416 - Steel Members Design PDF
416 - Steel Members Design PDF
416 - Steel Members Design PDF
Varma
Ideally, the owner and the architect, the architect and the engineer, and the engineer and the
fabricator/contractor will collaborate and interact on a regular basis to conceive, develop, design,
and build the structure in an efficient manner. The primary responsibilities of all these players
are as follows:
Owner - primary responsibility is deciding the use and occupancy, and approving the
architectural plans of the building.
Architect - primary responsibility is ensuring that the architectural plan of the building
interior is appropriate for the intended use and the overall building is aesthetically pleasing.
Engineer primary responsibility is ensuring the safety and serviceability of the structure,
i.e., designing the building to carry the loads safely and ___________.
Fabricator primary responsibility is ensuring that the designed members and connections
are fabricated economically in the shop or field as required.
Contractor/Erector - primary responsibility is ensuring that the members and connections are
economically assembled in the field to build the structure.
State Building Official primary responsibility is ensuring that the built structure satisfies
the appropriate building codes accepted by the Govt.
Conceptually, from an engineering standpoint, the parameters that can be varied (somewhat)
are: (1) the material of construction, and (2) the structural framing plan.
The choices for material include: (a) steel, (b) reinforced concrete, and (c) steel-concrete
composite construction.
The choices for structural framing plan include moment resisting frames, braced frames, dual
frames, shear wall frames, and so on. The engineer can also innovate a new structural
framing plan for a particular structure if required.
All viable material + framing plan alternatives must be considered and designed to compare
the individual material + fabrication / erection costs to identify the most efficient and
economical design for the structure.
For each material + framing plan alternative considered, designing the structure consists of
designing the individual structural components, i.e., the members and the connections, of the
framing plan.
This course CE405 focuses on the design of individual structural components. The material
of construction will limited be steel, and the structural framing plans will be limited to braced
frames and moment resisting frames.
Figure 1 shows the structural plan and layout of a four-story office building to be located in
Lansing. Figure 2 and 3 show the structural elevations of frames A-A and B-B, respectively,
which are identified in Figure 1.
25 ft.
25 ft.
35 ft.
Pin/hinge connection
Fix/moment connection
35 ft.
35 ft.
Frame B-B
Frame A -A
10 ft.
E
P
J
12 ft.
D
12 ft.
C
12 ft.
B
15 ft.
A
25 ft.
25 ft.
g
10 ft. f
e
b1
a1
12 ft.
d
12 ft.
c
12 ft.
b
15 ft.
a
35 ft.
35 ft.
35 ft.
As shown in Figure 1, the building has two 25-ft. bays in the north-south direction and three
35 ft. bays in the east-west direction.
There are four structural frames in the north-south direction. These frames have structural
elevations similar to frame A-A shown in Figure 2.
There are three structural frames in the east-west directions. These frames have structural
elevations similar to frame B-B shown in Figure 3.
Frame A-A is a braced frame, where all members are connected using pin/hinge connections.
Diagonal bracing members are needed for stability.
Frame B-B is a moment frame, where all members are connected using fix/moment
connections. There is no need for diagonal bracing members.
The north-south and east-west frames resist the vertical gravity loads together.
The three moment frames in the east-west direction resist the horizontal lateral loads in the
east-west direction.
Z
Y
X
Z
Y
Z
Y
X
Y
X
Z
X
Z
Y
Y
X
Z
X
Z
X
Z
X
The four braced frames in the north-south direction resist the horizontal lateral loads in the
north-south direction.
Beam member subjected to flexural loads, i.e., shear force and bending moment only. The
axial force in a beam member is negligible.
Beam-column member member subjected to combined axial force and flexural loads (shear
force, and bending moments)
In basic structural analysis (CE305) students have come across two types of structures,
namely, trusses and frames. For example, Figure 2 shows a roof truss supported by a braced
frame.
All the members of a truss are connected using pin/hinge connections. All external forces are
applied at the pins/hinges. As a result, all truss members are subjected to axial forces (tension
or compression) only.
In braced and moment frames, the horizontal members (beams) are subjected to flexural
loads only.
In braced frames, the vertical members (columns) are subjected to compressive axial forces
only.
In braced frames, the diagonal members (braces) are subjected to tension/compression axial
forces only.
In moment frames, the vertical members (beam-columns) are subjected to combined axial
and flexural loads.
10 ft.
E
P
O
12 ft.
D
12 ft.
C
12 ft.
B
15 ft.
A
25 ft.
25 ft.
g
10 ft. f
e
b1
a1
12 ft.
d
12 ft.
c
12 ft.
b
15 ft.
a
35 ft.
35 ft.
35 ft.
Truss / bracing member connections are used to connect two or more truss members together.
Only the axial forces in the members have to be transferred through the connection for
continuity.
Simple shear connections are the pin connections used to connect beam to column members.
Only the shear forces are transferred through the connection for continuity. The bending
moments are not transferred through the connection.
Moment connections are fix connections used to connect beam to column members. Both the
shear forces and bending moments are transferred through the connections with very small
deformations (full restraint).
Partially restrained connections are flexible connections used to connect beam to column
members. The shear forces are transferred fully through the connection. However, the
bending moment is only transferred partially.
S
Gusset
Bracing member
Beam
Beam
Bracing member
Beam
Column
Figure 6. All-bolted double angle shear connection.
Bevel
Full penetration groove weld
Field welding
Weld access hole
back-up bar
Beam
fillet welds
shear tabs
Column
Figure 7. Directly welded flange fully restrained moment connection.
Bolts are used to connect two or more plate elements that are in the same plane. Boltholes are drilled in the plate elements. The threaded bolt shank passes through the holes,
and the connection is secured using nuts.
Welds can be used to connect plate elements that are in the same or different planes. A
high voltage electric arc is developed between the two plate elements. The electric arc
causes localized melting of the base metal (plate element) and the weld electrode. After
cooling, all the molten metal (base and weld) solidifies into one continuum. Thus,
developing a welded connection.
In Figure 4, all the truss members are connected together by welding to a common gusset
plate. The axial forces in the members are transferred through the gusset plates. This
same connection can also be developed using bolts. How?
In Figure 5, the bracing members are connected to gusset plates, which are also
connected to the beam and column. The bracing member can be connected to the gusset
plate using bolts or welds. However, the gusset plate has to be welded to the beam /
column.
In Figure 6, two angles are bolted to the web of the beam. The perpendicular legs of the
angles are bolted to the flange of the column. Thus, an all-bolted double-angle shear
connection is achieved. This all-bolted connection will be easier to assemble in the field
as compared to welding. How is this a shear connection?
In Figure 7, the beam flanges are beveled and welded directly to the flange of column
using full penetration groove welds. This welding will have to be done in the field during
erection and it will require the use of back-up bars. Weld-access holes and skilled
welders are required to achieve a weld of acceptable quality.
In Figure 7, the beam web is bolted to a shear tab (plate), which is fillet welded to the
column in the shop. This shear tab connection transfers the shear from the beam to the
column. How is Figure 7 a moment connection?
10
Dead Loads (D): are permanent loads acting on the structure. These include the self-weight
of structural and non-structural components. They are usually gravity loads.
Live Loads (L): are non-permanent loads acting on the structure due to its use and
occupancy. The magnitude and location of live loads changes frequently over the design life.
Hence, they cannot be estimated with the same accuracy as dead loads.
Wind Loads (W): are in the form of pressure or suction on the exterior surfaces of the
building. They cause horizontal lateral loads (forces) on the structure, which can be critical
for tall buildings. Wind loads also cause uplift of light roof systems.
Snow Loads (S): are vertical gravity loads due to snow, which are subjected to variability due
to seasons and drift.
Roof Live Load (Lr): are live loads on the roof caused during the design life by planters,
people, or by workers, equipment, and materials during maintenance.
Values of structural loads are given in the publication ASCE 7-98: Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures. The first phase of structural design consists of estimating
the loads acting on the structure. This is done using the load values and combinations
presented in ASCE 7-98 as explained in the following sub-sections.
11
Categories I, II, III, and IV. See Table 1.1 below and in ASCE 7-98.
12
13
Building floors are usually subjected to uniform live loads or concentrated live loads. They
have to be designed to safely support the minimum uniformly distributed load or the
minimum concentrated live load values given in the ASCE 7-98 (see Table 1.4 below),
whichever produces the maximum load effects in the structural members.
14
15
The minimum uniformly distributed live loads (Lo) given in Table 1.4 above can be reduced
for buildings with very large floor areas, because it is unlikely that the prescribed live load
will occur simultaneously throughout the entire structure.
Equation (1.1) can be used to calculate the reduce uniformly distributed live load (L)
4.57
L = L o 0.25 +
K LL A T
(1.1)
where, AT is the tributary area in ft2 and KLL is the live load element factor as follows:
KLL is equal to 4.0 for interior columns and exterior columns without cantilever slabs. KLL is
equal to 3.0 for edge columns with cantilever slabs.
KLL is equal to 2.0 for corner columns with cantilever slabs, edge beams without cantilever
slabs, and interior beams.
KLL is equal to 1.0 for all other members not identified above.
16
where, 12 Lr 20
where,
Lr is the roof live load per square foot of horizontal projection in psf.
R1
=1
= 1.2 - 0.001 AT
= 0.6
for 600ft2 AT
____________________________________________________________________
R2
=1
for F 4
= 1.2 - 0.05 F
= 0.6
for 12 F
17
(1.2)
Design wind loads for buildings can be based on: (a) simplified procedure; (b) analytical
procedure; and (c) wind tunnel or small-scale procedure.
Refer to ASCE 7-98 for the simplified procedure. This simplified procedure is applicable
only to buildings with mean roof height less than 30 ft.
The wind tunnel procedure consists of developing a small-scale model of the building and
testing it in a wind tunnel to determine the expected wind pressures etc. It is expensive and
may be utilized for difficult or special situations.
The analytical procedure is used in most design offices. It is fairly systematic but somewhat
complicated to account for the various situations that can occur:
Wind velocity will cause pressure on any surface in its path. The wind velocity and hence the
velocity pressure depend on the height from the ground level. Equation 1.3 is recommended
by ASCE 7-98 for calculating the velocity pressure (qz) in lb/ft2
qz = 0.00256 Kz Kzt Kd V2 I
(lb/ft2)
(1.3)
Kd is a directionality factor
Kz varies with height z above the ground level (see Table 6-5 in ASCE 7-98)
A significant portion of the U.S. including Lansing has V = 90 mph. At these location
qz = 17.625 Kz
18
(lb/ft2)
(1.4)
The velocity pressure qz is used to calculate the design wind pressure (p) for the building
structure as follows:
p = q GCp qi (GCpi)
(lb/ft2)
(1.5)
Note that a positive sign indicates pressure acting towards a surface. Negative sign indicate
pressure away from the surface
Equation 1.5 indicates that the design wind pressure p consists of two components: (1) the
external pressure on the building (q GCp); and (2) the internal pressure in the building (qh
GCpi)
The values of D, L, W, etc. given by ASCE 7-98 are nominal loads (not maximum or
ultimate)
19
During its design life, a structure can be subjected to some maximum or ultimate loads
caused by combinations of D, L, or W loading.
The ultimate load on the structure can be calculated using factored load combinations,
which are given by ASCE and AISC (see pages 2-10 and 2-11 of AISC manual). The
most relevant of these load combinations are given below:
1.4 D
(4.2 1)
(4.2 2)
(4.2 3)
(4.2 4)
0.9 D + 1.6 W
(4.2 5)
Determine the design forces (Pu, Vu, and Mu) for each structural member
The failure (design) strength of the designed member must be greater than the
corresponding design forces calculated in Step II. See Equation (4.3) below:
Rn >
i Qi
(4.3)
is the resistance factor used to account for the reliability of the material behavior and
equations for Rn
i is the load factor used to account for the variability in loading and to estimate the
ultimate loading condition.
20
Example 1.1
Consider the building structure with the structural floor plan and elevation shown below.
Estimate the wind loads acting on the structure when the wind blows in the east-west direction.
The structure is located in Lansing.
hi
gi
ii
25 ft.
di
fi
ei
25 ft.
ai
ci
bi
50 ft.
50 ft.
a6
b6
c6
c5
a5
b5
a4
b4
c4
a3
b3
c3
a2
b2
c2
a1
b1
c1
10 ft.
15 ft.
21
10
b6
e6
h6
b5
e5
h5
b4
e4
h4
b3
e3
h3
b2
e2
h2
b1
e1
h1
10
10
10
10
15
0.57 0 - 15
0.62
15 - 20
0.66
20 25
0.70
25 30
0.76
30 40
0.81
40 50
0.85
50 60
0.89
60 - 70
In Lansing V = 90 mph
22
qz = 17.625 Kz psf
External pressure = q G Cp
The external pressures on the structure are shown in Figures 11 and 12 below.
23
Internal pressure
-
p = q GCp qi GCpi
Enclosed building;
(b)
Take the external pressure from Figure 11 and 12 and add to internal pressure from Figures
13 (a) and (b) to obtain the final pressure diagrams. Adding the internal pressure will not
change the lateral forces in the structure.
