File
Manager window to search for files or directories that exist inside
your home directory.
Viewing Files
32
Nautilus (the name of the File Manager or file browser) allows you to view files
and directories in several different formats.
To view files in the Icons, List, or Compact formats, click the Viewdrop-down
and select your view, or press CTRL-1 , CTRL-2 and CTRL-3respectively.
In addition you can also arrange the files and directories by Name,Size, Type,
or Modification Date for further sorting. To do so, click View and
select Arrange Items.
More About Viewing Files
Another useful option is to

show hidden files (sometimes
imprecisely called system
files), which are usually
configuration files that are
hidden by default and whose
name starts with a dot. To show hidden files, click View and select Show Hidden
Files or press CTRL- H.
The file browser provides multiple ways to customize your window view to
facilitate easy drag and drop file operations. You can also alter the size of the
icons by selecting Zoom In and Zoom Out under theView menu.
Searching for Files

Nautilus includes a great search tool inside
the file browser window.
1. Click Search in the toolbar (to bring up
a text box).
2. Enter the keyword in the text box.
Nautilus will perform a recursive search
from the current directory for any file or
directory which contains a part of this
keyword.
3. To open Nautilus from the command line, simply type nautilus
33
4. To open Nautilus in graphical mode, Press ALT-F2 and search for Nautilus. Click
the icon that appears.
Note: Both the above methods, will open the graphical interface for the program.
The shortcut key to get to the search text box is CTRL-F. You can exit the search text
box view by clicking the Search button again.
Another quick way to access a specific directory is to press CTRL-L, which will give
you a Location text box to type in a path to a directory.
More about Searching for Files
Nautilus allows you to refine your
search beyond the initial keyword by
providing drop-down menus to further
filter the search.
1. Based on Location or File Type,
select additional criteria from the
drop-down.
2. To regenerate the search, click
the Reload button.
3. To add multiple search criteria, click the + button and selectadditional search
criteria.
For example, if you want to find a PDF file containing the word Linux in
your home directory, navigate to your home directory and search for the word Linux .
You should see that the default search criterion limits the search to your home directory
already. To finish the job, click the + button to add another search criterion, selectFile
Type for the type of criterion, and select PDF under the File Type drop-down.
Editing a File
34
Editing any text file through the graphical

interface is easy in the GNOMEdesktop
environment. Simply double-click the file on
the desktop or in theNautilus file browser
window to open the file with the default text
editor.
The default text editor in GNOME is gedit.
It is simple yet powerful, ideal for editing
documents, making quick notes, and
programming. Although gedit is designed as
a general purpose text editor, it offers additional features for spell checking, highlighting,
file listings, and statistics.
You'll learn much more about using text editors in a later chapter.
Removing a File
Deleting a file in Nautilus will automatically
move the deleted files to
the.local/share/Trash/files/ directory (a trash
can of sorts) under the user'sHOME directory.
There are several ways to delete files and
directories using Nautilus.
1. Select all the files and directories that you
want to delete.
2. Press Delete (in Unity/KDE) or CTRL-Delete (in GNOME) on your keyboard.
Or, Right-click the file.
3. Select Move to Trash. Or, Highlight the file.
4. Click Edit and Move to Trash through the graphical interface.
More About Removing a File
35
To permanently delete a file:

1. On the left panel inside a Nautilus file
browser window, right-click on
theTrash directory.
2. Select Empty Trash.
Alternatively, select the file or directory you
want to permanently delete and press ShiftDelete.
As a precaution, you should never delete your home directory as doing so will most
likely erase all your GNOME configuration files and possibly prevent you from logging
in. Many personal system and program configurations are stored under
your home directory.
3.3.
Graphical Desktop
Graphical Desktop
Each Linux distribution comes with
its own set of desktop backgrounds.
You can change the default by
choosing a new wallpaper or selecting
a custom picture to be set as the
desktop background. If you do not
want to use an image as the
background, you can select a color to
be displayed on the desktop instead.
In addition, you can also change the desktop theme, which changes the look and feel of
the Linux system. The theme also defines the appearance of application windows.
In this section, you will learn how to change the desktop background and theme.
36
Desktop Background
If you do not like any of the
installed wallpapers, you can use
different shades of color as the
background using the Colors and
Gradients drop-down in
the Appearance window.
There are three types of color:
solid, horizontal gradient, and
vertical gradient. Click the box at
the bottom and pick the effect between solid and the two gradients. In addition, you can
also install packages that contain wallpapers by searching for packages using wallpaper
as a keyword.
Changing the Theme
The visual appearances of applications
(the buttons, scroll bars, widgets, and
other graphical components) are
controlled by a
theme.GNOME comes with a set of
different themes which can change the
way your applications look.
The exact method for changing your
theme will depend on your
distribution. For example, for Ubuntu you can right-click anywhere on the desktop and
select a different theme from the Theme drop-down. For CentOS you have to click
on System Preferences Appearance.
More About Changing the Theme
37
There are other options to get

additional themes beyond the default
selection. You can download and
install themes
fromhttp://art.gnome.org/themes/
In CentOS, you can change themes
from System Preferences Appear
ance
In Ubuntu, you can change themes from System Settings Appearance
In openSUSE to change themes you will need to install the gnome-tweak-tool program.
Summary
You have completed this chapter. Let's summarize the key concepts covered:
GNOME is a popular desktop environment and graphical user interface that runs on top
of the Linux operating system.
The default display manager for GNOME is called gdm.
The gdm display manager presents the user with the login screen which prompts for the
login username and password.
Logging out through the desktop environment kills all processes in your current X session
and returns to the display manager login screen.
Linux enables users to switch between logged in sessions.
Suspending puts the computer into sleep mode.
For each key task, there is generally a default application installed.
Every user created in the system will have a home directory.
The Places menu contains entries that allow you to access different parts of the
computer and the network.
38
Nautilus gives three formats to view files.
Most text editors are located in the Accessories submenu.
Each Linux distribution comes with its own set of desktop backgrounds.
GNOME comes with a set of different themes which can change the way your
applications look.
39
Chapter 4: System configuration from Graphical

Interface
Learning Objectives
Apply system, display, and date and time settings using theSystem Settings panel.
Track the network settings and manage connections usingNetwork Manager in

Linux.
Install and update software in Linux from a graphical interface.
Note that we will revisit all these tasks later when we discuss how to accomplish
them from the command line interface.
4.1.
System, Display, Date and Time Settings
System Settings
The System Settings panel allows
you to control most of the basic
configuration options and desktop
settings such as specifying the screen
resolution, managing network
connections, or changing the date and
time of the system.
As we mentioned in Chapter 4, we use
the GNOME Desktop Manager for
the visuals in this course as it is the default for CentOSand Ubuntu and readily available
on openSUSE (for which the default is the KDE Desktop Manager).
The procedure to access System Settings varies according to distribution:
- CentOS: click System Preferences.
40
- openSUSE: click Activities, type Settings in the Search box.

- Ubuntu: they are located in the panel on the left of the screen.
Display Settings
The Displays panel under System
Settings (or Display and
Monitorpanel under Configure
Desktop) contains the most common
settings for changing the desktop
appearance. These settings function
independently of the specific display
drivers you are running.
If your system uses a proprietary
driver such as those from nVidia orAMD, you will probably have a configuration
program for that driver that is not included in System Settings. This program may give
more configuration options, but may also be more complicated, and might require
sysadmin
(root)
access.
If
possible,
you
should
configure
the
settings
in
the Displays panel rather than the proprietary configuration program.

The X server, which actually provides the GUI, uses the /etc/X11/xorg.conf file as its
configuration file if it exists. In modern Linux distributions, this file is usually present
only in unusual circumstances, such as when certain less common graphic drivers are in
use. Changing this configuration file directly is usually for more advanced users.
Setting Resolution and Configuring
Multiple Screens
While your system will usually figure
out the best resolution for your screen
automatically, it may get this wrong in
some cases, or you might want to
41
change the resolution to meet your needs.

You can accomplish this using the Displays panel. The switch to the new resolution will
be effective when you click Apply, and then confirm that the resolution is working. In
case the selected resolution fails to work or you are just not happy with the appearance,
the system will switch back to the original resolution after a short timeout.
In most cases the configuration for multiple displays is set up automatically as one big
screen spanning all monitors, using a reasonable guess for screen layout. If the screen
layout is not as desired, a check box can turn on mirrored mode, where the same display
is seen on all monitors.
Date and Time Settings
Linux always uses Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) for its own
internal time-keeping. Displayed or
stored time values rely on the system
time zone setting to get the proper
time. UTC is similar to, but more
accurate than, Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT).
The Date and Time Settings window
can be accessed from theSystem Settings window. Alternatively, you can rightclick Date and Time on the top panel to access the Date and Time Settings window.
Network Time Protocol
The Network Time Protocol (NTP) is
the most popular and reliable protocol
for setting the local time via Internet
servers. Most Linux distributions include
a working NTP setup which refers to
42
specific time servers run by the distribution. This means that no setup, beyond "on or off",
is required for network time synchronization. If desired, more detailed configuration is
possible by editing the standard NTP configuration file (/etc/ntp.conf) for Linux NTP
utilities.
4.2.
Network Manager
Network Configuration
All Linux distributions have network configuration files, but file formats and locations
can differ from one distribution to another.
Hand editing of these files can handle quite
complicated setups, but is not very dynamic or
easy to learn and use. The Network
Manager utility was developed to make things
easier and more uniform across distributions. It
can list all available networks (both wired and
wireless), allow the choice of a wired, wireless
or mobile broadband network, handle passwords, and set up Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs). Except for unusual situations, its generally best to let the Network
Manager establish your connections and keep track of your settings.
In this section, you will learn how to manage network connections, including wired and
wireless connections, and mobile broadband and VPN connections.
Wired and Wireless Connections
Wired connections usually do not require
complicated or manual configuration. The
hardware interface and signal presence are
automatically
detected,
and
thenNetwork
Manager sets the actual network settings

via DHCP (Dynamic
Host
Control
Protocol).
43
For static configurations that don't use DHCP, manual setup can also be done easily
through Network Manager. You can also change the Ethernet Media Access Control
(MAC) address if your hardware supports it. (The MAC address is a unique hexadecimal
number of your network card.)
Wireless networks are not connected to the machine by default. You can view the list of
available wireless networks and see which one you are connected to by using Network
Manager. You can then add, edit, or remove known wireless networks, and also specify
which ones you want connected by default when present.
Configuring Wireless Connections in CentOS
To configure a Wireless Network
in CentOS:
1. Right-click the Network
Manager icon.
2. Select the Enable
Wireless check box.
3. Click the Network
Manager icon.
4. Select the wireless network you wish to connect to or More Networks if the network
you want is not in the first group shown.
5. Enter the password to access a secure wireless network the first time you connect to
that network. The password will be saved for subsequent connections.
6. To view your current network interface connections and to disconnect if desired,
click the Network Manager icon.
Configuring Wireless Connections in Ubuntu
44
To configure Wireless
Network in Ubuntu:
1. In top panel, click Network
Manager.
2. Click Enable Wi-Fi - to display a
list available Wireless Networks.
3. Click the desired Wireless
Network.
4. For a secured network, enter the password.
5. To modify saved wireless network settings, click Edit Connections.
Configuring Wireless Connections in openSUSE
openSUSE looks different from CentOS or Ubuntu, but Wired, Wireless, Mobile
Broadband, VPN, and DSL are all available from the Network Connections dialog box
as you will see in the upcoming demonstration.
Mobile Broadband and VPN Connections
You can set up a mobile broadband
connection with Network Manager, which
will launch a wizard to set up the connection
details for each connection.
Once the configuration is done, the network
is configured automatically each time the
broadband network is attached.
Network Manager can also manage your VPN connections.

45
It supports many VPN technologies, such as native IPSec, Cisco OpenConnect (via
either the Cisco client or a native open-source client),Microsoft PPTP, and OpenVPN.
You might get support for VPN as a separate package from your distributor. You need to
install this package if your preferred VPN is not supported.
4.3.
Installing and Updating Software
Installing and Updating Software

Each package in a Linux distribution
provides one piece of the system, such as the
Linux kernel, the C compiler, the shared
software code for interacting
with USB devices, or the Firefox web
browser.
Packages often depend on each other; for
example, because Firefox can communicate
using SSL/TLS, it will depend on a package
which provides the ability to encrypt and
decrypt SSL and TLS communication, and will not install unless that package is also
installed at the same time.
One utility handles the low-level details of unpacking a package and putting the pieces in
the right places. Most of the time, you will be working with a higher- level utility which
knows how to download packages from the Internet and can manage dependencies and
groups for you.
In this section, you will learn how to install and update software in Linux using
the Debian and RPM systems (which is used by both Fedora and SUSE family systems).
46
Debian Family System

Lets look at Package Management in
the Debian Family System.
dpkg is the underlying package manager for these
systems; it can install, remove, and build packages.
Unlike higher-level package management systems, it
does not automatically download and install
packages and satisfy their dependencies.
For Debian-based systems, the higher-level package management system is
the apt(Advanced Package Tool) system of utilities. Generally, while each distribution
within the Debian family uses apt, it creates its own user interface on top of it (for
example,apt-get, aptitude, synaptic, Ubuntu Software Center, Update Manager, etc).
Although apt repositories are generally compatible with each other, the software they
contain generally isnt. Therefore, most apt repositories target a particular distribution
(like Ubuntu), and often software distributors ship with multiple repositories to support
multiple distributions. The demonstration using theUbuntu Software Center is shown
later in this section.
Red Hat Packet Manager (RPM)
Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) is the other package
management system popular on Linux distributions. It was
developed by Red Hat, and adopted by a number of other
distributions, including
the openSUSE, Mandriva, CentOS,Oracle Linux, and
others.
The high-level package manager differs between
distributions; most use the basic repository format used
in yum (Yellowdog Updater, Modified - the package
manager used by Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux), but with enhancements and
changes to fit the features they support. Recently, theGNOME project has been
47
developing PackageKit as a unified interface; this is now the default interface

for Fedora.
openSUSEs YaST Software Management
Before openSUSE 13.1, Apper was used for Software
Management. Now it has been replaced by
the YaST (Yet another System Tool) Software
Manager.
The YaST Software Manager is similar to other
graphical package managers. It is anRPM-based
application. You can add, remove, or update packages
using this application very easily. To access the YaST
Software Manager:
1. Click Activities
2. In the Search box type YaST
3. Click the YaST icon
4. Click Software Management
openSUSEs YaST Software Management application is similar to the graphical
package managers in other distributions. The demonstration of the YaST Software
Manager is shown later in this section.
48
Summary
You have completed this chapter. Let's summarize the key concepts covered:
You can control basic configuration options and desktop settings through the System
Settings panel
Linux always uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) for its own internal timekeeping . You can set Date and Time Settings from the System Settings window.
The Network Time Protocol is the most popular and reliable protocol for setting the
local time via Internet servers.
The Displays panel allows you to change the resolution of your display and
configure multiple screens.
Network Manager can present available wireless networks, allow the choice of a
wireless or mobile broadband network, handle passwords, and set up VPNs.
dpkg and RPM are the most popular package management systems used on Linux
distributions.
Debian distributions use dpkg and apt-based utilities for package management.
RPM was developed by Red Hat, and adopted by a number of other

distributions, including the openSUSE, Mandriva, CentOS, Oracle Linux, and
others.
49
Chapter 5: Command Line Operations

Learning Objectives
Use the command line to perform operations in Linux.
Search for files.
Create and manage files.
Install and update software.
5.1.
Command Line Mode Operations
Introduction to the Command Line

Linux system administrators spend a significant amount of
their time at a command line prompt. They often automate
and troubleshoot tasks in this text environment. There is a
saying, "graphical user interfaces make easy tasks easier,
while command line interfaces make difficult tasks possible."
Linux relies heavily on the abundance of command line tools.
The command line interface provides the following
advantages:
No GUI overhead.
Virtually every task can be accomplished using the command line.
You can script tasks and series of procedures.
You can log on remotely to networked machines anywhere on the Internet.
You can initiate graphical apps directly from the command line.
Using a Text Terminal on the Graphical Desktop

A terminal emulator program emulates
(simulates) a stand alone terminal within a
window on the desktop. By this we mean it
behaves essentially as if you were logging into
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the machine at a pure text terminal with no running graphical interface. Most terminal emulator
programs support multiple terminal sessions by opening additional tabs or windows.
By default, on GNOME desktop environments, the gnome-terminalapplication is used to emulate a

text-mode terminal in a window. Other available terminal programs include:
xterm
rxvt
konsole
terminator
Launching Terminal Windows

To open a terminal in CentOS:
1. On the CentOS desktop, in the upper-left

corner, clickApplications.
2. From the System Tools menu,
select Terminal.
To open a terminal in openSUSE:
1. On the openSUSE desktop, in the upper-left corner of the screen, click Activities.
2. From the left pane, click Show Applications.
3. Scroll-down and select the required terminal.
To open a terminal in Ubuntu:
1. In the left panel, click the Ubuntu icon.
2. Type terminal in the Search box.
If the nautilus-open-terminal package is installed on any of these distributions, you can always open
a terminal by right clicking anywhere on the desktop background and selecting Open in Terminal.
The X Window System
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The customizable nature of Linux allows

you to drop (temporarily or
permanently) the X Window graphical
interface, or to start it up after the
system has been running. Certain Linux
distributions distinguish versions of the
install media between desktop (with X)
and server (usually without X); Linux
production servers are usually installed
without X and even if it is installed,
usually do not launch it during system
start up. Removing X from a production server can be very helpful in maintaining a lean system which
can be easier to support and keep secure.
Virtual Terminals
Virtual Terminals
(VT) are console sessions
that use the entire display
and keyboard outside of a
graphical environment.
Such terminals are
considered "virtual"
because although there
can be multiple active
terminals, only one
terminal remains visible at a time. A VT is not quite the same as a command line terminal window;
you can have many of those visible at once on a graphical desktop.
One virtual terminal (usually number one or seven) is reserved for the graphical environment, and text
logins are enabled on the unused VTs.Ubuntu uses VT 7, but CentOS/RHEL andopenSUSE use VT
1 for the graphical display.
An example of a situation where using the VTs is helpful when you run into problems with the
graphical desktop. In this situation, you can switch to one of the text VTs and troubleshoot.
To switch between the VTs, press CTRL-ALT-corresponding function key for the VT. For example,
press CTRL-ALT-F6 for VT 6. (Actually you only have to press ALT-F6 key combination if you are
in a VT not running X and want to switch to another VT.)
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The Command Line

Most input lines entered at the shell prompt have three basic elements:
Command
Options
Arguments
The command is the name of the program you are executing. It may be followed by one or
more options (or switches) that modify what the command may do. Options usually start with one or
two dashes, for example,-p or--print, in order to differentiate them from arguments, which represent
what the command operates on.
However, plenty of commands have no options, no arguments, or neither. You can also type other
things at the command line besides issuing
commands, such as setting environment
variables.
Turning off the Graphical Desktop

Linux distributions can start and stop the
graphical desktop in various ways. For Debian-based systems, the Desktop Manager runs as a service
which can be simply stopped. For RPM-based systems, the Desktop Manager is run directly
by init when set to run level 5; switching to a different run level stops the desktop.
Use the sudo service gdm stop or sudo service lightdm stop commands, to stop the graphical user
interface inDebian-based systems. On RPM-based systems typing sudo telinit 3 may have the same
effect of killing the GUI.
sudo
All the demonstrations created have a user
configured withsudo capabilities to provide
the user with administrative (admin)
privileges when required. sudo allows users
to run programs using the security
privileges of another user, generally root (superuser). The functionality of sudo is similar to that
of run as in Windows.
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On your own systems, you may need to set up and enable sudo to work correctly. To do this, you need
to follow some steps that we wont explain in much detail now, but you will learn about later in this
course. When running on Ubuntu, sudo is already always set up for you during installation. If you are
running something in the Fedora or openSUSE families of distributions, you will likely need to set
up sudo to work properly for you after initial installation.
Next, you will learn the steps to setup and run sudo on your system.
Steps for Setting up and Running sudo

If your system does not already have sudo set up and enabled, you need to do the following steps:
1. You will need to make modifications as the administrative or super user, root. While sudo will
become the preferred method of doing this, we dont have it set up yet, so we will use su (which
we will discuss later in detail) instead. At the command line prompt, type su and
press Enter. You will then be prompted for the root password, so enter it and press Enter. You
will notice that nothing is printed; this is so others cannot see the password on the screen. You
should end up with a different looking prompt, often ending with #. For example: $
su Password: #
2. Now you need to create a configuration file to enable your user account to use sudo. Typically,
this file is created in the/etc/sudoers.d/ directory with the name of the file the same as your
username. For example, for this demo, lets say your username is student. After doing step 1,
you would then create the configuration file for student by doing this: # echo "student
ALL=(ALL) ALL" > /etc/sudoers.d/student
3. Finally, some Linux distributions will complain if you dont also change permissions on the file
by doing: # chmod 440 /etc/sudoers.d/student
That should be it. For the rest of this course, if you use sudo you should be properly set up. When
using sudo, by default you will be prompted to give a password (your own user password) at least the
first time you do it within a specificed time interval. It is possible (though very insecure) to
configure sudo to not require a password or change the time window in which the password does not
have to be repeated with every sudo command.
5.2.
Basic Operations
Basic Operations
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In this section we will discuss how to

accomplish basic operations from the
command line. These include how to log in
and log out from the system, restart or
shutdown the system, locate applications,
access directories, identify the absolute and
relative paths, and explore the filesystem.
Logging In and Out

An available text terminal will prompt for a username (with the string login:) and password. When
typing your password, nothing is displayed on the terminal (not even a * to indicate that you typed in
something) to prevent others from seeing your password. After you have logged in to the system, you
can perform basic operations.
Once your session is started (either by logging in to a text terminal or via a graphical terminal
program) you can also connect and log in to remote systems via the Secure Shell (SSH) utility. For
example, by typing ssh [email protected],SSH would connect securely to the remote
machine and give you a command line terminal window, using passwords (as with regular logins) or
cryptographic keys (a topic we won't discuss) to prove your identity.
Rebooting and Shutting Down

The preferred method to shut down or reboot the
system is to use the shutdown command.
This sends a warning message and then prevents
further users from logging in. The init process will
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then control shutting down or rebooting the system. It is important to always shut down properly;
failure to do so can result in damage to the system and/or loss of data.
The halt and poweroff commands issue shutdown -h to halt the system; reboot issues shutdown r and causes the machine to reboot instead of just shutting down. Both rebooting and shutting down
from the command line requires superuser (root) access.When administering a multiuser system, you
have the option of notifying all users prior to shutdown as in:
$ sudo shutdown -h 10:00 "Shutting down for scheduled maintenance."
Locating Applications
Depending on the specifics of your
particular distribution's policy, programs
and software packages can be installed in
various directories. In general, executable
programs should live in
the/bin, /usr/bin,/sbin,/usr/sbin directories
or under /opt.
One way to locate programs is to employ

the which utility. For example, to find out
exactly where the diff program resides on
the filesystem:
$ which diff
If which does not find the program, whereis is a good alternative because it looks for packages in a
broader range of system directories:
$ whereis diff
Accessing Directories
When you first log into a system or open a terminal, the default directory should be your home
directory; you can print the exact path of this by typing echo $HOME. (Note that some Linux
distributions actually open new graphical terminals in$HOME/Desktop.) The following commands
are useful for directory navigation:
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Command
Result
pwd
Displays the present working directory
cd ~ orcd
Change to your home directory (short-cut name is ~

