ESC REPORT

European Heart Journal (2008) 29, 270276

doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm342

Classification of the cardiomyopathies: a position

statement from the european society of
cardiology working group on myocardial and
pericardial diseases
Perry Elliott, Bert Andersson, Eloisa Arbustini, Zofia Bilinska, Franco Cecchi,
Philippe Charron, Olivier Dubourg, Uwe Kuhl, Bernhard Maisch,
William J. McKenna, Lorenzo Monserrat, Sabine Pankuweit, Claudio Rapezzi,
Petar Seferovic, Luigi Tavazzi, and Andre Keren*
Hadassah University Hospital Ein Kerem, Kirjat Hadassah, Jerusalem 91120, Israel
Received 6 March 2007; revised 27 June 2007; accepted 16 July 2007; Online publish-ahead-of-print 4 October 2007

See page 144 for the editorial comment on this article (doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm585)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Keywords

Cardiomyopathy Classification Position statement

Introduction
In biology, classification systems are used to promote
understanding and systematic discussion by arranging organisms
into logical groups and hierarchies. In clinical medicine, similar
principles are used to standardize the nomenclature of disease,
grouping disorders on the basis of shared morphological appearances or particular biochemical and genetic abnormalities. For
more than 30 years, the term cardiomyopathies has been used
to describe disorders of the heart with particular morphological
and physiological characteristics.1 4 The purpose of this position
statement is to update the classification system for cardiomyopathies in order to ensure its continued utility in everyday clinical
practice.

The rationale for a new

classification
When the classification system for cardiomyopathies was originally
conceived, the lack of knowledge about the underlying cause and
pathophysiology of different types of cardiomyopathy was recognized, but there was an implicit assumption that they were distinct
entities. Cardiomyopathies were defined as primary myocardial
disorders of unknown cause; heart muscle disorders of known
aetiology or associated with systemic disorders were classified as
secondary or specific heart muscle diseases. With the passage of
time, the distinction between primary and secondary heart
muscle disease has become increasingly tenuous, as the aetiology
of previously idiopathic disorders has been discovered. Recently,

* Corresponding author. Tel: 972 2 6777 111. Email: [email protected]

& The European Society of Cardiology 2007. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

In biology, classification systems are used to promote understanding and systematic discussion through the use of
logical groups and hierarchies. In clinical medicine, similar principles are used to standardise the nomenclature of
disease. For more than three decades, heart muscle diseases have been classified into primary or idiopathic myocardial diseases (cardiomyopathies) and secondary disorders that have similar morphological appearances, but which are
caused by an identifiable pathology such as coronary artery disease or myocardial infiltration (specific heart muscle
diseases). In this document, The European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases presents an update of the existing classification scheme. The aim is to help clinicians look beyond generic diagnostic labels in order to reach more specific diagnoses.

271

Classification of cardiomyopathies

Proposed new classification

In this statement we define a cardiomyopathy as: A myocardial disorder in which the heart muscle is structurally and functionally
abnormal, in the absence of coronary artery disease, hypertension,
valvular disease and congenital heart disease sufficient to cause the
observed myocardial abnormality.
Cardiomyopathies are grouped into specific morphological and
functional phenotypes; each phenotype is then sub-classified into
familial and non-familial forms (Figure 1). In this context, familial
refers to the occurrence, in more than one family member, of
either the same disorder or a phenotype that is (or could be)
caused by the same genetic mutation and not to acquired
cardiac or systemic diseases in which the clinical phenotype is