24
(a)
(b)
Figure 14. Resultant wind pressure diagrams including external and internal pressures
Note: According to ASCE 7-98, the minimum wind design loading is equal to 10 lb/ft2
multiplied by the area of the building projected on a vertical plane normal to assumed wind
direction.
The determined design wind loading is greater than the minimum value. Therefore, continue
with estimated design wind loading.
Example 1.2 Determine the magnitude and distribution of live loading on the north-south frame
bi - ei - hi
Step I: Determine relevant tributary and influence areas. Estimate live load reduction factors.
hi
gi
ii
25 ft.
1
di
3
ei
fi
ai
25 ft.
ci
bi
50 ft.
50 ft.
25
Table 1.1 Member tributary areas and minimum design live loading.
KLL Lo/L=0.25 + 4.57/(KLLAT)0.5 Lo/L min.
2.0
0.4328
0.5
2.0
0.4328
0.5
0.36
0.5
0.36
0.5
= 312.5 ft2
ei - hi
di - ei
ei - fi
bi
4.0
0.34
0.4
ei
4.0
0.3146
0.4
4.0
0.34
0.4
hi
e6
g6
b5
e5
g5
b4
e4
g4
b3
e3
g3
b2
e2
g2
b1
e1
g1
26
Step III: Estimate live loading on columns from other frames than the one being investigated.
d6
e6
f6
d5
e5
d4
e4
f4
d3
e3
f3
d2
e2
d1
e1
f5
f2
Resultant
f1
Note: The minimum reduced live load for the column ei from Table 1 = 0.40 Lo. However,
the live loading on column ei is being estimated using the reduced live loading on the beams.
For consistency, make sure that the reduced beam live loading is not less than the reduced
column live loading.
Note: The wind pressures act on the sides of the building. The lateral forces acting on the
frame are calculated using these wind pressures and the tributary area concept.
27
ASCE 7 98 pg. 39
28
Figure showing the Wind Speed of Eastern US. (ASCE 7 98 pg. 35)
29
ASCE 7 98 pg. 41
30
ASCE 7 98 pg. 43
31
ASCE 7 98 pg. 42
32
33
34
35
A beam is a structural member that is subjected primarily to transverse loads and negligible
axial loads.
The transverse loads cause internal shear forces and bending moments in the beams as shown
in Figure 1 below.
w
V(x)
M(x)
Figure 1. Internal shear force and bending moment diagrams for transversely loaded beams.
These internal shear forces and bending moments cause longitudinal axial stresses and shear
stresses in the cross-section as shown in the Figure 2 below.
dF = b dy
d
M(x)
V(x)
b
Curvature = = 2/d
+d / 2
+d / 2
F = b dy
d / 2
d / 2
u
y
If the steel stress-strain curve is approximated as a bilinear elasto-plastic curve with yield
stress equal to y, then the section Moment - Curvature (M-) response for monotonically
increasing moment is given by Figure 4.
Mp
B
A
Section Moment, M
My
2y
2y
y
10y
5y
5y
10y
Curvature,
A: Extreme fiber reaches y B: Extreme fiber reaches 2y C: Extreme fiber reaches 5y
D: Extreme fiber reaches 10y E: Extreme fiber reaches infinite strain
In Figure 4, My is the moment corresponding to first yield and Mp is the plastic moment
capacity of the cross-section.
For a rectangular section, f is equal to 1.5. For a wide-flange section, f is equal to 1.1.
Calculation of Mp: Cross-section subjected to either +y or -y at the plastic limit. See Figure
5 below.
y
Plastic centroid.
A1
y1
A2
y A 1
y2
y A 2
y
(a) General cross-section
F = y A1 y A 2 = 0
A1 = A 2 = A / 2
A
( y1 + y 2 )
2
Where , y1 = centroid of A1
M = y
y 2 = centroid of A 2
(d) Equations
Figure 5. Plastic centroid and Mp for general cross-section.
The plastic centroid for a general cross-section corresponds to the axis about which the total
area is equally divided, i.e., A1 = A2 = A/2
-
The plastic centroid is not the same as the elastic centroid or center of gravity (c.g.) of the
cross-section.
As shown below, the c.g. is defined as the axis about which A1y1 = A2y2.
y2
A1, y1
y1
c.g. = elastic N.A. A , y
2
2
For a cross-section with at-least one axis of symmetry, the neutral axis corresponds to the
centroidal axis in the elastic range. However, at Mp, the neutral axis will correspond to
the plastic centroidal axis.
For a doubly symmetric cross-section, the elastic and the plastic centroid lie at the same
point.
Mp = y x A/2 x (y1+y2)
As shown in Figure 5, y1 and y2 are the distance from the plastic centroid to the centroid of
area A1 and A2, respectively.
A/2 x (y1+y2) is called Z, the plastic section modulus of the cross-section. Values for Z are
tabulated for various cross-sections in the properties section of the LRFD manual.
Mp = 0.90 Z Fy
where,
Mp = plastic moment, which must be 1.5 My for homogenous cross-sections
My = moment corresponding to onset of yielding at the extreme fiber from an elastic stress
distribution = Fy S for homogenous cross-sections and = Fyf S for hybrid sections.
Z = plastic section modulus from the Properties section of the AISC manual.
S = elastic section modulus, also from the Properties section of the AISC manual.
Example 2.1 Determine the elastic section modulus, S, plastic section modulus, Z, yield
moment, My, and the plastic moment Mp, of the cross-section shown below. What is the design
moment for the beam cross-section. Assume 50 ksi steel.
12 in.
F1
0.75 in.
16 in.
W t = 0.5 in.
w
F2
1.0 in.
15 in.
31.125
= 15.5625
2
y p = 2.125 in.
Design strength according to AISC Spec. F1.1= bMp= 0.9 x 788.58 = 709.72 kip-ft.
Check = Mp 1.5 My
Therefore, 788.58 kip-ft. < 1.5 x 635.15 = 949.725 kip-ft.
Reading Assignment
- OK!
Steel beams are designed for the factored design loads. The moment capacity, i.e., the
factored moment strength (bMn) should be greater than the moment (Mu) caused by the
factored loads.
A serviceable structure is one that performs satisfactorily, not causing discomfort or
perceptions of unsafety for the occupants or users of the structure.
-
For a beam, being serviceable usually means that the deformations, primarily the vertical
slag, or deflection, must be limited.
The maximum deflection of the designed beam is checked at the service-level loads. The
deflection due to service-level loads must be less than the specified values.
The AISC Specification gives little guidance other than a statement in Chapter L,
Serviceability Design Considerations, that deflections should be checked. Appropriate
limits for deflection can be found from the governing building code for the region.
The following values of deflection are typical maximum allowable total (service dead load
plus service live load) deflections.
In the following examples, we will assume that local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling
are not controlling limit states, i.e, the beam section is compact and laterally supported along
the length.
Example 2.2 Design a simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed dead
load of 450 lbs/ft. and a uniformly distributed live load of 550 lbs/ft. The dead load does
not include the self-weight of the beam.
From page
of the AISC manual, select W16 x 26 made from 50 ksi steel with
wsw = 26 lbs/ft
Therefore, wD = 476 lbs/ft = 0.476 lbs/ft.
wu = 1.2 x 0.476 + 1.6 x 0.55 = 1.4512 kips/ft.
Therefore, Mu = 1.4512 x 302 / 8 = 163.26 kip-ft. < bMp of W16 x 26.
OK!
Step IV. Check deflection at service loads.
Select the section from the moment of inertia selection tables in the AISC manual. See page
select W21 x 44.
W21 x 44 with Ix = 843 in4 and bMp = 358 kip-ft. (50 ksi steel).
- OK!
Note that the serviceability design criteria controlled the design and the section
Example 2.3 Design the beam shown below. The unfactored dead and live loads are shown in
the Figure.
15 ft.
30 ft.
From page ____________ of the AISC manual, select W21 x 44 made from 50 ksi steel with
Service loads
- OK!
10
Mp, the plastic moment capacity for the steel shape, is calculated by assuming a plastic stress
distribution (+ or - y) over the cross-section.
The development of a plastic stress distribution over the cross-section can be hindered by two
different length effects:
(1) Local buckling of the individual plates (flanges and webs) of the cross-section before
they develop the compressive yield stress y.
(2) Lateral-torsional buckling of the unsupported length of the beam / member before
the cross-section develops the plastic moment Mp.
The analytical equations for local buckling of steel plates with various edge conditions and
the results from experimental investigations have been used to develop limiting slenderness
ratios for the individual plate elements of the cross-sections.
See Spec. B5 (page 16.1 12), Table B5.1 (16.1-13) and Page 16.1-183 of the AISC-manual
Steel sections are classified as compact, non-compact, or slender depending upon the
slenderness () ratio of the individual plates of the cross-section.
11
If p, then the individual plate element can develop and sustain y for large values of
If p r, then the individual plate element can develop y but cannot sustain it
before local buckling occurs.
If r , then elastic local buckling of the individual plate element occurs.
Compact
Non-Compact
Slender
Figure 8. Stress-strain response of plates subjected to axial compression and local buckling.
Thus, slender sections cannot develop Mp due to elastic local buckling. Non-compact
sections can develop My but not Mp before local buckling occurs. Only compact sections can
develop the plastic moment Mp.
All rolled wide-flange shapes are compact with the following exceptions, which are noncompact.
12
W40x174, W14x99, W14x90, W12x65, W10x12, W8x10, W6x15 (made from A992)
The definition of and the values for p and r for the individual elements of various crosssections are given in Table B5.1 and shown graphically on page 16.1-183. For example,
Section
Wide-flange
Channel
Square or Rect.
Box
Plate element
Flange
bf/2tf
0.38
E / Fy
0.38
E / FL
Web
h/tw
3.76
E / Fy
5.70
E / Fy
Flange
bf/tf
0.38
E / Fy
0.38
E / FL
Web
h/tw
3.76
E / Fy
5.70
E / Fy
Flange
(b-3t)/t
1.12
E / Fy
1.40
E / Fy
Web
(b-3t)/t
3.76
E / Fy
5.70
E / Fy
In CE405 we will design all beam sections to be compact from a local buckling standpoint
13
(a)
M
(b)
M
M
14
Lateral-torsional buckling is fundamentally similar to the flexural buckling or flexuraltorsional buckling of a column subjected to axial loading.
-
The differences are that lateral-torsional buckling is caused by flexural loading (M), and
the buckling deformations are coupled in the lateral and torsional directions.
There is one very important difference. For a column, the axial load causing buckling
remains constant along the length. But, for a beam, usually the lateral-torsional buckling
causing bending moment M(x) varies along the unbraced length.
The worst situation is for beams subjected to uniform bending moment along the
unbraced length. Why?
Consider a beam that is simply-supported at the ends and subjected to four-point loading as
shown below. The beam center-span is subjected to uniform bending moment M. Assume
that lateral supports are provided at the load points.
Lb
If the laterally unbraced length Lb is less than or equal to a plastic length Lp then lateral
torsional buckling is not a problem and the beam will develop its plastic strength Mp.
Lp = 1.76 ry x
E / Fy
15
If Lb is greater than Lp then lateral torsional buckling will occur and the moment capacity of
the beam will be reduced below the plastic strength Mp as shown in Figure 10 below.
Mn = Mp
Zx Fy = Mp
Lb L p
M n = M p ( M p M r )
L L
r
p
Sx (Fy 10) = Mr
Moment Capacity, M n
Mn =
Lp
2 EI y
L2b
GJ +
2 ECw
L2b
Lr
Unbraced length, Lb
As shown in Figure 10 above, the lateral-torsional buckling moment (Mn = Mcr) is a function
of the laterally unbraced length Lb and can be calculated using the equation:
Mn = Mcr =
Lb
where,
E
I y C w
E I y G J +
L
b
Mn = moment capacity
Lb = laterally unsupported length.
Mcr = critical lateral-torsional buckling moment.
E = 29000 ksi;
G = 11,200 ksi
16
This equation is valid for ELASTIC lateral torsional buckling only (like the Euler equation).
That is it will work only as long as the cross-section is elastic and no portion of the crosssection has yielded.
As soon as any portion of the cross-section reaches the yield stress Fy, the elastic lateral
torsional buckling equation cannot be used.
-
When the unbraced length is less than Lr, then the elastic lateral torsional buckling equation
cannot be used.
When the unbraced length (Lb) is less than Lr but more than the plastic length Lp, then the
lateral-torsional buckling Mn is given by the equation below:
Lb L p
then M n = M p ( M p M r )
L L
r
p
If Lp Lb Lr,
17
As mentioned previously, the case with uniform bending moment is worst for lateral
torsional buckling.
For cases with non-uniform bending moment, the lateral torsional buckling moment is
greater than that for the case with uniform moment.
The lateral torsional buckling moment for non-uniform bending moment case
= Cb x lateral torsional buckling moment for uniform moment case.
