EE 215, Winter, 2016

3
3.1

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Simple Resistive Circuits

Definition 1. Exactly two elements connected at a node are said to be connected in series.
Series-connected elements have the same amount of current flowing through them. To see
this, consider the following circuit:
R1

i1 b

is

vs

R2
i2

d i3

R3

Applying KCL to each node in the circuit gives us:

is + i1
i1 + i2
i2 + i3
i3 + is

=0
=0
=0
=0

is = i1
i1 = i2
i2 = i3
i3 = is

Applying KVL, we can write,

k
X
i=1

Ri .

(1)

EE 215, Winter, 2016

3.2

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Resistors in Parallel

Definition 2. Elements connected between a node pair are said to be connected in parallel.
Parallel-connected elements have the same voltage across them. To see this, consider the
following circuit:
a
is

vs

R1

R2

i1

i2

R3
i3

b
Note that we can redraw this circuit as
a
is

vs

R1

R2

i1

i2

b
From KCL at node a,
is i1 i2 i3 = 0 .
The voltage across all resistors is clearly vs , so
i1 R1 = vs

i2 R2 = vs

i3 R3 = vs

vs
R1
vs
i2 =
R2
vs
i3 =
R3

i1 =

R3
i3

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Combining the equations above, we get

is =

where

1
Req

1
.
R1 +R2 +R3

In general, if k resistors are connected in parallel,

X 1
1
=
.
Req
R
i
i=1

(2)

Example 3.1. Find the voltage v and the current through the 30 resistor in the circuit
below.
7.2

+
v

5A

30

64

10

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

EE 215, Winter, 2016

3.3

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Voltage-Divider and Current-Divider Circuits

A lower voltage can be produced from a source using a voltage divider circuit:
i
+

v1

vs

R1

v2

R2

From the discussion of resistors in series, it should be clear that

vs
,
R1 + R2

and so,
R1
vs
R1 + R2
R2
vs .
v2 = iR2 =
R1 + R2

v1 = iR1 =

(3)
(4)

Note that real resistors are manufactured to a specified tolerance typically, 10%, 5%,
and 1%. Therefore, the actual voltage produced by a voltage divider will vary with the
actual values of the resistors. See Example 3.2 in the textbook.
The voltage divider equations above are only valid for an unloaded voltage divider. Attaching a load to the voltage divider changes the voltage division:
i
R1

vs

R2

vo

RL

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

For this circuit, we can show that the voltage vo is

R2
vs .
R1 [1 + (R2 /RL )] + R2

(5)

See Examples 3.2, 3.3, and Assessment Problem 3.2 in the text book.
Whereas a voltage divider circuit divides the total voltage across the resistors, a current
divider circuit (see below) divides current.

is

R1

R2

i1

i2

It is easy to show that

Voltage division and current division can be generalized to n resistors in series and parallel
respectively. Specifically, for the following circuit,
R1

R1

Rj

Rn

Rn1
vj =

where, Req =

i=1

Rj
,
Req

(6)

nRi , and vj is the voltage across the jth resistor.

Similarly, for the following circuit,

R1

R2

Rj

Rn1

Rn

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

ij =
where,

1
Req

Pn

1
i=1 Ri ,

Req
i,
Rj

(7)

and ij is the current through the jth resistor.

Example 3.2. (Assessment Problem 3.4) For the circuit below,

60 V

vo

50

20

70
(a) Use voltage division to determine vo .

30

10

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

(b) Find the current through the 40 resistor, and then use current division to find the
current in the 30 resistor.

EE 215, Winter, 2016

3.4

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

Measuring Voltage and Current

An ammeter measures current. The meter is placed in series with the component to measure
the current through the component. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance so it does not
affect the circuit.
A voltmeter measure voltage. The meter is placed in parallel with the component to measure
the voltage across the component. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance so it does affect
the circuit.
Any instrument used to make measurements must extract energy from the system, and therefore affect the system. Real ammeters equivalent resistance is not zero, and real voltmeters
equivalent resistance is not infinite. The full-scale range of analog meters defines how small
(for ammeters) or large (for voltmeters) the resistance is. Digital multimeters do not share
this limitation.

3.5

Measuring Resistance

A Wheatstone bridge is a circuit that can measure resistance.

R1

R2

i1
v

i2

R3

i3

Rx
ix

The value of the variable resistor R3 is adjusted so that there is no voltage drop across the
meter. In this state, the bridge is balanced and we can draw the circuit as

R1

R2

i1
v

i2
0A

R3

i3

Rx
ix

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

10

In this state, no current flows from node a to node b, so from KCL,

(8)
(9)

i1 R1 = i2 R2
i3 R3 = ix Rx

(10)
(11)

and from KVL,

Substituting Equations 8 and 9 into Equation 11, we get

R3
i1 .
Rx
Finally, substituting Equation 3.5 into Equation 10, we get


R3
i1 R1 =
i1 R2
Rx
R2
Rx =
R3
R1
i2 =

Therefore, by adjusting R3 , we can find the value of Rx . Note that we must set the ratio
so that it is possible to balance the circuit.

R2
R1

See Assessment Problem 3.7.

3.6

Delta-to-Wye Transformations

The following circuit cannot be simplified using simple parallel and series resistance rules.

R1

R2
Rm

R3

Instead, we can use a delta-to-wye transformation:

R3

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

11

Rc
a

R1
R2

Rb

Ra

R3

These circuits are equivalent if the resistance measured at each terminal pair are the same.
Using the series and parallel resistor equations developed previously, we can write:
Rc (Ra + Rb )
= R1 + R2
Ra + Rb + Rc
Ra (Rb + Rc )
= R2 + R3
Rbc =
Ra + Rb + Rc
Rb (Rc + Ra )
= R3 + R1
Rca =
Ra + Rb + Rc

Rab =

(12)
(13)
(14)

We can solve for R1 , R2 , and R3 , i.e., the wye-connected resistors. For example,
Rc (Ra + Rb ) Ra (Rb + Rc ) + Rb (Rc + Ra )
Ra + Rb + Rc
2Rb Rc
,
=
Ra + Rb + Rc

(R1 + R2 ) (R2 + R3 ) + (R3 + R1 ) = 2R1 =

so
R1 =

Rb Rc
.
Ra + Rb + Rc

(15)

Equations for the other resistances (R2 and R3 ), and equations for the delta resistors in
terms of the wye resistors are listed in the textbook.
Example 3.3. The key to solving Example 3.7 in the textbook is to realize that the circuit
5

c
100

125
40

40

37.5

EE 215, Winter, 2016

Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering

12

can be replaced by
5

50

10

12.5

40

Also see example 3.7, and Assessment Problem 3.8.

37.5