(tilde))
cd ..
Change to parent directory (..)
cd -
Change to previous directory (- (minus))
Understanding Absolute and Relative Paths
There are two ways to identify paths:
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1. Absolute pathname: An absolute pathname begins with the root directory and follows the tree,
branch by branch, until it reaches the desired directory or file. Absolute paths always start with /.
2. Relative pathname: A relative pathname starts from the present working directory. Relative
paths never start with /.
Multiple slashes (/) between directories and files are allowed, but all but one slash between elements in
the pathname is ignored by the system. ////usr//bin is valid, but seen as /usr/bin by the system.
Most of the time it is most convenient to use relative paths, which require less typing. Usually you take
advantage of the shortcuts provided by: . (present directory), .. (parent directory) and ~ (your home
directory).
For example, suppose you are currently working in your home directory and wish to move to
the /usr/bin directory. The following two ways will bring you to the same directory from
your home directory:
1. Absolute pathname method: $ cd /usr/bin

2. Relative pathname method: $ cd ../../usr/bin
In this case, the absolute pathname method is less typing.
Exploring the Filesystem

Traversing up and down the filesystem tree can get tedious. The tree command is a good way to get a
birds-eye view of the filesystem tree. Use tree -d to view just the directories and to suppress listing
file names.
The following commands can help in exploring the filesystem:
Command
cd /
Usage
Changes your current directory to the root (/) directory (or path you supply)
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ls
List the contents of the present working directory
ls a
List all files including hidden files and directories (those whose name start with . )
tree
Displays a tree view of the filesystem
Hard and Soft (Symbolic) Links

ln can be used to create hard links and (with the s option) soft links, also known as symbolic
links or symlinks. These two kinds of links are
very useful in UNIX-based operating systems. The
advantages of symbolic links are discussed on the
following screen.
Suppose that file1 already exists. A hard link,

called file2, is created with the command:
$ ln file1 file2
Note that two files now appear to exist. However, a closer inspection of the file listing shows that this
is not quite true.
$ ls -li file1 file2
The -i option to ls prints out in the first column the inode number, which is a unique quantity for each
file object. This field is the same for both of these files; what is really going on here is that it is
only one file but it has more than one name associated with it, as is indicated by the 3 that appears in
the ls output. Thus, there already was another object linked to file1 before the command was
executed.
Click the image to view an enlarged version.
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Symbolic Links
Symbolic (or Soft) links are created with
the -s option as in:
$ ln -s file1 file4
$ ls -li file1 file4
Notice file4 no longer appears to be a

regular file, and it clearly points to file1 and
has a different inode number.
Symbolic links take no extra space on the

filesystem (unless their names are very long). They are extremely convenient as they can easily be
modified to point to different places. An easy way to create a shortcut from your home directory to
long pathnames is to create a symbolic link.
Unlike hard links, soft links can point to objects even on different filesystems (or partitions) which
may or may not be currently available or even exist. In the case where the link does not point to a
currently available or existing object, you obtain a dangling link.
Hard links are very useful and they save space, but you have to be careful with their use, sometimes in
subtle ways. For one thing if you remove either file1 or file2 in the example on the previous screen,
the inode object (and the remaining file name) will remain, which might be undesirable as it may lead
to subtle errors later if you recreate a file of that name.
If you edit one of the files, exactly what happens depends on your editor; most editors
including vi and gedit will retain the link by default but it is possible that modifying one of the names
may break the link and result in the creation of two objects.
Navigating the Directory History

The cd command remembers where you were last,
and lets you get back there with cd -. For
remembering more than just the last directory visited,
use pushd to change the directory instead of cd; this
pushes your starting directory onto a list.
Using popd will then send you back to those
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directories, walking in reverse order (the most recent directory will be the first one retrieved
with popd). The list of directories is displayed with the dirs command.
5.3.
Searching For Files
Standard File Streams

When commands are executed, by default there are three standard file streams (or descriptors)
always open for use:standard input (standard in or stdin), standard output (standard out or stdout)
and standard error (or stderr). Usually,stdin is your keyboard, stdout and stderr are printed on your
terminal; often stderr is redirected to an error logging file.stdin is often supplied by directing input to
come from a file or from the output of a previous command through a pipe.stdout is also often
redirected into a file. Since stderr is where error messages are written, often nothing will go there.
In Linux, all open files are represented internally by what are called file descriptors. Simply put, these
are represented by numbers starting at zero. stdin is file descriptor 0, stdout is file descriptor 1,
and stderr is file descriptor 2. Typically, if other files are opened in addition to these three, which are
opened by default, they will start at file descriptor 3 and increase from there.
I/O Redirection
Through the command shell we can redirect the three standard filestreams so that we can get input
from either a file or another command instead of from our keyboard, and we can write output and
errors to files or send them as input for subsequent commands.
For example, if we have a program called do_something that reads from stdin and writes
to stdout and stderr, we can change its input source by using the less-than sign ( < ) followed by the
name of the file to be consumed for input data:
$ do_something < input-file
If you want to send the output to a file, use the greater-than sign (>) as in:
$ do_something > output-file
Because stderr is not the same as stdout, error messages will still be seen on the terminal windows in
the above example.
If you want to redirect stderr to a separate file, you use stderrs file descriptor number (2), the
greater-than sign (>), followed by the name of the file you want to hold everything the running
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command writes to stderr:

$ do_something 2> error-file
A special shorthand notation can be used to put anything w ritten to file descriptor 2 (stderr) in the
same place as file descriptor 1 (stdout): 2>&1
$ do_something > all-output-file 2>&1
bash permits an easier syntax for the above:
$ do_something >& all-output-file
Pipes
The UNIX/Linux philosophy is to have many simple and short programs (or commands) cooperate
together to produce quite complex results, rather than have one complex program with many possible
options and modes of operation. In order to accomplish this, extensive use of pipes is made; you can
pipe the output of one command or program into another as its input.
In order to do this we use the vertical-bar, |, (pipe symbol) between commands as in:
$ command1 | command2 | command3
The above represents what we often call a pipeline and allows Linux to combine the actions of several
commands into one. This is extraordinarily efficient because command2 and command3 do not have
to wait for the previous pipeline commands to complete before they can begin hacking at the data in
their input streams; on multiple CPU or core systems the available computing power is much better
utilized and things get done quicker. In addition there is no need to save output in (temporary) files
between the stages in the pipeline, which saves disk space and reduces reading and writing from disk,
which is often the slowest bottleneck in getting something done.
Searching for Files

Being able to quickly find the files you are looking for will make you a much happier Linux user! You
can search for files in your parent directory or any other directory on the system as needed.
In this section, you will learn how to use the locate andfind utilities, and how to
use wildcards in bash.
locate
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The locate utility program performs a search through a previously constructed database of files and
directories on your system, matching all entries that contain a specified character string. This can
sometimes result in a very long list.
To get a shorter more relevant list we can use the grep program as a filter; grep will print only the
lines that contain one or more specified strings as in:
$ locate zip | grep bin
which will list all files and directories with both "zip" and "bin" in their name . (We will cover grep in
much more detail later.) Notice the use of | to pipe the two commands together.
locate utilizes the database created by another program, updatedb. Most Linux systems run this
automatically once a day. However, you can update it at any time by just running updatedb from the
command line as the root user.
Wildcards and Matching File Names

You can search for a filename containing specific characters using wildcards.
Wildcard
Result
Matches any single character
Matches any string of characters
[set]
Matches any character in the set of characters, for example [adf] will
match any occurrence of "a", "d", or "f"
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[!set]
Matches any character not in the set of characters
To search for files using the ? wildcard, replace each unknown character with ?, e.g. if you know only
the first 2 letters are 'ba' of a 3-letter filename with an extension of .out, type ls ba?.out .
To search for files using the * wildcard, replace the unknown string with *, e.g. if you remember only
that the extension was.out, type ls *.out
Finding Files In a Directory

find is extremely useful and often-used utility
program in the daily life of a Linux system
administrator. It recurses down the filesystem
tree from any particular directory (or set of
directories) and locates files that match specified
conditions. The default pathname is always the
present working directory.
For example, administrators sometimes scan for

large core files (which contain diagnostic information after a program fails) that are more than several
weeks old in order to remove them. It is also common to remove files in /tmp (and other temporary
directories, such as those containing cached files) that have not been accessed recently. Many distros
use automated scripts that run periodically to accomplish such house cleaning.
Using find
When no arguments are given, find lists all
files in the current directory and all of its
subdirectories. Commonly used options to
shorten the list include -name (only list files
with a certain pattern in their name), iname (also ignore the case of file
names), and -type (which will restrict the
results to files of a certain specified type,
such as d for directory, l for symbolic link
or f for a regular file, etc).
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Searching for files and directories named "gcc":

$ find /usr -name gcc
Searching only for directories named "gcc":

$ find /usr -type d -name gcc
Searching only for regular files named "test1":

$ find /usr -type f -name test1
Using Advanced find Options

Another good use of find is being able
to run commands on the files that
match your search criteria. The exec option is used for this purpose.
To find and remove all files that end
with .swp:
$ find -name "*.swp" -exec rm {}

;
The {} (squiggly brackets) is a place
holder that will be filled with all the
file names that result from the find expression, and the preceding command will be run on each one
individually.
Note that you have to end the command with either ; (including the single-quotes) or \; Both forms
are fine.
One can also use the -ok option which behaves the same as -exec except that find will prompt you for
permission before executing the command. This makes it a good way to test your results before blindly
executing any potentially dangerous commands.
Finding Files Based on Time and Size

It is sometimes the case that you wish to find files
according to attributes such as when they were
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created, last used, etc, or based on their size. Both are easy to accomplish.
Finding based on time:

$ find / -ctime 3
Here, -ctime is when the inode meta-data (i.e., file ownership, permissions, etc) last changed; it is
often, but not necessarily when the file was first created. You can also search for accessed/last read ( atime) or modified/last written (-mtime) times. The number is the number of days and can be
expressed as either a number (n) that means exactly that value, +n which means greater than that
number, or -n which means less than that number. There are similar options for times in minutes (as
in -cmin, -amin, and -mmin).
Finding based on sizes:
$ find / -size 0
Note the size here is in 512-byte blocks, by default; you can also specify bytes (c), kilobytes (k),
megabytes (M), gigabytes (G), etc. As with the time numbers above, file sizes can also be exact
numbers (n), +n or -n. For details consult the man page for find.
For example, to find files greater than 10 MB in size and running a command on those files:
$ find / -size +10M -exec command {} ;
5.4.
Working with Files
Linux provides many commands that help you in viewing the contents of a file, creating a new file or
an empty file, changing the timestamp of a file, and removing and renaming a file or directory. These
commands help you in managing your data and files and in ensuring that the correct data is available at
the correct location.
In this section, you will learn how to manage files.
Viewing Files
You can use the following utilities to view files:
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Command
Cat
Usage
Used for viewing files that are not very long; it does not provide any scrollback.
Tac
Used to look at a file backwards, one line at a time.
Less
Used to view larger files because it is a paging program; it pauses at each

screenful of text, provides scroll-back capabilities, and lets you search and
navigate within the file. Note: Use / to search for a pattern in the forward
direction and ? for a pattern in the backward direction.
Tail
Used to print the last 10 lines of a file by default. You can change the number of
lines by doing -n 15 or just -15 if you wanted to look at the last 15 lines instead
of the default.
Head
The opposite of tail; by default it prints the first 10 lines of a file.
touch and mkdir

touch is often used to set or update the access, change, and modify times of files. By default it resets a
file's time stamp to match the current time.
However, you can also create an empty file using touch:

$ touch <filename>
This is normally done to create an empty file as a placeholder for a later purpose.
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touch provides several options, but here is one of interest:
The -t option allows you to set the date and time stamp of the file.
To set the time stamp to a specific time:

$ touch -t 03201600 myfile
This sets the file, myfile's, time stamp to 4 p.m., March 20th (03 20 1600).
mkdir is used to create a directory.
To create a sample directory named sampdir under the current directory, type mkdir sampdir.
To create a sample directory called sampdir under /usr, type mkdir /usr/sampdir.
Removing a directory is simply done with rmdir. The directory must be empty or it will fail. To
remove a directory and all of its contents you have to do rm -rf as we shall discuss.
Removing a File
Command
Usage
mv
Rename a file
rm
Remove a file
rm f
Forcefully remove a file
rm i
Interactively remove a file
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If you are not certain about removing files that match a pattern you supply, it is always good to
run rm interactively (rm i) to prompt before every removal.
Renaming or Removing a Directory

rmdir works only on empty directories; otherwise you get an error.
While typing rm rf is a fast and easy way to remove a whole filesystem tree recursively, it is
extremely dangerous and should be used with the utmost care, especially when used by root (recall
that recursive means drilling down through all sub-directories, all the way down a tree). Below are the
commands used to rename or remove a directory:
Command
Usage
mv
Rename a directory
rmdir
Remove an empty directory
rm -rf
Forcefully remove a directory recursively
Modifying the Command Line Prompt

The PS1 variable is the character string that is displayed as the prompt on the command line. Most
distributions set PS1 to a known default value, which is suitable in most cases. However, users may
want custom information to show on the command line. For example, some system administrators
require the user and the host system name to show up on the command line as in:
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student@quad32 $
This could prove useful if you are working in multiple roles and want to be always reminded of who
you are and what machine you are on. The prompt above could be implemented by setting the PS1
variable to: \u@\h \$
For example:
$ echo $PS1
\$
$ PS1="\u@\h \$ "
coop@quad64 $ echo $PS1
\u@\h \$
coop@quad64 $
5.5.
Installing Software
Package Management Systems on Linux

The core parts of a Linux distribution and most of its add-on software are installed via the Package
Management System. Each package contains the files and other instructions needed to make one
software component work on the system. Packages can depend on each other. For example, a package
for a Web-based application written in PHP can depend on the PHP package.
There are two broad families of package managers: those based onDebian and those which
use RPM as their low-level package manager. The two systems are incompatible, but provide the
same features at a broad level.
Package Managers: Two Levels

Both package management systems
provide two tool levels: a low-level
tool (such as dpkg or rpm), takes
care of the details of unpacking
individual packages, running scripts,
getting the software installed
correctly, while a high-level tool
(such as apt-get, yum, or zypper)
works with groups of packages,
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downloads packages from the vendor, and figures out dependencies.
Most of the time users need work only with the high-level tool, which will take care of calling the low level tool as needed. Dependency tracking is a particularly important feature of the high-level tool, as
it handles the details of finding and installing each dependency for you. Be careful, however, as
installing a single package could result in many dozens or even hundreds of dependent packages being
installed.
Working With Different Package Management Systems
The Advanced Packaging Tool (apt) is the underlying package management system that manages
software on Debian-based systems. While it forms the backend for graphical package managers, such
as theUbuntu Software Center and synaptic, its native user interface is at the command line, with
programs that include apt-get and apt-cache.
Yellowdog Updater Modified (yum) is an open-source command-line package-management utility

for RPM-compatible Linux systems, basically what we have called the Fedora family. yum has both
command line and graphical user interfaces.
zypper is a package management system for openSUSE that is based on RPM. zypper also allows
you to manage repositories from the command line. zypper is fairly straightforward to use and
resembles yum quite closely.
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Summary
Virtual terminals (VT) in Linux are consoles, or command line terminals that use the connected
monitor and keyboard.
Different Linux distributions start and stop the graphical desktop in different ways.
A terminal emulator program on the graphical desktop works by emulating a terminal within a
window on the desktop.
The Linux system allows you to either log in via text terminal or remotely via the console.
When typing your password, nothing is printed to the terminal, not even a generic symbol to
indicate that you typed.
The preferred method to shut down or reboot the system is to use the shutdown command.
There are two types of pathnames: absolute and relative.
An absolute pathname begins with the root directory and follows the tree, branch by branch, until
it reaches the desired directory or file.
A relative pathname starts from the present working directory.
Using hard and soft (symbolic) links is extremely useful in Linux.
cd remembers where you were last, and lets you get back there with cd -.
locate performs a database search to find all file names that match a given pattern.
find locates files recursively from a given directory or set of directories.
find is able to run commands on the files that it lists, when used with the -exec option.
touch is used to set the access, change, and edit times of files as well as to create empty files.
The Advanced Packaging Tool (apt) package management system is used to manage
installed software on Debian-based systems.
You can use the Yellowdog Updater Modified (yum) open-source command-line packagemanagement utility for RPM-compatible Linux operating systems.
The zypper package management system is based on RPM and used for openSUSE.
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Chapter 6: Finding Linux Documentation

Learning Objectives
Use different sources of documentation.
Use the man pages.
Access the GNU info system.
Use the help command and --help option.
Use other documentation sources.
6.1.
Documentation Sources
Introduction to Linux Documentation Sources

Whether you are an inexperienced user or a veteran, you
wont always know how to use various Linux programs and
utilities, or what to type at the command line. You will need
to consult the help documentation regularly. Because Linuxbased systems draw from a large variety of sources, there are
numerous reservoirs of documentation and ways of getting
help. Distributors consolidate this material and present it in a
comprehensive and easy-to-use manner.
Important Linux documentation sources include:
The man pages (short for manual pages)
GNU Info
The help command and --help option
6.2.
The Main Pages
The man pages are the most often-used source of Linux documentation. They provide in-depth
documentation about many programs and utilities as well as other topics, including configuration files,
system calls, library routines, and the kernel.
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Typing man with a topic name as an argument retrieves the information stored in the topic's man
pages. Some Linux distributions require every installed program to have a corresponding man page,
which explains the depth of coverage. (Note: man is actually an abbreviation for manual.) The man
pages structure were first introduced in the early UNIX versions of the early 1970s.
The man pages are often converted to:
Web pages
Published books
Graphical help
Other formats
man
The man program searches, formats, and displays the information contained in the man
pages. Because many topics have a lot of information, output is piped through a terminal
pager program such as less to be viewed one page at a time; at the same time the information is
formatted for a good visual display.
When no options are given, by default one sees only the dedicated page specifically about the
topic. You can broaden this to view all man pages containing a string in their name by using
the -f option. You can also view all man pages that discuss a specified subject (even if the
specified subject is not present in the name) by using the k option.
man f generates the same result as typing whatis.
man k generates the same result as typing apropos.
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Manual Chapters
The man pages are divided into nine numbered chapters
(1 through 9). Sometimes, a letter is appended to the
chapter number to identify a specific topic. For example,
many pages describing part of the X Window API are in
chapter 3X.
The chapter number can be used to force man to display

the page from a particular chapter; it is common to have
multiple pages across multiple chapters with the same
name, especially for names of library functions or
system calls.
With the -a parameter, man will display all pages with the given name in all chapters, one
after the other.
$ man 3 printf
$ man -a printf
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6.3.
GNU Info
info Page Structure

The topic which you view in the info page is called a node.
Nodes are similar to sections and subsections in written documentation. You can move between nodes
or view each node sequentially. Each node may contain menus and linked subtopics, or items.
Items can be compared to Internet hyperlinks. They are identified by an asterisk (*) at the beginning of
the item name. Named items (outside a menu) are identified with double-colons (::) at the end of the
item name. Items can refer to other nodes within the file or to other files. The table lists the basic
keystrokes for moving between nodes.
Key
6.4.
Function
Go to the next node
Go to the previous node
Move one node up in the index
Help Command
Introduction to the help Option

The third source of Linux documentation is use of the help option.
Most commands have an available short description which can be viewed using the --help or the h option along with the command or application. For example, to learn more about theman command,
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you can run the following command:

$ man --help
The --help option is useful as a quick reference and it displays information faster than
the man or info pages.
About the help Command

Some popular commands (such as echo) when run in a bash command shell silently run their
own built-in versions of system programs or utilities, because it is more efficient to do so. (We will
discuss command shells in great detail later.) To view a synopsis of these built-in commands, you can
simply type help.
For these built-in commands, help performs the same basic function as the-h and --help arguments
(which we will discuss shortly) perform for stand-alone programs.
6.5.
Other Documentation Sources
Other Documentation Sources

In addition to the man pages,
the GNU Info System, and
the help command, there are other
sources of Linux documentation, some
examples of which are shown here.
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Desktop Help Systems

All Linux desktop systems have a
graphical help application. This
application is usually displayed as a
question-mark icon or an image of a
ships life-preserver. These programs
usually contain custom help for the
desktop itself and some of its
applications, and will often also include
graphically rendered info andman pages.
You can also start the graphical help system from a graphical terminal using the following commands:
GNOME: gnome-help
KDE: khelpcenter
Package Documentation
Linux documentation is also available as part
of the package management system. Usually
this documentation is directly pulled from the
upstream source code, but it can also contain
information about how the distribution
packaged and set up the software.
Such information is placed under

the /usr/share/doc directory in a subdirectory named after the package, perhaps inc luding the
version number in the name.
Online Resources
There are many places to access online Linux documentation, and a little bit of searching will
get you buried in it.
You can also find very helpful documentation for each distribution. Each distribution has its
own user-generated forums and wiki sections. Here are just a few links to such sources:
Ubuntu: https://help.ubuntu.com/
CentOS: https://www.centos.org/docs/
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OpenSUSE: http://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Documentation
GENTOO: http://www.gentoo.org/doc/en
Moreover you can use online search sites to locate helpful resources from all over the Internet,
including blog posts, forum and mailing list posts, news articles, and so on.
Summary
The main sources of Linux documentation are the man pages,GNU Info, the help options and
command, and a rich variety of online documentation sources.
The man utility searches, formats, and displays man pages.
The man pages provide in-depth documentation about programs and other topics about the
system including configuration files, system calls, library routines, and the kernel.
The GNU Info System was created by the GNU project as its standard documentation. It is
robust and is accessible via command line, web, and graphical tools using info.
Short descriptions for commands are usually displayed with the -h or --help argument.
You can type help at the command line to display a synopsis of built-in commands.
There are many other help resources both on your system and on the Internet.
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Chapter 7: File Operations

Learning Objectives
Use and configure user accounts and user groups.
Use and set environment variables.
Use the previous shell command history.
Use keyboard shortcuts.
Use and define aliases.
Use and set file permissions and ownership.
7.1.
Accounts
Identifying the Current User

As you know, Linux is a multiuser operating system; i.e., more than one user can log on at the same
time.
To list the currently logged-on users, type who
To identify the current user, type whoami
Giving who the -a option will give more detailed information.
Basics of Users and Groups

Linux uses groups for organizing users. Groups are collections of accounts with certain shared
permissions. Control of group membership is administered through the /etc/group file, which shows a
list of groups and their members. By default, every user belongs to a default or primary group. When a
user logs in, the group membership is set for their primary group and all the members enjoy the same
level of access and privilege. Permissions on various files and directories can be modified at the group
level.
All Linux users are assigned a unique user ID (uid), which is just an integer, as well as one or more
group IDs (gid), including a default one which is the same as the user ID.
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Historically Fedora-family systems start uid's at 500; other distributions begin at 1000.
These numbers are associated with names through the files /etc/passwd and /etc/group.
For example, the first file might contain:

george:x:1002:1002:George Metesky:/home/george:/bin/bash
and the second george:x:1002
Groups are used to establish a set of users who have common interests for the purposes of access
rights, privileges, and security considerations. Access rights to files (and devices) are granted on the
basis of the user and the group they belong to.
Adding and Removing Users