Sometimes, if you cannot calculate or figure out Cb, then it can be conservatively
assumed as 1.0.
Cb =
2.5 M max
12.5 M max
+ 3 MA + 4 MB + 3 Mc
Important to note that the increased moment capacity for the non-uniform moment case
cannot possibly be more than Mp.
Therefore, if the calculated values is greater than Mp, then you have to reduce it to Mp
18
Moment Capacity, Mn
Mp
Mr
Cb = 1.5
Cb = 1.2
Cb = 1.0
Lp
Lr
Unbraced length, Lb
Example 2.4
Design the beam shown below. The unfactored uniformly distributed live load is equal to 3
kips/ft. There is no dead load. Lateral support is provided at the end reactions.
wL = 3 kips/ft.
24 ft.
19
(Note b = 0.9)
bMn = moment capacity = Cb x (bMn for the case with uniform moment) bMp
-
Pages _________________ in the AISC-LRFD manual, show the plots of bMn-Lb for
the case of uniform bending moment (Cb=1.0)
Therefore, in order to select a section, calculate Mu/Cb and use it with Lb to find the first
section with a solid line as shown in class.
Select W16 x 67 (50 ksi steel) with bMn =357 kip-ft. for Lb = 24 ft. and Cb =1.0
bMn = 1.14 x 357 = 406.7 kip-ft., which must be bMp = 491 kip-ft.
OK!
Thus, W16 x 67 made from 50 ksi steel with moment capacity equal to 406.7 kip-ft. for an
unsupported length of 24 ft. is the designed section.
- compact flange
- compact web
Compact section.
- OK!
This example demonstrates the method for designing beams and accounting for Cb > 1.0
20
Example 2.5
Design the beam shown below. The concentrated live loads acting on the beam are shown in the
Figure. The beam is laterally supported at the load and reaction points.
30 kips
30 kips
12 ft.
8 ft.
10 ft.
30 ft.
Lateral support / bracing
48 kips
wsw = 0.12 kips/ft.
A
D
B
12 ft.
C
8 ft.
10 ft.
46.6 kips
A
53 kips
B
524 kip-ft.
550.6 kip-ft.
Step II. Determine Lb, Cb, Mu, and Mu/Cb for all spans.
21
Span
AB
Lb
(ft.)
12
BC
CD
10
Cb
1.67
1.0
(assume)
1.67
Mu
(kip-ft.)
550.6
Mu/Cb
(kip-ft.)
329.7
550.6
550.6
524.0
313.8
It is important to note that it is possible to have different Lb and Cb values for different
laterally unsupported spans of the same beam.
Step III. Design the beam and check all laterally unsupported spans
Assume that span BC is the controlling span because it has the largest Mu/Cb although the
corresponding Lb is the smallest.
From the AISC-LRFD manual select W21 x 68 made from 50 ksi steel (page _____)
Lb
(ft.)
AB
12
BC
CD
10
bM n
for Cb = 1.0
from ______
507
1.67
bM n
for Cb value
col. 3 x col. 4
846.7
572
1.0
572.0
540
1.67
901.8
Cb
- OK!
-OK!
-OK!
22
bM p
limit
600 kip-ft
600 kip-ft.
- compact flange
- compact web
Compact section.
- OK!
This example demonstrates the method for designing beams with several laterally unsupported
spans with different Lb and Cb values.
Example 2.6
Design the simply-supported beam shown below. The uniformly distributed dead load is equal to
1 kips/ft. and the uniformly distributed live load is equal to 2 kips/ft. A concentrated live load
equal to 10 kips acts at the mid-span. Lateral supports are provided at the end reactions and at
the mid-span.
10 kips
wD = 1.0 kips/ft.
wL = 2.0 kips/ft.
A
C
B
12 ft.
12 ft.
Step I. Assume the self-weight and calculate the factored design loads.
The reactions and the bending moment diagram for the factored loads are shown below.
16 kips
wu = 4.52 kips/ft.
B
12 ft.
12 ft.
62.24 kips
x
62.24 kips
12.5 M max
2.5 M max + 3 M A + 4 M B + 3 M c
Therefore, Cb = 1.37
Step III. Design the beam section
Select W21 x 48 made from 50 ksi with bMn = 322 kip-ft. for Lb = 12.0 ft. and Cb =1.0
For Cb = 1.37, bMn = _441.44 k-ft., but must be < or = bMp = 398 k-ft.
24
Select W18 x 55 with bMn = 345 k-ft. for Lb = 12 ft. and Cb = 1.0
For Cb = 1.37, bMn = 345 x 1.37 = 472.65 k-ft. but must be bMp = 420 k-ft.
Therefore, for Cb = 1.37, bMn = 420 k-ft., which is < Mu (421.44 k-ft), (NOT OK!)
- compact flange
- compact web
Compact section.
- OK!
This example demonstrates the calculation of Cb and the iterative design method.
25
Compression Members: Structural elements that are subjected to axial compressive forces
only are called columns. Columns are subjected to axial loads thru the centroid.
f =
P
A
(2.1)
This ideal state is never reached. The stress-state will be non-uniform due to:
-
Accidental eccentricity and member out-of-straightness can cause bending moments in the
member. However, these are secondary and are usually ignored.
Bending moments cannot be neglected if they are acting on the member. Members with axial
compression and bending moment are called beam-columns.
Consider a long slender compression member. If an axial load P is applied and increased
slowly, it will ultimately reach a value Pcr that will cause buckling of the column. Pcr is called
the critical buckling load of the column.
(a)
Pcr
(b)
What is buckling?
Pcr
The critical buckling load Pcr for columns is theoretically given by Equation (3.1)
Pcr =
2 E I
( K L )2
Effective length factors are given on page 16.1-189 of the AISC manual.
(3.1)
In examples, homeworks, and exams please state clearly whether you are using the
theoretical value of K or the recommended design values.
EXAMPLE 3.1 Determine the buckling strength of a W 12 x 50 column. Its length is 20 ft. For
major axis buckling, it is pinned at both ends. For minor buckling, is it pinned at one end and
fixed at the other end.
Solution
Step I. Visualize the problem
For the W12 x 50 (or any wide flange section), x is the major axis and y is the minor axis.
Major axis means axis about which it has greater moment of inertia (Ix > Iy)
According to Table C-C2.1 of the AISC Manual (see page 16.1 - 189):
-
According to the problem statement, the unsupported length for buckling about the major (x)
axis = Lx = 20 ft.
The unsupported length for buckling about the minor (y) axis = Ly = 20 ft.
Effective length for major (x) axis buckling = Kx Lx = 0.8 x 20 = 16 ft. = 192 in.
Effective length for minor (y) axis buckling = Ky Ly = 1.0 x 20 = 20 ft. = 240 in.
For W12 x 50: elastic modulus = E = 29000 ksi (constant for all steels)
Ix = 391 in4.
2 E I x
(K x
L x )2
2 29000 391
(192)2
2 E I y
(K y L y )2
2 29000 56.3
(240)2
Buckling strength of the column = smaller (Pcr-x, Pcr-y) = Pcr = 279.8 kips
Minor (y) axis buckling governs.
Notes:
Minor axis buckling usually governs for all doubly symmetric cross-sections. However, for
some cases, major (x) axis buckling can govern.
Note that the steel yield stress was irrelevant for calculating this buckling strength.
Let us consider the previous example. According to our calculations Pcr = 279.8 kips. This Pcr
will cause a uniform stress f = Pcr/A in the cross-section
For W12 x 50, A = 14.6 in2. Therefore, for Pcr = 279.8 kips; f = 19.16 ksi
The calculated value of f is within the elastic range for a 50 ksi yield stress material.
2 E I y
(K y L y )2
would be calculated as
This value of f is ridiculous because the material will yield at 50 ksi and never develop f =
76.6 kips. The member would yield before buckling.
Equation (3.1) is valid only when the material everywhere in the cross-section is in the
elastic region. If the material goes inelastic then Equation (3.1) becomes useless and
cannot be used.
The residual stresses in the member due to the fabrication process causes yielding in the
cross-section much before the uniform stress f reaches the yield stress Fy.
The shape of the cross-section (W, C, etc.) also influences the buckling strength.
In the inelastic range, the steel material can undergo strain hardening.
All of these are very advanced concepts and beyond the scope of CE405. You are welcome
to CE805 to develop a better understanding of these issues.
So, what should we do? We will directly look at the AISC Specifications for the strength of
compression members, i.e., Chapter E (page 16.1-27 of the AISC manual).
The AISC specifications for column design are based on several years of research.
These specifications account for the elastic and inelastic buckling of columns including all
issues (member crookedness, residual stresses, accidental eccentricity etc.) mentioned above.
The specification presented here (AISC Spec E2) will work for all doubly symmetric crosssections and channel sections.
The design strength of columns for the flexural buckling limit state is equal to cPn
Where,
c = 0.85
Pn = Ag Fcr
(3.2)
For c 1.5
Fcr = 0.658 c Fy
(3.3)
0.877
Fcr = 2 Fy
c
(3.4)
Where, c =
K L Fy
r E
(3.5)
1.0
Fcr = 0.658 c
2
)F
Fcr/Fy
0.877
Fcr = 2 Fy
c
0.39
c =
K L Fy
r E
1.5
2E I
(K L )2
Pcr
2E
I
2E
2E
2
r
=
=
2
A g (K L )2 A g (K L )2
K L
r
F
1
1
2E
=
= 2
cr =
2
2
Fy K L
c
Fy K L y
r
r
E
1
Fcr = Fy 2
c
Fcr =
0.877
2c
The 0.877 factor tries to account for initial crookedness.
Calculate I, Ag, r
Calculate c
If c is greater than 1.5, elastic buckling occurs and use Equation (3.4)
If c is less than or equal to 1.5, inelastic buckling occurs and use Equation (3.3)
Note that the column can develop its yield strength Fy as c approaches zero.
Table 3-36 on page 16.1-143 shows KL/r vs. cFcr for steels with Fy = 36 ksi.
You can calculate KL/r for the column, then read the value of cFcr from this table
Table 3-50 on page 16.1-145 shows KL/r vs. cFcr for steels with Fy = 50 ksi.
Table 4 on page 16.1-147 shows c vs. cFcr/Fy for all steels with any Fy.
You can calculate c for the column, the read the value of cFcr/Fy
EXAMPLE 3.2 Calculate the design strength of W14 x 74 with length of 20 ft. and pinned ends.
Step I. Calculate the effective length and slenderness ratio for the problem
Kx = Ky = 1.0
Lx = Ly = 240 in.
Major axis slenderness ratio = KxLx/rx = 240/6.04 = 39.735
Minor axis slenderness ratio = KyLy/ry = 240/2.48 = 96.77
Step II. Calculate the buckling strength for governing slenderness ratio
c < 1.5;
K y Ly
Fy
ry
= 1.085
Check calculated values with Table 3-36. For KL/r = 97, cFcr = 18.7 ksi
10
The AISC specifications for column strength assume that column buckling is the governing
limit state. However, if the column section is made of thin (slender) plate elements, then
failure can occur due to local buckling of the flanges or the webs.
If local buckling of the individual plate elements occurs, then the column may not be able to
develop its buckling strength.
Therefore, the local buckling limit state must be prevented from controlling the column
strength.
Local buckling depends on the slenderness (width-to-thickness b/t ratio) of the plate element
and the yield stress (Fy) of the material.
Each plate element must be stocky enough, i.e., have a b/t ratio that prevents local buckling
from governing the column strength.
11
The AISC specification B5 provides the slenderness (b/t) limits that the individual plate
elements must satisfy so that local buckling does not control.
The AISC specification provides two slenderness limits (p and r) for the local buckling of
plate elements.
Compact
Axial Force, F
Fy
Non-Compact
Slender
b
F
t
Axial shortening,
If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is greater than r then it is slender. It will
locally buckle in the elastic range before reaching Fy
If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than r but greater than p, then it
is non-compact. It will locally buckle immediately after reaching Fy
If the slenderness ratio (b/t) of the plate element is less than p, then the element is
If all the plate elements of a cross-section are compact, then the section is compact.
-
The slenderness limits p and r for various plate elements with different boundary
conditions are given in Table B5.1 on pages 16.1-14 and 16.1-15 of the AISC Spec.
12
Note that the slenderness limits (p and r) and the definition of plate slenderness (b/t) ratio
depend upon the boundary conditions for the plate.
-
If the plate is supported along two edges parallel to the direction of compression force,
then it is a stiffened element. For example, the webs of W shapes
If the plate is supported along only one edge parallel to the direction of the compression
force, then it is an unstiffened element. Ex., the flanges of W shapes.
The local buckling limit state can be prevented from controlling the column strength by using
sections that are non-compact
-
If all the elements of the cross-section have calculated slenderness (b/t) ratio less than r,
then the local buckling limit state will not control.
For the definitions of b/t, p, r for various situations see Table B5.1 and Spec B5.
EXAMPLE 3.3 Determine the local buckling slenderness limits and evaluate the W14 x 74
section used in Example 3.2. Does local buckling limit the column strength?
