KAEA 4347 GIS FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

LECTURE 2

Topic Outline
Coordinate systems
Geo-relational vector data model

Object-based vector data model

Geographic coordinate system

GIS map layers must align spatially
GIS works with map represent features on the Earths

surface
Locations of features on map are based on a plane
coordinate system expressed in x- and y- coordinates
Locations of features on the Earth are based on
geographic coordinate system expressed in longitude &
latitude
A map projection bridges these coordinates systems
The GCS: is the location reference system for spatial
features on the Earths surface. It is defined by longitude
and latitude. Both using angular measures.

 Datum: mathematical model of the Earth, which serves as

the reference for calculating geographic coordinates of a

locations. The definition consists of an origin, the
parameters of the spheroid and the separation of the
spheroid and the Earth at the origin.
Map Projections: the transformation process from
spherical Earth surface to a plane.
Map Projections
Transformation from the Earth surface to a flat surface always involves

distortion, and no map projection is perfect. This is the reason of why

hundreds map projections have been developed for mapmaking.
Commonly used map projections are: Transverse Mercator, Lambert
Conformal Conic, Albers Equal-Area Conic

Projected

Coordinate Systems: also called a plane

coordinate system, is built on a map projection.

Georelational Vector
Data Model

Contents

Georelational Data Model

Representation of Simple Features
Topology
Non-topological Vector Data
Data Models for Composite Features

Geo-relational

Looking at a paper map, we

can tell:

what map features are like.

how they are spatially related to
each other.

Idaho borders Montana,

Wyoming, Utah, Nevada,
Oregon, Washington, and
Canada, and contains
several Indian reservations.
How can computer "see" the
same features and their 1
relationships?

Vector Data Preparation

The vector data model prepares data in two

basic steps:

First, It uses points and their x-, y-coordinates to

represent spatial features as points, lines, and
areas.
Second, it organizes geometry objects and their
spatial relationships into digital data files that the
computer can access, interpret, and process.

So that the computer can process the data.

Vector Data Models

The vector data model has undergone more

changes over the past two decades than any other
aspect of GIS.
ESRI, Inc. has introduced a new vector data model
with each new software package:

Coverage with Arc/Info,

Shape-file with Arc View, and
Geodatabase with ArcGIS.

The coverage and shape file are examples of the

georelational data model, whereas the geodatabase
is an example of the object-based data model.

GEORELATIONAL DATA MODEL

Geospatial data comprise the spatial and

attribute components.

Spatial data describe the locations of spatial

features,
whereas attribute data describe the characteristics
of spatial features.

The georelational data model stores spatial

and attribute data separately in a split system:

Spatial data ("geo") in graphic files.

Attribute data ("relational") in a relational database.

REPRESENTATION OF SIMPLE
FEATURES

The vector data model uses the geometric

objects of point, line, and area to represent
simple spatial features.
A point has 0 dimension and has only the
property of location. It may also be called a
node, vertex, or 0-cell.
A point feature is made of a point or a set of
separate points.
Examples: Wells, benchmarks, and gravel pits.

A line is one-dimensional and

has the property of length.
It has two end points and points
in between to mark the shape of
the line.
It is also called an edge, link,
chain, or 1-cell.
A line feature is made of lines.
Roads, streams, and contour
lines are examples of line
features.

An area is two-dimensional and

has the properties of area (size)
and perimeter.
An area may contain holes,
such as a national forest
containing private land parcels
(holes).
The existence of holes means
that the area has both external
and internal boundaries.
An area is also called a
polygon, face, zone, or 2-cell.

Feature Representation and

Scale

The representation of simple features using

points, lines, and areas is not always
straightforward.
It can depend on map scale.
For example, a city on a 1:1,000,000 scale
map may appear as a point, but the same city
may appear as an area on a 1:24,000 scale
map.

TOPOLOGY

Topology expresses explicitly the spatial

relationships between features.
Topology is the study of those properties of
geometric objects that remain invariant under
certain transformations such as bending or
stretching.
For example, a rubber band can be stretched
and bent without losing its intrinsic property of
being a closed circuit, as long as the
transformation is within its elastic limits.

Adjacency and Incidence

If a line joins two points, the points are said to

be adjacent and incident with the line.

The adjacency and incidence relationships

can be expressed explicitly in matrices.

Node 11 joined node 12 by line 2.

Line 5 is incident from node 14, and
incident to node 12

Adjacency Matrix

nodes

11
12
13
14

11 12 13 14
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0

Incidence Matrix

11
12
13
14

1
-1
0
1
0

2
1
-1
0
0

3
0
1
-1
0

4
1
0
0
-1

5 6
0 0
-1 0
0 -1
1 1

TIGER

TIGER: Topologically Integrated Geographic

Encoding and Referencing.
In the TIGER database, points are called 0cells, lines 1-cells, and areas 2-cells.
The TIGER database includes the spatial
relationships between points, lines, and
areas.

Topology in the TIGER database involves O-cells or

points, 1-cells or lines, and 2-cells or areas.

Using the built-in spatial relationships, we can

associate a block group with the streets or
roads that make up its boundary.
Likewise, we can identify an address on either
the right side or the left side of a street .