Distributions have straightforward
graphical interfaces for creating and
removing users and groups and
manipulating group membership. However,
it is often useful to do it from the command
line or from within shell scripts. Only the
root user can add and remove users and
groups.
Adding a new user is done with useradd and removing an existing user is done with userdel. In the
simplest form an account for the new user turkey would be done with:
$ sudo useradd turkey
which by default sets the home directory to /home/turkey, populates it with some basic files (copied
from /etc/skel) and adds a line to /etc/passwd such as:
turkey:x:502:502::/home/turkey:/bin/bash
and sets the default shell to /bin/bash. Removing a user account is as easy as typing userdel
turkey However, this will leave the /home/turkey directory intact. This might be useful if it is a
temporary inactivation. To remove the home directory while removing the account one needs to use
the -r option to userdel.
Typing id with no argument gives information about the current user, as in:
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$ id
uid=500(george) gid=500(george) groups=106(fuse),500(george)
If given the name of another user as an argument, id will report information about that other user.
Adding and Removing Groups

Adding a new group is done with groupadd:
$ sudo /usr/sbin/groupadd anewgroup
The group can be removed with
$ sudo /usr/sbin/groupdel anewgroup
Adding a user to an already existing group is done with usermod. For example, you would first look at
what groups the user already belongs to:
$ groups turkey
turkey : turkey
and then add the new group:
$ sudo /usr/sbin/usermod -G anewgroup turkey

$ groups turkey
turkey: turkey anewgroup
These utilities update /etc/group as necessary. groupmod can be used to change group properties such
as the Group ID (gid) with the -g option or its name with the -n option.
Removing a user from the group is a somewhat trickier. The -G option to usermod must give a
complete list of groups. Thus if you do:
$ sudo /usr/sbin/usermod -G turkey turkey

$ groups turkey
turkey : turkey
only the turkey group will be left.
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The root Account

The root account is very powerful and has full access to the system. Other operating systems often call
this the administratoraccount; in Linux it is often called the superuser account. You must be
extremely cautious before granting full root access to a user; it is rarely if ever justified. External
attacks often consist of tricks used to elevate to the root account.
However, you can use the sudo feature to assign more limited privileges to user accounts:
on only a temporary basis.
only for a specific subset of commands.
su and sudo
When assigning elevated privileges, you can use the command su (switch or substitute user) to launch
a new shell running as another user (you must type the password of the user you are becoming). Most
often this other user is root, and the new shell allows the use of elevated privileges until it is exited. It
is almost always a bad (dangerous for both security and stability) practice to use su to become root.
Resulting errors can include deletion of vital files from the system and security breaches.
Granting privileges using sudo is less dangerous and is preferred. By default, sudo must be enabled on
a per-user basis. However, some distributions (such as Ubuntu) enable it by default for at least one
main user, or give this as an installation option.
In the chapter on Security that follows shortly, we will describe and compare su and sudo in detail.
levating to root Account

To fully become root, one merely
types su and then is prompted for the
root password.
To execute just one command with root
privilege type sudo <command>. When
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the command is complete you will return to being a normal unprivileged user.
sudo configuration files are stored in the /etc/sudoers file and in the /etc/sudoers.d/ directory. By
default, the sudoers.d directory is empty.
Startup Files
In Linux, the command shell program (generally bash) uses one
or more startup files to configure the environment. Files in
the /etc directory define global settings for all users while
Initialization files in the user's home directory can include and/or
override the global settings.
The startup files can do anything the user would like to do in every command shell, such as:
Customizing the user's prompt
Defining command-line shortcuts and aliases
Setting the default text editor
Setting the path for where to find executable programs
Order of the Startup Files

When you first login to Linux, /etc/profile is read and evaluated, after which the following files are
searched (if they exist) in the listed order:
1. ~/.bash_profile
2. ~/.bash_login
3. ~/.profile
The Linux login shell evaluates whatever startup file that it comes across first and ignor es the
rest. This means that if it finds~/.bash_profile, it ignores ~/.bash_login and ~/.profile. Different
distributions may use different startup files.
However, every time you create a new shell, or terminal window, etc., you do not perform a full
system login; only the~/.bashrc file is read and evaluated. Although this file is not read and evaluated
along with the login shell, most distributions and/or users include the ~/.bashrc file from within one of
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the three user-owned startup files. In the Ubuntu,openSuse, and CentOS distros, the user must make
appropriate changes in the ~/.bash_profile file to include the~/.bashrc file.
The .bash_profile will have certain extra lines, which in turn will collect the required customization
parameters from.bashrc.
7.2.
Environment Variables
Environment variables are simply named quantities that have specific values and are
understood by the command shell, such as bash. Some of these are pre-set (built-in) by the system,
and others are set by the user either at the command line or within startup and other scripts. An
environment variable is actually no more than a character string that contains information used by one
or more applications.
There are a number of ways to view the values of currently set environment variables; one can
type set, env, or export.Depending on the state of your system, set may print out many more lines
than the other two methods.
$ set
BASH=/bin/bash
BASHOPTS=checkwinsize:cmdhist:expand_aliases:extglob:extquote:force_fignore
BASH_ALIASES=()
...
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$ env
SSH_AGENT_PID=1892
GPG_AGENT_INFO=/run/user/me/keyring-Ilf3vt/gpg:0:1
TERM=xterm
SHELL=/bin/bash
...
$ export
declare -x COLORTERM=gnome-terminal
declare -x COMPIZ_BIN_PATH=/usr/bin /
declare -x COMPIZ_CONFIG_PROFILE=ubuntu
Setting Environment Variables

By default, variables created within a script are only available to the current shell; child processes
(sub-shells) will not have access to values that have been set or modified. Allowing child processes to
see the values, requires use of the exportcommand.
Task
Command
Show the value of a specific variable
echo $SHELL
Export a new variable value
export VARIABLE=value (or

VARIABLE=value; export VARIABLE)
1. Edit ~/.bashrc and add the line export

Add a variable permanently
VARIABLE=value
2. Type source ~/.bashrc or just .
~/.bashrc (dot ~/.bashrc); or just start a
new shell by typing bash
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The HOME Variable

HOME is an environment variable that represents the home (or login) directory of the user. cd without
arguments will change the current working directory to the value of HOME. Note the tilde character
(~) is often used as an abbreviation for $HOME. Thus cd $HOME and cd ~ are completely equivalent
statements.
Command
Explanation
$ echo $HOME
/home/me
Show the value of the HOME environment
$ cd /bin
variable then change directory (cd) to /bin
$ pwd
Where are we? Use print (or present)
/bin
working directory (pwd) to find out. As

expected /bin
$ cd
Change directory without an argument . . .
$ pwd
. . . takes us back to HOME
/home/me
as you can now see
The PATH Variable

PATH is an ordered list of directories (the path) which is scanned when a command is given to find
the appropriate program or script to run. Each directory in the path is separated by colons (:). A null
(empty) directory name (or ./) indicates the current directory at any given time.
:path1:path2
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path1::path2
In the example :path1:path2, there is null directory before the first colon (:). Similarly,
for path1::path2 there is null directory between path1 and path2.
To prefix a private bin directory to your path:
$ export PATH=$HOME/bin:$PAT H
$ echo $PATH
/home/me/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin/usr
The PS1 Variable

Prompt Statement (PS) is used to customize your prompt string in your terminal windows to display
the information you want.
PS1 is the primary prompt variable which controls what your command line prompt looks like. The
following special characters can be included in PS1 :
\u - User name
\h - Host name
\w - Current working directory
\! - History number of this command
\d - Date
They must be surrounded in single quotes when they are used as in the following example:
$ echo $PS1
$
$ export PS1='\u@\h:\w$ '
[email protected]:~$ # new prompt
[email protected]:~$
To revert the changes:

[email protected]:~$ export PS1='$ '
$
Even better practice would be to save the old prompt first and then restore, as in:
$ OLD_PS1=$PS1
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change the prompt, and eventually change it back with:

$ PS1=$OLD_PS1
$
The SHELL Variable

The environment variable SHELL points to the user's default command shell (the program that is
handling whatever you type in a command window, usually bash) and contains the full pathname to
the shell:
$ echo $SHELL
/bin/bash
$
7.3.
Recalling Previous Commands
Recalling Previous Commands

bash keeps track of previously entered commands and statements in a history buffer; you can recall
previously used commands simply by using the Up and Down cursor keys. To view the list of
previously executed commands, you can just type history at the command line.
The list of commands is displayed with the most recent command appearing last in the list. This
information is stored in ~/.bash_history.
Using History Environment Variables

Several associated environment variables can be used to get information about the history file.
HISTFILE stores the location of the history file.
HISTFILESIZE stores the maximum number of lines in the history file.
HISTSIZE stores the maximum number of lines in the history file for
Finding and Using Previous Commands

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Specific keys to perform various tasks:
Key
Usage
Up/Down arrow key
Browse through the list of commands

previously executed
!! (Pronounced as bang-bang)
Execute the previous command
CTRL-R
Search previously used commands
If you want to recall a command in the history list, but do not want to press the arrow key repeatedly,
you can press CTRL-Rto do a reverse intelligent search.
As you start typing the search goes back in reverse order to the first command that matches the letters
you've typed. By typing more successive letters you make the match more and more specific.
The following is an example of how you can use the CTRL-R command to search through the
command history:
$ ^R
(reverse-i-search)'s': sleep 1000
# This all happens on 1 line

# Searched for 's'; matched "sleep"
$ sleep 1000
# Pressed Enter to execute the searched command
Executing Previous Commands

The table describes the syntax used to execute previously used commands.
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Syntax
Task
Start a history substitution
!$
Refer to the last argument in a line
!n
Refer to the nth command line
!string
Refer to the most recent command starting with string
All history substitutions start with !. In the line $ ls -l /bin /etc /var !$ refers to /var, which is the last
argument in the line.
Here are more examples:

$ history
1. echo $SHELL
2. echo $HOME
3. echo $PS1
4. ls -a
5. ls -l /etc/ passwd
6. sleep 1000
7. history
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$ !1
# Execute command #1 above
echo $SHELL
/bin/bash
$ !sl
# Execute the command beginning with "sl"
sleep 1000
$
Keyboard Shortcuts
You can use keyboard shortcuts to perform different tasks quickly. The table lists some of these
keyboard shortcuts and their uses.
Keyboard Shortcut
Task
CTRL-L
Clears the screen
CTRL-D
Exits the current shell
CTRL-Z
Puts the current process into suspended background
CTRL-C
Kills the current process
CTRL-H
Works the same as backspace
CTRL-A
Goes to the beginning of the line
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CTRL-W
Deletes the word before the cursor
CTRL-U
Deletes from beginning of line to cursor position
CTRL-E
Goes to the end of the line
Tab
Auto-completes files, directories, and binaries
7.4.
Command Aliases
Creating Aliases
You can create customized commands or modify the behavior of already existing ones by
creating aliases. Most often these aliases are placed in your ~/.bashrc file so they are available to any
command shells you create.
Typing alias with no arguments will list currently defined aliases.
Please note there should not be any spaces on either side of the equal sign and the alias definition
needs to be placed within either single or double quotes if it contains any spaces.
7.5.
File Permissions
File Ownership
In Linux and other UNIX-based operating systems, every file is associated with a user who is
the owner. Every file is also associated with a group (a subset of all users) which has an interest in the
file and certain rights, or permissions: read, write, and execute.
The following utility programs involve user and group ownership and permission setting.
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Command
Usage
chown
Used to change user ownership of a file or directory
chgrp
Used to change group ownership
chmod
Used to change the permissions on the file which can be done

separately forowner, group and the rest of the world (often
named as other.)
File Permission Modes and chmod

Files have three kinds of permissions: read (r), write (w), execute (x). These are generally represented
as in rwx. These permissions affect three groups of owners: user/owner (u), group (g), and others (o).
As a result, you have the following three groups of three permissions:
rwx: rwx: rwx

u: g: o
There are a number of different ways to use chmod. For instance, to give the owner and others execute
permission and remove the group write permission:
$ ls -l a_file
-rw-rw-r-- 1 coop coop 1601 Mar 9 15:04 a_file
$ chmod uo+x,g-w a_file
$ ls -l a_file
-rwxr--r-x 1 coop coop 1601 Mar 9 15:04 a_file
where u stands for user (owner), o stands for other (world), and g stands for group.
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This kind of syntax can be difficult to type and remember, so one often uses a shorthand which lets
you set all the permissions in one step. This is done with a simple algorithm, and a single digit suffices
to specify all three permission bits for each entity. This digit is the sum of:
4 if read permission is desired.
2 if write permission is desired.
1 if execute permission is desired.
Thus 7 means read/write/execute, 6 means read/write, and 5 means read/execute.
When you apply this to the chmod command you have to give three digits for each degree of freedom,
such as in
$ chmod 755 a_file
$ ls -l a_file
-rwxr-xr-x 1 coop coop 1601 Mar 9 15:04 a_file
Example of chown
Let's see an example of changing file ownership using chown:
The first image shows the permissions for owners/groups/all users on 'file1'. The second image shows
the change in permissions for the different users on "file1"
$ ls -l
total 4
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-rw-rw-r--. 1 bob bob 0 Mar 16 19:04 file-1

drwxrwxr-x. 2 bob bob 4096 Mar 16 19:04 temp
$ sudo chown root file-1

[sudo] password for bob:
$ ls -l
total 4
-rw-rw-r--. 1 root bob 0 Mar 16 19:04 file-1
Example of chgrp
Now lets see an example of changing group ownership using chgrp:
The image on LHS shows the group with their permissions on 'file1'.
The image on RHS shows the change in groups and thier permissions on "file1"
$ sudo chgrp bin file-2
$ ls -l
total 4
-rw-rw-r--. 1 root bob 0 Mar 16 19:04 file-1
-rw-rw-r--. 1 bob bin 0 Mar 16 19:04 file-2
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Summary
You have completed this chapter. Let's summarize the key concepts covered.
Linux is a multiuser system.
To find the currently logged on users, you can use thewho command.
To find the current user ID, you can use the whoami command.
The root account has full access to the system. It is never sensible to grant full root access to a
user.
You can assign root privileges to regular user accounts on a temporary basis using
the sudo command.
The shell program (bash) uses multiple startup files to create the user environment. Each file
affects the interactive environment in a different way. /etc/profile provides the global settings.
Advantages of startup files include that they customize the user's prompt, set the user's terminal
type, set the command-line shortcuts and aliases, and set the default text editor, etc.
An environment variable is a character string that contains data used by one or more
applications. The built-in shell variables can be customized to suit your requirements.
The history command recalls a list of previous commands which can be edited and recycled.
In Linux, various keyboard shortcuts can be used at the command prompt instead of long
actual commands.
You can customize commands by creating aliases. Adding an alias to /.bashrc will make it
available for other shells.
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File permissions can be changed by typing chmod permissions filename.
File ownership is changed by typing chown owner filename.
File group ownership is changed by typing chgrp group filename.
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Chapter 8: Text Editors

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with:
How to create and edit files using the available Linux text editors.
nano, a simple text-based editor.
gedit, a simple graphical editor
vi and emacs, two advanced editors with both text-based and graphical interfaces.
8.1.
Basic Editors: nano and gedit
Overview of Text Editors in Linux

At some point you will need to manually edit text
files. You might be composing an email off-line,
writing a script to be used for bash or other
command interpreters, altering a system or
application configuration file, or developing
source code for a programming language such
as Cor Java.
Linux Administrators quite often sidestep the text

editors, by using graphical utilities for creating and modifying system configuration files.
However, this can be far more laborious than directly using a text editor. Note that word processing
applications such as Notepad or the applications that are part of office suites are not really basic text
editors because they add a lot of extra (usually invisible) formatting information that will probably
render system administration configuration files unusable for their intended purpose. So using text
editors really is essential in Linux.
By now you have certainly realized Linux is packed with choices; when it comes to text editors, there
are many choices ranging from quite simple to very complex, including:
- nano
- gedit
- vi
- emacs
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In this section, we will learn about nano and gedit; editors which are relatively simple and easy to
learn. Before we start, let's take a look at some cases where an editor is not needed.
Creating Files Without Using

an Editor
Sometimes you may want to create a
short file and don't want to bother
invoking a full text editor. In addition,
doing so can be quite useful when used
from within scripts, even when
creating longer files. You'll no doubt
find yourself using this method when
you start on the later chapters that
cover bash scripting!
If you want to create a file without

using an editor there are two standard
ways to create one from the command line and fill it with content.
The first is to use echo repeatedly:

$ echo line one > myfile
$ echo line two >> myfile
$ echo line three >> myfile
Earlier we learned that a single greater-than sign (>) will send the output of a command to a file. Two
greater-than signs ( >>) will append new output to an existing file.
The second way is to use cat combined with redirection:

$ cat << EOF > myfile
> line one
> line two
> line three
> EOF
$
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Both the above techniques produce a file with the following lines in it:
line one
line two
line three
and are extremely useful when employed by scripts.
nano and gedit

There are some text editors that are pretty obvious; they require no particular experience to learn and
are actually quite capable if not robust. One particularly easy one to use is the text-terminal based
editor nano. Just invoke nano by giving a file name as an argument. All the help you need is displayed
at the bottom of the screen, and you should be able to proceed without any problem.
As a graphical editor, gedit is part of the GNOME desktop system (kwrite is associated with KDE).
The gedit and kwrite editors are very easy to use and are extremely capable. They are also very
configurable. They look a lot like Notepad in Windows. Other variants such as keditand kate are also
supported by KDE.
nano
nano is easy to use, and requires very little effort to learn. To open a file in nano, type nano
<filename> and press Enter. If the file doesn't exist, it will be created.
nano provides a two line shortcut bar at the bottom of the screen that lists the available commands.
Some of these commands are:
CTRL-G: Display the help screen
CTRL-O: Write to a file
CTRL-X: Exit a file
CTRL-R: Insert contents from another file to the current buffer
CTRL-C: Cancels previous commands
gedit
gedit (pronounced 'g-edit') is a simple-to-use graphical editor that can only be run within a Graphical
Desktop environment. It is visually quite similar to the Notepad text editor in Windows, but is
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actually far more capable and very configurable and has a wealth of plugins available to extend its
capabilities further.
To open a new file in gedit, find the program in your desktop's menu system, or from the command
line type gedit <filename>. If the file doesn't exist it will be created.
Using gedit is pretty straight-forward and doesn't require much training. Its interface is composed of
quite familiar elements.
8.2.
More Advances Editors: vi and emacs
vi and emacs
Developers and administrators
experienced in working on UNIX-like
systems almost always use one of the
two venerable editing
options; vi andemacs. Both are present
or easily available on all distributions
and are completely compatible
with the versions available on other
operating systems.
Both vi and emacs have a basic purely text-based form that can run in a non-graphical environment.
They also have one or more X-based graphical forms with extended capabilities; these may be
friendlier for a less experienced user. While vi and emacs can have significantly steep learning curves
for new users, they are extremely efficient when one has learned how to use them.
You need to be aware that fights among seasoned users over which editor is better can be quite intense
and are often described as a holy war.
Introduction to vi
Usually the actual program installed on your system is vim which stands for vi Improved, and is
aliased to the name vi. The name is pronounced as vee-eye.
Even if you dont want to use vi, it is good to gain some familiarity with it: it is a standard tool
installed on virtually all Linux distributions. Indeed, there may be times where there is no other editor
available on the system.
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GNOME extends vi with a very graphical interface known as gvim and KDE offers kvim. Either of
these may be easier to use at first.
When using vi, all commands are entered through the keyboard; you dont need to keep moving your
hands to use a pointer device such as a mouse or touchpad, unless you want to do so when using one of
the graphical versions of the editor.
Mode
Command
Insert
Feature
By default, vi starts in Command mode.
Each key is an editor command.
Keyboard strokes are interpreted as commands that can modify file contents.
Type i to switch to Insert mode from Command mode.
Insert mode is used to enter (insert) text into a file.
Insert mode is indicated by an ? INSERT ? indicator at the bottom of the screen.
Press Esc to exit Insert mode and return to Command mode.
Type: to switch to the Line mode from Command mode. Each key is an external
Line
command, including operations such as writing the file contents to disk or exiting.
Uses line editing commands inherited from older line editors. Most of these commands
are actually no longer used. Some line editing commands are very powerful.
Press Esc to exit Line mode and return to Command mode.
vimtutor
Typing vimtutor launches a short but very comprehensive tutorial for those who want to learn their
first vi commands. This tutorial is a good place to start learning vi. Even though it provides only an
introduction and just seven lessons, it has enough material to make you a very proficient vi user
because it covers a large number of commands. After learning these basic ones, you can look up new
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tricks to incorporate into your list of vi commands because there are always more optimal ways to do
things in vi with less typing.
Modes in vi
vi provides three modes as described in the table below. It is vital to not lose track of which mode you
are in. Many keystrokes and commands behave quite differently in different modes.
Working with Files in vi

The table describes the most important commands used to start, exit, read, and write files in vi.
The ENTER key needs to be pressed after all of these commands.
Command
Usage
vi myfile
Start the vi editor and edit the myfile file
vi -r myfile
Start vi and edit myfile in recovery mode from a system

crash
:r file2
Read in file2 and insert at current position
:w
Write to the file
:w myfile
Write out the file to myfile
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:w! file2
Overwrite file2
:x or :wq
Exit vi and write out modified file
:q
Quit vi
:q!
Quit vi even though modifications have not been saved
Changing Cursor Positions in vi

The table describes the most important keystrokes used when changing cursor position in vi. Line
mode commands (those following colon (:)) require the ENTER key to be pressed after the command
is typed.
Key
Usage
arrow keys
To move up, down, left and right
j or <ret>
To move one line down
To move one line up
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h or Backspace
To move one character left
l or Space
To move one character right
To move to beginning of line
To move to end of line
To move to beginning of next word
:0 or 1G
To move to beginning of file
:n or nG
To move to line n
:$ or G
To move to last line in file
CTRL-F or Page Down
To move forward one page
CTRL-B or Page Up
To move backward one page
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^l
To refresh and center screen
Searching for Text in vi

The table describes the most important commands used when searching for text in vi.
The ENTER key should be pressed after typing the search pattern.
Command
Usage
/pattern
Search forward for pattern
?pattern
Search backward for pattern
The table describes the most important keystrokes used when searching for text in vi.
Key
Usage
Move to next occurrence of search pattern
Move to previous occurrence of search pattern
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Working with Text in vi

The table describes the most important keystrokes used when changing, adding, and deleting text in vi.
Key
Usage
Append text after cursor; stop upon Escape key
Append text at end of current line; stop upon Escape key
Insert text before cursor; stop upon Escape key
Insert text at beginning of current line; stop upon Escape key
Start a new line below current line, insert text there; stop upon Escape
key
Start a new line above current line, insert text there; stop upon Escape
key
Replace character at current position
Replace text starting with current position; stop upon Escape key
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Delete character at current position
Nx
Delete N characters, starting at current position
dw
Delete the word at the current position
Delete the rest of the current line
dd
Delete the current line
Ndd or dNd
Delete N lines
Undo the previous operation
yy
Yank (copy) the current line and put it in buffer
Nyy or yNy
Yank (copy) N lines and put it in buffer
Paste at the current position the yanked line or lines from the buffer.
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Using External Commands