Solution
E
= 0.56 x
Fy
29000
= 15.9
36
E
= 0.56 x
Fy
29000
= 15.9
36
13
r = 1.49 x
E
= 1.49 x
Fy
29000
= 42.3
36
Step II. Calculate the slenderness ratios for the flanges and webs of W14 x 74
-
The AISC manual has tables for column strength. See page 4-21 onwards.
For wide flange sections, the column buckling strength (cPn) is tabulated with respect to the
The table takes the KyLy value for a section, and internally calculates the KyLy/ry, then c
=
K y Ly
Fy
ry
; and then the tabulated column strength using either Equation E2-2 or
14
If you want to use the Table 4-2 for calculating the column strength for buckling about the
Use the calculated (KL)eq value to find (cPn) the column strength for buckling about the
For example, consider a W14 x 74 column with KyLy = 20 ft. and KxLx = 25 ft.
-
See Table 4-2, for KyLy = 20 ft., cPn = 467 kips (minor axis buckling strength)
rx/ry for W14x74 = 2.44 from Table 4-2 (see page 4-23 of AISC).
For (KL)eq = 10.25 ft., cPn = 774 kips (major axis buckling strength)
If calculated value of (KL)eq < KyLy then minor axis buckling will govern.
EXAMPLE 3.4 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W14 x 132 that is part of a
braced frame. Assume that the physical length L = 30 ft., the ends are pinned and the column is
braced at the ends only for the X-X axis and braced at the ends and mid-height for the Y-Y axis.
Solution
rx = 6.28 in;
Kx = 1.0
Ky = 1.0
and
Lx = 30 ft. and
ry = 3.76 in;
Ag =38.8 in2
Ly = 15 ft.
Therefore, (KL)eq =
K xLx
30
= 17.96 ft.
=
rx / ry
6.28 / 3.76
<
r = 0.56 x
E
= 13.5
Fy
<
r = 1.49 x
E
= 35.9
Fy
EXAMPLE 3.5 A compression member is subjected to service loads of 165 kips dead load and
535 kips of live load. The member is 26 ft. long and pinned at each end. Use A992 (50 ksi) steel
and select a W shape
Solution
Select W14 x 145 from page 4-22. It has cPn = 1160 kips
16
Select W12 x 170 from page 4-24. It has cPn = 1070 kips
Note that column sections are usually W12 or W14. Usually sections bigger than W14 are
usually not used as columns.
So far, we have looked at the buckling strength of individual columns. These columns had
various boundary conditions at the ends, but they were not connected to other members with
moment (fix) connections.
The effective length factor K for the buckling of an individual column can be obtained for the
appropriate end conditions from Table C-C2.1 of the AISC Manual .
However, when these individual columns are part of a frame, their ends are connected to
other members (beams etc.).
-
Their effective length factor K will depend on the restraint offered by the other members
connected at the ends.
Therefore, the effective length factor K will depend on the relative rigidity (stiffness) of
the members connected at the ends.
The effective length factor for columns in frames must be calculated as follows:
First, you have to determine whether the column is part of a braced frame or an unbraced
(moment resisting) frame.
-
If the column is part of a braced frame then its effective length factor 0 < K 1
17
Then, you have to determine the relative rigidity factor G for both ends of the column
-
G is defined as the ratio of the summation of the rigidity (EI/L) of all columns coming
together at an end to the summation of the rigidity (EI/L) of all beams coming together at
the same end.
E Ic
Lc
G=
EI
Lb
b
Then, you can determine the effective length factor K for the column using the calculated
value of G at both ends, i.e., GA and GB and the appropriate alignment chart
One is for columns in braced (sidesway inhibited) frames. See Figure C-C2.2a on page
16.1-191 of the AISC manual. 0 < K 1
The second is for columns in unbraced (sidesway uninhibited) frames. See Figure CC2.2b on page 16.1-192 of the AISC manual. 1 < K
18
EXAMPLE 3.6 Calculate the effective length factor for the W12 x 53 column AB of the frame
shown below. Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs
in the plane of the frame. Assume that the columns are braced at each story level for out-of-plane
buckling. Assume that the same column section is used for the stories above and below.
10 ft.
W14 x 68
10 ft.
W14 x 68
12 ft.
W14 x 68
18 ft.
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
18 ft.
15 ft.
20 ft.
Step I. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
Lx = Ly = 12 ft.
Ky = 1.0
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to beams and columns
connected to the ends of column AB.
Step II - Calculate Kx
19
Ic
425
425
+
L c 10 12 12 12 6.493
=
=
= 1.021
GA =
Ib
723
723
6.360
+
L b 18 12 20 12
Ic
425
425
+
L c 12 12 15 12 5.3125
=
=
= 0.835
GB =
Ib
723
723
6.360
+
L b 18 12 20 12
This concept for calculating the effective length of columns in frames was widely accepted
for many years.
Over the past few years, a lot of modifications have been proposed to this method due to its
several assumptions and limitation. Most of these modifications have not yet been accepted
in to the AISC provisions.
One of the accepted modifications is the inelastic stiffness reduction factor. As presented
earlier, G is a measure of the relative flexural rigidity of the columns (EIc/Lc) with respect to
the beams (EIb/Lb)
20
However, if column buckling were to occur in the inelastic range (c < 1.5), then the
flexural rigidity of the column will be reduced because Ic will be the moment of inertia of
only the elastic core of the entire cross-section. See figure below
rc = 10 ksi
rt = 5 ksi
Yielded zone
rt = 5 ksi
Elastic core, Ic
rc = 10 ksi
rt = 5 ksi
The beams will have greater flexural rigidity when compared with the reduced rigidity
(EIc) of the inelastic columns. As a result, the beams will be able to restrain the columns
better, which is good for column design.
This effect is incorporated in to the AISC column design method through the use of Table
4-1 given on page 4-20 of the AISC manual.
Table 4-1 gives the stiffness reduction factor () as a function of the yield stress Fy and
the stress Pu/Ag in the column, where Pu is factored design load (analysis)
21
EXAMPLE 3.7 Calculate the effective length factor for a W10 x 60 column AB made from 50
ksi steel in the unbraced frame shown below. Column AB has a design factor load Pu = 450 kips.
The columns are oriented such that major axis bending occurs in the plane of the frame. The
columns are braced continuously along the length for out-of-plane buckling. Assume that the
same column section is used for the story above
W14 x 74
12 ft.
W14 x 74
18 ft.
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
18 ft.
15 ft.
20 ft.
Solution
Step I. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
Ly = 0 ft.
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to beams and columns
connected to the ends of column AB.
22
Ic
341
341
+
L c 12 12 15 12 4.2625
=
=
= 0.609
GA =
Ib
796
796
7.002
+
L b 18 12 20 12
G B = 10
Reduction in the flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
-
Then go to Table 4-1 on page 4-20 of the manual, and read the value of stiffness
reduction factor for Fy = 50 ksi and Pu/Ag = 25.57 ksi.
GB = 10
Note: You can combine Steps II (a) and (b) to calculate the Kx-inelastic directly. You dont need
Note that Kx-inelastic< Kx. This is in agreement with the fact that the beams offer better
resistance to the inelastic column AB because it has reduced flexural rigidity.
23
Design Column AB of the frame shown below for a design load of 500 kips.
Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs in the plane
of the frame.
Assume that the columns are braced at each story level for out-of-plane buckling.
Assume that the same column section is used for the stories above and below.
10 ft.
W14 x 68
10 ft.
W14 x 68
12 ft.
W14 x 68
18 ft.
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
18 ft.
15 ft.
20 ft.
Step I - Determine the design load and assume the steel material.
Step II. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
24
Lx = Ly = 12 ft.
Ky = 1.0
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to beams and columns
connected to the ends of column AB.
Ky Ly = 12 ft.
Account for the reduced flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
GA =
Ic
Lc
Lb
GB =
Ic
Lc
Lb
425
425
0.58
+
10 12 12 12 = 3.766 = 0.592
=
723
723
6.360
+
18 12 20 12
425
425
+
0.58
12 12 15 12 3.0812
=
=
= 0.484
723
723
6.360
+
18 12 20 12
From the column design tables, cPn for X-axis buckling = 612.3 kips
<
r = 0.56 x
E
= 13.5
Fy
<
r = 1.49 x
E
= 35.9
Fy
Lx = Ly = 12 ft.
Ky = 1.0
26
EXAMPLE 3.9
Design Column AB of the frame shown below for a design load of 450 kips.
Assume that the column is oriented in such a way that major axis bending occurs in the plane
of the frame.
Assume that the columns are braced continuously along the length for out-of-plane buckling.
Assume that the same column section is used for the story above.
W14 x 74
12 ft.
W14 x 74
18 ft.
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
18 ft.
15 ft.
20 ft.
Step I - Determine the design load and assume the steel material.
Step II. Identify the frame type and calculate Lx, Ly, Kx, and Ky if possible.
Ly = 0 ft.
Kx depends on boundary conditions, which involve restraints due to beams and columns
connected to the ends of column AB.
27
12 ft.
W14 x 74
18 ft.
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
W12 x 79
B
18 ft.
15 ft.
20 ft.
Kx = 2.0
Best Case Scenario
The best case scenario for Kx is when the beams connected at joint A have infinite flexural
stiffness (rigid). In that case Kx = 2.0 from Table C-C2.1
Actually, the beams don't have infinite flexural stiffness. Therefore, calculated Kx should be
greater than 2.0.
Need to be able to calculate (KL)eq to be able to use the column design tables to select a
section. Therefore, need to assume a value of rx/ry to select a section.
Obviously from the Tables, for (KL)eq = 17.5 ft., W10 x 60 is the first section that will
have cPn > 450 kips
Select W10x60 with cPn = 457.7 kips for (KL)eq = 17.5 ft.
28
Account for the reduced flexural rigidity of the column due to residual stress effects
GA =
Ic
Lc
Lb
341
341
0.833
+
12 12 15 12 3.550
=
= 0.507
=
796
796
7.002
+
18 12 20 12
G B = 10
Calculate value of Kx-inelastic is less than 2.0 (the assumed value) because GB was assumed to
be equal to 10 instead of
W10 x 54 will probably be adequate, Student should check by calculating Kx inelastic and
<
r = 0.56 x
E
= 13.5
Fy
<
r = 1.49 x
E
= 35.9
Fy
29
Ly = 0 ft.
Ky = no buckling
30
So far, we have been talking about doubly symmetric wide-flange (I-shaped) sections and
channel sections. These rolled shapes always fail by flexural buckling.
Singly symmetric (Tees and double angle) sections fail either by flexural buckling about the
axis of non-symmetry or by flexural-torsional buckling about the axis of symmetry and the
longitudinal axis.
4 Fcry Fcrz H
1 1
(Fcry + Fcrz ) 2
(1)
Fcry = critical stress for buckling about the y-axis, see Spec. E2.
31
(2)
(3)
Fcrz =
GJ
(4)
A ro 2
H=1-
Ix + Iy
A
y o2
(6)
ro2
(7)
The section properties for calculating the flexural-torsional buckling strength Fcrft are given
as follows:
(5)
E
2 (1 + )
G=
J, ro2 , H are given for WT shapes in Table 1-32 on page 1-101 to page 1-105
ro2 , H are given for double-angle shapes in Table 1-35 on page 1-108 to 1-110
J for single-angle shape in Table 1-31 on page 1-98 to 1-100. (J2L = 2 x JL)
The design tables for WT shapes given in Table 4-5 on page 4-35 to 4-47. These design
tables include the axial compressive strength for flexural buckling about the x axis and
flexural-torsional buckling about the y and z axis.
32
EXAMPLE 3.10 Calculate the design compressive strength of a WT10.5 x 66. The effective
length with respect to x-axis is 25ft. 6in. The effective length with respect to the y-axis is 20 ft.
and the effective length with respect to z-axis is 20ft. A992 steel is used.
Solution
c-x =
K x Lx
rx
Fy
E
306
50
= 1.321
3.06 3.1416 29000
Values for Ag and rx from page 4-41 of the manual. Compare with tabulated design strength
for buckling about x-axis in Table 4-5
c-y =
2 H
(30.6 + 152.7) 2
(Fcry + Fcrz ) 2 2 0.844
K y Ly Fy
ry
240
50
= 1.083
2.93 3.1416 29000
33
Values for J, ro2 , and H were obtained from flexural-torsional properties given in Table 1-32
on page 1-102. Compare the cPn value with the value reported in Table 4-5 (page 4-41) of
the AISC manual.
E
= 13.5
Fy
E
= 18.08
Fy
Local buckling is not a problem. Design strength = 397.2 kips. X-axis flexural buckling
governs.
3.10 DESIGN OF DOUBLE ANGLE SECTIONS
Double-angle sections are very popular as compression members in trusses and bracing
members in frames.
-
These sections consist of two angles placed back-to-back and connected together using
bolts or welds.
You have to make sure that the two single angle sections are connected such that they do
not buckle (individually) between the connections along the length.