influenced by genetic polymorphism. Most familial cardiomyopathies are monogenic disorders (i.e. the gene defect is sufficient
by itself to cause the trait). A monogenic cardiomyopathy can be
sporadic when the causative mutation is de novo, i.e. has occurred
in an individual for the first time within the family (or at the germinal level in one of the parents). In this classification system,
patients with identified de novo mutations are assigned to the familial category as their disorder can be subsequently transmitted to
their offspring.
Non-familial cardiomyopathies are clinically defined by the presence of a cardiomyopathy in the index patient and the absence of
disease in other family members (based on pedigree analysis and
clinical evaluation). They are subdivided into idiopathic (no identifiable cause) and acquired cardiomyopathies in which ventricular
dysfunction is a complication of the disorder rather than an intrinsic feature of the disease. In a departure from the 1995 WHO/ISFC
classification, we exclude left ventricular dysfunction secondary to
coronary artery occlusion, hypertension, valve disease, and congenital heart disease because the diagnosis and treatment of these
disorders generally involves clinical issues quite different from
those encountered in most cardiomyopathies.
The expert panel of the American Heart Association has
suggested that ion channelopathies and disorders of conduction
should also be considered as cardiomyopathies. This suggestion
was predicated on the fact that these genetic disorders are
responsible for altering biophysical properties and protein structure, thereby creating structurally abnormal ion channel interfaces
and architecture.5 However, recent studies suggesting that genes
encoding ion channels may be implicated in subgroups of patients
with dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), conduction disorders, and
arrhythmias7 do not provide an argument for the redesignation of
channelopathies as cardiomyopathies at the present time.

Implications for clinical practice

The most important principle underlying this proposed classification system is its relevance to everyday clinical practice. The division of cardiomyopathies into familial and non-familial forms is
designed to raise awareness of genetic disease as a cause of
heart muscle dysfunction and to provide a logical framework on
which to base further investigations. Importantly, the classification
system does not provide guidance on the diagnostic algorithm that
should be followed whenever a cardiomyopathy is diagnosed, but it
is our intention to provide such advice in subsequent statements.

Cardiomyopathy subtypes

Figure 1 Summary of proposed classification system. ARVC,

arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; DCM, dilated
cardiomyopathy; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; RCM,
restrictive cardiomyopathy (*see table)

Historically, most cardiomyopathies have been defined by the

absence of particular features or associated disorders, but it is
increasingly apparent that many patients with unexplained heart
muscle disease in fact have rare, but well described diseases that
can involve the myocardium. In this new classification system, we
propose a move away from the concept of diagnosis by exclusion
and focus solely on the morphology and function of the heart. This
simple but radical departure from the existing convention means
that the differentiation between cardiomyopathies and specific
heart muscle diseases is abandoned (with the exceptions of

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

an expert committee of the American Heart Association proposed

a new scheme in which the term primary is used to describe diseases in which the heart is the sole or predominantly involved
organ and secondary to describe diseases in which myocardial dysfunction is part of a systemic disorder.5 However, the challenge of
distinguishing primary and secondary disorders in this way is illustrated by the fact that many of the diseases classified as primary
cardiomyopathies can be associated with major extra-cardiac manifestations; conversely, pathology in many of the diseases classed as
secondary cardiomyopathies can predominantly (or exclusively)
involve the heart.
As many cardiomyopathies are caused by mutations in genes
that encode various cardiac proteins, an alternative approach is
to reclassify cardiomyopathies according to the causative genetic
defect.6 However, in clinical practice the pathway from diagnosis
to treatment rarely begins with the identification of an underlying
genetic mutation; more usually, patients present with symptoms or
are incidentally found to have clinical signs or abnormal screening
tests. Even when the genetic defect is known in a family, the identification of clinically relevant disease in gene-carriers still requires
the demonstration of a morphological phenotype. Thus, we
believe that a clinically oriented classification system in which
heart muscle disorders are grouped according to ventricular morphology and function remains the most useful method for diagnosing and managing patients and families with heart muscle disease.

272
hypertension, coronary artery disease, valve disease, and congenital heart anomalies). The aim is to promote a greater appreciation
of the broad spectrum of diseases that can cause cardiomyopathies
in everyday clinical practice.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

dominant pattern of inheritance caused by mutations in genes

that encode different proteins of the cardiac sarcomere. The
majority of patients with sarcomeric protein gene mutations have
an asymmetrical pattern of hypertrophy, with a predilection for
the interventricular septum and myocyte disarray. Left ventricular
cavity size is usually diminished and fractional shortening typically
higher than normal. Progression to left ventricular dilatation and
systolic failure occurs in a minority of patients (up to 10% in
some series). All patterns of hypertrophy are consistent with the
diagnosis of sarcomeric protein disease, but concentric hypertrophy is more frequent in patients with metabolic disorders such
as AndersonFabry disease, mitochondrial cytopathy, and glycogen
storage disease. Additional diagnostic clues in these patients include
the inheritance pattern (X-linked, autosomal recessive) and the presence of signs and symptoms of multi-system disease. Athletic training to national or international level is associated with physiological
changes in left ventricular morphology that can be confused with a
pathological phenotype, but myocardial thickness similar to those
seen in patients with HCM are rare (less than 2% of male athletes).8
In the young, HCM is often associated with congenital syndromes,
inherited metabolic disorders, and neuromuscular diseases. In familial cases, various patterns of inheritance are observed; autosomal
disorders that present in the young include Noonan and
LEOPARD syndrome (dominant) and Friedreichs ataxia
(recessive).9