Typing :sh command opens an external command shell. When you exit the shell, you will resume
your vi editing session.
Typing :!executes a command from within vi. The command follows the exclamation point. This
technique best suited for non-interactive commands such as:
:! wc %
Typing this will run the wc (word count) command on the file; the character % represents the file
currently being edited.
The fmt command does simple formatting of text. If you are editing a file and want the file to look
nice, you can run the file through fmt. One way to do this while editing is by using :%!fmt, which
runs the entire file (the % part) through fmt and replaces the file with the results.
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Introduction to emacs
The emacs editor is a popular competitor for vi. Unlike vi, it does not work with modes. emacs is
highly customizable and includes a large number of features. It was initially designed for use on a
console, but was soon adapted to work with a GUI as well. emacshas many other capabilities other
than simple text editing; it can be used for email, debugging, etc.
Rather
than
having
different
modes
for
command
and
insert,
likevi, emacs uses
the CTRL and Esc keys for special commands.
Working with emacs

The table lists some of the most important key combinations that are used when starting, exiting,
reading, and writing files inemacs.
Key
Usage
emacs myfile
Start emacs and edit myfile
CTRL-x i
Insert prompted for file at current position
CTRL-x s
Save all files
CTRL-x CTRL-w
Write to the file giving a new name when

prompted
CTRL-x CTRL-s
Saves the current file
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CTRL-x CTRL-c
Exit after being prompted to save any modified

files
The emacs tutorial is a good place to start learning basic emacs commands. It is available any time
when in emacs by simply typing CTRL-h (for help) and then the letter t for tutorial.
Changing Cursor Positions in emacs

The table lists some of the keys and key combinations that are used for changing cursor positions
in emacs.
Key
Usage
arrow keys
Use the arrow keys for up, down, left and right
CTRL-n
One line down
CTRL-p
One line up
CTRL-f
One character forward/right
CTRL-b
One character back/left
CTRL-a
Move to beginning of line
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CTRL-e
Move to end of line
Esc-f
Move to beginning of next word
Esc-b
Move back to beginning of preceding word
Esc-<
Move to beginning of file
Esc-x
Goto-line n move to line n
Esc->
Move to end of file
CTRL-v or Page Down
Move forward one page
Esc-v or Page Up
Move backward one page
CTRL-l
Refresh and center screen
Searching for Text in emacs

The table lists the key combinations that are used for searching for text in emacs.
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Key
Usage
CTRL-s
Search forward for prompted pattern, or for next pattern
CTRL-r
Search backwards for prompted pattern, or for next pattern
Working with Text in emacs

The table lists some of the key combinations used for changing, adding, and deleting text in emacs:
Key
Usage
CTRL-o
Insert a blank line
CTRL-d
Delete character at current position
CTRL-k
Delete the rest of the current line
CTRL-_
Undo the previous operation
CTRL- (space orCTRL-
Mark the beginning of the selected region. The end will be at the cursor
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@)
position
CTRL-w
Delete the current marked text and write it to the buffer
CTRL-y
Insert at current cursor location whatever was most recently deleted
Summary
Text editors (rather than word processing programs) are used quite often in Linux, for tasks such
as for creating or modifying system configuration files, writing scripts, developing source code,
etc.
nano is an easy-to-use text-based editor that utilizes on-screen prompts.
gedit is a graphical editor very similar to Notepad in Windows.
The vi editor is available on all Linux systems and is very widely used. Graphical extension
versions of vi are widely available as well.
emacs is available on all Linux systems as a popular alternative to vi. emacs can support both a
graphical user interface and a text mode interface.
To access the vi tutorial, type vimtutor at a command line window.
To access the emacs tutorial type Ctl-h and then t from within emacs.
vi has three modes: Command, Insert, and Line; emacs has only one but requires use of special
keys such as Control and Escape.
Both editors use various combinations of keystrokes to accomplish tasks; the learning curve to
master these can be long but once mastered using either editor is extremely efficient.
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Chapter- 9: Logical Security Principles

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should:
Have a good grasp of best practices and tools for making Linux systems as secure as possible.
Understand the powers and dangers of using the root (superuser) account.
Know how to use the sudo command to perform privileged operations while restricting enhanced
powers as much as feasible.
Be able to explain the importance of process isolation and hardware access.
Know how to work with passwords, including how to set and change them.
Describe how to secure the boot process and hardware resources.
9.1.
Understanding Linux Security
User Accounts
The Linux kernel allows properly authenticated users to access files and applications. While each user
is identified by a unique integer (the user id or UID), a separate database associates a username with
each UID. Upon account creation, new user information is added to the user database and the user's
home directory must be created and populated with some essential files. Command line programs such
as useradd and userdel as well as GUI tools are used for creating and removing accounts.
For each user, the following seven fields are maintained in the /etc/passwd file:
Field
Details
Remarks
Name
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Username
User login name
Should be between 1 and 32 characters long
Password
User password (or the character x if the
Is never shown in Linux when it is being
password is stored in the /etc/shadow file) in
typed; this stops prying eyes
encrypted format
User ID
Every user must have a user id (UID)
(UID)
UID 0 is reserved for root user
UID's ranging from 1-99 are reserved

for other predefined accounts
UID's ranging from 100-999 are

reserved for system accounts and
groups (except for RHEL, which
reserves only up to 499)
Normal users have UID's of 1000 or

greater, except on RHEL where they
start at 500
Group ID
The primary Group ID (GID); Group
Will be covered in detail in the chapter on
(GID)
Identification Number stored in
Processes
the /etc/group file
User Info
This field is optional and allows insertion of
For example: Rufus T. Firefly
extra information about the user such as

their name
Home
The absolute path location of user's home
Directory
directory
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For example: /home/rtfirefly
Shell
The absolute location of a
For example: /bin/bash
user's default shell
Types of Accounts
By default, Linux distinguishes
between several account types in order
to isolate processes and workloads.
Linux has four types of accounts:
root
System
Normal
Network
For a safe working environment, it is

advised to grant the minimum
privileges possible and necessary to
accounts, and remove inactive
accounts. The last utility, which shows
the last time each user logged into the system, can be used to help identify potentially inactive
accounts which are candidates for system removal.
Keep in mind that practices you use on multi-user business systems are more strict than practices you
can use on personal desktop systems that only affect the casual user. This is especially true with
security. We hope to show you practices applicable to enterprise servers that you can use on all
systems, but understand that you may choose to relax these rules on your own personal system.
Understanding the root Account
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root is the most privileged account on a Linux/UNIX system. This account has the ability to carry out
all facets of system administration, including adding accounts, changing user passwords, examining
log files, installing software, etc. Utmost care must be taken when using this account. It has no security
restrictions imposed upon it.
When you are signed in as, or acting as root, the shell prompt displays '#' (if you are using bash and
you havent customized the prompt as we discuss elsewhere in this course). This convention is
intended to serve as a warning to you of the absolute power of this account.
9.2.
Understanding the usage of the Root Account
Operations that Require root Privileges

root privileges are required to perform operations such as:
Creating, removing and managing user accounts.
Managing software packages.
Removing or modifying system files.
Restarting system services.
Regular account users of Linux distributions may be

allowed to install software packages, update some
settings, and apply various kinds of changes to the
system. However, root privilege is required for performing administration tasks such as restarting
services, manually installing packages and managing parts of the filesystem that are outside the normal
users directories.
Creating a New User in Linux
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To create a new user account:
1. At the command prompt, as root

type useradd <username>and
press the ENTER key.
2. To set the initial password,
type passwd <username> and
press the ENTER key. The New
password: prompt is displayed.
3. Enter the password and press
the ENTER key.
To confirm the password, the
prompt Retype new password: is
displayed.
4. Enter the password again and
press the ENTER key.
The message passwd: all authent
Operations That Do Not Require root Privileges

A regular account user can perform some operations requiring special permissions; however, the
system configuration must allow such abilities to be exercised.
SUID (Set owner User ID upon executionsimilar to the Windows "run as" feature) is a special kind
of file permission given to a file. SUID provides temporary permissions to a user to run a program
with the permissions of the file owner (which may be root) instead of the permissions held by the
user.
The table provides examples of operations which do not require root privileges:
Operations that do not require Root
Examples of this operation
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privilege
Running a network client
Sharing a file over the network
Using devices such as printers
Printing over the network
Operations on files that the user has
Accessing files that you have access to or sharing data over the
proper permissions to access
network
Running SUID-root applications
Executing programs such as passwd.
9.3.
Using Sudo, the Importance of Process Isolation, Limiting

Hardware Access and Hardware Resources
Comparing sudo and su

In Linux you can use either su or sudo to temporarily grant root access to a normal user; these
methods are actually quite different. Listed below are the differences between the two commands.
su
sudo
When elevating privilege, you need to enter
When elevating privilege, you need to enter the
the rootpassword. Giving the root password to a
users password and not the root password.
normal user should never, ever be done.
Once a user elevates to the root account
Offers more features and is considered more secure
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using su, the user can do anything that
and more configurable. Exactly what the user is
the root user can do for as long as the user wants,
allowed to do can be precisely controlled and
without being asked again for a password.
limited. By default the user will either always have

to keep giving their password to do further
operations with sudo, or can avoid doing so for a
configurable time interval.
The command has limited logging features.
The command has detailed logging features.
sudo Features
sudo has the ability to keep track of unsuccessful attempts at gaining root access. Users' authorization
for using sudo is based on configuration information stored in the /etc/sudoers file and in
the /etc/sudoers.d directory.
A message such as the following would appear in a system log file (usually /var/log/secure) when
trying to execute sudo bash without successfully authenticating the user:
authentication failure; logname=op uid=0 euid=0 tty=/dev/pts/6 ruser=op rhost= user=op
conversation failed
auth could not identify password for [op]
op : 1 incorrect password attempt ;
TTY=pts/6 ; PWD=/var/log ; USER=root ; COMMAND=/bin/bash
The sudoers File

Whenever sudo is invoked, a trigger will look at /etc/sudoers and the files in /etc/sudoers.d to
determine if the user has the right to use sudo and what the scope of their privilege is. Unknown user
requests and requests to do operations not allowed to the user even with sudo are reported. You can
edit the sudoers file by using visudo, which ensures that only one person is editing the file at a time,
has the proper permissions, and refuses to write out the file and exit if there is an error in the changes
made.
The basic structure of an entry is:

who where = (as_whom) what
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The file has a lot of documentation in it about how to customize. Most Linux distributions now prefer
you add a file in the directory /etc/sudoers.d with a name the same as the user. This file contains the
individual user's sudo configuration, and one should leave the master configuration file untouched
except for changes that affect all users.
Command Logging
By default, sudo commands and any
failures are logged in/var/log/auth.log under
the Debian distribution family, and
in /var/log/messages or /var/log/secure on
other systems. This is an important
safeguard to allow for tracking and
accountability of sudo use. A typical entry
of the message contains:
Calling username
Terminal info
Working directory
User account invoked
Command with arguments
Running a command such as sudo whoami results in a log file entry such as:
Dec 8 14:20:47 server1 sudo: op : TTY=pts/6 PWD=/var/log USER=root
COMMAND=/usr/bin/whoami
Process Isolation
Linux is considered to be more secure than many
other operating systems because processes are
naturally isolated from each other. One process
normally cannot access the resources of another
process, even when that process is running with the
same user privileges. Linux thus makes it difficult
(though certainly not impossible) for viruses and
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security exploits to access and attack random resources on a system.
Additional security mechanisms that have been recently introduced in order to make risks even smaller
are:
Control Groups (cgroups): Allows system administrators to group processes and associate finite
resources to each cgroup.
Linux Containers (LXC): Makes it possible to run multiple isolated Linux systems (containers)
on a single system by relying on cgroups.
Virtualization: Hardware is emulated in such a way that not only processes can be isolated, but
entire systems are run simultaneously as isolated and insulated guests (virtual machines) on one
physical host.
Hardware Device Access

Linux limits user access to non-networking hardware
devices in a manner that is extremely similar to
regular file access. Applications interact by engaging
the filesystem layer (which is independent of the
actual device or hardware the file resides on). This
layer will then opens a device special file (often
called a device node) under the /dev directory that
corresponds to the device being accessed. Each
device special file has standard owner, group and world permission fields. Security is naturally
enforced just as it is when standard files are accessed.
Hard disks, for example, are represented as /dev/sd*. While a root user can read and write to the disk
in a raw fashion (for example, by doing something like:
$ echo hello world > /dev/sda1
the standard permissions as shown in the figure make it impossible for regular users to do so. Writing
to a device in this fashion can easily obliterate the filesystem stored on it in a way that cannot be
repaired without great effort, if at all. The normal reading and writing of files on the hard disk by
applications is done at a higher level through the filesystem, and never through direct access to the
device node.
Keeping Current
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When security problems in either the Linux kernel or applications and libraries
are discovered, Linux distributions have a good record of reacting quickly and
pushing out fixes to all systems by updating their software repositories and
sending notifications to update immediately. The same thing is true with bug
fixes and performance improvements that are not security related.
However, it is well known that many systems do not get updated frequently
enough and problems which have already been cured are allowed to remain on computers for a long
time; this is particularly true with proprietary operating systems where users are either uninformed or
distrustful of the vendor's patching policy as sometimes updates can cause new problems and break
existing operations. Many of the most successful attack vectors come from exploiting security holes
for which fixes are already known but not universally deployed.
So the best practice is to take advantage of your Linux distribution's mechanism for automatic updates
and never postpone them. It is extremely rare that such an update will cause new problems.
9.4.
Working with Passwords
How Passwords are Stored

The system verifies authenticity and identity using user
credentials. Originally, encrypted passwords were stored in
the /etc/passwd file, which was readable by everyone. This
made it rather easy for passwords to be cracked. On modern
systems, passwords are actually stored in an encrypted format
in a secondary file named /etc/shadow. Only those with root
access can modify/read this file.
Password Encryption
Protecting passwords has become a crucial element of security. Most Linux distributions rely on a
modern password encryption algorithm called SHA-512 (Secure Hashing Algorithm 512 bits),
developed by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) to encrypt passwords.
The SHA-512 algorithm is widely used for security applications and protocols. These security
applications and protocols include TLS, SSL, PHP, SSH, S/MIME and IPSec. SHA-512 is one of the
most tested hashing algorithms.
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Good Password Practices

IT professionals follow several good practices for securing the data and the password of every user.
1. Password aging is a method to ensure that users get prompts that remind them to create a new
password after a specific period. This can ensure that passwords, if cracked, will only be usable
for a limited amount of time. This feature is implemented using chage, which configures the
password expiry information for a user.
2. Another method is to force users to set strong passwords using Pluggable Authentication
Modules (PAM). PAM can be configured to automatically verify that a password created or
modified using the passwd utility is sufficiently strong.PAM configuration is implemented using
a library calledpam_cracklib.so, which can also be replaced bypam_passwdqc.so for more
options.
3. One can also install password cracking programs, such as Jack The Ripper, to secure the
password file and detect weak password entries. It is recommended that written authorization be
obtained before installing such tools on any system that you do not own.
9.5.
Securing the Boot Process and Hardware Resources
Requiring Boot Loader Passwords

You can secure the boot process with a secure password
to prevent someone from bypassing the user
authentication step. For systems using the GRUB boot
loader, for the olderGRUB version 1, you can
invoke grub-md5-crypt which will prompt you for a
password and then encrypt as shown on the adjoining
screen.
You then must edit /boot/grub/grub.conf by adding the

following line below the timeout entry:
password --md5 $1$Wnvo.1$qz781HRVG4jUnJXmdSCZ30
You can also force passwords for only certain boot choices rather than all.
For the now more common GRUB version 2 things are more complicated, and you have more
flexibility and can do things like use user-specific passwords, which can be their normal login
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password. Also you never edit the configuration file,/boot/grub/grub.cfg, directly, rather you edit
system configuration files in /etc/grub.d and then run update-grub. One explanation of this can be
found at https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Grub2/Passwords.
Hardware Vulnerability
When hardware is physically accessible, security can be
compromised by:
Key logging: Recording the real time activity of a

computer user including the keys they press. The
captured data can either be stored locally or
transmitted to remote machines
Network sniffing: Capturing and viewing the network packet level data on your network
Booting with a live or rescue disk
Remounting and modifying disk content
Your IT security policy should start with requirements on how to properly secure physical access to
servers and workstations. Physical access to a system makes it possible for attackers to easily leverage
several attack vectors, in a way that makes all operating system level recommendations irrelevant.
The guidelines of security are:
Lock down workstations and servers
Protect your network links such that it cannot be accessed by people you do not trust
Protect your keyboards where passwords are entered to ensure the keyboards cannot be tampered
with
Ensure a password protects the BIOS in such a way that the system cannot be booted with a live
or rescue DVD or USB key
For single user computers and those in a home environment some of the above features (like
preventing booting from removable media) can be excessive, and you can avoid implementing them.
However, if sensitive information is on your system that requires careful protection, either it shouldn't
be there or it should be better protected by following the above guidelines.
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Summary
The root account has authority over the entire system.
root privileges may be required for tasks, such as restarting services, manually installing
packages and managing parts of the filesystem that are outside your home directory.
In order to perform any privileged operations such as system-wide changes, you need to use
either su or sudo.
Calls to sudo trigger a lookup in the /etc/sudoers file, or in the /etc/sudoers.d directory which
first validates that the calling user is allowed to use sudo and that it is being used within
permitted scope
One of the most powerful features of sudo is its ability to log unsuccessful attempts at gaining
root access. By default sudo commands and failures are logged in /var/log/auth.logunder
the Debian family and /var/log/messages in other distribution families.
One process cannot access another process resources, even when that process is running with
the same user privileges.
Using the user credentials, the system verifies the authenticity and identity.
The SHA-512 algorithm is typically used to encode passwords. They can be encrypted but not
decrypted.
Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM) can be configured to automatically verify that

passwords created or modified using thepasswd utility are strong enough (what is considered
strong enough can also be configured).
Your IT security policy should start with requirements on how to properly secure physical
access to servers and workstations.
Keeping your systems updated is an important step in avoiding security attacks.
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Chapter 10: Network Operations

Learning Objectives
Explain many basic networking concepts including types of networks and addressing issues.
Know how to configure network interfaces and use basic networking utilities, such
as ifconfig, ip, ping, route& traceroute.
Use graphical and non-graphical browsers, such as Lynx, w3m,Firefox, Chrome and Epiphany.
Transfer files to and from clients and servers using both graphical and text mode applications,
such as Filezilla, ftp, sftp, curl and wget.
10.1. Introduction to Networking

Introduction to Networking
A network is a group of computers and computing
devices connected together through communication
channels, such as cables or wireless media. The
computers connected over a network may be located in
the same geographical area or spread across the world.
A network is used to:
Allow the connected devices to communicate with each other.
Enable multiple users to share devices over the network, such as printers and scanners.
Share and manage information across computers easily.
Most organizations have both an internal network and an Internet connection for users to communicate
with machines and people outside the organization. The Internet is the largest network in the world
and is often called "the network of networks".
IP Addresses
Devices attached to a network must have at least one unique
network address identifier known as the IP (Internet
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Protocol) address. The address is essential for routing packetsof information through the network.
Exchanging information across the network requires using streams of bite-sized packets, each of which
contains a piece of the information going from one machine to another. These packets contain data
buffers together with headers which contain information about where the packet is going to and
coming from, and where it fits in the sequence of packets that constitute the stream. Networking
protocols and software are rather complicated due to the diversity of machines and operating systems
they must deal with, as well as the fact that even very old standards must be supported.
IPv4 and IPv6

There are two different types of IP addresses
available: IPv4 (version 4) and IPv6 (version
6). IPv4is older and by far the more widely used,
while IPv6is newer and is designed to get past the
limitations of the older standard and furnish many
more possible addresses.
IPv4 uses 32-bits for addresses; there are only 4.3 billion unique addresses available. Furthermore,
many addresses are allotted and reserved but not actually used. IPv4 is becoming inadequate because
the number of devices available on the global network has significantly increased over the past years.
IPv6 uses 128-bits for addresses; this allows for 3.4 X 1038 unique addresses. If you have a larger
network of computers and want to add more, you may want to move to IPv6, because it provides more
unique addresses. However, it is difficult to move to IPv6 as the two protocols do not inter-operate.
Due to this, migrating equipment and addresses to IPv6 requires significant effort and hasn't been as
fast as was originally intended.
Decoding IPv4 Addresses

A 32-bit IPv4 address is divided into four 8-bit sections called octets.
Example:
IP address
172 .
16 .
31 .
46
Bit format
10101100.00010000.00011111.00101110
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Network address are divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Classes A, B, and C are classified
into two parts:Network addresses (Net ID) and Host address (Host ID). The Net ID is used to
identify the network, while the Host ID is used to identify a host in the network. Class D is used for
special multicast applications (information is broadcast to multiple computers simultaneously) and
Class E is reserved for future use. In this section you will learn about classes A, B, and C.
Class A Network Addresses

Class A addresses use the first octet of an IP address
as their Net ID and use the other three octets as
the Host ID. The first bit of the first octet is always
set to zero. So you can use only 7-bits for unique
network numbers. As a result, there are a maximum of
127 Class A networks available. Not surprisingly, this
was only feasible when there were very few unique
networks with large numbers of hosts. As the use of
the Internet expanded, Classes B and C were added in
order to accomodate the growing demand for independent networks.
Each Class A network can have up to 16.7 million unique hosts on its network. The range of host
address is from 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
Note: The value of an octet, or 8-bits, can range from 0 to 255.
Class B Network Addresses

Class B addresses use the first two octets of the IP address as their Net ID and the last two octets as the
Host ID. The first two bits of the first octet are
always set to binary 10, so there are a maximum
of 16,384 (14-bits) Class B networks. The first
octet of a Class B address has values from 128
to 191. The introduction of Class B networks
expanded the number of networks but it soon
became clear that a further level would be
needed.
Each Class B network can support a maximum

of 65,536 unique hosts on its network. The range of host address is from 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255.
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Class C Network Addresses

Class C addresses use the first three
octets of the IP address as their Net ID
and the last octet as their Host ID. The
first three bits of the first octet are set to
binary 110, so almost 2.1 million (21bits) Class C networks are available. The
first octet of a Class C address has values
from 192 to 223. These are most common for smaller networks which don't have many unique hosts.
Each Class C network can support up to 256 (8-bits) unique hosts. The range of host address is from
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255.
IP Address Allocation
Typically, a range of IP addresses are requested
from your Internet Service Provider (ISP) by
your organization's network administrator. Often
your choice of which class of IP address you are
given depends on the size of your network and
expected growth needs.
You can assign IP addresses to computers over a network manually or dynamically. When you assign
IP addresses manually, you add static (never changing) addresses to the network. When you assign IP
addresses dynamically (they can change every time you reboot or even more often), theDynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is used to assign IP addresses.
Manually Allocating an IP Address