The AISC specification E4.2 requires that Ka/rz of the individual single angles < of the
where, a is the distance between connections and rz is the smallest radius of gyration
of the single angle (see dimensions in Table 1-7)
Double-angle sections can fail by flexural buckling about the x-axis or flexural torsional
buckling about the y and z axes.
34
For flexural buckling about the x-axis, the moment of inertia Ix-2L of the double angle will
be equal to two times the moment of inertia Ix-L of each single angle.
For flexural torsional buckling, there is a slight problem. The double angle section will
have some additional flexibility due to the intermittent connectors. This added flexibility
will depend on the connection parameters.
According to AISC Specification E4.1, a modified (KL/r)m must be calculated for the double
angle section for buckling about the y-axis to account for this added flexibility
2
KL a
KL
=
+
2
KL
KL
+ 0.82
=
1+ 2
r o
r m
35
ry
3/8
member shown in the figure. Two angles, 5 x 3 x are oriented with the
5 x 3 x
long legs back-to-back and separated by 3/8 in. The effective length KL is
16 ft. A36 steel is used. Assume three welded intermediate connectors
Solution
Step I. Determine the relevant properties from the AISC manual
Property
Single angle
Double angle
Ag
3.75 in2
7.5 in2
rx
1.58 in.
1.58 in.
ry
0.824 in.
1.24 in.
rz
0.642 in.
-----
0.322 in4
0.644 in4
ro2
2.51 in.
0.646
c-x =
K x Lx
rx
Fy
E
120.8
3.1416
36
= 1.355
29000
36
1-75, 1-109
0.746 0.746
2
KL
KL
+ 0.82
=
1+ 2
r o
r m
(154.8)o2 + 0.82
ry
1.1312
1 + 1.1312
48
0.829 =158.5
c-y =
Fcry =
Fcrz=
Fcrft = Fcry + Fcrz 1 1 4 Fcry Fcrz H = 9.987 + 151.4 1 1 4 9.987 151.4 02.646
2
0.877
0.877
Fy =
36 = 9.987 ksi
2
c y
1.778 2
GJ 11,200 0.644
= 151.4 ksi
=
Aro2
7.5 2.512
2H
(Fcry + Fcrz )
2 0.646
(9.987 + 151.4)
Flexural torsional buckling strength controls. The design strength of the double angle member is
62.1 kips.
Step V. Compare with design strengths in Table 4-10 (page 4-84) of the AISC manual
cPn for x-axis buckling with unsupported length = 16 ft. = 106 kips
cPn for y-z axis buckling with unsupported length = 16 ft. = 61.3 kips
37
These results make indicate excellent correlation between the calculations in steps II to IV and
the tabulated values.
Design tables for double angle compression members are given in the AISC manual. See
Tables 4-9, 4-10, and 4-11 on pages 4-78 to 4-93
Design strength for flexural torsional buckling accounting for the modified slenderness ratio
depending on the number of intermediate connectors.
These design Tables can be used to design compression members as double angle sections.
38
Stress: The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by Equation (4.1)
f =
P
A
(4.1)
For example, consider an 8 x in. bar connected to a gusset plate and loaded in tension as
shown below in Figure 4.1
Gusset plate
Section b-b
b
7/8 in. diameter hole
a
8 x in. bar
Section a-a
Therefore, by definition (Equation 4.1) the reduced area of section b b will be subjected to
higher stresses
However, the reduced area and therefore the higher stresses will be localized around section
b b.
Fu
Stress, f
Fy
Strain,
Deformations are caused by the strain . Figure 4.2 indicates that the structural deflections
will be small as long as the material is elastic (f < Fy)
Deformations due to the strain will be large after the steel reaches its yield stress Fy.
Excessive deformation can occur due to the yielding of the gross section (for example section
a-a from Figure 4.1) along the length of the member
Fracture of the net section can occur if the stress at the net section (for example section b-b in
Figure 4.1) reaches the ultimate stress Fu.
The objective of design is to prevent these failure before reaching the ultimate loads on the
structure (Obvious).
This is also the load and resistance factor design approach recommended by AISC for
designing steel structures
The values of D, L, W, etc. given by ASCE 7-98 are nominal loads (not maximum or
ultimate)
During its design life, a structure can be subjected to some maximum or ultimate loads
caused by combinations of D, L, or W loading.
3
The ultimate load on the structure can be calculated using factored load combinations,
which are given by ASCE and AISC (see pages 2-10 and 2-11 of AISC manual). The
most relevant of these load combinations are given below:
1.4 D
(4.2 1)
(4.2 2)
(4.2 3)
(4.2 4)
0.9 D + 1.6 W
(4.2 5)
Determine the design forces (Pu, Vu, and Mu) for each structural member
The failure (design) strength of the designed member must be greater than the
corresponding design forces calculated in Step II. See Equation (4.3) below:
Rn >
i Qi
(4.3)
is the resistance factor used to account for the reliability of the material behavior and
equations for Rn
i is the load factor used to account for the variability in loading and to estimate the
ultimate loading condition.
Yielding of the gross section will occur when the stress f reaches Fy.
f =
P
= Fy
Ag
(4.4)
(4.5)
See the AISC manual, section on specifications, Chapter D (page 16.1 24)
Facture of the net section will occur after the stress on the net section area reaches the
ultimate stress Fu
f =
P
= Fu
Ae
(4.6)
Where, t = 0.75 for tension fracture limit state (See page 16.1-24 of AISC manual)
Note 1. Why is fracture (& not yielding) the relevant limit state at the net section?
Yielding will occur first in the net section. However, the deformations induced by yielding
will be localized around the net section. These localized deformations will not cause
excessive deformations in the complete tension member. Hence, yielding at the net section
will not be a failure limit state.
Note 2. Why is the resistance factor (t) smaller for fracture than for yielding?
The smaller resistance factor for fracture (t = 0.75 as compared to t = 0.90 for yielding)
reflects the more serious nature and consequences of reaching the fracture limit state.
The design strength of the tension member will be the lesser value of the strength for the two
limit states (gross section yielding and net section fracture).
Note 4. Where are the Fy and Fu values for different steel materials?
The yield and ultimate stress values for different steel materials are noted in Table 2 in the
AISC manual on pages 16.1141 and 16.1142.
Note 5. What are the most common steels for structural members?
See Table 2-1 in the AISC manual on pages 224 and 2-25. According to this Table: the
preferred material for W shapes is A992 (Fy = 50 ksi; Fu = 65 ksi); the preferred material for
C, L , M and S shapes is A36 (Fy = 36 ksi; Fu = 58 ksi). All these shapes are also available in
A572 Gr. 50 (Fy = 50 ksi; Fu = 65 ksi).
Note 6. What is the amount of area to be deducted from the gross area to account for the
presence of bolt-holes?
-
The nominal diameter of the hole (dh) is equal to the bolt diameter (db) + 1/16 in.
However, the bolt-hole fabrication process damages additional material around the hole
diameter.
Assume that the material damage extends 1/16 in. around the hole diameter.
Therefore, for calculating the net section area, assume that the gross area is reduced by a
hole diameter equal to the nominal hole-diameter + 1/16 in.
Example 3.1 A 5 x bar of A572 Gr. 50 steel is used as a tension member. It is connected to a
gusset plate with six 7/8 in. diameter bolts as shown in below. Assume that the effective net area
Ae equals the actual net area An and compute the tensile design strength of the member.
Gusset plate
b
b
7/8 in. diameter bolt
a
5 x in. bar
A572 Gr. 50
Solution
Hole diameter for calculating net area = 15/16 + 1/16 in. = 1 in.
Gross yielding design strength = 0.9 x 50 ksi x 2.5 in2 = 112.5 kips
Design strength of the member in tension = smaller of 73.125 kips and 112.5 kips
Example 3.2 A single angle tension member, L 4 x 4 x 3/8 in. made from A36 steel is connected
to a gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts, as shown in Figure below. The service loads are 35
kips dead load and 15 kips live load. Determine the adequacy of this member using AISC
specification. Assume that the effective net area is 85% of the computed net area. (Calculating
the effective net area will be taught in the next section).
L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
d b = 5/8 in.
Section a-a
a
Gusset plate
Hole diameter for calculating net area = 11/16 + 1/16 = 3/4 in.
Net section area = Ag (3/4) x 3/8 = 2.86 3/4 x 3/8 = 2.579 in2
Gross yielding design strength = t Ag Fy = 0.9 x 2.86 in2 x 36 ksi = 92.664 kips
The ultimate (design) load can be calculated using factored load combinations given on
page 2-11 of the AISC manual, or Equations (4.2-1 to 4.2-5) of notes (see pg. 4)
According to these equations, two loading combinations are important for this problem.
These are: (1) 1.4 D; and (2) 1.2 D + 1.6 L
(controls)
The ultimate design load for the member is 66 kips, where the factored dead + live
loading condition controls.
The design strength of the member (92.664 kips) is greater than the ultimate design load
(66 kips).
The L 4 x 4 x 3/8 in. made from A36 steel is adequate for carrying the factored loads.
Joint efficiency is a function of: (a) material ductility; (b) fastener spacing; (c) stress
concentration at holes; (d) fabrication procedure; and (e) shear lag.
All factors contribute to reducing the effectiveness but shear lag is the most important.
Shear lag occurs when the tension force is not transferred simultaneously to all elements of
the cross-section. This will occur when some elements of the cross-section are not connected.
For example, see Figure 4.3 below, where only one leg of an angle is bolted to the gusset
plate.
Figure 4.3 Single angle with bolted connection to only one leg.
A consequence of this partial connection is that the connected element becomes overloaded
and the unconnected part is not fully stressed.
Research indicates that shear lag can be accounted for by using a reduced or effective net
area Ae
Shear lag affects both bolted and welded connections. Therefore, the effective net area
concept applied to both types of connections.
x
0.9
L
10
(4.7)
Where, x is the distance from the centroid of the connected area to the plane of the
connection, and L is the length of the connection.
-
Additional approaches for calculating x for different connection types are shown in
the AISC manual on page 16.1-178.
The distance L is defined as the length of the connection in the direction of load.
-
For bolted connections, L is measured from the center of the bolt at one end to the
center of the bolt at the other end.
For welded connections, it is measured from one end of the connection to other.
If there are weld segments of different length in the direction of load, L is the length
of the longest segment.
The AISC manual also gives values of U that can be used instead of calculating x /L.
-
For W, M, and S shapes with width-to-depth ratio of at least 2/3 and for Tee shapes cut
from them, if the connection is through the flanges with at least three fasteners per line in
the direction of applied load ...U = 0.90
For all other shapes with at least three fasteners per line ... U = 0.85
For all members with only two fasteners per line U = 0.75
For better idea, see Figure 3.8 on page 41 of the Segui text-book.
If used in the exam or homeworks, full points for calculating U will not be given
11
Example 3.3 Determine the effective net area and the corresponding design strength for the
single angle tension member of Example 3.2. The tension member is an L 4 x 4 x 3/8 in. made
from A36 steel. It is connected to a gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts, as shown in Figure
below. The spacing between the bolts is 3 in. center-to-center.
-
x
L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
d b = 5/8 in.
a
L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
Gusset plate
Hole diameter for calculating net area = 11/16 + 1/16 = 3/4 in.
Net section area = Ag (3/4) x 3/8 = 2.86 3/4 x 3/8 = 2.579 in2
x is the distance from the centroid of the area connected to the plane of connection
-
For this case x is equal to the distance of centroid of the angle from the edge.
This value is given in the Table 1-7 on page 1-36 of the AISC manual.
x = 1.13 in.
L is the length of the connection, which for this case will be equal to 2 x 3.0 in.
12
L = 6.0 in.
x
1.13
= 1= 0.8116 in.
L
6.0
U = 1-
Gross yielding design strength = t Ag Fy = 0.9 x 2.86 in2 x 36 ksi = 92.664 kips
In Example 3.2
After including the calculated value of U, net section fracture governs the design
strength, but the member is still adequate from a design standpoint.
13
Example 3.4 Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W8 x 24 with four lines if in.
diameter bolts in standard holes, two per flange, as shown in the Figure below.
Assume the holes are located at the member end and the connection length is 9.0 in. Also
calculate at what length this tension member would cease to satisfy the slenderness limitation in
LRFD specification B7
in. diameter bolts
W 8 x 24
3 in.
3 in.
3 in.
Solution:
Ag = 7.08 in2
d = 7.93 in.
tw = 0.285 in.
bf = 6.5 in.
tf = 0.4 in.
ry = 1.61 in.
Gross yielding design strength = t Pn = t Ag Fy = 0.90 x 7.08 in2 x 50 ksi = 319 kips
Ae = U An
14
x
0.90
L
U =1-
x=
(b f t f )
tf
2
+(
d 2tf
2
bf t f +
tw ) (
d
tw
2
d + 2t f
4
x can be obtained from the dimension tables for Tee section WT 4 x 12. See page 1-50
and 1-51 of the AISC manual:
x = 0.695 in.