Dilated cardiomyopathy
DCM is defined by the presence of left ventricular dilatation and
left ventricular systolic dysfunction in the absence of abnormal
loading conditions (hypertension, valve disease) or coronary
artery disease sufficient to cause global systolic impairment. Right
ventricular dilation and dysfunction may be present but are not
necessary for the diagnosis.
The prevalence of DCM in the general population is unknown,
but it clearly varies with age and geography. At least 25% of
patients in Western populations have evidence for familial
disease with predominantly autosomal dominant inheritance.10 12
Familial disease should also be suspected when there is a family
history of premature cardiac death or conduction system disease
or skeletal myopathy. Autosomal dominant forms of the disease
are caused by mutations in cytoskeletal, sarcomeric protein/
Z-band, nuclear membrane and intercalated disc protein genes.
X-linked diseases associated with DCM include muscular dystrophies (e.g. Becker and Duchenne) and X-linked DCM. DCM may
also occur in patients with mitochondrial cytopathies and inherited
metabolic disorders (e.g. haemochromatosis). Examples of
acquired causes of DCM include nutritional deficiencies, endocrine
dysfunction, and the administration of cardiotoxic drugs (Table 1).
DCM can occur at a late stage following cardiac infection and
inflammation. In contrast to active or fulminant myocarditis,
which is by definition, an acute inflammatory disorder of the
heart, often with preserved left ventricular size, inflammatory
DCM is defined by the presence of chronic inflammatory cells in
association with left ventricular dilatation and reduced ejection
fraction; histology and/or immunocytochemistry are, therefore,
necessary for the diagnosis. A proportion of individuals with
inflammatory DCM have persistence of viral proteins in the

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

Historically, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) has been

defined by the presence of myocardial hypertrophy in the
absence of haemodynamic stresses sufficient to account for the
degree of hypertrophy and systemic diseases such as amyloidosis
and glycogen storage disease.1 4,8,9 The aim of this distinction
was to separate conditions in which there is myocyte hypertrophy
from those in which left ventricular mass and wall thickness are
increased by interstitial infiltration or intracellular accumulation
of metabolic substrates. In everyday clinical practice, however, it
is frequently impossible to differentiate these two entities using
non-invasive techniques such as echocardiography or magnetic resonance imaging. One approach to this conundrum is to include the
histological demonstration (on myocardial biopsy) of myocyte
hypertrophy in the definition of HCM; unfortunately, the patchy
and complex nature of most myocardial pathologies means that
this distinction can only be reliably made at post-mortem. In
order to provide a common starting point for clinical investigation,
the presence of intramyocardial storage material is not an exclusion criterion for HCM in this classification scheme. Instead, hypertrophic cardiomyopathies are simply defined by the presence of
increased ventricular wall thickness or mass in the absence of
loading conditions (hypertension, valve disease) sufficient to
cause the observed abnormality.
Inevitably, this approach will be controversial, but it reflects the
terminology that is already in use in paediatric practice and avoids
the circular arguments and contradictions that arise when trying to
confine the term HCM to one narrow phenotype and aetiology
(i.e. sarcomere protein disease). The potential inaccuracy (in a
pathological sense) of the term hypertrophic in some clinical settings is, in our view, outweighed by a shift in the clinical emphasis
towards the development of appropriate diagnostic strategies
based on clues from the history, physical examination, and noninvasive investigations.
The working group considered at some length the issue of
cardiac amyloid, historically regarded as an exemplar of restrictive
cardiomyopathy (RCM), in spite of the fact that, in strict morphological terms, it frequently fails to fulfil most of the features listed in
previous definitions. The arguments for continuing with this convention are that interstitial (rather than intracellular) accumulation
of amyloid protein precludes use of the term hypertrophy and
that, unlike other causes of myocardial thickening, amyloid
has distinct features on electrocardiography and cardiac imaging
that suggest the diagnosis. The counterargument is that the logic
of a morphological classification dictates that increased ventricular
wall thickness caused by amyloidosis should be listed as HCM. The
final consensus was that amyloidosis should be listed in the differential diagnosis of both HCM and RCM, acknowledging that this
still leaves a degree of nosological ambiguity.
Left ventricular hypertrophy in the absence of hypertension and
valve disease occurs in approximately 1:500 of the general population.8,9 Many individuals have familial disease with an autosomal