Before an IP address can be allocated manually, one must identify the size of the network by
determining the host range; this determines which network class (A, B, or C) can be used.
The ipcalc program can be used to ascertain the host range.
Note: The version of ipcalc supplied in the Fedora family of distributions does not behave as
described below, it is really a different program.
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Assume that you have a Class C network. The first three octets of the IP address are 192.168.0. As it
uses 3 octets (i.e. 24 bits) for the network mask, the shorthand for this type of address is
192.168.0.0/24. To determine the host range of the address you can use for this new host, at the
command prompt, type: ipcalc 192.168.0.0/24 and press Enter.
From the result, you can check the HostMin and HostMax values to manually assign a static address
available from 1 to 254 (192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.254).
Name Resolution
Name Resolution is used to
convert numerical IP address
values into a human-readable
format known as the hostname.
For example, 140.211.169.4 is the
numerical IP address that refers to
thelinuxfoundation.org hostnam
e. Hostnames are easier to remember.
Given an IP address, you can obtain its corresponding hostname. Accessing the machine over the
network becomes easier when you can type the hostname instead of the IP address.
You can view your systems hostname simply by typing hostname with no argument.
Note: If you give an argument, the system will try to change its hostname to match it, however,
only root users can do that.
The special hostname localhost is associated with the IP address 127.0.0.1, and describes the machine
you are currently on (which normally has additional network-related IP addresses).
Note: The next two screens cover the demonstration and T
Network Interfaces
Network interfaces are a connection channel between a device and a network. Physically, network
interfaces can proceed through anetwork interface card (NIC) or can be more abstractly
implemented as software. You can have multiple network interfaces operating at once. Specific
interfaces can be brought up (activated) or brought down (de-activated) at any time.
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A list of currently active network interfaces is reported by theifconfig utility which you may have to
run as the superuser, or at least, give the full path, i.e., /sbin/ifconfig, on some distributions.
Network Configuration Files

Network configuration files are essential to ensure that interfaces function correctly.
For Debian family configuration, the basic network configuration file is/etc/network/interfaces. You
can type /etc/init.d/networking start to start the networking configuration.
For Fedora family system configuration, the routing and host information is contained
in /etc/sysconfig/network. The network interface configuration script is located
at/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0.
For SUSE family system configuration, the routing and host information and network interface
configuration scripts are contained in the /etc/sysconfig/network directory.
You can type /etc/init.d/network start to start the networking configuration

for Fedora and SUSE families.
Network Configuration Commands

To view the IP address:
$ /sbin/ip addr show
To view the routing information:

$ /sbin/ip route show
ip is a very powerful program that can do many things. Older (and more specific) utilities such
as ifconfig and route are often used to accomplish similar tasks. A look at the relevant man pages can
tell you much more about these utilities.
ping
ping is used to check whether or not a machine
attached to the network can receive and send
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data; i.e., it confirms that the remote host is online and is responding.
To check the status of the remote host, at the command prompt, type ping <hostname>.
ping is frequently used for network testing and management; however, its usage can increase network
load unacceptably. Hence, you can abort the execution of ping by typing CTRL-C, or by using the c option, which limits the number of packets that ping will send before it quits. When execution stops,
a summary is displayed.
route
A network requires the connection of many nodes. Data moves from source to destination by passing
through a series of routers and potentially across multiple networks. Servers maintain routing
tables containing the addresses of each node in the network. TheIP Routing protocols enable routers
to build up a forwarding table that correlates final destinations with the next hop addresses.
route is used to view or change the IP routing table. You may want to change the IP routing table to
add, delete or modify specific (static ) routes to specific hosts or networks. The table explains some
commands that can be used to manage IP routing.
Task
Command
Show current routing table
$ route n
Add static route
$ route add -net address
Delete static route
$ route del -net address
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traceroute
traceroute is used to inspect the route which the data packet takes to reach the destination host which
makes it quite useful for troubleshooting network delays and errors. By using traceroute you can
isolate connectivity issues between hops, which helps resolve them faster.
To print the route taken by the packet to reach the network host, at the command prompt,
type traceroute <domain>.
More Networking Tools

Now, lets learn about some additional networking tools. Networking tools are very useful for
monitoring and debugging network problems, such as network connectivity and network traffic.
Networking Tools
ethtool
Description
Queries network interfaces and can also set various parameters such as the
speed.
netstat
Displays all active connections and routing tables. Useful for monitoring
performance and troubleshooting.
nmap
Scans open ports on a network. Important for security analysis
tcpdump
Dumps network traffic for analysis.
iptraf
Monitors network traffic in text mode.
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10.2. Browsers
Browsers are used to retrieve, transmit, and explore information resources, usually on the World
Wide Web. Linux users commonly use both graphical and non-graphical browser applications.
The common graphical browsers used in Linux are:
Firefox
Google Chrome
Chromium
Epiphany
Opera
Sometimes you either do not have a graphical environment to work in (or have reasons not to use it)
but still need to access web resources. In such a case, you can use non-graphical browsers such as the
following:
Non-Graphical Browsers
lynx
Description
Configurable text-based web browser; the earliest such browser and

still in use.
links or elinks
Based on lynx. It can display tables and frames.
w3m
Newer text-based web browser with many features.
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wget
Sometimes you need to download files and information but a browser is not the best choice, either
because you want to download multiple files and/or directories, or you want to perform the action
from a command line or a script. wget is a command line utility that can capably handle the following
types of downloads:
Large file downloads
Recursive downloads, where a web page refers to other web pages and all are downloaded at
once
Password-required downloads
Multiple file downloads
To download a webpage, you can simply type wget <url>, and then you can read the downloaded page
as a local file using a graphical or non-graphical browser.
curl
Besides downloading you may want to obtain information about a URL, such as the source code being
used. curl can be used from the command line or a script to read such information. curl also allows
you to save the contents of a web page to a file as does wget.
You can read a URL using curl <URL>. For example, if you want to
read http://www.linuxfoundation.org , type curlhttp://www.linuxfoundation.org.
To get the contents of a web page and store it to a file, type curl -o
saved.html http://www.mysite.com. The contents of the main index file at the website will be saved
in saved.html.
10.3. Transferring Files

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
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When you are connected to a network, you may need to transfer

files from one machine to another. File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) is a well-known and popular method for transferring files
between computers using the Internet. This method is built on
a client-server model. FTP can be used within a browser or with
standalone client programs.
FTP Clients
FTP clients enable you to transfer files with remote computers
using the FTP protocol. These clients can be either graphical
or command line tools.Filezilla, for example, allows use of the
drag-and-drop approach to transfer files between hosts. All
web browsers support FTP, all you have to do is give a URL
like : ftp://ftp.kernel.org where the usual http://becomes ftp://.
Some command line FTP clients are:
ftp
sftp
ncftp
yafc (Yet Another FTP Client)
sftp is a very secure mode of connection, which uses the Secure Shell (ssh) protocol, which we will
discuss shortly. sftpencrypts its data and thus sensitive information is transmitted more securely.
However, it does not work with so-called anonymous FTP (guest user credentials).
Both ncftp and yafc are also powerful FTP clients which work on a wide variety of operating systems
including Windows and Linux.
SSH: Executing Commands Remotely

Secure Shell (SSH) is a cryptographic network protocol used for
secure data communication. It is also used for remote services and
other secure services between two devices on the network and is very
useful for administering systems which are not easily available to
physically work on but to which you have remote access.
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To run my_command on a remote system via SSH, at the command prompt, type, ssh <remotesystem>
my_command and press Enter. ssh then prompts you for the remote password. You can also
configure ssh to securely allow your remote access without typing a password each time.
Copying Files Securely with scp
We can also move files securely using Secure Copy (scp) between two networked hosts. scp uses the
SSH protocol for transferring data.
To copy a local file to a remote system, at the command prompt, type scp <localfile>
<user@remotesystem>:/home/user/ and press Enter.
You will receive a prompt for the remote password. You can also configure scp so that it does not
prompt for a password for each transfer.
Summary
The IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique logical network address that is assigned to a
device on a network.
IPv4 uses 32-bits for addresses and IPv6 uses 128-bits for addresses.
Every IP address contains both a network and a host address field.
There are five classes of network addresses available: A, B, C, D & E.
DNS (Domain Name System) is used for converting Internet domain and host names to IP
addresses.
The ifconfig program is used to display current active network interfaces.
The commands ip addr show and ip route show can be used to view IP address and routing
information.
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You can use ping to check if the remote host is alive and responding.
You can use the route utility program to manage IP routing.
You can monitor and debug network problems using networking tools.
Firefox, Google Chrome, Chromium, and Epiphany are the main graphical browsers used
in Linux.
Non-graphical or text browsers used in Linux are Lynx, Links, andw3m.
You can use wget to download webpages.
You can use curl to obtain information about URL's.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer files over a network.
ftp, sftp, ncftp, and yafc are command line FTP clients used in Linux.
You can use ssh to run commands on remote systems.
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Chapter- 11: Manipulating Text

Learning Objectives
Display and append to file contents using cat and echo.
Edit and print file contents using sed and awk.
Search for patterns using grep.
Use multiple other utilities for file and text manipulation.
11.1. Cat and echo

Command Line Tools
Irrespective of the role you play with Linux (system administrator, developer, or user) you often need
to browse through and parse text files, and/or extract data from them. These are file
manipulationoperations. Thus it is essential for the Linux user to become adept at performing certain
operations on files.
Most of the time such file manipulation is done at the command linewhich allows users to perform
tasks more efficiently than while using a GUI. Furthermore the command line is more suitable for
automating often executed tasks.
Indeed, experienced system administrators write customized scripts to accomplish such repetitive
tasks, standardized for each particular environment. We will discuss such scripting later in much
detail.
In this section, we will concentrate on command line file and text manipulation related utilities.
cat
cat is short for concatenate and is one of the most frequently used Linux command line utilities. It is
often used to read and print files as well as for simply view ing file contents. To view a file, use the
following
command:
$ cat <filename>
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For example, cat readme.txt will display the contents of readme.txt on the terminal. Often the main
purpose ofcat, however, is to combine (concatenate) multiple files together. You can perform the
actions listed in the following table using cat:
Command
cat file1 file2
Usage
Concatenate multiple files and display the output; i.e., the entire content of the
first file is followed by that of the second file.
cat file1 file2 > newfile
Combine multiple files and save the output into a new file.
cat file >> existingfile
Append a file to the end of an existing file.
cat > file
Any subsequent lines typed will go into the file until CTRL-D is typed.
cat >> file
Any subsequent lines are appended to the file until CTRL-D is typed.
The tac command (cat spelled backwards) prints the lines of a file in reverse order. (Each line remains
the same but the order of lines is inverted.) The syntax of tac is exactly the same as for cat as in:
$ tac file
$ tac file1 file2 > newfile
Using cat Interactively
143
cat can be used to read from standard input (such as the terminal window) if no files are specified.
You can use the > operator to create and add lines into a new file, and the >> operator to append lines
(or files) to an existing file.
To create a new file, at the command prompt type cat > <filename> and press the Enter key.
This command creates a new file and waits for the user to edit/enter the text. After you finish typing
the required text, press CTRL-D at the beginning of the next line to save and exit the editing.
Another way to create a file at the terminal is cat > <filename> << EOF. A new file is created and you
can type the required input. To exit, enter EOF at the beginning of a line.
Note that EOF is case sensitive. (One can also use another word, such as STOP.)
echo
echo simply displays (echoes) text. It is used simply as in:
$ echo string
echo can be used to display a string on standard output (i.e., the terminal) or to place in a new file
(using the > operator) or append to an already existing file (using the >> operator).
The e option along with the following switches is used to enable special character sequences, such as
the newline character or horizontal tab.
\n represents newline
\t represents horizontal tab
echo is particularly useful for viewing the values of environment variables (built-in shell variables).
For example, echo $USERNAME will print the name of the user who has logged into the current
terminal.
The following table lists echo commands and their usage:
Command
Usage
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echo string > newfile
The specified string is placed in a new file.
echo string >> existingfile
The specified string is appended to the end of an already existing

file.
echo $variable
The contents of the specified environment variable are displayed.
11.2. Sed and awk

Introduction to sed and awk
It is very common to create and then repeatedly edit and/or extract contents from a file. Lets learn
how to use sed and awk to easily perform such operations.
Note that many Linux users and administrators will write scripts using more comprehensive language
utilities such as python andperl, rather than use sed and awk (and some other utilities we'll discuss
later.) Using such utilities is certainly fine in most circumstances; one should always feel free to use
the tools one is experienced with. However, the utilities that are described here are much lighter; i.e.,
they use fewer system resources, and execute faster. There are times (such as during booting the
system) where a lot of time would be wasted using the more complicated tools, and the system may
not even be able to run them. So the simpler tools will always be needed.
sed
sed is a powerful text processing tool and is
one of the oldest earliest and most popular
UNIX utilities. It is used to modify the
contents of a file, usually placing the contents
into a new file. Its name is an abbreviation
for stream editor.
sed can filter text as well as perform substitutions in data streams, working like a churn-mill.
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Data from an input source/file (or stream) is taken and moved to a working space. The entire list of
operations/modifications is applied over the data in the working space and the final contents are
moved to the standard output space (or stream).
sed Command Syntax

You can invoke sed using commands like those listed in the following table:
Command
Usage
sed -e command <filename>

Specify editing commands at the command line, operate on file and
put the output on standard out (e.g., the terminal)
sed -f scriptfile <filename>
Specify a scriptfile containing sed commands, operate on file and put

output on standard out.
The -e command option allows you to specify multiple editing commands simultaneously at the
command line.
sed Basic Operations

Now that you know that you can perform multiple editing and filtering operations with sed, lets
explain some of them in more detail. The table explains some basic operations, where pattern is the
current string and replace_string is the new string:
Command
Usage
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sed s/pattern/replace_string/ file
Substitute first string occurrence in a line
sed s/pattern/replace_string/g file
Substitute all string occurrences in a line
sed 1,3s/pattern/replace_string/g file
Substitute all string occurrences in a range of lines
sed -i s/pattern/replace_string/g file
Save changes for string substitution in the same file
You must use the -i option with care, because the action is not reversible. It is always safer to
use sed without the i option and then replace the file yourself, as shown in the following example:
$ sed s/pattern/replace_string/g file > file2
The above command will replace all occurrences of pattern with replace_string in file1 and move the
contents tofile2. The contents of file2 can be viewed with cat file2. If you approve you can then
overwrite the original file with mv file2 file1.
Example: To convert 01/02/ to JAN/FEB/
sed -e 's/01/JAN/' -e 's/02/FEB/' -e 's/03/MAR/' -e 's/04/APR/' -e 's/05/MAY/' \
-e 's/06/JUN/' -e 's/07/JUL/' -e 's/08/AUG/' -e 's/09/SEP/' -e 's/10/OCT/' \
-e 's/11/NOV/' -e 's/12/DEC/'
awk
awk is used to extract and then print specific contents of a file and is often used to construct reports. It
was created at Bell Labs in the 1970s and derived its name from the last names of its authors:
Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and BrianKernighan.
awk has the following features:
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It is a powerful utility and interpreted programming language.
It is used to manipulate data files, retrieving, and processing text.
It works well with fields (containing a single piece of data, essentially a column) and records (a
collection of fields, essentially a line in a file).
awk is invoked as shown in the following:
Command
Usage
awk command var=value file
Specify a command directly at the command line
awk -f scriptfile var=value file
Specify a file that contains the script to be executed along with f
As with sed, short awk commands can be specified directly at the command line, but a more complex
script can be saved in a file that you can specify using the -f option.
awk Basic Operations

The table explains the basic tasks that can be performed using awk. The input file is read one line at a
time, and for each line,awk matches the given pattern in the given order and performs the requested
action. The -F option allows you to specify a particular field separator character. For example,
the /etc/passwd file uses : to separate the fields, so the -F: option is used with the /etc/passwd file.
The command/action in awk needs to be surrounded with apostrophes (or single-quote (')). awk can be
used as follows:
Command
Usage
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awk '{ print $0 }' /etc/passwd
Print entire file
awk -F: '{ print $1 }' /etc/passwd
Print first field (column) of every line, separated by a space
awk -F: '{ print $1 $6 }' /etc/passwd
Print first and sixth field of every line
11.3. File Manipulation Utilities

File Manipulation Utilities
In managing your files you may need to perform many tasks, such as sorting data and copying data
from one location to another. Linux provides several file manipulation utilities that you can use while
working with text files. In this section, you will learn about the following file manipulation programs:
sort
uniq
paste
join
split
You will also learn about regular expressions and search patterns.
sort
sort is used to rearrange the lines of a text file either in ascending or descending order, according to a
sort key. You can also sort by particular fields of a file. The default sort key is the order of the ASCII
characters (i.e., essentially alphabetically).
sort can be used as follows:
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Syntax
Usage
sort <filename>
Sort the lines in the specified file
cat file1 file2 | sort
Append the two files, then sort the lines and display the output on the terminal
sort -r <filename>
Sort the lines in reverse order
When used with the -u option, sort checks for unique values after sorting the records (lines).
uniq
uniq is used to remove duplicate lines in a text file and is useful for simplifying text
display. uniq requires that the duplicate entries to be removed are consecutive. Therefore one often
runs sort first and then pipes the output
into uniq; if sort is passed the -uoption it can do all
this in one step. In the example shown, the file is
called names and was originally Ted, Bob, Alice, Bob,
Carol, Alice.
To remove duplicate entries from some files, use the
following command: sort file1 file2 | uniq > file3
OR
sort -u file1 file2 > file3
To count the number of duplicate entries, use the following command: uniq -c filename
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paste
Suppose you have a file that contains the full name of all employees and another file that lists their
phone numbers and Employee IDs. You want to create a new file that contains all the data listed in
three columns: name, employee ID, and phone number. How can you do this effectively without
investing too much time?
paste can be used to create a single file containing all three columns. The different columns are
identified based on delimiters (spacing used to separate two fields). For example, delimiters can be a
blank space, a tab, or an Enter. In the image provided, a single space is used as the delimiter in all
files.
paste accepts the following options:
-d delimiters, which specify a list of delimiters to be used instead of tabs for separating
consecutive values on a single line. Each delimiter is used in turn; when the list has been
exhausted, paste begins again at the first delimiter.
-s, which causes paste to append the data in series rather than in parallel; that is, in a horizontal
rather than vertical fashion.
Using paste
paste can be used to combine fields (such as name or
phone number) from different files as well as combine
lines from multiple files. For example, line one from
file1 can be combined with line one of file2, line two
from file1 can be combined with line two of file2, and so
on.
To paste contents from two files one can do:
$ paste file1 file2
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The syntax to use a different delimiter is as follows:

$ paste -d, file1 file2
Common delimiters are 'space', 'tab', '|', 'comma', etc.
Click the image to view an enlarged version.
Join
Suppose you have two files with some similar columns. You have saved employees phone numbers in
two files, one with their first name and the other with their last name. You want to combine the files
without repeating the data of common columns. How do you achieve this?
The above task can be achieved using join, which is essentially an enhanced version of paste. It first
checks whether the files share common fields, such as names or phone numbers, and then joins the
lines in two files based on a common field.
Using join
To combine two files on a common field, at
the command prompt type join file1
file2 and press the Enter key.
For example, the common field (i.e., it

contains the same values) among the phonebook and directory files is the phone number, as shown by
the output of the following cat commands:
$ cat phonebook
555-123-4567 Bob
555-231-3325 Carol
555-340-5678 Ted
555-289-6193 Alice
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$ cat directory
555-123-4567 Anytown
555-231-3325 Mytown
555-340-5678 Yourtown
555-289-6193 Youngstown
The result of joining these two file is as shown in the output of the following command:
$ join phonebook directory
555-123-4567 Bob Anytown
555-231-3325 Carol Mytown
555-340-5678 Ted Yourtown
555-289-6193 Alice Youngstown
split
split is used to break up (or split) a file into equal-sized
segments for easier viewing and manipulation, and is
generally used only on relatively large files. By
default split breaks up a file into 1,000-line segments.
The original file remains unchanged, and set of new
files with the same name plus an added prefix is created. By default, the x prefix is added. To split a
file into segments, use the command split infile.
To split a file into segments using a different prefix, use the command split infile <Prefix>.
Using split
To demonstrate the use of split, we'll apply
it to an american-english dictionary file of
over 99,000 lines:
$ wc -l american-english
99171 american-english
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where we have used the wc program (soon to be discussed) to report on the number of lines in the file.
Then typing:
$ split american-english dictionary
will split the american-english file into equal-sized segments named 'dictionary'.
$ ls -l dictionary*
-rw-rw-r 1 me me 8552 Mar 23 20:19 dictionaryab
-rw-rw-r 1 me me 8653 Mar 23 20:19 dictionaryaa
Regular Expressions and Search Patterns

Regular expressions are text strings used for matching a specific pattern, or to search for a specific
location, such as the start or end of a line or a word. Regular expressions can contain both normal
characters or so-called metacharacters, such as * and $.
Many text editors and utilities such as vi, sed, awk, find and grep work extensively with regular
expressions.
Some
of
the
popular
computer
languages
that
use
regular
expressions
include Perl, Python and Ruby. It can get rather complicated and there are whole books written about
regular expressions; we'll only skim the surface here.
These regular expressions are different from the wildcards (or "metacharacters") used in filename
matching in command shells such as bash (which were covered in the earlier Chapter on Command
Line Operations). The table lists search patterns and their usage.
Search Patterns
.(dot)
Usage
Match any single character
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a|z
Match a or z
Match end of string
Match preceding item 0 or more times
Using Regular Expressions and Search Patterns

For example, Consider the following sentence:
the quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog
Some of the patterns that can be applied to this sentence are as follows:
Command
Usage
a..
matches azy
b.|j.
matches both br and ju
..$
matches og
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l.*
matches lazy dog
l.*y
matches lazy
the.*
matches the whole sentence
11.4. Grep
grep
grep is extensively used as a primary text searching tool. It scans files for specified patterns and can
be used with regular expressions as well as simple strings as shown in the table.
Command
Usage
grep [pattern] <filename>
Search for a pattern in a file and print all matching lines
grep -v [pattern] <filename>
Print all lines that do not match the pattern
grep [0-9] <filename>
Print the lines that contain the numbers 0 through 9
grep -C 3 [pattern] <filename>
Print context of lines (specified number of lines above and
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below the pattern) for matching the pattern. Here the number of
lines is specified as 3.
11.5. Miscellaneous Text Utilities

tr
In this section, you will learn about some additional text utilities that you can use for performing
various actions on your Linux files, such as changing the case of letters or determining the count of
words, lines, and characters in a file.
The tr utility is used to translate specified characters into other characters or to delete them. The
general syntax is as follows:
$ tr [options] set1 [set2]
The items in the square brackets are optional. tr requires at least one argument and accepts a
maximum of two. The first, designated set1 in the example, lists the characters in the text to be
replaced or removed. The second, set2, lists the characters that are to be substituted for the characters
listed in the first argument. Sometimes these sets need to be surrounded by apostrophes (or singlequotes (')) in order to have the shell ignore that they mean something special to the shell. It is usually
safe (and may be required) to use the single-quotes around each of the sets as you will see in the
examples below.
For example, suppose you have a file named city containing several lines of text in mixed case. To
translate all lower case characters to upper case, at the command prompt type cat city | tr a-z A-Z and
press the Enter key.
Command
$ tr abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Usage
Convert lower case to upper case
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST UVWXYZ
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$ tr '{}' '()' < inputfile > outputfile
Translate braces into parenthesis
$ echo "This is for testing" | tr [:space:] '\t'
Translate white-space to tabs
$ echo "This is for
Squeeze repetition of characters using -s
testing" | tr -s [:space:]
$ echo "the geek stuff" | tr -d 't'
Delete specified characters using -d option
$ echo "my username is 432234" | tr -cd [:digit:]
Complement the sets using -c option
$ tr -cd [:print:] < file.txt
Remove all non-printable character from a file
$ tr -s '\n' ' ' < file.txt
Join all the lines in a file into a single line
tee
tee takes the output from any command, and while sending it to standard output, it also saves it to a
file. In other words, it "tees"the output stream from the command: one stream is displayed on the
standard output and the other is saved to a file.
For example, to list the contents of a directory on the screen and save the output to a file, at the
command prompt type ls -l | tee newfile and press the Enter key.
Typing cat newfile will then display the output of ls l.
wc
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wc (word count) counts the number of lines, words, and characters in a file or list of files. Options are
given in the table below.
By default all three of these options are active.
For example, to print the number of lines contained

in a file, at the command prompt type wc -l
filename and press the Enter key.
Description
display the number of lines.
display the number of bytes.
display the number of words.
cut
cut is used for manipulating column-based files and is
designed to extract specific columns. The default column
separator is thetab character. A different delimiter can be
given as a command option.
For example, to display the third column delimited by a

blank space, at the command prompt type ls -l | cut -d" " f3and press the Enter key.
11.6. Dealing with Large Files and Text Related Utilities