The calculated value is not accurate due to the deviations in the geometry
U = 1-
x
0.695
= 1= 0.923
L
9 .0
The design strength of the member is controlled by net section fracture = 249.2 kips
According to LRFD specification B7, the maximum unsupported length of the member is
limited to 300 ry = 300 x 1.61 in. = 543 in. = 40.3 ft.
15
If some elements of the cross-section are not connected, then Ae will be less than An
-
However, if the connection is by longitudinal welds at the ends as shown in the figure
below, then Ae = UAg
Where,
U = 1.0
for L w
U = 0.87
for 1.5 w L < 2 w
U = 0.75
for w L < 1.5 w
L = length of the pair of welds w
w = distance between the welds or width of plate/bar
16
Example 3.5 Consider the welded single angle L 6x 6 x tension member made from A36 steel
shown below. Calculate the tension design strength.
Solution
Ag = 5.00 in2
An = 5.00 in2
Ae = U An
- where, U = 1 -
x
L
U = 1-
1.168
= 0.72
6.0
17
For a tension member with staggered bolt holes (see example figure above), the relationship f
= P/A does not apply and the stresses are a combination of tensile and shearing stresses on
the inclined portion b-c.
18
Net section fracture can occur along any zig-zag or straight line. For example, fracture can
occur along the inclined path a-b-c-d in the figure above. However, all possibilities must be
examined.
Empirical methods have been developed to calculate the net section fracture strength
According to AISC Specification B2
s2
4g
s2/4g is added for each gage space in the chain being considered
s is the longitudinal spacing (pitch) of the bolt holes in the direction of loading
g is the transverse spacing (gage) of the bolt holes perpendicular to loading dir.
where U = 1- x /L
(t = 0.75)
19
EXAMPLE 3.6 Compute the smallest net area for the plate shown below: The holes are for 1 in.
diameter bolts.
i
3 in.
a
b
5 in.
c
5 in.
f
3 in.
d
e
Note
For example, line a-b-c-d-e must resist the full load, whereas i-j-f-h will be subjected to 8/11
of the applied load. The reason is that 3/11 of the load is transferred from the member before
i-j-f-h received any load.
20
Staggered bolts in angles. If staggered lines of bolts are present in both legs of an angle,
then the net area is found by first unfolding the angle to obtain an equivalent plate. This plate
is then analyzed like shown above.
-
The unfolding is done at the middle surface to obtain a plate with gross width equal to the
sum of the leg lengths minus the angle thickness.
AISC Specification B2 says that any gage line crossing the heel of the angle should be
reduced by an amount equal to the angle thickness.
See Figure below. For this situation, the distance g will be = 3 + 2 in.
21
22
For some connection configurations, the tension member can fail due to tear-out of material
at the connected end. This is called block shear.
For example, the single angle tension member connected as shown in the Figure below is
susceptible to the phenomenon of block shear.
(a)
(b)
Shear failure
(c)
Tension failure
For the case shown above, shear failure will occur along the longitudinal section a-b and
tension failure will occur along the transverse section b-c
AISC Specification (SPEC) Chapter D on tension members does not cover block shear
failure explicitly. But, it directs the engineer to the Specification Section J4.3
23
Block shear strength is determined as the sum of the shear strength on a failure path and the
tensile strength on a perpendicular segment.
-
Block shear strength = net section fracture strength on shear path + gross yielding
strength on the tension path
OR
Block shear strength = gross yielding strength of the shear path + net section fracture
strength of the tension path
When Fu Ant 0.6Fu Anv; t Rn = (0.6 Fy Agv + Fu Ant) (0.6 FuAnv + Fu Ant)
When Fu Ant < 0.6Fu Anv; t Rn = (0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt) (0.6 FuAnv + Fu Ant)
Where, = 0.75
Agv = gross area subject to shear
Agt = gross area subject to tension
Anv = net area subject to shear
Ant = net area subject to tension
24
EXAMPLE 3.8 Calculate the block shear strength of the single angle tension member
considered in Examples 3.2 and 3.3. The single angle L 4 x 4 x 3/8 made from A36 steel is
connected to the gusset plate with 5/8 in. diameter bolts as shown below. The bolt spacing is 3
in. center-to-center and the edge distances are 1.5 in and 2.0 in as shown in the Figure below.
Compare your results with those obtained in Example 3.2 and 3.3
x
L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
2 .0
d b = 5/8 in.
.0 3 .0
1 .5 3
a
L 4 x 4 x 3/ 8
Gusset plate
Step I. Assume a block shear path and calculate the required areas
2 .0
d b = 5/8 in.
.0 3 .0
1 .5 3
Gusset plate
Ant = net tension area = 0.75 0.5 x (5/8 + 1/8) x 3/8 = 0.609 in2
Agv = gross shear area = (3.0 + 3.0 +1.5) x 3/8 = 2.813 in2
Anv = net tension area = 2.813 2.5 x (5/8 + 1/8) x 3/8 = 2.109 in2
25
26
Bottom line:
-
Any of the three limit states (gross yielding, net section fracture, or block shear failure)
can govern.
The design strength for all three limit states has to be calculated.
The member design strength will be the smallest of the three calculated values
The member design strength must be greater than the ultimate factored design load in
tension.
Practice Example Determine the design tension strength for a single channel C15 x 50
connected to a 0.5 in. thick gusset plate as shown in Figure. Assume that the holes are for 3/4 in.
diameter bolts and that the plate is made from structural steel with yield stress (Fy) equal to 50
ksi and ultimate stress (Fu) equal to 65 ksi.
gusset plate
3 @ 3 = 9
center-to-center
C15 x 50
1.5
0.798
2
Ae = UAn = 1 An = 1
* 12.19 = 10.57in
6
L
27
Note: The connection eccentricity, x, for a C15X50 can be found on page 1-51 (LRFD).
7
Fu Ant = 65 * 9 3 * 0.716 = 296.6925
8
296.6925
Block shear rupture is the critical limit state and the design tension strength is 464kips.
28
The design of a tension member involves finding the lightest steel section (angle, wideflange, or channel section) with design strength (Pn) greater than or equal to the maximum
factored design tension load (Pu) acting on it.
-
Pn Pu
Pn is the design strength based on the gross section yielding, net section fracture, and
block shear rupture limit states.
Therefore, 0.75 x Ae x Fu Pu
Pu
Therefore, Ae
0.75 Fu
But, Ae = U An
Therefore, 0.9 x Ag x Fy Pu
Pu
Therefore, Ag
0.9 Fy
Thus, designing the tension member goes hand-in-hand with designing the end connection,
which we have not covered so far.
Therefore, for this chapter of the course, the end connection details will be given in the
examples and problems.
The AISC manual tabulates the tension design strength of standard steel sections
-
Include: wide flange shapes, angles, tee sections, and double angle sections.
29
The gross yielding design strength and the net section fracture strength of each section is
tabulated.
The net section fracture strength is tabulated for an assumed value of U = 0.75, obviously
because the precise connection details are not known
The engineer can first select the tension member based on the tabulated gross yielding
and net section fracture strengths, and then check the net section fracture strength and the
block shear strength using the actual connection details.
Additionally for each shape the manual tells the value of Ae below which net section fracture
will control:
Thus, for W shapes net section fracture will control if Ae < 0.923 Ag
For single angles, net section fracture will control if Ae < 0.745 Ag
For Tee shapes, net section fracture will control if Ae < 0.923
For double angle shapes, net section fracture will control if Ae < 0.745 Ag
Slenderness limits
-
Tension member slenderness l/r must preferably be limited to 300 as per LRFD
specification B7
30
Example 3.10 Design a member to carry a factored maximum tension load of 100 kips.
(a) Assume that the member is a wide flange connected through the flanges using eight in.
diameter bolts in two rows of four each as shown in the figure below. The center-to-center
distance of the bolts in the direction of loading is 4 in. The edge distances are 1.5 in. and 2.0
in. as shown in the figure below. Steel material is A992
in. d iameter bolts
2 in.
4 in.
2 in.
4 in.
1.5 in.
1.5 in.
SOLUTION
Go to the TEN section of the AISC manual. See Table 3-1 on pages 3-17 to 3-19.
From this table, select W8x10 with Ag = 2.96 in2, Ae = 2.22 in2.
Gross yielding strength = 133 kips, and net section fracture strength=108 kips
Assumed U = 0.75. And, net section fracture will govern if Ae < 0.923 Ag
Step II. Calculate the net section fracture strength for the actual connection
-
The connection is only through the flanges. Therefore, the shear lag factor U will be the
distance from the top of the flange to the centroid of a WT 4 x 5.
31
See DIM section of the AISC manual. See Table 1-8, on pages 1-50, 1-51
x = 0.953
U = 1- x /L = 1 - 0.953 / 4 = 0.76
Assume, Ae = 0.76 An
- Go to the section dimension table 1-1 on page 1-22 of the AISC manual. Select next
highest section.
32
Ag = 3.84 in2
4 in.
2 in.
4 in.
1.5 in.
1.5 in.
The block shear path is show above. Four blocks will separate from the tension
member (two from each flange) as shown in the figure above.
Agv = [(4+2) x tf ] x 4
33
Summary of solution
Mem.
Design
load
Ag
An
Ae
Yield
Fracture
Block-shear
strength
strength
strength
106.7 kips
197.2 kips
34
EXAMPLE 3.11 Design a member to carry a factored maximum tension load of 100 kips.
(b) The member is a single angle section connected through one leg using four 1 in. diameter
bolts. The center-to-center distance of the bolts is 3 in. The edge distances are 2 in. Steel
material is A36
x
3.0 in.
4.0 in.
2.0 in.
3.0 in.
3.0 in.
Go to the TEN section of the AISC manual. See Table 3-2 on pages 3-20 to 3-21.
From this table, select L4x3x1/2 with Ag = 3.25 in2, Ae = 2.44 in2.
Gross yielding strength = 105 kips, and net section fracture strength=106 kips
Assumed U = 0.75. And, net section fracture will govern if Ae < 0.745 Ag
Step II. Calculate the net section fracture strength for the actual connection
-
The connection is only through the long leg. Therefore, the shear lag factor U will be the
distance from the back of the long leg to the centroid of the angle.
See DIM section of the AISC manual. See Table 1-7, on pages 1-36, 1-37
x = 0.822 in.
U = 1- x /L = 1 - 0.822 /9 = 0.908
2.0 in.
3.0 in.
3.0 in.
36
Summary of solution
Mem.
Design
load
L4x3x1/2 100 kips
Yield
Fracture
Block-shear
strength
strength
strength
3.25 2.69 0.9 2.41 105 kips
104.8 kips
119.13 kips
Design strength = 104.8 kips (net section fracture governs)
L4x3x1/2 is adequate for Pu = 100 kips and the given connection
Ag
An
Ae
Note: For this problem Ae/Ag = 2.41/3.25 = 0.741, which is < 0.745. As predicted by the
AISC manual, when Ae /Ag < 0.745, net section fracture governs.
37
There are different types of bolted connections. They can be categorized based on the type of
loading.
-
Tension member connection and splice. It subjects the bolts to forces that tend to shear
the shank.
Beam end simple connection. It subjects the bolts to forces that tend to shear the shank.
You can calculate the shear strength or the tensile strength of a bolt
Simple connection: If the line of action of the force acting on the connection passes through
the center of gravity of the connection, then each bolt can be assumed to resist an equal share
of the load.
The strength of the simple connection will be equal to the sum of the strengths of the
individual bolts in the connection.
We want to design the bolted shear connections so that the factored design strength ( Rn) is
greater than or equal to the factored load.
So, we need to examine the various possible failure modes and calculate the corresponding
design strengths.
When the bolt is in double shear, two cross-sections are effective in resisting the load.
The bolt in double shear will have the twice the shear strength of a bolt in single shear.
Hole is slightly larger than the fastener and the fastener is loosely placed in hole
Contact between the fastener and the connected part over approximately half the
circumference of the fastener
As such the stress will be highest at the radial contact point (A). However, the average
stress can be calculated as the applied force divided by the projected area of contact
Average bearing stress fp = P/(db t), where P is the force applied to the fastener.
The bearing stress state can be complicated by the presence of nearby bolt or edge. The
bolt spacing and edge distance will have an effect on the bearing str.
Bearing stress effects are independent of the bolt type because the bearing stress acts on
the connected plate not the bolt.
A possible failure mode resulting from excessive bearing close to the edge of the
connected element is shear tear-out as shown below. This type of shear tear-out can also
occur between two holes in the direction of the bearing load.
Rn = 2 x 0.6 Fu Lc t = 1.2 Fu Lc t
To prevent excessive deformation of the hole, an upper limit is placed on the bearing
load. This upper limit is proportional to the fracture stress times the projected bearing
area
Rn = C x Fu x bearing area = C Fu db t
If deformation is not a concern then C = 3, If deformation is a concern then C=2.4
C = 2.4 corresponds to a deformation of 0.25 in.
Rn = 1.2 Lc t Fu
If Lc > 2 db,
Rn = 1.4 db t Fu
T/n
T/n
T/n
T/n
T/n
T/n
In a bolted shear connection, the bolts are subjected to shear and the connecting / connected
plates are subjected to bearing stresses.