P. Elliott et al

HCM

DCM

ARVC

RCM

Unclassified

Familial, unknown gene

Sarcomeric protein mutations
myosin heavy chain
Cardiac myosin binding protein C
Cardiac troponin I
Troponin-T
a-tropomyosin
Essential myosin light chain
Regulatory myosin light chain
Cardiac actin
a-myosin heavy chain
Titin
Troponin C
Muscle LIM protein
Glycogen storage disease (e.g. Pompe; PRKAG2,
Forbes, Danon)
Lysosomal storage diseases (e.g.
Anderson Fabry, Hurlers)
Disorders of fatty acid metabolism
Carnitine deficiency

Familial, unknown gene

Sarcomeric protein mutations (see
HCM)
Z-band
Muscle LIM protein
TCAP
Cytoskeletal genes
Dystrophin
Desmin
Metavinculin
Sarcoglycan complex
CRYAB
Epicardin
Nuclear membrane
Lamin A/C
Emerin
Mildly dilated CM
Intercalated disc protein mutations
(see ARVC)
Mitochondrial cytopathy

Familial, unknown gene

Intercalated disc protein
mutations
Plakoglobin
Desmoplakin
Plakophilin 2
Desmoglein 2
Desmocollin 2
Cardiac ryanodine receptor
(RyR2)
Transforming growth
factor-b3 (TGFb3)

Familial, unknown gene

Sarcomeric protein mutations
Troponin I (RCM /2 HCM)
Essential light chain of myosin
Familial amyloidosis
Transthyretin (RCM neuropathy)
Apolipoprotein (RCM nephropathy)
Desminopathy
Pseuxanthoma elasticum
Haemochromatosis
Anderson Fabry disease
Glycogen storage disease

Left ventricular
non-compaction
Barth syndrome
Lamin A/C
ZASP
a-dystrobrevin

Myocarditis (infective/toxic/immune)
Kawasaki disease
Eosinophilic (Churg Strauss
syndrome)
Viral persistence
Drugs
Pregnancy
Endocrine
Nutritional thiamine,
carnitine, selenium,
hypophosphataemia,
hypocalcaemia
Alcohol
Tachycardiomyopathy

Inflammation?

Amyloid (AL/prealbumin)
Scleroderma
Endomyocardial fibrosis
Hypereosinophilic syndrome
Idiopathic
Chromosomal cause
Drugs (serotonin, methysergide,
ergotamine, mercurial agents, busulfan)
Carcinoid heart disease
Metastatic cancers
Radiation
Drugs (anthracyclines)

Tako Tsubo
cardiomyopathy

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Familial

Classification of cardiomyopathies

Table 1 Examples of different diseases that cause cardiomyopathies

Phosphorylase B kinase deficiency

Mitochondrial cytopathies
Syndromic HCM
Noonans syndrome
LEOPARD syndrome
Friedreichs ataxia
Beckwith Wiedermann syndrome
Swyers syndrome
Other
Phospholamban promoter
Familial amyloid
Non-familial

Obesity
Infants of diabetic mothers
Athletic training
Amyloid (AL/prealbumin)

273

ARVC, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy; DCM, dilated cardiomyopathy; HCM, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; RCM, restrictive cardiomyopathy.