Working with Large Files
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System administrators need to work with configuration files, text files, documentation files, and log
files. Some of these files may be large or become quite large as
they accumulate data with time. These files will require both
viewing and administrative updating. In this section, you will learn
how to manage such large files.
For example, a banking system might maintain one simple large
log file to record details of all of one day's ATM transactions. Due
to a security attack or a malfunction, the administrator might be
forced to check for some data by navigating within the file. In such
cases, directly opening the file in an editor will cause issues, due to high memory utilization, as an
editor will usually try to read the whole file into memory first. However, one can use less to view the
contents of such a large file, scrolling up and down page by page without the system having to place
the entire file in memory before starting. This is much faster than using a text editor.
Viewing the file can be done by typing either of the two following commands:
$ less <filename>
$ cat <filename> | less
By default, manual (i.e., the man command) pages are sent through the less command.
head
head reads the first few lines of each named file (10 by
default) and displays it on standard output. You can give a
different number of lines in an option.
For example, If you want to print the first 5 lines

fromatmtrans.txt, use the following command:
$ head n 5 atmtrans.txt
(You can also just say head -5 atmtrans.txt.)
tail
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tail prints the last few lines of each named file and displays it on standard output. By default, it
displays the last 10 lines. You can give a different number of lines as an option. tail is especially
useful when you are troubleshooting any issue using log files as you probably want to see the most
recent lines of output.
For example, to display the last 15 lines of atmtrans.txt, use the following command:
$ tail -n 15 atmtrans.txt
(You can also just say tail -15 atmtrans.txt.) To continually monitor new output in a growing log file:
$ tail -f atmtrans.txt
This command will continuously display any new lines of output in atmtrans.txt as soon as they
appear. Thus it enables you to monitor any current activity that is being reported and recorded.
strings
strings is used to extract all printable character
strings found in the file or files given as arguments.
It is useful in locating human readable content
embedded in binary files: for text files one can just
use grep.
For example, to search for the string my_string in a

spreadsheet:
$ strings book1.xls | grep my_string
The z Command Family

When working with compressed files many standard commands can not be used directly. For many
commonly-used file and text manipulation programs there is also a version especially designed to
work directly with compressed files. These associated utilities have the letter z prefixed to their name.
For example, we have utility programs such as zcat, zless,zdiff, and zgrep.
Here is a table listing some z family commands:
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Command
Description
$ zcat compressed-file.txt.gz
To view a compressed file
$ zless <filename>.gz
To page through a compressed file
or
$ zmore <filename>.gz
$ zgrep -i less test-file.txt.gz
To search inside a compressed file
$ zdiff filename1.txt.gz
To compare two compressed files
filename2.txt.gz
Note that if you run zless on an uncompressed file, it will still work and ignore the
decompression stage. There are also equivalent utility programs for other compression methods
besides gzip; i.e, we have bzcat and bzless associated withbzip2, and xzcat and xzless associated
with xz.
Summary
The command line often allows the users to perform tasks more efficiently than the GUI.
cat, short for concatenate, is used to read, print and combine files.
echo displays a line of text either on standard output or to place in a file.
sed is a popular stream editor often used to filter and perform substitutions on files and text data
streams.
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awk is a interpreted programming language typically used as a data extraction and reporting tool.
sort is used to sort text files and output streams in either ascending or descending order.
uniq eliminates duplicate entries in a text file.
paste combines fields from different files and can also extract and combine lines from
multiple sources.
join combines lines from two files based on a common field. It works only if files share a
common field.
split breaks up a large file into equal-sized segments.
Regular expressions are text strings used for pattern matching. The pattern can be used to
search for a specific location, such as the start or end of a line or a word.
grep searches text files and data streams for patterns and can be used with regular
expressions.
tr translates characters, copies standard input to standard output, and handles special
characters.
tee accepts saves a copy of standard output to a file while still displaying at the terminal.
wc (word count) displays the number of lines, words and characters in a file or group of files.
cut extracts columns from a file.
less views files a page at a time and allows scrolling in both directions.
head displays the first few lines of a file or data stream on standard output. By default it
displays 10 lines.
tail displays the last few lines of a file or data stream on standard output. By default it
displays 10 lines.
strings extracts printable character strings from binary files.
The z command family is used to read and work with compressed files.
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Chapter 12: Printing

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should know how to:
Configure a printer on a Linux machine
Print documents.
Manipulate postscript and pdf files using command line utilities.
12.1. Configuration
Introduction to Printing
To manage printers and print directly from a
computer or across a networked environment,
you need to know how to configure and install a
printer. Printing itself requires software that
converts information from the application you
are using to a language your printer can
understand. The Linux standard for printing
software is the Common UNIX Printing
System (CUPS).
CUPS Overview
CUPS is the software that is used behind the scenes to print from
applications like a web browser or LibreOffice. It converts page
descriptions produced by your application (put a paragraph here, draw a line
there, and so forth) and then sends the information to the printer. It acts as
a print server for local as well as network printers.
Printers manufactured by different companies may use their own particular
print languages and formats. CUPS uses a modular printing system which
accommodates a wide variety of printers and also processes various data
formats. This makes the printing process simpler; you can concentrate more on printing and less on
how to print.
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Generally, the only time you should need to configure your printer is when you use it for the first time.
In fact, CUPS often figures things out on its own by detecting and configuring any printers it locates.
How Does CUPS Work?

CUPS carries out the printing process with the help of its various components:
Configuration Files
Scheduler
Job Files
Log Files
Filter
Printer Drivers
Backend
You will learn about each of these components in detail in the next few screens.
Scheduler
CUPS is designed around a print scheduler that manages print jobs, handles administrative
commands, allows users to query the printer
status, and manages the flow of data through
all CUPScomponents.
As you'll see shortly, CUPS has a browser-based

interface which allows you to view and
manipulate the order and status of pending print
jobs.
Configuration Files
The print scheduler reads server settings from several configuration files, the two most important of
which are cupsd.conf andprinters.conf. These and all other CUPS related configuration files are stored
under the /etc/cups/ directory.
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cupsd.conf is where most system-wide settings are located; it does not contain any printer-specific
details. Most of the settings available in this file relate to network security, i.e. which systems can
accessCUPS network capabilities, how printers are advertised on the local network, what management
features are offered, and so on.
printers.conf is where you will find the printer-specific settings. For every printer connected to the
system, a corresponding section describes the printers status and capabilities. This file is generated
only after adding a printer to the system and should not be modified by hand.
You can view the full list of configuration files by typing: ls -l /etc/cups/
Job Files
CUPS stores print requests as files under
the/var/spool/cups directory (these can actually be
accessed before a document is sent to a printer). Data files
are prefixed with the letter d while control files are
prefixed with the letter c. After a printer successfully
handles a job, data files are automatically removed. These
data files belong to what is commonly known as the print
queue.
Log Files
Log files are placed in /var/log/cups and are used by the scheduler to record activities that have taken
place. These files include access, error, and page records.
To view what log files exist, type:

sudo ls -l /var/log/cups
Filters, Printer Drivers, and Backends
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CUPS uses filters to convert job file

formats to printable formats.
Printer drivers contain descriptions for
currently connected and configured
printers, and are usually stored
under /etc/cups/ppd/. The print data is
then sent to the printer through a filter
and via a backend that helps to locate
devices connected to the system.
So In short, when you execute a print

command, the scheduler validates the command and processes the print job creating job files
according to the settings specified in configuration files. Simultaneously, the scheduler records
activities in the log files. Job files are processed with the help of the filter, printer driver, and backend,
and then sent to the printer.
Installing CUPS
Due to printing being a relatively important and fundamental feature of any Linux distribution, most
Linux systems come with CUPS preinstalled. In some cases, especially for Linux server
setups, CUPS may have been left uninstalled. This may be fixed by installing the corresponding
package manually. To install CUPS, please ensure that your system is connected to the Internet.
Demonstration of Installing CUPS

You can use the commands shown below to manually install CUPS:
- CentOS: $ sudo yum install cups

- OpenSUSE: $ sudo zypper install cups
- Ubuntu: $ sudo apt-get install cups
Managing CUPS
After installing CUPS, you'll need to start and manage the CUPS daemon so that CUPS is ready for
configuring a printer. Managing the CUPS daemon is simple; all management features are wrapped
around the cups init script, which can be easily started, stopped, and restarted.
Configuring a Printer from the GUI

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Each Linux distribution has a GUI application that lets you add, remove, and configure local or remote
printers. Using this application, you can easily set up the system to use both local and network printers.
The following screens show how to find and use the appropriate application in each of the distribution
families covered in this course.
When configuring a printer, make sure the device is currently turned on and connected to the system;
if so it should show up in the printer selection menu. If the printer is not visible, you may want to
troubleshoot using tools that will determine if the printer is connected. For common USB printers, for
example, thelsusb utility will show a line for the printer. Some printer manufacturers also require
some extra software to be installed in order to make the printer visible to CUPS, however, due to the
standardization these days, this is rarely required.
Adding Printers from the CUPS Web Interface

A fact that few people know is that CUPS also comes with its own web server, which makes a
configuration interface available via a set of CGI scripts.
This web interface allows you to:
Add and remove local/remote printers
Configure printers:
Local/remote printers
Share a printer as a CUPS server
Control print jobs:

Monitor jobs
Show completed or pending jobs
Cancel or move jobs
The CUPS web interface is available on your browser at: http://localhost:631
Some pages require a username and password to perform certain actions, for example to add a printer.
For most Linux distributions, you must use the root password to add, modify, or delete printers or
classes.
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12.2. Printing Operations

Many graphical applications allow users to access printing features using the CTRL-P shortcut. To
print a file, you first need to specify the printer (or a file name and location if you are printing to a file
instead) you want to use; and then select the page setup, quality, and color options. After selecting the
required options, you can submit the document for printing. The document is then submitted to CUPS.
You can use your browser to access the CUPS web interface at http://localhost:631/ to monitor the
status of the printing job. Now that you have configured the printer, you can print using either the
Graphical or Command Line interfaces.
The screenshots below show the GUI interfaces for CTRL-P for (from left to
right) CentOS, Ubuntu and openSUSE.
Printing from the Command-Line Interface

CUPS provides two command-line interfaces, descended from the System V and BSD flavors of
UNIX. This means that you can use either lp (System
V) or lpr (BSD) to print. You can use these commands
to print text, PostScript, PDF, and image files.
These commands are useful in cases where printing
operations must be automated (from shell scripts, for
instance, which contain multiple commands in one file).
You will learn more about the shell scripts in the
upcoming chapters on bash scripts.
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lp is just a command line front-end to the lpr utility that passes input to lpr. Thus, we will discuss
only lp in detail. In the example shown here, the task is to print the file called test1.txt.
Using lp
lp and lpr accept command line options that help you perform all operations that the GUI
can accomplish.lp is typically used with a file name as an argument.
Some lp commands and other printing utilities you can use are listed in the table.
Command
Usage
lp <filename>
To print the file to default printer
lp -d printer <filename>
To print to a specific printer (useful if

multiple printers are available)
program | lp
To print the output of a program
echo string | lp
lp -n number <filename>
To print multiple copies
lpoptions -d printer
To set the default printer
lpq -a
To show the queue status
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lpadmin
To configure printer queues
The lpoptions utility can be used to set printer options and defaults. Each printer has a set
of tags associated with it, such as the default number of copies and authentication requirements. You
can execute the command lpoptions help to obtain a list of supported options. lpoptions can also be
used to set system-wide values, such as the default printer.
Managing Print Jobs

You send a file to the shared printer. But when you go there to collect the printout, you discover
another user has just started a 200 page job that is not time sensitive. Your file cannot be printed until
this print job is complete. What do you do now?
In Linux, command line print job management commands allow you to monitor the job state as well as
managing the listing of all printers and checking their status, and cancelling or moving print jobs to
another printer.
Some of these commands are listed in the table.
Command
Usage
lpstat -p -d
To get a list of available printers, along with their status
lpstat -a
To check the status of all connected printers, including job

numbers
cancel job-id
To cancel a print job
OR
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lprm job-id
lpmove job-id newprinter
To move a print job to new printer
12.3. Manipulating Postscripts and PDF Files

Working with PostScript
PostScript is a standard page description language. It
effectively manages scaling of fonts and vector graphics to
provide quality printouts. It is purely a text format that
contains the data fed to a PostScript interpreter. The format
itself is a language that was developed by Adobein the early
1980s to enable the transfer of data to printers.
Features of PostScript are:
It can be used on any printer that is PostScript-compatible; i.e., any modern printer
Any program that understands the PostScript specification can print to it
Information about page appearance, etc. is embedded in the page
Working with enscript
enscript is a tool that is used to convert a text file to PostScript and other formats. It also
supports Rich Text Format (RTF)and HyperText Markup Language (HTML). For
example, you can convert a text file to two column (-2) formatted PostScript using the
command: enscript -2 -r -p psfile.ps textfile.txt. This command will also rotate (-r) the output
to print so the width of the paper is greater than the height (aka landscape mode) thereby
reducing the number of pages required for printing.
The commands that can be used with enscript are listed in the table below (for a file called
'textfile.txt').
Command
Usage
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enscript -p psfile.ps
Convert a text file to PostScript (saved to
textfile.txt
psfile.ps)
enscript -n -p psfile.ps
Convert a text file to n columns where n=1-9
textfile.txt
(saved in psfile.ps)
enscript textfile.txt
Print a text file directly to the default printer
Viewing PDF Content

Linux has many standard programs that can read PDF files as well as many applications that can easily
create them, including all available office suites such as LibreOffice.
The most common Linux PDF readers are:
1. Evince is available on virtually all distributions and the most widely used program.
2. Okular is based on the older kpdf and available on any distribution that provides
the KDE environment.
3. GhostView is one of the first open source PDF readers and is universally available.
4. Xpdf is one of the oldest open source PDF readers and still has a good user base.
All of these open source PDF readers support and can read files following the PostScript standard
unlike the proprietary Adobe Acrobat Reader, which was once widely used on Linux systems but
with the growth of these excellent programs, very few Linux users use it today.
Modifying PDFs with pdftk

At times, you may want to merge, split, or rotate PDF files; not all of these operations can be achieved
while using a PDF viewer. A great way to do this is to use the "PDF Toolkit", pdftk, to perform a
very large variety of sophisticated tasks. Some of these operations include:
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Merging/Splitting/Rotating PDF documents
Repairing corrupted PDF pages
Pulling single pages from a file
Encrypting and decrypting PDF files
Adding, updating, and exporting a PDFs metadata
Exporting bookmarks to a text file
Filling out PDF forms
In short, theres very little pdftk cannot do when it comes to working with PDF files; it is indeed the
Swiss Army knife of PDF tools.
Installing pdftk on Different Family Systems

To install pdftk on Ubuntu, use the following command:
$ sudo apt-get install pdftk
On CentOS:
$ sudo yum install pdftk
On openSUSE:
$ sudo zypper install pdftk
You may find that CentOS (and RHEL) don't have pdftk in their packaging system, but you can
obtain the PDF Toolkit directly from the PDF Labs website by downloading from:
http://www.pdflabs.com/docs/install-pdftk-on-redhat-or-centos/
Using pdftk
You can accomplish a wide variety of tasks using pdftk including:
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Command
Usage
pdftk 1.pdf 2.pdf cat output
Merge the two documents 1.pdf and 2.pdf. The output will
12.pdf
be saved to 12.pdf.
pdftk A=1.pdf cat A1-2
Write only pages 1 and 2 of 1.pdf. The output will be
output new.pdf
saved to new.pdf.
pdftk A=1.pdf cat A1-
Rotate all pages of 1.pdf 90 degrees clockwise and save
endright output new.pdf
result in new.pdf.
Encrypting PDF Files

If youre working with PDF files that contain confidential information and you want to ensure that
only certain people can view the PDF file, you can apply a password to it using the user_pw option.
One can do this by issuing a command such as:
$ pdftk public.pdf output private.pdf user_pw PROMPT
When you run this command, you will receive a prompt to set the required password, which can have a
maximum of 32 characters. A new file, private.pdf, will be created with the identical content
as public.pdf, but anyone will need to type the password to be able to view it.
Using Additional Tools

You can use other tools, such aspdfinfo, flpsed,
and pdfmod to work with PDF files.
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pdfinfo can extract information about PDF files, especially when the files are very large or when a
graphical interface is not available.
flpsed can add data to a PostScript document. This tool is specifically useful for filling in forms or
adding short comments into the document.
pdfmod is a simple application that provides a graphical interface for modifying PDF documents.
Using this tool, you can reorder, rotate, and remove pages; export images from a document; edit the
title, subject, and author; add keywords; and combine documents using drag-and-drop action.
Converting Between PostScript and PDF

Most users today are far more accustomed to working with files in PDF format, viewing them easily
either on the Internet through their browser or locally on their machine. The PostScript format is still
important for various technical reasons that the general user will rarely have to deal with.
From time to time you may need to convert files from one format to the other, and there are very
simple utilities for accomplishing that task. ps2pdf and pdf2ps are part of the ghostscript package
installed
on
or
available
on
all
Linux
distributions.
As
an
alternative,
there
are pstopdf and pdftops which are usually part of the poppler package which may need to be added
through your package manager. Unless you are doing a lot of conversions or need some of the fancier
options (which you can read about in the man pages for these utilities) it really doesn't matter which
ones you use.
Some usage examples:
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Command
Usage
pdf2ps file.pdf
Converts file.pdf to file.ps
ps2pdf file.ps
Convertsfile.ps to file.pdf
pstopdf input.ps output.pdf
Converts input.ps to output.pdf
pdftops input.pdf output.pdf
Converts input.pdf to output.ps
Summary
CUPS provides two command-line interfaces: the System V andBSD interfaces.
The CUPS interface is available at http://localhost:631
lp and lpr are used to submit a document to CUPS directly from the command line.
lpoptions can be used to set printer options and defaults.
PostScript effectively manages scaling of fonts and vector graphics to provide quality prints.
enscript is used to convert a text file to PostScript and other formats.
Portable Document Format (PDF) is the standard format used to exchange documents while
ensuring a certain level of consistency in the way the documents are viewed.
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pdftk joins and splits PDFs; pulls single pages from a file; encrypts and decrypts PDF files;
adds, updates, and exports a PDFs metadata; exports bookmarks to a text file; adds or
removes attachments to a PDF; fixes a damaged PDF; and fills out PDF forms.
pdfinfo can extract information about PDF documents.
flpsed can add data to a PostScript document.
pdfmod is a simple application with a graphical interface that you can use to modify PDF
documents.
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Chapter 13: Bash Shell Scripting

Learning Objectives
Explain the features and capabilities of bash shell scripting.
Know the basic syntax of scripting statements.
Be familiar with various methods and constructs used.
Know how to test for properties and existence of files and other objects.
Use conditional statements, such as if-then-else blocks.
Perform arithmetic operations using scripting language.
13.1. Features and Capabilities

Introduction to Scripts
Suppose you want to look up a
filename, check if the associated file
exists, and then respond accordingly,
displaying a message confirming or
not confirming the file's existence. If
you only need to do it once, you can
just type a sequence of commands at a
terminal. However, if you need to do
this multiple times, automation is the
way to go. In order to automate sets of
commands youll need to learn how to
write shell scripts, the most common of which are used with bash. The graphic illustrates several of
the benefits of deploying scripts.
Introduction to Shell Scripts

Remember from our earlier discussion, a shell is a command lineinterpreter which provides the user
interface for terminal windows. It can also be used to run scripts, even in non-interactive sessions
without a terminal window, as if the commands were being directly typed in. For example typing: find
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. -name "*.c" -ls at the command line accomplishes the same thing as executing a script file containing
the lines:
#!/bin/bash
find . -name "*.c" -ls
The #!/bin/bash in the first line should be recognized by anyone who has developed any kind of script
in UNIX environments. The first line of the script, that starts with #!, contains the full path of the
command interpreter (in this case /bin/bash) that is to be used on the file. As we will see on the next
screen, you have a few choices depending upon which scripting language you use.
Command Shell Choices

The command interpreter is tasked with executing statements that follow it in the script. Commonly
used interpreters
include:/usr/bin/perl, /bin/bash, /bin/csh,/usr/bin/python an
d /bin/sh.
Typing a long sequence of commands at a terminal window

can be complicated, time consuming, and error prone. By
deploying shell scripts, using the command-line becomes
an efficient and quick way to launch complex sequences of
steps. The fact that shell scripts are saved in a file also
makes it easy to use them to create new script variations and share standard procedures with several
users.
Linux provides a wide choice of shells; exactly what is available on the system is listed in /etc/shells.
Typical choices are:
/bin/sh
/bin/bash
/bin/tcsh
/bin/csh
/bin/ksh
Most Linux users use the default bash shell, but those with long UNIX backgrounds with other shells
may want to override the default.
bash Scripts
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Let's write a simple bash script that displays a two-line message

on the screen. Either type
$ cat > exscript.sh

#!/bin/bash
echo "HELLO"
echo "WORLD"
and press ENTER and CTRL-D to save the file, or just

createexscript.sh in your favorite text editor. Then, type chmod +x exscript.sh to make the file
executable. (The chmod +xcommand makes the file executable for all users.) You can then run it by
simply typing ./exscript.sh or by doing:
$ bash exscript.sh
HELLO
WORLD
Note if you use the second form, you don't have to make the file executable.
Interactive Example Using bash Scripts

Now, let's see how to create a more interactive example
using a bash script. The user will be prompted to enter a
value, which is then displayed on the screen. The value
is stored in a temporary variable,sname. We can
reference the value of a shell variable by using a $ in
front of the variable name, such as $sname. To create
this script, you need to create a file named ioscript.sh in
your favorite editor with the following content:
#!/bin/bash
# Interactive reading of variables
echo "ENTER YOUR NAME"
read sname
# Display of variable values
echo $sname
Once again, make it executable by doing chmod +x ioscript.sh.
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In the above example, when the script ./ioscript.sh is executed, the user will receive a prompt ENTER
YOUR NAME. The user then needs to enter a value and press the Enter key. The value will then be
printed out.
Additional note: The hash-tag/pound-sign/number-sign (#) is used to start comments in the script and
can be placed anywhere in the line (the rest of the line is considered a comment).
Return Values
All shell scripts generate a return value upon
finishing execution; the value can be set with
the exit statement. Return values permit a process to
monitor the exit state of another process often in a
parent-child relationship. This helps to determine
how this process terminated and take any appropriate steps necessary, contingent on success or failure.
Viewing Return Values