T
The shear strength of all bolts = shear strength of one bolt x number of bolts
The bearing strength of the connecting / connected plates can be calculated using equations
given by AISC specifications.
The tension strength of the connecting / connected plates can be calculated as discussed
earlier in Chapter 2.
AISC Specification J3.3 indicates that the minimum distance (s) between the centers of bolt
2
3
AISC Specification J3.4 indicates that the minimum edge distance (Le) from the center of the
bolt to the edge of the connected part is given in Table J3.4 on page 16.1-61. Table J3.4
specifies minimum edge distances for sheared edges, edges of rolled shapes, and gas cut
edges.
AISC Specification J3.5 indicates that the maximum edge distance for bolt holes is 12 times
the thickness of the connected part (but not more than 6 in.). The maximum spacing for bolt
holes is 24 times the thickness of the thinner part (but not more than 12 in.).
Specification J3.6 indicates that the design tension or shear strength of bolts is FnAb
-
In Table J3.2, there are different types of bolts A325 and A490.
The shear strength of the bolts depends on whether threads are included or excluded from
the shear planes. If threads are included in the shear planes then the strength is lower.
We will always assume that threads are included in the shear plane, therefore less
strength to be conservative.
AISC Specification J3.10 indicates the bearing strength of plates at bolt holes.
-
Rn = 1.2 Lc t Fu 2.4 db t Fu
Lc = clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole and the
edge of the adjacent hole or edge of the material (in.).
Table 7-10 on page 7-33 of the AISC Manual gives the design shear of one bolt. Different
bolt types (A325, A490), thread condition (included or excluded), loading type (single shear
or double shear), and bolt diameters (5/8 in. to 1-1/2 in.) are included in the Table.
Table 7-11 on page 7-33 of the AISC Manual is an extension of Table 7-10 with the
exception that it gives the shear strength of n bolts.
Table 7-12 on page 7-34 of the AISC manual gives the design bearing strength at bolt holes
for various bolt spacings.
-
The tabulated numbers must be multiplied by the plate thickness to calculate the design
bearing strength of the plate.
The design bearing strengths are given for different bolt spacings (2.67db and 3db),
different Fu (58 and 65 ksi), and different bolt diameters (5/8 1-1/2 in.)
Table 7-12 also includes the spacing (sfull) required to develop the full bearing strength
for different Fu and bolt diameters
Table 7-12 also includes the bearing strength when s > sfull
Table 7-13 in the AISC manual on page 7-35 is similar to Table 7-12. It gives the design
bearing strength at bolt holes for various edge distances.
The tabulated numbers must be multiplied by the plate thickness to calculate the design
bearing strength of the plate.
The design bearing strengths are given for different edge distances (1.25 in. and 2 in.),
different Fu (58 and 65 ksi), and different bolt diameters (5/8 1-1/2 in.)
Table 7-13 also includes the edge distance (Le full) required to develop the full bearing
strength for different Fu and bolt diameters
Table 7-13 also includes the bearing strength when Le > Le full
10
3/8 in.
5x
A36
1.25
A36
2.50
65 k
1.25
in. bolts
2.50 1.25
Solution
Step I. Shear strength of bolts
The given edge distances (1.25 in.) > 1 in. Therefore, minimum edge distance
requirements are satisfied.
The given spacing (2.5 in.) > 2.25 in. Therefore, spacing requirements are satisfied.
Rn = 0.75 x (1.2 Lc t Fu) = 0.75 x (1.2 x 0.844 x 0.5 x 58) = 22.02 kips
But, Rn 0.75 (2.4 db t Fu) = 0.75 x (2.4 x 0.75 x 0.5 x 58) = 39.15 kips
11
Rn = 0.75 x (1.2 Lc t Fu) = 0.75 x (1.2 x 1.688 x 0.5 x 58) = 44.05 kips
But, Rn 0.75 (2.4 db t Fu) = 0.75 x (2.4 x 0.75 x 0.375 x 58) = 29.36 kips
Rn = 0.75 x (1.2 Lc t Fu) = 0.75 x (1.2 x 1.688 x 0.375 x 58) = 33.04 kips
Bearing strength of the connection is the smaller of the bearing strengths = 91.76 kips
12
Connection Strength
Shear strength = 63.3 kips
Bearing strength (plate) = 122.34 kips
Bearing strength (gusset) = 91.76 kips
Connection strength (Rn) > applied factored loads (Q). Therefore ok.
13
Example 5.2 Design a double angle tension member and a gusset plated bolted connection
system to carry a factored load of 100 kips. Assume A36 (36 ksi yield stress) material for the
double angles and the gusset plate. Assume A325 bolts. Note that you have to design the double
angle member sizes, the gusset plate thickness, the bolt diameter, numbers, and spacing.
Solution
Step I. Design and select a trial tension member
Select 2L 3 x 2 x 3/8 with Pn = 113 kips (yielding) and 114 kips (fracture)
While selecting a trial tension member check the fracture strength with the load.
Rn = 127 kips
The minimum edge distance = 1 in. for 3/4 in. diameter bolts in rolled edges.
Select spacing = 3.0 in., which is greater than preferred or minimum spacing
14
See Table 7-13 for the bearing strength per in. thickness at the edge holes
Bearing strength at the edge holes (Le = 1.25 in.) = Rn = 44.0 x 3/8 = 16.5 k
See Table 7-12 for the bearing strength per in. thickness at non-edge holes
Bearing strength at bolt holes in each angle = 16.5 + 3 x 29.4 = 104.7 kips
Step V. Check the fracture and block shear strength of the tension member
This has been covered in the chapter on tension members and is left to the students.
See specification J5.2 for designing gusset plates. These plates must be designed for the
limit states of yielding and rupture
-
o An = Ag (db+1/8) x t
o An = 6.5 x 0.5 (3/4 + 1/8) x 0.5 = 2.81 in2
o But, An 0.85 Ag = 0.85 x 3.25 = 2.76 in2
o Rn = 0.75 x An x Fu = 0.75 x 2.76 x 58 = 120 kips
Bearing strength at bolt holes in gusset plate = 22.0 + 3 x 39.15 = 139.5 kips
Member
Gusset Plate
Fracture = 120 kips
Block Shear = ?
16
These large tensile forces in the bolt clamp the connected plates together. The shear force
applied to such a tightened connection will be resisted by friction as shown in the Figure
below.
P
P
Tightened
N =Tb
N =Tb
P
N =Tb
F=N
Tb
F=N
N =Tb
Tb
N = Tb
N = Tb
Thus, slip-critical bolted connections can be designed to resist the applied shear forces using
friction. If the applied shear force is less than the friction that develops between the two
surfaces, then no slip will occur between them.
However, slip will occur when the friction force is less than the applied shear force. After
slip occurs, the connection will behave similar to the bearing-type bolted connections
designed earlier.
17
Table J3.1 summarizes the minimum bolt tension that must be applied to develop a slipcritical connection.
The shear resistance of fully tensioned bolts to slip at factored loads is given by AISC
Specification J3.8 a
Shear resistance at factored load = Rn = 1.13 Tb Ns
where,
= 0.33 (Class A surface with unpainted clean mill scale surface: CE 405)
Tb = minimum bolt tension given in Table J3.1
Ns = number of slip planes
-
See Table 7-15 on page 7-36 of the AISC manual. This Table gives the shear resistance
of fully tensioned bolts to slip at factored loads on class A surfaces.
For example, the shear resistance of 1-1/8 in. bolt fully tensioned to 56 kips (Table J3.1)
is equal to 20.9 kips (Class A faying surface).
When the applied shear force exceeds the Rn value stated above, slip will occur in the
connection.
The shear resistance of fully tensioned bolts to slip at service loads is given by AISC
Specification J3.8 b.
-
See Table 7-16 on page 7-37 of the AISC manual. This Table gives the shear resistance
of fully tensioned bolts to slip at service loads on class A surfaces.
18
For example, the shear resistance of 1-1/8 in. bolt fully tensioned to 56 kips (Table J3.1)
is equal to 16.9 kips (Class A faying surface).
When the applied shear force exceeds the Rn value stated above, slip will occur in the
connection.
The final strength of the connection will depend on the shear strength of the bolts calculated
using the values in Table 7-11 and on the bearing strength of the bolts calculated using the
values in Table 7-12, 7-13. This is the same strength as that of a bearing type connection.
19
Example 5.3 Design a slip-critical splice for a tension member subjected to 300 kips of tension
loading. The tension member is a W8 x 28 section made from A992 (50 ksi) material. The
unfactored dead load is equal to 50 kips and the unfactored live load is equal to 150 kips. Use
A325 bolts. The splice should be slip-critical at service loads.
Solution
Step I. Service and factored loads
Tension member is W8 x 28 section made from A992 (50 ksi) steel. The tension splice must
be slip critical (i.e., it must not slip) at service loads.
If db = 3/4 in.
If db = 7/8 in.
Rn of one bolt = 10.2 kips
Example 5.3
Step I: Service and Factored Loads
D := 50 Kips
L := 150 Kips
Service Loads
Ps := D + L
Ps = 200
Kips
Factored Loads
Pu := 1.2 D + 1.6 L
Pu = 300
Kips
d b :=
3
4
( db) 2
Rn := Fv Ab
n :=
d b :=
Ab :=
in
Rn = 7.51 Kips
Ps
Rn
7
8
in
Ab :=
( db) 2
Rn := Fv Ab
n :=
Rn = 10.222Kips
Ps
Rn
say we provide 24 bolts on either side of the center line, 6 on either side of the flanges, top + bottom
Step III: Connection Details and spacings for 24 bolts on each W8 x 28
Note that there are 24 bolts on either side of the center line. In all there are 48 number - 7/8 in dia bolts
used in the connection.
Minimum pretension applied to the bolts = 39.0 Kips from Table J3.1
Le := 1.25 in
s := 2.67 d b
s = 2.336
in
Preferred spacing = s := 3 d b
From table 7-12
s = 2.625
in
sfull := 2.6875 in
s := 3 in
The splice connection should be designed as a normal shear / bearing connection beyong this point for the
factored load = 300 kips
The shear strength of the bolts (Table 7-10) = 21.6 kips/bolt x 24 bolts = 518.4 Kips
Be := 45.7
Kip / in thickness
Table 7-13
Kip / in thickness
Table 7-12
Bt := 4 Be + 20 Bo
3
Bt = 2.223 10
Step V: Design the splice plate
Fy := 50 Ksi
Fu := 65 Ksi
Kips
Pu = 300
Kips
minAg :=
minAn :=
Pu
0.9 Fy
Pu
0.75 Fu
minAg = 6.667
in
minAn = 6.154
in
We know, flange width of W 8 x 28 = 6.54 in. This is the limiting width of the splice plate. The unknown
quantity which is the thickness of each splice plate is calculated as shown.
An := minAn
1
8
Here,
tmin := 2.42 in
Ag := 6.54 t
in
(This is the total thickness of the plate at the top and bottom)
b := 6.54 in
tp := 1.25 in
t := 2 tp
An := 6.154
t = 2.5
in
tmin = 2.42 in
>
Check
>
minAg = 6.667
in
>
minAn = 6.154
in
Ag = 16.35 in
+
An = 6.35
1
8
An = 6.35
2
in
<
in
0.85 Ag = 13.898 in
Kips
>
fracture =
Pu = 300
Kips
Example 4.4 Modify Example 4.2 so that the connection system is slip critical for the factored
load of 100 kips.
Solution
Step I. Design and select a trial tension member (same as example 4.2)
Select 2L 3 x 2 x 3/8 with Pn = 113 kips (yielding) and 114 kips (fracture)
Rn for one 3/4 in. bolt = 1.0 x 1.13 x 0.33 x 28 x 2 = 20.9 kips
Rn for one 7/8 in. bolt = 1.0 x 1.13 x 0.33 x 39 x 2 = 29.1 kips
Rn for and 7/8 in. bolts in double slip = 20.9 and 29.1 kips, respectively.
-
We need at least five in. bolts to have strength Rn = 5 x 20.9 = 104.5 k > 100 k
We need at least four 7/8 in. bolts to have strength Rn = 4 x 29.1 = 116.4 k> 100
Use five in. fully tightened bolts. Bolts must be tightened to 28 kips.
Compare with solution for example 4.2 where only four snug-tight in bolts design.
Structural welding is a process by which the parts that are to be connected are heated and
fused, with supplementary molten metal at the joint.
A relatively small depth of material will become molten, and upon cooling, the structural
steel and weld metal will act as one continuous part where they are joined.
Fillet weld
Fillet weld
The additional metal is deposited from a special electrode, which is part of the electric circuit
that includes the connected part.
In the shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process, current arcs across a gap between
the electrode and the base metal, heating the connected parts and depositing part of the
electrode into the molten base metal.
A special coating on the electrode vaporizes and forms a protective gaseous shield,
preventing the molten weld metal from oxidizing before it solidifies.