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

274
myocardium; viral persistence can also be observed in the absence
of inflammation.
The term mildly dilated congestive cardiomyopathy (MDCM)
has been used to describe patients with advanced heart failure
and severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction occurring with
neither restrictive haemodynamics nor significant left ventricular
dilatation (less than 1015% above normal range). A family
history of DCM is present in over 50% of patients. Although
some pathological findings differ, the clinical picture and prognosis
of MDCM are very similar to those of typical DCM.13
Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a form of DCM that presents with signs of cardiac failure during the last month of pregnancy or within 5 months of delivery.14 Suggested aetiological
factors in PPCM include myocarditis, autoimmunity caused by chimerism of haematopoetic lineage cells from the foetus to the
mother and the haemodynamic stress of pregnancy. PPCM can
occur at any age but is more common in women older than 30
years. It affects women of all ethnic groups, is almost equally
associated with first/second and multiple pregnancies and is
strongly associated with gestational hypertension, twin pregnancy
and tocolytic therapy.

Restrictive cardiomyopathy

hypereosinophilia [e.g. endomyocardial fibrosis (EMF)]. Parasitic

infection, drugs such as methysergide, and inflammatory and nutritional factors have been implicated in acquired forms of EMF.
Fibrous endocardial lesions of the right and/or left ventricular
inflow tract cause incompetence of the atrioventricular valves. Isolated left ventricular involvement results in pulmonary congestion
and predominant right ventricular involvement leads to right
heart failure.
EMF should be distinguished from endocardial fibroelastosis,
occurring in early childhood, characterized by thickening of
mural endocardium mainly of the left ventricle, secondary to proliferation of fibrotic and elastic tissues. It is often associated with
congenital malformations and some data suggest an aetiologic
role for viral infection, in particular, mumps virus.

Arrhythmogenic right ventricular

cardiomyopathy
Unlike HCM, DCM, and RCM, arrhythmogenic right ventricular
cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is defined histologically by the presence
of progressive replacement of right ventricular myocardium with
adipose and fibrous tissue often confined to a triangle of dysplasia
comprising the right ventricular inflow, outflow, and apex. While
these pathologic abnormalities can result in functional and morphological right ventricular abnormalities, they also occur in the
left ventricle, producing a DCM phenotype, or can be present in
the absence of clinically detectable structural changes in either ventricle. For the purposes of this classification, ARVC is defined by the
presence of right ventricular dysfunction (global or regional), with
or without left ventricular disease, in the presence of histological
evidence for the disease and/or electrocardiographic abnormalities
in accordance with published criteria.16
Although uncommon (estimated prevalence 1:5000), ARVC is a
frequent cause of sudden death in young people in some areas of
Europe. Autosomal recessive forms of ARVC (e.g. Naxos and Carvajal syndromes caused by mutations in genes encoding plakoglobin and desmoplakin, respectively) are recognized, but the
majority of cases are caused by autosomal dominantly inherited
mutations in genes encoding plakophilin 2 and other proteins of
the desmosome of cardiomyocytes (Table 1). Mutations in TGF-
and Ryanodine receptor genes may be associated with an ARVC
phenotype.

Unclassified cardiomyopathies
Left ventricular non-compaction
Left ventricular non-compaction (LVNC) is characterized
by prominent left ventricular trabeculae and deep inter-trabecular
recesses.17 The myocardial wall is often thickened with a thin, compacted epicardial layer and a thickened endocardial layer. In some
patients, LVNC is associated with left ventricular dilatation and systolic dysfunction, which can be transient in neonates.
It is not clear whether LVNC is a separate cardiomyopathy, or
merely a congenital or acquired morphological trait shared by
many phenotypically distinct cardiomyopathies. LVNC occurs in
isolation and in association with congenital cardiac disorders
such as Ebsteins anomaly or complex cyanotic heart disease and