As a script executes, one can check for a specific
value or condition and return success or failure as
the result. By convention, success is returned as
0, and failure is returned as a non-zero value. An
easy way to demonstrate success and failure
completion is to execute ls on a file that exists
and one that doesn't, as shown in the following
example, where the return value is stored in the
environment variable represented by $?:
$ ls /etc/passwd
/etc/ passwd
$ echo $?
0
In this example, the system is able to locate the file /etc/passwd and returns a value of 0 to indicate
success; the return value is always stored in the $? environment variable. Applications often translate
these return values into meaningful messages easily understood by the user.
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13.2. Syntax
Basic Syntax and Special Characters
Scripts require you to follow a standard language syntax. Rules delineate how to define variables and
how to construct and format allowed statements, etc. The table lists some special character usages
within bash scripts:
Character
Description
Used to add a comment, except when used as \#, or

as #! when starting a script
Used at the end of a line to indicate continuation on to

the next line
Used to interpret what follows as a new command
Indicates what follows is a variable
Note that when # is inserted at the beginning of a line of commentary, the whole line is ignored.
# This line will not get executed.
Splitting Long Commands Over Multiple Lines

Users sometimes need to combine several commands and statements and even conditionally execute
them based on the behavior of operators used in between them.
This method is called chaining of commands.
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The concatenation operator (\) is used to concatenate large commands over several lines in the shell.
For example, you want to copy the

file /var/ftp/pub/userdata/custdata/read from server1.linux.com to
the/opt/oradba/master/abc directory on server3.linux.co.in. To perform this action, you can write
the command using the \ operator as:
scp [email protected]:\
/var/ftp/pub/userdata/custdata/read \
[email protected]:\
/opt/oradba/master/abc/
The command is divided into multiple lines to make it look readable and easier to understand. The \
operator at the end of each line combines the commands from multiple lines and executes it as one
single command.
Putting Multiple Commands on a Single Line

Sometimes you may want to group multiple commands on a single line. The ; (semicolon) character is
used to separate these commands and execute them sequentially as if they had been typed on separate
lines.
The three commands in the following example will all execute even
if the ones preceding them fail:
$ make ; make install ; make clean
However, you may want to abort subsequent commands if one fails. You can do this using
the && (and) operator as in:
$ make && make install && make clean
If the first command fails the second one will never be executed. A final refinement is to use the || (or)
operator as in:
$ cat file1 || cat file2 || cat file3
In this case, you proceed until something succeeds and then you stop executing any further steps.
Functions
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A function is a code block that implements a set of operations. Functions are useful for executing
procedures multiple times perhaps with varying input variables. Functions are also often
called subroutines. Using functions in scripts requires two steps:
1. Declaring a function
2. Calling a function
The function declaration requires a name which is used to invoke it. The proper syntax is:
function_name () {
command...
}
For example, the following function is named display:
display () {
echo "This is a sample function"
}
The function can be as long as desired and have many statements. Once defined, the function can be
called later as many times as necessary. In the full example shown in the figure, we are also showing
an often-used refinement: how to pass an argument to the function. The first argument can be referred
to as $1, the second as $2, etc.
Built-in Shell Commands

Shell scripts are used to execute sequences of
commands and other types of statements.
Commands can be divided into the following
categories:
Compiled applications
Built-in bash commands
Other scripts
Compiled applications are binary executable files that you can find on the filesystem. The shell script
always has access to compiled applications such as rm, ls, df, vi, andgzip.
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bash has many built-in commands which can only be used to display the output within a terminal
shell or shell script. Sometimes these commands have the same name as executable programs on the
system, such as echo which can lead to subtle problems. bash built-in commands include
and cd, pwd, echo, read, logout, printf, let, and ulimit.
A complete list of bash built-in commands can be found in the bash man page, or by simply
typing help.
Command Substitution
At times, you may need to substitute the result of a command as a portion of another command. It can
be done in two ways:
By enclosing the inner command with backticks (`)
By enclosing the inner command in $( )
No matter the method, the innermost command will be executed in a newly launched shell
environment, and the standard output of the shell will be inserted where the command substitution was
done.
Virtually any command can be executed this way. Both of these methods enable command
substitution; however, the $( )method allows command nesting. New scripts should always use this
more modern method. For example:
$ cd /lib/modules/$(uname -r)/
In the above example, the output of the command "uname r" becomes the argument for
the cd command.
Environment Variables
Almost all scripts
use variables containing a value, which
can be used anywhere in the script. These
variables can either be user or system
defined. Many applications use
such environment variables (covered in
the "User Environment" chapter) for
186
supplying inputs, validation, and controlling behaviour.
Some examples of standard environment variables areHOME, PATH, and HOST. When referenced,
environment variables must be prefixed with the $ symbol as in $HOME. You can view and set the
value of environment variables. For example, the following command displays the value stored in
the PATH variable:
$ echo $PATH
However, no prefix is required when setting or modifying the variable value. For example, the
following command sets the value of the MYCOLOR variable to blue:
$ MYCOLOR=blue
You can get a list of environment variables with the env, set, or printenv commands.
Exporting Variables
By default, the variables created within a script are available only to the subsequent steps of that script.
Any child processes (sub-shells) do not have automatic access to the values of these variables. To
make them available to child processes, they must be promoted to environment variables using
the export statement as in:
export VAR=value
or
VAR=value ; export VAR

While child processes are allowed to modify the value of exported variables, the parent will not see
any changes; exported variables are not shared, but only copied.
Script Parameters
Users often need to pass parameter values to a script, such as a filename, date, etc. Scripts will take
different paths or arrive at different values according to the parameters (command arguments) that are
passed to them. These values can be text or numbers as in:
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$ ./script.sh /tmp
$ ./script.sh 100 200
Within a script, the parameter or an argument is represented with a $ and a number. The table lists
some of these parameters.
Parameter
Meaning
$0
Script name
$1
First parameter
$2, $3, etc.
Second, third parameter, etc.
$*
All parameters
$#
Number of arguments
Using Script Parameters

Using your favorite text editor, create a new script file namedscript3.sh with the following contents:
#!/bin/bash
echo The name of this program is: $0
echo The first argument passed from the command line is: $1
echo The second argument passed from the command line is: $2
echo The third argument passed from the command line is: $3
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echo All of the arguments passed from the command line are : $*
echo
echo All done with $0
Make the script executable with chmod +x. Run the script giving it three arguments as in: script3.sh
one two three, and the script is processed as follows:
$0 prints the script name: script3.sh

$1 prints the first parameter: one
$2 prints the second parameter: two
$3 prints the third parameter: three
$* prints all parameters: one two three
The final statement becomes: All done with script3.sh
Output Redirection
Most operating systems accept input from the keyboard and display the output on the terminal.
However, in shell scripting you can send the output to a file. The process of diverting the output to a
file is called output redirection.
The > character is used to write output to a file. For example, the following command sends the output
of free to the file/tmp/free.out:
$ free > /tmp/free.out
To check the contents of the /tmp/free.out file, at the command prompt type cat /tmp/free.out.
Two > characters (>>) will append output to a file if it exists, and act just like > if the file does not
already exist.
Input Redirection
Just as the output can be redirected to a file, the input of a command can be read from a file. The
process of reading input from a file is called input redirection and uses the < character. If you create a
file called script8.sh with the following contents:
#!/bin/bash
echo Line count
wc -l < /temp/free.out
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and then execute it with chmod +x script8.sh ; ./script8.sh, it will count the number of lines from
the/temp/free.out file and display the results.
13.3. Constructs
The if Statement
Conditional decision making using an if statement, is a basic construct
that any useful programming or scripting language must have.
When an if statement is used, the ensuing actions depend on the evaluation of specified conditions
such as:
Numerical or string comparisons
Return value of a command (0 for success)
File existence or permissions
In compact form, the syntax of an if statement is:

if TEST-COMMANDS; then CONSEQUENT-COMMANDS; fi
A more general definition is:
if condition
then
statements
else
statements
fi
Using the if Statement

The following if statement checks for the /etc/passwd file, and if the file is found it displays the
message
/etc/passwd exists.:
if [ -f /etc/passwd ]
then
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echo "/etc/passwd exists."

fi
Notice the use of the square brackets ([]) to delineate the test condition. There are many other kinds of
tests you can perform, such as checking whether two numbers are equal to, greater than, or less than
each other and make a decision accordingly; we will discuss these other tests.
In modern scripts you may see doubled brackets as in[[ -f /etc/passwd ]]. This is not an error. It is
never wrong to do so and it avoids some subtle problems such as referring to an empty environment
variable without surrounding it in double quotes; we won't talk about this here.
Testing for Files

You can use the if statement to test for file attributes such as:
File or directory existence
Read or write permission
Executable permission
For example, in the following example:

if [ -f /etc/passwd ] ; then
ACTION
fi
the if statement checks if the file /etc/passwd is a regular file.

Note the very common practice of putting ; then on the same line as the if statement.
bash provides a set of file conditionals, that can used with the if statement, including:
Condition
-e file
Meaning
Check if the file exists.
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-d file
Check if the file is a directory.
-f file
Check if the file is a regular file (i.e., not a symbolic link, device
node, directory, etc.)
-s file
Check if the file is of non-zero size.
-g file
Check if the file has sgid set.
-u file
Check if the file has suid set.
-r file
Check if the file is readable.
-w file
Check if the file is writable.
-x file
Check if the file is executable.
You can view the full list of file conditions using the command man 1 test.
Example of Testing of Strings

You can use the if statement to compare strings using the operator == (two equal signs). The syntax is
as follows:
192
if [ string1 == string2 ] ; then

ACTION
fi
Lets now consider an example of testing strings.
In the example illustrated here, the if statement is used to compare the input provided by the user and
accordingly display the result.
Numerical Tests
You can use specially defined operators with the if statement to compare numbers. The various
operators that are available are listed in the table.
Operator
Meaning
-eq
Equal to
-ne
Not equal to
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-gt
Greater than
-lt
Less than
-ge
Greater than or equal to
-le
Less than or equal to
The syntax for comparing numbers is as follows:

exp1 -op exp2
Example of Testing for Numbers

Let us now consider an example of comparing numbers using the various operators:
Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expressions can be evaluated in the following
three ways (spaces are important!):
Using the expr utility: expr is a standard but

somewhat deprecated program. The syntax is as
follows:
expr 8 + 8
echo $(expr 8 + 8)
Using the $((...)) syntax: This is the built-in shell format. The syntax is as follows:
echo $((x+1))
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Using the built-in shell command let. The syntax is as follows:
let x=( 1 + 2 ); echo $x

In modern shell scripts the use of expr is better replaced with var=$((...))
Summary
Scripts are a sequence of statements and commands stored in a file that can be executed by a
shell. The most commonly used shell in Linux is bash.
Command substitution allows you to substitute the result of a command as a portion of another
command.
Functions or routines are a group of commands that are used for execution.
Environmental variables are quantities either pre-assigned by the shell or defined and modified
by the user.
To make environment variables visible to child processes, they need to be exported.
Scripts can behave differently based on the parameters (values) passed to them.
The process of writing the output to a file is called output redirection.
The process of reading input from a file is called input redirection.
The if statement is used to select an action based on a condition.
Arithmetic expressions consist of numbers and arithmetic operators, such as +, -, and *.
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Chapter 14: Advanced Bash Scripting

Learning Objectives
Manipulate strings to perform actions such as comparison and sorting.
Use Boolean expressions when working with multiple data types including strings or numbers as
well as files.
Use case statements to handle command line options.
Use looping constructs to execute one or more lines of code repetitively.
Debug scripts using set -x and set +x.
Create temporary files and directories.
Create and use random numbers.
14.1. String Manipulation

String Manipulation
Lets go deeper and find out how to work with strings in scripts.
A string variable contains a sequence of text characters. It can include letters, numbers, symbols and
punctuation marks. Some examples: abcde, 123, abcde 123, abcde-123, &acbde=%123
String operators include those that do comparison, sorting, and finding the length. The following table
demonstrates the use of some basic string operators.
Operator
Meaning
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[ string1 > string2 ]
Compares the sorting order of string1 and

string2.
[ string1 == string2 ]
Compares the characters in string1 with the

characters in string2.
myLen1=${#mystring1}
Saves the length of string1 in the variable

myLen1.
Example of String Manipulation
In the first example, we compare the first string with the second string and display an appropriate
message using the if statement.
In the second example, we pass in a file name and see if that file exists in the current directory or not.
Parts of a String
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At times, you may not need to compare or use an entire string. To extract the first character of a string
we can specify:
${string:0:1} Here 0 is the offset in the string (i.e., which

character to begin from) where the extraction needs to start and
1 is the number of characters to be extracted.
To extract all characters in a string after a dot (.), use the

following expression: ${string#*.}
14.2. Boolean Expressions

Boolean expressions evaluate to either TRUE or FALSE, and results are obtained using the various
Boolean operators listed in the table.
Operator
&&
Operation
Meaning
AND
The action will be performed only if both the

conditions evaluate to true.
||
OR
The action will be performed if any one of the

conditions evaluate to true.
NOT
The action will be performed only if the

condition evaluates to false.
Tests in Boolean Expressions
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Boolean expressions return either TRUE or FALSE. We can use such expressions when working with
multiple data types including strings or numbers as well as with files. For example, to check if a file
exists, use the following conditional test:
[ -e <filename> ]
Similarly, to check if the value of number1 is greater than the value of number2, use the following
conditional test:
[ $number1 -gt $number2 ]

The operator -gt returns TRUE if number1 is greater thannumber2.
Example of Using Ope rators
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14.3. Case Statement

The case Statement
The case statement is used in scenarios where the actual value of a variable can lead to different
execution paths. case statements are often used
to handle command-line options.
Below are some of the advantages of using

the case statement:
It is easier to read and write.
It is a good alternative to nested, multilevel if-then-else-fi code blocks.
It enables you to compare a variable against several values at once.
It reduces the complexity of a program.
Structure of the case Statement

Here is the basic structure of the case statement:
case expression in
pattern1) execute commands;;
*)
execute some default commands or nothing ;;
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Example of the case Statement
14.4. Looping Constructs

Looping Constructs
By using looping constructs, you can execute one or more lines of code repetitively. Usually you do
this until a conditional test returns either true or false as is required.
Three type of loops are often used in most programming languages:
for
while
until
All these loops are easily used for repeating a set of statements until the
exit condition is true.
The 'for' Loop

The for loop operates on each element of a list of items. The syntax for the for loop is:
for variable-name in list
do
201
execute one iteration for each item in the

list until the list is finished
done
In this case, variable-name and list are substituted by you as appropriate (see examples). As with other
looping constructs, the statements that are repeated should be enclosed by do and done.
The while Loop

The while loop repeats a set of statements as long as the control command returns true. The syntax is:
while condition is true

do
Commands for execution
---done
The set of commands that need to be repeated should be enclosed between do and done. You can use
any command or operator as the condition. Often it is enclosed within square brackets ([]).
The until loop

The until loop repeats a set of statements as long as the control command is false. Thus it is essentially
the opposite of the whileloop. The syntax is:
until condition is false

do
Commands for execution
---done
Similar to the while loop, the set of commands that need to be repeated should be enclosed
between do and done. You can use any command or operator as the condition.
14.5. Script Debugging

Introduction to Script Debugging
202
While working with scripts and commands, you may run into errors. These may be due to an error in
the script, such as incorrect syntax, or other ingredients such as a missing file or insufficient
permission to do an operation. These errors may be reported with a specific error code, but often just
yield incorrect or confusing output. So how do you go about identifying and fixing an error?
Debugging helps you troubleshoot and resolve such errors, and is one of the most important tasks a
system administrator performs.
More About Script Debugging

Before fixing an error (or bug), it is vital to know its source.
In bash shell scripting, you can run a script in debug mode by doing bash x ./script_file. Debug
mode helps identify the error because:
It traces and prefixes each command with the + character.
It displays each command before executing it.
It can debug only selected parts of a script (if desired) with:

set -x
# turns on debugging
...
set +x
# turns off debugging
Redirecting Errors to File and Screen

In UNIX/Linux, all programs that run are given three open file streams when they are started as listed
in the table:
File
Description
stream
stdin
File
Descriptor
Standard Input, by default the keyboard/terminal for

programs run from the command line
203
stdout
Standard output, by default the screen for programs run
from the command line
stderr
Standard error, where output error messages are shown or
saved
Using redirection we can save the stdout and stderr output streams to one file or two separate files for
later analysis after a program or command is executed
14.6. Some Additional Useful Techniques

Creating Temporary Files and Directories
Consider a situation where you want to retrieve 100 records from a file with 10,000 records. You will
need a place to store the extracted information, perhaps in a temporary file, while you do further
processing on it.
Temporary files (and directories) are meant to store data for a short time. Usually one arranges it so
that these files disappear when the program using them terminates. While you can also use touch to
create a temporary file, this may make it easy for hackers to gain access to your data.
The best practice is to create random and unpredictable filenames for temporary storage. One way to
do this is with the mktemp utility as in these examples:
The XXXXXXXX is replaced by the mktemp utility with random characters to ensure the name of the
temporary file cannot be easily predicted and is only known within your program.
Command
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Usage
TEMP=$(mktemp /tmp/tempfile.XXXXXXXX)
To create a temporary file
To create a temporary
TEMPDIR=$(mktemp -d
directory
/tmp/tempdir.XXXXXXXX)
Example of Creating a Temporary File and Directory
First, the danger: If someone creates a symbolic link from a known temporary file used by root to
the /etc/passwd file, like this:
$ ln -s /etc/passwd /tmp/tempfile
There could be a big problem if a script run by root has a line in like this:
echo $VAR > /tmp/tempfile
The password file will be overwritten by the temporary file contents.
To prevent such a situation make sure you randomize your temporary filenames by replacing the
above line with the following lines:
TEMP=$(mktemp /tmp/tempfile.XXXXXXXX)
echo $VAR > $TEMP
Discarding Output with /dev/null

Certain commands like find will produce voluminous amounts of output which can overwhelm the
console. To avoid this, we can redirect the large output to a special file (a device node)
called/dev/null. This file is also called the bit bucket or black hole.
It discards all data that gets written to it and never returns a failure on write operations. Using the
proper redirection operators, it can make the output disappear from commands that would normally
generate output to stdout and/or stderr:
205
$ find / > /dev/null

In the above command, the entire standard output stream is ignored, but any errors will still appear on
the console.
Random Numbers and Data

It is often useful to generate random numbers and other random data when performing tasks such as:
Performing security-related tasks.
Reinitializing storage devices.
Erasing and/or obscuring existing data.
Generating meaningless data to be used for tests.
Such random numbers can be generated by using the $RANDOM environment variable, which is
derived from the Linux kernels built-in random number generator, or by the OpenSSL library
function, which uses the FIPS140 algorithm to generate random numbers for encryption
How the Kernel Generates Random Numbers

Some servers have hardware random number generators that take as input different types of noise
signals, such as thermal noise and photoelectric effect. A transducer converts this noise into an
electric signal, which is again converted into a digital number by an A-D converter. This number is
considered random. However, most common computers do not contain such specialized hardware and
instead rely on events created during booting to create the raw data needed.
Regardless of which of these two sources is used, the system maintains a so-called entropy pool of
these digital numbers/random bits. Random numbers are created from this entropy pool.
The Linux kernel offers the /dev/random and /dev/urandom device nodes which draw on the entropy
pool to provide random numbers which are drawn from the estimated number of bits of noise in the
entropy pool.
/dev/random is used where very high quality randomness is required, such as one-time pad or key
generation, but it is relatively slow to provide vaules.
enough) for most cryptographic purposes.
206
/dev/urandom is faster and suitable (good
Furthermore, when the entropy pool is empty, /dev/random is blocked and does not generate any
number until additional environmental noise (network traffic, mouse movement, etc.) is gathered
whereas /dev/urandom reuses the internal pool to produce more pseudo-random bits.
Summary
You can manipulate strings to perform actions such as comparison, sorting, and finding length.
You can use Boolean expressions when working with multiple data types including strings or
numbers as well as files.
The output of a Boolean expression is either true or false.
Operators used in Boolean expressions include the && (AND), ||(OR), and ! (NOT) operators.
We looked at the advantages of using case statement in scenarios where the value of a
variable can lead to different execution paths.
Script debugging methods help troubleshoot and resolve errors.
The standard and error outputs from a script or shell commands can easily be redirected into
the same file or separate files to aid in debugging and saving results
Linux allows you to create temporary files and directories, which store data for a short
duration, both saving space and increasing security.
Linux provides several different ways of generating random numbers, which are widely used.
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Chapter 15: Processes

Learning Objectives
Describe what a process is and distinguish between types of processes.
Enumerate process attributes.
Manage processes using ps and top.
Understand the use of load averages and other process metrics.
Manipulate processes by putting them in background and restoring them to foreground.
Use at, cron, and sleep to schedule processes in the future or pause them.
15.1. Introduction to Processes and Process Attributes

What Is a Process?
A process is simply an instance of one or more related tasks (threads) executing on your computer. It
is not the same as aprogram or a command; a single program may actually start several processes
simultaneously. Some processes are independent of
each other and others are related. A failure of one
process may or may not affect the others running on
the system.
Processes use many system resources, such as

memory, CPU (central processing unit) cycles, and
peripheral devices such as printers and displays. The
operating system (especially the kernel) is
responsible for allocating a proper share of these resources to each process and ensuring overall
optimum utilization.
Process Types
A terminal window (one kind of command shell), is a process that runs as long as needed. It allows
users to execute programs and access resources in an interactive environment. You can also run
programs in the background, which means they become detached from the shell.
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Processes can be of different types according to the task being performed. Here are some different
process types along with their descriptions and examples.
Process Type
Description
Example
Interactive Processes
Need to be started by a user, either at a command
bash,
line or through a graphical interface such as an
firefox, top
icon or a menu selection.
Batch Processes
Automatic processes which are scheduled from and
updatedb
then disconnected from the terminal. These tasks

are queued and work on a FIFO (First In, First
Out) basis.
Daemons
Server processes that run continuously. Many are
httpd,
launched during system startup and then wait for a
xinetd, sshd
user or system request indicating that their service

is required.
Threads
Lightweight processes. These are tasks that run
gnome-
under the umbrella of a main process, sharing
terminal,
memory and other resources, but are scheduled and
firefox
run by the system on an individual basis. An

individual thread can end without terminating the
whole process and a process can create new
threads at any time. Many non-trivial programs
are multi-threaded.
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Kernel Threads
Kernel tasks that users neither start nor terminate
kswapd0,
and have little control over. These may perform
migration,
actions like moving a thread from one CPU to
ksoftirqd
another, or making sure input/output operations to

disk are completed.
Process Scheduling and States

When a process is in a so-called running state, it
means it is either currently executing instructions on a
CPU, or is waiting for a share (or time slice) so it can
run. A critical kernel routine called
the schedulerconstantly shifts processes in and out of
the CPU, sharing time according to relative priority,
how much time is needed and how much has already
been granted to a task. All processes in this state reside
on what is called a run queue and on a computer with multiple CPUs, or cores, there is a run queue on
each.
However, sometimes processes go into what is called a sleep state, generally when they are waiting for
something to happen before they can resume, perhaps for the user to type something. In this condition
a process is sitting in a wait queue.
There are some other less frequent process states, especially when a process is terminating. Sometimes
a child process completes but its parent process has not asked about its state. Amusingly such a
process is said to be in a zombie state; it is not really alive but still shows up in the system's list of
processes.
Process and Thread IDs