ESRI's Coverage Model

Coverage is a topology-based vector data

format.
The coverage model supports three basic
topological relationships:

Connectivity: Arcs connect to each other at

nodes.
Area definition: An area is defined by a
series of connected arcs.
Contiguity: Arcs have directions and left and
right polygons.

Coverage Data Structure

The coverage model

incorporates the topological
relationships into the
structure of feature data.
The data structure of a
point coverage contains
feature identification
numbers (IDs) and pairs of
x- and y-coordinates.

The data structure of a line

coverage

The data structure of polygon

coverage

Topological Polygon Data Layer

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Contiguity of Topological Polygons

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Geo-relational Polygon Dataset

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Importance of Topology

Topology-based data sets require additional

data files to store the spatial relationships
between features.
Topology has at least two main advantages.

The first is the assurance of data quality.

It enable us to detect lines that do not meet correctly

polygons that are not closed properly.
avoid incomplete features and ensure data integrity.

Second, topology can enhance GIS analysis.

NONTOPOLOGICAL VECTOR
DATA

Shapefile is a standard nontopological data

format.
Geometry of a shapefile is stored in two basic
files:

The .shp file stores the feature geometry.

The .shx file maintains the spatial index of the
feature geometry.

NONTOPOLOGICAL DATAs
Advantages

They can display more rapidly on the

computer monitor than topology-based data.

This advantage is particularly important for people

who use, rather than produce, GIS data.

They are nonproprietary and interoperable,

meaning that they can be used across
different software packages.

DATA MODELS FOR COMPOSITE

FEATURES

Composite features refer to those spatial

features that are better represented as
composites of points, lines, and polygons.
ESRIs coverage model, for example,
includes such composite features as TINs
(triangulated irregular networks), regions, and
routes.
The inputs to a TIN include point, line, and
area features.

Data
Structure
of A TIN

 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

TIN Surface of Death Valley, California

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

TIN Surface of Death Valley, California

2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

TOPOLOGY RULES

Object Based Vector Data Model

 4.1 Object-based Data Model

4.2 The Geodatabase Data Model

4.4 Topology Rules refer to

previous slide ppt

4.5 Advantages of the Geodatabase
Data Model
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 Georelational data model is a split system

Object-based model stores spatial and

attribute data together rather than in a split

system
Geometry (spatial data) stored as an attribute
along with other attributes
Eliminates use of split system and need for
data synchronization

4.1 Object-Based Data Model

Windows environment
Menus, icons, etc. instead of command line
Model treats spatial data as objects

Object can represent a spatial feature (road or lake)

Object can also represent a layer or the coordinate

system on which the layer is based

Two Differences between Georelational

and Object-Based Models
1. Stored in single system rather than

split

A Land Use Data Set

Figure 4.1
The object-based data model stores each land use polygon in
a record. The Shape field stores the spatial data of land use
polygons. Other fields store attribute data such as
Landuse_ID and Category.
6

A Major Breakthrough
Using a single system is a major

breakthrough because software

developers must regularly deal with
issues of data storage and data file
structure.

 Second difference between georelational and

object-based data models

2. Allows spatial feature (object) to be

associated with properties and methods

Property - an attribute or characteristic of an

object
Method - a specific action that can be
performed on an object

4.1.1 Classes
Set of objects with similar characteristics
Hierarchical structure

Feature class - data set that stores

features of the same geometry type in

the data base.

Figure 4.2
The Geometry property of the Feature class
can differentiate the object types of point, line,
and polygon.
10

4.2 The Geodatabase Data Model

Third major ESRI data model following

coverage model of 1980s and shapefile

model of 1990s
ArcObjects - collection of thousands of
objects, properties, and methods

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4.2.1 Geometric Representation of

Spatial Feature
Uses geometries of point, polyline, and

polygon to represent vector-based spatial

features
Point - simple feature with a point or multipoint

feature with a set of points

Polyline - set of line segments which may or
may not be connected
Polygon - Made of one or many rings
Ring - set of connected, closed, nonintersecting line

segments
See Box 4.1, page 65 of text

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4.2.2 Data Structure

Geodatabase data model distinguishes

between feature classes and feature datasets

Feature class
Stores spatial data of the same geometry
type
Feature dataset
Stores feature classes that share the same
coordinate system and area extent
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Feature Classes and Feature

Datasets
Feature class is like a shapefile in having

simple features
Feature dataset is similar to a coverage in
having multiple datasets based on the same
coordinate system and area extent

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Figure 4.8
In a geodatabase, feature classes can be standalone feature
classes or members of a feature dataset.

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4.5 Advantages of the Geodatabase

Data Model
Take advantage of functionalities from object-

oriented technology
Convenient framework for storing and
managing GIS data
Eliminates complexity of coordinating between
spatial and attribute components of database
Custom objects may be developed
16

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

Name the three data formats that ESRI has developed for
vector data over the past 20 years.
The geo-relational data model uses a split system to store
vector data. What does a split system means?
Name the three types of simple features used in GIS and their
geometric properties.
Explain the importance of topology in GIS
What are the main advantages of using shapefiles?
Explain the difference between the georelational data model
and the object-based data model
Describe the difference between the geodatabase data model
and the coverage model in terms of the geometric
representation of spatial features
1