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

Restrictive left ventricular physiology is characterized by a pattern

of ventricular filling in which increased stiffness of the myocardium
causes ventricular pressure to rise precipitously with only small
increases in volume. Restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) has
always been difficult to define because restrictive ventricular physiology occurs in a wide range of different pathologies.15 In this
classification system, restrictive cardiomyopathies are defined as
restrictive ventricular physiology in the presence of normal or
reduced diastolic volumes (of one or both ventricles), normal or
reduced systolic volumes, and normal ventricular wall thickness.
Historically, systolic function was said to be preserved in RCM,
but is rare for contractility to be truly normal. Restrictive physiology can occur in patients with end-stage hypertrophic and
DCM but we do not believe that these entities require their
own sub-category.
The exact prevalence of RCM is unknown but it is probably the
least common type of cardiomyopathy. RCM may be idiopathic,
familial, or result from various systemic disorders, in particular,
amyloidosis, sarcoidosis, carcinoid heart disease, scleroderma and
anthracycline toxicity. Familial RCM is often characterized by autosomal dominant inheritance, which in some families is caused by
mutations in the troponin I gene; in others, familial RCM is associated with conduction defects, caused by mutations in the desmin
gene (usually associated with skeletal myopathy). Rarely, familial
disease can be associated with autosomal recessive inheritance
(such as haemochromatosis caused by mutations in the HFE
gene, or glycogen storage disease), or with X-linked inheritance
(such as AndersonFabry disease).
Restrictive ventricular physiology can also be caused by endocardial pathology (fibrosis, fibroelastosis, and thrombosis) that
impairs diastolic function. These disorders can be sub-classified
according to the presence of eosinophilia into endomyocardial diseases with hypereosinophilia [now grouped under hypereosinophilic
syndromes (HES)] and endomyocardial disease without

P. Elliott et al

275

Classification of cardiomyopathies

some neuromuscular diseases. The population prevalence of isolated LVNC is not known, but it is reported in 0.014% of consecutive echocardiograms. In large paediatric series, LVNC is reported
to be the commonest cause of unclassified cardiomyopathies.18
LVNC is frequently familial, with at least 25% of asymptomatic
relatives having a range of echocardiographic abnormalities.
Genes in which causative mutations have been identified include
G 4.5 encoding taffazin (X-linked), alpha dystrobrevin, ZASP, actin,
lamin A/C and a locus on chromosome 11 p 15.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy

Limitations
Inevitably there are circumstances in which this classification
system fails to describe fully the complexity of some disease phenotypes. Some of the most commonly encountered clinical problems include the occurrence of different cardiomyopathies
caused by the same genetic mutation (in unrelated and related individuals); the same cardiomyopathy resulting from many different
mutations, and the evolution of one disease phenotype into
another over time. A further limitation of the proposed scheme
is the problem of the mixed phenotype as, for example, in
patients with dilated and hypertrophied ventricles. Rather than
attempt to construct complex sub-categories that are difficult to
apply in clinical practice, our solution is to modify the definitions
of individual cardiomyopathies in such a way that raises awareness
of the possible spectrum of abnormalities in patients (and families)
with heart muscle diseases. We hope that subsequent revisions of
the classification based on emerging data will resolve any remaining
ambiguities.

Conclusions
This position paper proposes a new classification of
cardiomyopathies that is designed to provide a valid tool for
routine clinical practice. The proposal differs in several ways
from the 1995 WHO/ISFC classification and the system drawn

A classification based on groupings of specific morphological

and functional phenotypes (rather than putative pathophysiological mechanisms, which may be more suited to research purposes than to everyday practice).
Further sub-classification into familial and non-familial forms so
as to raise awareness of genetic determinants of cardiomyopathies and to orient diagnostic tests (including the search for
specific mutations, when appropriate).
Abandonment of the distinction between primary and
secondary cardiomyopathies.
A move away from the predominantly exclusion-based diagnostic work-up towards a positive, logical search for diagnostic
indicators.
The aim of these proposals is to help clinicians look beyond
generic diagnostic labels in order to reach more specific diagnoses
that may be useful for tailored clinical management of patients and
their families.
Conflict of interest: none declared.