At any given time there are always multiple processes being executed. The operating system keeps
track of them by assigning each a unique process ID (PID) number. The PID is used to track process
state, cpu usage, memory use, precisely where resources are located in memory, and other
characteristics.
210
New PIDs are usually assigned in ascending order as processes are born. Thus PID 1 denotes
the init process (initialization process), and succeeding processes are gradually assigned higher
numbers.
The table explains the PID types and their descriptions:
ID Type
Description
Process ID (PID)
Unique Process ID number
Parent Process ID (PPID)
Process (Parent) that started this

process
Thread ID (TID)
Thread ID number. This is the same as

the PID for single-threaded processes.
For a multi-threaded process, each
thread shares the same PID but has a
unique TID.
User and Group IDs

Many users can access a system simultaneously, and each user
can run multiple processes. The operating system identifies the
user who starts the process by the Real User ID (RUID) assigned
to the user.
The user who determines the access rights for the users is
identified by the Effective UID (EUID). The EUID may or may
not be the same as the RUID.
211
Users can be categorized into various groups. Each group is identified by the Real Group ID,
or RGID. The access rights of the group are determined by the Effective Group ID, or EGID. Each
user can be a member of one or more groups.
Most of the time we ignore these details and just talk about the User ID (UID).
More About Priorities

At any given time, many processes are running (i.e., in the run queue) on the system. However, a CPU
can actually accommodate only one task at a time, just like a car
can have only one driver at a time. Some processes are more
important than others so Linux allows you to set and manipulate
process priority. Higher priority processes are granted more time
on the CPU.
The priority for a process can be set by specifying a nice value, or niceness, for the process. The lower
the nice value, the higher the priority. Low values are assigned to important processes, while high
values are assigned to processes that can wait longer. A process with a high nice value simply allows
other processes to be executed first. In Linux, a nice value of -20 represents the highest priority and 19
represents the lowest. (This does sound kind of backwards, but this convention, the nicer the process,
the lower the priority, goes back to the earliest days of UNIX.)
You can also assign a so-called real-time priority to time-sensitive tasks, such as controlling
machines through a computer or collecting incoming data. This is just a very high priority and is not to
be confused with what is called hard real time which is conceptually different, and has more to do
with making sure a job gets completed within a very well-defined time window.
15.1. Listing processes

The ps Command (System V Style)
ps provides information about currently running processes, keyed by PID. If you want a repetitive
update of this status, you can usetop or commonly installed variants such as htop or atop from the
command line, or invoke your distribution's graphical system monitor application.
ps has many options for specifying exactly which tasks to examine, what information to display about
them, and precisely what output format should be used.
212
Without options ps will display all processes running under the current shell. You can use the u option to display information of processes for a specified username. The command ps -ef displays all
the processes in the system in full detail. The command ps -eLf goes one step further and displays one
line of information for every thread (remember, a process can contain multiple threads).
The ps Command (BSD Style)

ps has another style of option specification which stems from the BSD variety of UNIX, where options
are specified without preceding dashes. For example, the command ps aux displays all processes of all
users. The command ps axo allows you to specify which attributes you want to view.
The following tables shows sample output of ps with the aux and axo qualifiers.
Command
Output
USER PID %CPU %MEM VSZ RSS TTY STAT START TIME
ps aux
COMMAND
root 1 0.0 0.0 19356 1292 ? Ss Feb27 0:08 /sbin/init
root 2 0.0 0.0 0
? S
Feb27 0:00 [kthreadd]
root 3 0.0 0.0 0
? S
Feb27 0:27 [migration/0]
...
Command
Output
ps aux stat,priority,pid,pcpu,comm
STAT PRI PID %CPU

COMMAND
Ss 20 1 0.0 init
S
20 2 0.0 kthreadd
S -100 3 0.0 migration/0

...
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The Process Tree

At some point one of your applications may stop
working properly. How might you terminate it?
pstree displays the processes running on the system in

the form of atree diagram showing the relationship
between a process and its parent process and any other
processes that it created. Repeated entries of a process
are not displayed, and threads are displayed in curly
braces.
To terminate a process you can type kill -SIGKILL <pid> orkill -9 <pid>. Note however, you can
only kill your own processes: those belonging to another user are
off limits unless you are root.
top
While a static view of what the system is doing is useful,
monitoring the system performance live over time is also valuable.
One option would be to run ps at regular intervals, say, every two
minutes. A better alternative is to use top to get constant real-time
updates (every two seconds by default) until you exit by
typing q. top clearly highlights which processes are consuming the
most CPU cycles and memory (using appropriate commands from
within top.)
First Line of the top Output

The first line of the top output displays a quick summary of what is
happening in the system including:
How long the system has been up
How many users are logged on
What is the load average
214
The load average determines how busy the system is. A load average of 1.00 per CPU indicates a
fully subscribed, but not overloaded, system. If the load average goes above this value, it indicates that
processes are competing for CPU time. If the load average is very high, it might indicate that the
system is having a problem, such as a runaway process (a process in a non-responding state).
Second Line of the top Output

The second line of the top output displays the total
number of processes, the number of running,
sleeping, stopped and zombie processes. Comparing
the number of running processes with the load
average helps determine if the system has reached
its capacity or perhaps a particular user is running
too many processes. The stopped processes should
be examined to see if everything is running
correctly.
Third Line of the top Output

The third line of the top output indicates how the CPU time is being
divided between the users (us) and the kernel (sy) by displaying the
percentage of CPU time used for each.
The percentage of user jobs running at a lower priority (niceness - ni)

is then listed. Idle mode (id) should be low if the load average is high,
and vice versa. The percentage of jobs waiting (wa) for I/O is
listed. Interrupts include the percentage of hardware (hi) vs. software
interrupts (si). Steal time (st) is generally used with virtual machines,
which has some of its idle CPU time taken for other uses.
Fourth and Fifth Lines of the top Output

The fourth and fifth lines of the top output indicate
memory usage, which is divided in two categories:
Physical memory (RAM) displayed on line 4.
Swap space displayed on line 5.
215
Both categories display total memory, used memory, and free space.
You need to monitor memory usage very carefully to ensure good system performance. Once the
physical memory is exhausted, the system starts using swap space (temporary storage space on the
hard drive) as an extended memory pool, and since accessing disk is much slower than accessing
memory, this will negatively affect system performance.
If the system starts using swap often, you can add more swap space. However, adding more physical
memory should also be considered.
Process List of the top Output

Each line in the process list of the top output displays information about a process. By default,
processes are ordered by highest CPU usage. The following information about each process is
displayed:
Process Identification Number (PID)
Process owner (USER)
Priority (PR) and nice values (NI)
Virtual (VIRT), physical (RES), and shared memory

(SHR)
Status (S)
Percentage of CPU (%CPU) and memory (%MEM) used
Execution time (TIME+)
Command (COMMAND)
Interactive Keys with top

Besides reporting information, top can be utilized interactively for monitoring and controlling
processes. While top is running in a terminal window you can enter single-letter commands to change
its behaviour. For example, you can view the top-ranked processes based on CPU or memory usage. If
needed, you can alter the priorities of running processes or you can stop/kill a process.
The table lists what happens when pressing various keys when running top:
216
Command
Output
Display or hide summary information (rows 2 and 3)
Display or hide memory information (rows 4 and 5)
Sort the process list by top resource consumers
Renice (change the priority of) a specific processes
Kill a specific process
Enter the top configuration screen
Interactively select a new sort order in the process list
15.2. Process Metrics and Process Control

Load Averages
Load average is the average of the load number for a given period of time. It takes into account
processes that are:
Actively running on a CPU.
217
Considered runnable, but waiting for a CPU to become available.
Sleeping: i.e., waiting for some kind of resource (typically, I/O) to become available.
The load average can be obtained by running w, top or uptime.
Interpreting Load Averages

The load average is displayed using three different sets of numbers, as shown in the following
example:
The last piece of information is the average load of the system. Assuming our system is a single-CPU
system, the 0.25 means that for the past minute, on average, the system has been 25% utilized. 0.12 in
the next position means that over the past 5 minutes, on average, the system has been 12% utilized;
and 0.15 in the final position means that over the past 15 minutes, on average, the system has been
15% utilized. If we saw a value of 1.00 in the second position, that would imply that the single-CPU
system was 100% utilized, on average, over the past 5 minutes; this is good if we want to fully use a
system. A value over 1.00 for a single-CPU system implies that the system was over-utilized: there
were more processes needing CPU than CPU was available.
If we had more than one CPU, say a quad-CPU system, we would divide the load average numbers by
the number of CPUs. In this case, for example, seeing a 1 minute load average of 4.00 implies that the
system as a whole was 100% (4.00/4) utilized during the last minute.
Short term increases are usually not a problem. A high peak you see is likely a burst of activity, not a
new level. For example, at start up, many processes start and then activity settles down. If a high peak
is seen in the 5 and 15 minute load averages, it would may be cause for concern.
218
Background and Foreground Processes

Linux supports background and foreground job
processing. (A job in this context is just a command
launched from a terminal window.)Foreground jobs run
directly from the shell, and when one foreground job is
running, other jobs need to wait for shell access (at least in
that terminal window if using the GUI) until it is
completed. This is fine when jobs complete quickly. But
this can have an adverse effect if the current job is going
to take a long time (even several hours) to complete.
In such cases, you can run the job in the background and free the shell for other tasks. The
background job will be executed at lower priority, which, in turn, will allow smooth execution of the
219
interactive tasks, and you can type other commands in the terminal window while the background job
is running. By default all jobs are executed in the foreground. You can put a job in the background by
suffixing & to the command, for example: updatedb &
You can either use CTRL-Z to suspend a foreground job or CTRL-C to terminate a foreground job
and can always use the bg and fg commands to run a process in the background and foreground,
respectively.
Managing Jobs
The jobs utility displays all jobs running in background. The display shows the job ID, state, and
command name, as shown here.
jobs -l provides a the same information as jobs including the PID of the background jobs.
The background jobs are connected to the terminal window, so if you log off, the jobs utility will not
show the ones started from that window.
15.3. Starting Processes in the Future

Scheduling Future Processes using at
Suppose you need to perform a
task on a specific day sometime in
the future. However, you know
you will be away from the
machine on that day. How will
you perform the task? You can
use the at utility program to
execute any non-interactive
command at a specified time, as
illustrated in the diagram:
cron
cron is a time-based scheduling utility program. It can launch routine background jobs at specific
times and/or days on an on-going basis. cron is driven by a configuration file
220
called /etc/crontab (cron table) which contains the various shell commands that need to be run at the
properly scheduled times. There are both system-wide crontab files and individual user-based ones.
Each line of a crontab file represents a job, and is composed of a so-called CRON expression,
followed by a shell command to execute.
The crontab -e command will open the crontab editor to edit existing jobs or to create new jobs. Each
line of the crontab file will contain 6 fields:
Field
Description
Values
MIN
Minutes
0 to 59
HOUR
Hour field
0 to 23
DOM
Day of Month
1-31
MON
Month field
1-12
DOW
Day Of Week
0-6 (0 = Sunday)
CMD
Command
Any command to be executed
Examples:
1. The entry "* * * * * /usr/local/bin/execute/this/script.sh" will schedule a job to execute 'script.sh'
every minute of every hour of every day of the month, and every month and every day in the week.
221
2. The entry "30 08 10 06 * /home/sysadmin/full-backup" will schedule a full-backup at 8.30am, 10June irrespective of the day of the week.
sleep
Sometimes a command or job must be
delayed or suspended. Suppose, for
example, an application has read and
processed the contents of a data file
and then needs to save a report on a
backup system. If the backup system is
currently busy or not available, the
application can be made to sleep (wait)
until it can complete its work. Such a
delay might be to mount the backup
device and prepare it for writing.
sleep suspends execution for at least the specified period of time, which can be given as the number of
seconds (the default), minutes, hours or days. After that time has passed (or an interrupting signal has
been received) execution will resume.
Syntax:
sleep NUMBER[SUFFIX]...
where SUFFIX may be:
1. s for seconds (the default)
2. m for minutes
3. h for hours
4. d for days
sleep and at are quite different; sleep delays execution for a specific period while at starts execution at
a later time.
222
Summary
Processes are used to perform various tasks on the system.
Processes can be single-threaded or multi-threaded.
Processes can be of different types such as interactive and non-interactive.
Every process has a unique identifier (PID) to enable the operating system to keep track of it.
The nice value, or niceness, can be used to set priority.
ps provides information about the currently running processes.
You can use top to get constant real-time updates about overall system performance as well as
information about the processes running on the system.
Load average indicates the amount of utilization the system is under at particular times.
Linux supports background and foreground processing for a job.
at executes any non-interactive command at a specified time.
cron is used to schedule tasks that need to be performed at regular intervals.
223
Chapter 16: Common Applications

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be familiar with common Linux applications, including:
Internet applications such as browsers, and email programs.
Office Productivity Suites such as LibreOffice.
Developer tools, such as compilers, debuggers, etc.
Multimedia applications, such as those for audio and video.
Graphics editors such as the GIMP and other graphics utilities.
16.1. Internet Applications

Internet Applications
The Internet is a global network that allows users around the world to perform multiple tasks such as
searching for data, communicating through emails and online shopping. Obviously, you need to use
network-aware applications to take advantage
of the Internet. These include:
Web browsers
Email clients
Online media applications
Other applications
Web Browsers
As discussed in the earlier chapter on Network Operations, Linux offers a wide variety of web
browsers, both graphical and text based, including:
Firefox
Google Chrome
224
Chromium
Epiphany
Konqueror
w3m
lynx
Email Applications
Email applications allow for sending, receiving, and
reading messages over the Internet. Linux systems offer
a wide number of email clients, both graphical and
text-based. In addition many users simply use their
browsers to access their email accounts.
Most email clients use the Internet Message Access

Protocol (IMAP) or the older Post Office Protocol (POP) to access emails stored on a remote mail
server. Most email applications also display HTML(HyperText Markup Language) formatted
emails that display objects, such as pictures and hyperlinks. The features of advanced email
applications include the ability of importing address books/contact lists, configuration information,
and emails from other email applications.
Linux supports the following types of email applications:
Graphical email clients, such as Thunderbird (produced by Mozilla), Evolution, and Claws
Mail
Text mode email clients such as mutt and mail
225
Other Internet Applications

Linux systems provide many other applications for performing Internet-related tasks. These include:
Application
FileZilla
Use
Intuitive graphical FTP client that supports FTP, Secure File Transfer Protocol
(SFTP), and FTP Secured (FTPS). Used to transfer files to/from(FTP) servers.
Pidgin
To access GTalk, AIM, ICQ, MSN, IRC and other messaging networks
Ekiga
To connect to Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) networks
XChat
To access Internet Relay Chat (IRC) networks
16.2. Productivity and Development Applications
Office Applications
Most day-to-day computer systems have productivity
applications (sometimes calledoffice suites) available or
installed (click here for a list of commonly used suites).
Each suite is a collection of closely coupled programs used to
create and edit different kinds of files such as:
226
Text (articles, books, reports etc.)
Spreadsheet
Presentation
Graphical objects
Most Linux distributions offer LibreOffice, an open source office suite that started in 2010 and has
evolved from OpenOffice.org. While other office suites are available as we have
listed, LibreOffice is the most mature, widely used and intensely developed.
The component applications included in LibreOffice are:
Components of LibreOffice
Usage
Writer
Word processing
Calc
Spreadsheets
Impress
Presentations
Draw
Create and edit graphics and diagrams
Development Applications
Linux distributions come with a complete set of applications and tools that are needed by those
developing or maintaining both user applications and the kernel itself.
These tools are tightly integrated and include:
227
Advanced editors customized for programmers' needs, such as vi and emacs.
Compilers (such as gcc for programs in C and C++) for every computer language that has ever
existed.
Debuggers such as gdb and various graphical front ends to it and many other debugging tools (such
as valgrind).
Performance measuring and monitoring programs, some with easy to use graphical interfaces, others
more arcane and meant to be used only by serious experienced development engineers.
Complete Integrated Development Environments (IDE's) such as Eclipse, that put all these tools
together.
On other operating systems these tools have to be obtained and installed separately, often at a high
cost, while on Linux they are all available at no cost through standard package installation systems.
16.3. Multimedia Applications
Sound players
Multimedia applications are used to listen to music, view videos, etc, as well as to present and view
text and graphics. Linux systems offer a number of sound player applications including:
Application
Amarok
Use
Mature MP3 player with a graphical interface, that plays

audio and video files, and streams (online audio files). It
allows you to create a play list that contains a group of
songs, and uses a database to store information about the
music collection.
Audacity
Used to record and edit sounds and can be quickly installed

through a package manager. Audacity has a simple interface
to get you started.
228
Rhythmbox
Supports a large variety of digital music sources including

streaming Internet audio and podcasts. The application also
enables search of particular audio in a library. It supports
smart playlists with an automatic update feature which
can revise playlists based on specified selection criteria.
Of course Linux systems can also connect with commercial online music streaming services such
as Pandora and Spotifythrough web browsers.
Movie Players
Movie (video) players can portray input from many different sources, either local to the machine or
on the Internet.
Linux systems offer a number of movie players including:
VLC
MPlayer
Xine
Totem
Movie Editors
Movie editors are used to edit videos or movies. Linux systems offer a number of movie editors
including:
Application
Kino
Use
Acquire and edit camera streams. Kino can merge and separate video clips.
229
Cinepaint
Frame-by-frame retouching. Cinepaint is used for editing images in a video.
Blender
Create 3D animation and design. Blender is a professional tool that uses modeling as a
starting point. There are complex and powerful tools for camera capture, recording,
editing, enhancing and creating video, each having its own focus.
Cinelerra
Capture, compose, and edit audio/video.
FFmpeg
Record, convert, and stream audio/video. FFmpeg is a format converter, among other
things, and has other tools such as ffplay and ffserver.
16.4. Graphic Editors and Utilities

GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program)
Graphic editors allow you to create, edit, view, and
organize images of various formats like Joint Photographic
Experts Group (JPEG or JPG), Portable Network Graphics
(PNG), Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), and Tagged
Image File Format (TIFF).
GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) is a featurerich image retouching and editing tool similar to Adobe Photoshop and is available on all Linux
distributions. Some features of the GIMP are:
It can handle any image file format.
It has many special purpose plugins and filters.
It provides extensive information about the image, such as layers, channels, and histograms.
Graphics Utilities
230
In addition to the GIMP, there are other graphics utilities that help perform various image-related
tasks, including:
Graphic Utility
eog
Use
Eye of Gnome (eog) is an image viewer that provides slide show capability
and a few image editing tools, such as rotate and resize. It can also step
through the images in a directory with just a click.
Inkscape
Inkscape is an image editor with lots of editing features. It works with layers
and transformations of the image. It is sometimes compared to Adobe
FrameMaker.
convert
convert is a command line tool (part of the ImageMagick set of applications)

that can modify image files in many ways. The options include file format
conversion and numerous image modification options, such as blur, resize,
despeckle, etc.
Scribus
Scribus is used for creating documents used for publishing and providing
a What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG) environment. It also provides
numerous editing tools.
Summary
Linux offers a wide variety of Internet applications such as web browsers, email clients, online
media applications, and others.
Web browsers supported by Linux can be either graphical or text-based such as Firefox, Google
Chrome, Epiphany,w3m, lynx and others.
231
Linux supports graphical email clients, such as Thunderbird,Evolution, and Claws Mail, and
text mode email clients, such asmutt and mail.
Linux systems provide many other applications for performing Internet-related tasks, such
as Filezilla, XChat, Pidgin, and others.
Most Linux distributions offer LibreOffice to create and edit different kinds of documents.
Linux systems offer entire suites of development applications and tools, including compilers
and debuggers.
Linux systems offer a number of sound players includingAmarok, Audacity,

and Rhythmbox.
Linux systems offer a number of movie players including VLC,MPlayer, Xine, and Totem.
Linux systems offer a number of movie editors including Kino,Cinepaint, Blender among
others.
The GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) utility is a feature-rich image retouching
and editing tool available on all Linux distributions.
Other graphics utilities that help perform various image-related tasks

are eog, Inkscape, convert, and Scribus.
232

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A Little Book on Linux

A thorough guide for Linux Beginners

Linux Distributions: .................................................................................................. 3

Linux File Systems Basics .......................................................................................... 6

The Boot Process ..................................................................................................... 8

Linux Distribution Installation ................................................................................. 14

GNOME Desktop Environment................................................................................ 20

System, Display, Date and Time Settings ................................................................. 40

Installing and Updating Software ............................................................................ 46

Command Line Mode Operations ........................................................................... 50

Searching For Files ................................................................................................. 61

Working with Files ................................................................................................. 66

Installing Software ................................................................................................. 70

Documentation Sources ......................................................................................... 73

The Main Pages ..................................................................................................... 73

GNU Info ............................................................................................................... 76

Other Documentation Sources................................................................................ 77

Environment Variables ........................................................................................... 85

Recalling Previous Commands ................................................................................ 89

Command Aliases .................................................................................................. 93

File Permissions ..................................................................................................... 93

Basic Editors: nano and gedit.................................................................................. 99

More Advances Editors: vi and emacs ....................................................................102

Understanding Linux Security ................................................................................116

Understanding the usage of the Root Account ........................................................119

Working with Passwords .......................................................................................125

Securing the Boot Process and Hardware Resources ...............................................126

Chapter 10: Network Operations ......................................................................................129

Introduction to Networking ...............................................................................129

Cat and echo.....................................................................................................142

Sed and awk......................................................................................................145

File Manipulation Utilities ..................................................................................149

Miscellaneous Text Utilities................................................................................157

Dealing with Large Files and Text Related Utilities ...............................................159

Printing Operations ...........................................................................................169

Manipulating Postscripts and PDF Files...............................................................172

Features and Capabilities ...................................................................................179

Boolean Expressions ..........................................................................................198

Script Debugging ...............................................................................................202

Some Additional Useful Techniques....................................................................204

Introduction to Processes and Process Attributes ................................................208

Listing processes ...............................................................................................212

Process Metrics and Process Control ..................................................................217

Starting Processes in the Future .........................................................................220

Internet Applications .........................................................................................224

Productivity and Development Applications ........................................................226

Multimedia Applications ....................................................................................228

Graphic Editors and Utilities ...............................................................................230

CHAPTER - 1: Linux Philosophy and Concepts

Understand the history and philosophy of Linux.

Describe the Linux community.

Define the common terms associated with Linux.

Understand the components of a Linux distribution.

Linux User Groups (both local and online)

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) software (such as Pidgin and XChat)

Online communities and discussion boards

Newsgroups and mailing lists

Community events (such as LinuxCon and ApacheCon)