The electrode is moved across the joint, and a weld bead is deposited, its size depending
on the rate of travel of the electrode.
As the weld cools, impurities rise to the surface, forming a coating called slag that must
be removed before the member is painted or another pass is made with the electrode.
Shielded metal arc welding is usually done manually and is the process universally used
for field welds.
For shop welding, an automatic or semi automatic process is usually used. Foremost among
these is the submerged arc welding (SAW),
In this process, the end of the electrode and the arc are submerged in a granular flux that
melts and forms a gaseous shield. There is more penetration into the base metal than with
shielded metal arc welding, and higher strength results.
Other commonly used processes for shop welding are gas shielded metal arc, flux cored arc,
and electro-slag welding.
Quality control of welded connections is particularly difficult, because defects below the
surface, or even minor flaws at the surface, will escape visual detection. Welders must be
properly certified, and for critical work, special inspection techniques such as radiography or
ultrasonic testing must be used.
The two most common types of welds are the fillet weld and the groove weld. Fillet weld
examples: lap joint fillet welds placed in the corner formed by two plates
Tee joint fillet welds placed at the intersection of two plates.
Partial penetration groove welds can be made from one or both sides with or without edge
preparation.
A fillet weld can be loaded in any direction in shear, compression, or tension. However, it
always fails in shear.
The shear failure of the fillet weld occurs along a plane through the throat of the weld, as
shown in the Figure below.
L
x cos45o
Throat = a
= 0.707 a
a
a
Failure Plane
P
0.707 a L w
Rn = f w 0.707 a L w
Rn = 0.75 f w 0.707 a L w
fw = shear strength of the weld metal is a function of the electrode used in the SMAW
process.
-
The tensile strength of the weld electrode can be 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 ksi.
The corresponding electrodes are specified using the nomenclature E60XX, E70XX,
E80XX, and so on. This is the standard terminology for weld electrodes.
The strength of the electrode should match the strength of the base metal.
-
If yield stress (y) of the base metal is 60 - 65 ksi, use E70XX electrode.
If yield stress (y) of the base metal is 60 - 65 ksi, use E80XX electrode.
E70XX is the most popular electrode used for fillet welds made by the SMAW method.
Table J2.5 in the AISC Specifications gives the weld design strength
fw = 0.60 FEXX
Additionally, the shear strength of the base metal must also be considered:
For example:
T
Plan
Elevation
Always check weld metal and base metal strength. Smaller value governs. In most cases, the
weld metal strength will govern.
In weld design problems it is advantageous to work with strength per unit length of the weld
or base metal.
6.2.1 Limitations on weld dimensions (See AISC Spec. J2.2b on page 16.1-54 of manual)
otherwise,
aeff = Lw / 4
- Read J2.2 b
- Intermittent fillet welds: Lw-min = 4 a and 1.5 in.
If Lw < 300 a, then effective weld length (Lw-eff) = Lw (1.2 0.002 Lw/a)
Example 6.1. Determine the design strength of the tension member and connection system
shown below. The tension member is a 4 in. x 3/8 in. thick rectangular bar. It is welded to a 1/2
in. thick gusset plate using E70XX electrode. Consider the yielding and fracture of the tension
member. Consider the shear strength of the weld metal and the surrounding base metal.
t = 0.5 in.
a = 0.25 in.
4 in x 3/ 8 in.
5 in.
0.5 in.
0.5 in.
5 in.
Solution
Step I. Check for the limitations on the weld geometry
- AISC J2.2b
- Therefore, OK!
- OK.
Lw-min for each length of the weld = 4.0 in. (transverse distance between welds, see J2.2b)
-Therefore, OK!
- tension yield
Rn = 0.75 x Ae x 65
- tension fracture
Ae = U A
A = Ag = 4 x 3/8 = 1.5 in2
- See Spec. B3
- See Spec. B3
Example 6.2 Design a double angle tension member and connection system to carry a factored
load of 250 kips.
Solution
Step I. Assume material properties
Assume 36 ksi steel for designing the member and the gusset plates.
From Table 3-7 on page 3-32 of the AISC manual, select 2L 5 x 3 x 1/2 made from 36 ksi
steel with yield strength = 259 kips and fracture strength = 261 kips.
- Table J2.4
- J2.2b
(a)
Welding on both
sides of gusset.
L1
(b)
2a
L2
(c)
L3
As shown in the Figure above, 15 in. of 1/2 in. E70XX fillet weld can be placed in three
ways (a), (b), and (c).
-
For option (a), the AISC Spec. J2.2b requires that the fillet weld terminate at a distance
greater than the size (1/2 in.) of the weld. For this option, L1 will be equal to 7.5 in.
For option (b), the AISC Spec. J2.2b requires that the fillet weld be returned
continuously around the corner for a distance of at least 2 a (1 in.). For this option, L2 can
be either 6.5 in. or 7.5 in. However, the value of 7.5 in. is preferred.
Ae = U Ag
For the double angle section, use the value of x from Table 1-7 on page 1-37 of manual.
Option
(a)
x
L
1-0.901/7.5 = 0.88 0.9
(b)
(c)
U = 1
c.g.
Rn > Tu
Therefore,
Rn > Tu
Therefore,
- Spec. J5
1/2
1/2
7.5 in.
7.5 in.
(a)
Two 5 x 3.5 x 1/ 2 in
11
1/2
1/2
7.5 in.
7.5 in.
Harichandran / Varma
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1. The CE405 design project requires each team to demonstrate a good knowledge of structural design.
2. Additionally, each team must demonstrate good report writing and presentation skills.
2.0 APPROACH
It is anticipated that each team will work at least 3 hours per week on the project. The expected
timeline for activities, goals achieved, and submissions for the project will be as follows:
Week
Dates
09/01 - 09/8
II
09/8 09/15
III
09/15 09/22
IV
09/22 09/29
09/29 10/06
VI
10/06 10/13
VII
10/13 - 10/20
VIII
10/20 10/27
IX
10/27 - 11/03
11/03 - 11/10
XI
11/10 - 11/17
XII
11/17 - 11/24
Final report
XIII
11/24 12/01
Develop presentation
Presentation
XIII
12/03 12/05
Submission
Preliminary report
Harichandran / Varma
Project Manager
A&D Engineer
Joshua Dudicz
Mark Gipson
A&D Engineer
A&D Engineer
Clinton Loe
Justin Wing
Andrew Pauly
Brian Mcierney
Steven Siklich
David Stolcenberg
Dan Beauchamp
Michelle Powell
Michael Pluger
Derrick Dielman
Matthew Junak
Luelseged
4
Lin Yu-Chen
Dan Remondino
Jill Beardslee
Kevin Wheeler
Todd Stelma
Mengistu
Kie-Cung Liong
Gregory Heim
Eunai Lee
David Schroeder
Jason Makowski
Dan Kehoe
Helen Ferede
As such all team members are expected to contribute equally to the overall project. Please keep track
of your individual contributions and those of other members in your group. At the end you will be
required to grade your team members efforts and contributions. If possible, briefly indicate individual
efforts and contributions in the preliminary and final project reports.
Harichandran / Varma
The project manager is responsible for the planning, scheduling, coordination, and completion of the
overall design project.
The project manager will also run intelligence and interference for the group.
The project manager will help the chief engineer (CE) and the analysis and design (A&D) engineers to
complete the design project.
The project manager will make the final presentation along with his team.
The CE and the A&D engineers help the project manager to develop the group presentation.
The chief engineer is responsible for the overall accuracy of the completed work.
The chief engineer will provide significant assistance to the A&D engineers to complete the project.
The chief engineer will write the report with the help of the information and drawings provided by the
A&D engineers.
The chief engineer can communicate with the instructor about design issues.
The analysis and design engineers are responsible for working on the details of the project.
They will work together and with the CE and the PM to complete the project accurately and in time.
The A&D engineers are the backbone of the design firm. They should maintain a close working
relationship with the CE.
They will collaborate with the CE to develop the report and with the PM to develop the presentation.
Harichandran / Varma
Figure 1 shows the structural floor plan and layout of a new office building that will be built in
Lansing.
Figure 2 shows the structural elevation of the interior braced frame A-A. All frames in the north-south
direction are similar to the braced frame shown in Figure 2.
The structural elevation of the perimeter moment resisting frame B-B is shown in Figure 3. All frames
in the east-west direction are similar to the moment frame shown in Figure 3.
Design the frame according to the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) specifications.
Step III. Calculate the resultant loads on the interior frame A-A
Step IV. Assume sections for the members of frame A-A. Develop an analytical model of the structure
Step VI: Perform the structural analysis with the assumed members to determine the design forces
Step VII: Design the members for the design forces determined from Step VI
Step VIII: Reanalyze the structure using the designed sections to verify the designs.
Harichandran / Varma
30 ft.
30 ft.
40 ft.
40 ft.
40 ft.
Frame B -B
Frame A-A
Pin/hinge connection
Fix/moment connection
10 ft.
E
P
J
12 ft.
D
12 ft.
C
12 ft.
B
15 ft.
A
30 ft.
30 ft.
Harichandran / Varma
g
10 ft. f
e
b1
a1
12 ft.
d
12 ft.
O
TT
O
N
12 ft.
b
DE
E
B
D
NE
G
SI
15 ft.
a
35 ft.
35 ft.
35 ft.
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Preliminary Analysis
- Model of the structural system
- Summary of results from the elastic analysis of the preliminary structural model
Harichandran / Varma
Harichandran / Varma
This handout discusses the design of connections at joints S and G, shown in the figure below. It is
similar but not identical to the connection design for the design project.
R
S
10 ft.
E
P
J
12 ft.
D
12 ft.
C
12 ft.
B
15 ft.
A
30 ft.
30 ft.
Working point: The working point for a connection is defined as the point of intersection of the
centroidal axes of all members connected at the joint.
The working point (W.P) for all connections should correspond to the joints shown in the line
sketches and assumed in the analysis & design.
Harichandran / Varma
Design the connections using either bolts or welds. Note that welds will be much easier. If you have
assumed bolted connections during member design, then you will find that they will still be adequate
for welded connections.
Example details of connection S and G are shown in the attached sheets. Additional references include
the AISC manual pages 13-11 to 13-17 for truss connections and 13-3 to 13-11 for bracing member
connections. See Example 13.2 (case b on page 13-35) for bracing connection examples. See Example
13.3 (page 13-38) for truss connection examples.
A sample gusset plate design is also shown. Additional reference for gusset plate design can be
downloaded from: http://www.aisc.org/documents/dec_98.pdf
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Harichandran / Varma
Gusset
S
Gusset
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Bracing member
Beam
Beam
Bracing member
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Select double angle section 8 x 6 x 1/2 in. with long legs back-to-back, made from 50 ksi material
y-axis buckling governs, need two connectors along the member length (student design).
Design Connection of member to gusset plate
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5/16
5/16
4
4
5/16
5/16
4
4
Gusset plate design is governed by the length of the critical section subjected to direct tension or
compression. The length of the critical section can be estimate using the Whitmore gage-length
method, shown in the Figure below.
The Whitmore gage-length method assumes that the critical section is located at the last fastener long
the line of force. The length (Lgw) of the critical section is estimated assuming 30o angles of spread
from the length of the plate in direct tension or compression at the first fastener.
The area of the critical section is equal to Lgw multiplied by the thickness (tg) of the gusset.
The thickness (tg) of the gusset plate must be designed so that the gross yielding and net section
fracture strength of the critical section are greater than factored tension force.
Usually, the limit state of gusset plate buckling due to compression forces is also considered in the
design process. However, this is beyond the scope of the current course.
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Therefore, design the thickness (tg) of the gusset plate so that the gross yield strength in compression,
with a factor of 0.85, is greater than the factored compressive force.
(a)
(b)
Lgw =d b +2Ltan 30o
(c)
30o
Lgw =d+2Ltan30o
30o
L
Tu
tTn > Tu
tTn > Tu
tTn > Pu
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Harichandran / Varma
Assume tg = either 3/8 in. or 1/2 in. or 3/4 in. for bolted connection gusset plate. All of these values
are greater than that required. The final choice will be based on the designer. The instructor would
prefer a 1/2 in. thick gusset plate.
Lgw = 8 + 2 x 4 x tan 30o = 12.6 in.
tTn > Tu
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The weld joining the gusset to the beam must be designed for a design force of Tu x sin
The weld joining the gusset to the column must be designed for a design force of Tu x cos
These values come from page 11-22 of the AISC Volume II. Note that there are three other methods
of designing these connections. However, the recommended method is the simplest.
is the angle between the vertical and the line joining the corners of the gussets at the top and bottom
level. Thus, is not exactly equal to the angle of the diagonal bracing member.
In order to use the recommended simple design method for the connection, the bracing member
centroidal axis should pass through the corners of the gusset plates as shown. Thus, the working point
for the bracing member should be located at the corner of the gusset.
This will cause some additional end moment in the beam due to the eccentricity of the working point
with respect to its centroidal axis. This should have to be accounted for in the design process.
However, it is beyond the scope of this course and design project.
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