References
1. Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M, Maisch B, Mautner B,
OConnell J, Olsen E, Thiene G, Goodwin J. Report of the 1995
World Health Organization/International Society and Federation
of Cardiology Task Force on the definition and classification of
cardiomyopathies. Circulation 1996;93:841 842.
2. Goodwin JF. The frontiers of cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J 1982;48:
1 18.
3. Abelmann WH. Classification and natural history of primary myocardial disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1984;27:73 94.
4. Report of the WHO/ISFC Task Force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Br Heart J 1980;44:672 673.
5. Maron BJ, Towbin JA, Thiene G, Antzelevitch C, Corrado D,
Arnett D, Moss AJ, Seidman C, Young JB. Contemporary definitions and classification of the cardiomyopathies. An American
Heart Association scientific statement from the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee;
Quality of Care and Outcomes Research and Functional Genomics
and Translational Biology Interdisciplinary Working Groups; and
Council on Epidemiology and Prevention. Circulation 2006;113:
1807 1816.
6. Thiene G, Corrado D, Basso C. Cardiomyopathies: is it time for a
molecular classification? Eur Heart J 2004;25:1772 1775.
7. Adler E, Fuster V. SCN5A a mechanistic link between inherited
cardiomyopathies and a predisposition to arrhythmias? JAMA 2005;
293:491 493.
8. Maron BJ, McKenna WJ, Danielson GK, Kappenberger LJ, Kuhn HJ,
Seidman CE, Shah PM, Spencer WH III, Spirito P, Ten Cate FJ,
Wigle ED; American College of Cardiology Foundation Task
Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents; European
Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines. American College of Cardiology/European Society of Cardiology Clinical
Expert Consensus Document on Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy.
A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation
Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Documents and the

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015

Transient left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome or takotsubo

cardiomyopathy is characterized by transient regional systolic dysfunction involving the left ventricular apex and/or mid-ventricle in
the absence of obstructive coronary disease on coronary angiography. Patients present with an abrupt onset of angina-like chest pain,
and have diffuse T-wave inversion, sometimes preceded by STsegment elevation, and mild cardiac enzyme elevation.19 Originally
described in Japan, the condition is reported in Caucasian populations in Europe and North America. Most reported cases
occur in post-menopausal women. Symptoms are often preceded
by emotional or physical stress. Norepinephrine concentration is
elevated in most patients and a transient, dynamic intraventricular
pressure gradient is reported in 16% of cases. Left ventricular function usually normalizes over a period of days to weeks and recurrence is rare. The same kind of reversible myocardial dysfunction is
occasionally encountered in patients with intracranial haemorrhage
or other acute cerebral accidents (neurogenic myocardial
stunning).

up by the expert panel of the American Heart Association. Specific

features of the proposal include:

276

9.
10.
11.
12.

13.

14.

European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines. Eur Heart J 2003;24:1965 1991.
Elliott P, McKenna WJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Lancet 2004;
363:1881 1891.
Burkett EL, Hershberger RE. Clinical and genetic issues in familial
dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;45:969 981.
Dec GM, Fuster V. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med
1994;331:1564 1575.
Mestroni L, Maisch B, McKenna WJ, Schwartz K, Charron P,
Rocco C, Tesson F, Richter A, Wilke A, Komajda M. Guidelines
for the study of familial dilated cardiomyopathies. Collaborative
Research Group of the European Human and Capital Mobility
Project on Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J 1999;20:
93 102.
Keren A, Gottlieb S, Tzivoni D, Stern S, Yarom R, Billingham ME,
Popp RL. Mildly dilated congestive cardiomyopathy. Use of prospective diagnostic criteria and description of the clinical course
without heart transplantation. Circulation 1990;81:506 517.
Elkayam U, Akhter MW, Singh H, Khan S, Bitar F, Hameed A,
Shotan A. Pregnancy associated cardiomyopathy. Clinical

P. Elliott et al

15.
16.

17.
18.

19.

characteristics and a comparison between early and late presentations. Circulation 2005;111:2050 2055.
Kushwaha SS, Fallon JT, Fuster V. Restrictive cardiomyopathy. N
Engl J Med 1997;336:267 276.
McKenna WJ, Thiene G, Nava A, Fontaliran F, BlomstromLundqvist C, Fontaine G, Camerini F. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic
right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Br Heart J 1994;71:
215 218.
Jenni R, Oechslin EN, van der Loo B. Isolated ventricular noncompaction of the myocardium in adults. Heart 2007;93:11 15.
Nugent AW, Daubeney PE, Chondros P, Carlin JB, Colan SD,
Cheung M, Davis AM, Chow CW, Weintraub RG; National Australian Childhood Cardiomyopathy Study. Clinical features and
outcomes of childhood hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: results
from a national population-based study. Circulation 2005;112:
1332 1338.
Gianni M, Dentali F, Grandi AM, Sumner G, Hiralal R, Lonn E.
Apical ballooning syndrome or takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Eur Heart J 2006;27:1523 1529.

Downloaded from by guest on July 30, 2015