BEARING DAMAGE ANALYSIS:

Recognizing and preventing damage in automotive bearings can dramatically increase bearing life
and decrease the potential for improper handling, installation and adjustment. It also reduces
instances of bearing failure, thereby increasing the safety of vehicle passengers.
The most common types of bearing damage that may result in a reduction of bearing or application
life are often caused by insufficient maintenance practices, mishandling, improper adjustment
practices or inadequate lubrication.
The following offers a quick reference to the common causes of bearing damage in automotive
applications.

Roller-end scoring
Metal-to-metal contact from breakdown of lubrication
film.

Cone large rib and

roller large end scoring
Welding and heat
damage from metal-tometal contact.

Roller large end

deformation
Metal flow from excessive
heat generation.

Total bearing lock-up

Rollers skew, slide sideways and lock-up bearing.

Staining
Surface stain with no significant corrosion from moisture
exposure.

Etching
Rusting with pitting and corrosion from moisture/water
exposure.

EXCESSIVE PRELOAD OR OVERLOAD

Line spalling
Roller-spaced spalling from bearings operating after
etching damage.

Rapid and deep spalling

Caused by unusually high stresses. Full race width fatigue
spalling is caused by heavy loads creating a thin lubricant
film and possible elevated temperatures.

Geometric stress concentration

Spalling from misalignment, deflections or heavy loading.

Inclusion origin
Spalling from oxides or other hard inclusions in bearing
steel.

Point surface origin

Spalling from debris or raised metal exceeding the
lubricant film thickness.

IMPROPER FIT

Cone bore damage

Fractured cone due to out-of-round or over-sized shaft.

Cup spinning
Loose cup fit in a rotating wheel hub.

Abrasive wear
Fine abrasive particle contamination.

Bruising
Debris from other fatigued parts, inadequate sealing or
poor maintenance.

Grooving
Large particle contamination imbedding into soft cage
material.

EXCESSIVE END PLAY

Scalloping
Uneven localized wear resulting from excessive end play.

Cage pocket wear

Heavy contact between the rollers and cage pocket surfaces caused
by bearing operating too loosely.
RECOGNIZING AND PREVENTING DAMAGES OF BEARINGS:
Damage to bearings while handling before and during installation and damage caused by improper
installation, setting and operating conditions are, by far, the causes of the largest percentage of
premature trouble.
In the following, examples are shown of the most common types of damage and some of the causes
of this damage.
In many cases the damage is easily identified by the appearance of the bearing, but it is not easy
and sometimes it is impossible, to determine the exact cause of that damage. As an example, a
bearing with scored and heat discolored roller ends and rib is easily identified as a burned up
bearing and damaged beyond further use. The cause of the burning or damage, however, might be
traced to any one of a number of things such as insufficient or improper lubricant. It may be the
wrong type of lubricant or the wrong system for supplying lubricant. Perhaps a lighter or a heavier
lubricant is needed or an extreme pressure type of lubricant rather than a straight mineral oil and a
circulating oil system needed rather than an oil level or splash system. This type of damage could be
caused by excessively tight bearing setting or a combination of too tight setting and inadequate
lubrication.
From this it can be seen that simple examination of a bearing will not reveal the cause of the
trouble. It can reveal if the bearing is good for further service, but often it is necessary to make a
thorough and complete investigation of the mounting, installation and parts affecting the bearing
operation to determine the cause of the damage. Unless the true cause of the damage is found and
corrected, the replacement bearing will be damaged in the same manner and again there will be
premature trouble. This information is not an attempt to make "trouble shooters" or "bearing
experts" of all who read it. It is intended to caution users about possible causes of damage and alert
them to take preventive action. With proper precautions during the handling, assembly and
operation of bearings, almost all damage can be prevented. It is much easier, and a great deal less
expensive, to prevent damage than to determine and correct the cause of damage after the machine
or equipment is in operation.

Typical modes of failures

Mode of contact fatigue

Geometric
stress
concentration
Geometric
stress
concentration
fatigue
results
from
locally
increased stress at the
ends
of
roller/race
contact.

Point
Surface
Origin
(PSO)
PSO is fatigue damage that has its origin associated with surface
asperities, which act as local stress concentrations.

Peeling: This type of fatigue is characterized by a shallow < 2.5 m m (0.1 m in) deep, spalling
which sometimes occurs locally around bruises, grooves, or ends of roller/race contacts where
the EHD film is lost by leakage.

Transverse cracking fatigue

a)
Non-propagating b) Spall propagated by hydraulic pressure
spall
Inclusion origin spall
Damage by mechanisms other than contact fatigue

Abrasive Wear

Spalling

Wear from foreign material. Debris bruises on all contact

surfaces due to hard particles in the lubricant

Brinelling
Brinelling is the plastic deformation of bearing element surfaces due to extreme or
repeated shock loads.

Cage damage

False
brinelling
False
brinelling
is
recognisable by the
grooves worn into the
raceways
by
axial
movement
of
the
rollers
during
transportation.

Cage breakage

Results of good practices

In the preceeding comments, the results of bad handling, improper assemblies, adjustments and
operating conditions have been stressed and the resulting damage shown. The following image
shows what happens when there is good lubrication, good assembly and maintenance and the
proper fitting practice for the bearing application has been followed. This bearing shows that, with
reasonable care in machining the parts and in the assembly and maintenance, it is not difficult to
get excellent life. This bearing operated for over 400,000 km (250,000 miles) in a bus and is still in
excellent condition and probably would run for many more kilometres.

HOW TO DETERMINE PROBABLE CAUSES

BEARING SPEED CAPABILITIES:

The speed capability of a bearing in any application is subject to a number of factors including :

temperature
bearing setting
lubrication
bearing design

The relative importance of each of these factors depends on the nature of the application. The effect
of each factor is not isolated; each contributes, in varying degrees depending on the application, to
the overall speed capability of the design. An understanding of how each of these factors affects
performance as speeds change is required to achieve the speed capabilities inherent in tapered
roller bearings.
Measuring speed
The usual measure of the speed of a tapered roller bearing is the circumferential velocity of the
midpoint of the inner race large end rib (fig. 5-2), and this may be calculated as :
Rib speed:
Vr = pDmn / 60000 (m/s),
where:

Vr = pDmn / 12 (ft/min)

Dm = Inner race rib diameter mm, in,

n = Bearing speed rev/min

Fig. 5-2
Inner race rib diameter. The inner race rib diameter may be scaled
from a print or approximated as the average of the inner race inside
diameter and the outer race outside diameter.
The rib diameter at the midpoint of the roller end contact can be scaled from a drawing of the
bearing, if available, or this diameter can be approximated as the average of the bearing I.D. and
O.D.
DN values (the product of the inner race bore in mm and the speed in rev/min) are often used as a
measure of bearing speed. There is no direct relationship between the rib speed of a tapered roller
bearing and DN value because of the wide variation in bearing cross sectional thickness. However,
for rough approximation, one metre per second rib speed is about equal to 16 000 DN for average
section bearings. One foot per minute is equal to approximately 80 DN.

Speed capability guidelines

Fig. 5-3
Speed capability guidelines for various types of lubrication systems
Fig. 5-3 is a summary of guidelines relating to speed and temperature. There are no clear-cut speed
limitations for tapered roller bearings regardless of the bearing design or lubrication systems. The
Timken Company recommends that testing be performed for all new high-speed applications.
Bearing design
Standard tapered roller bearings can operate at speeds up to about 30 m/s (6 000 ft/min or
approximately 500 000 DN) ; specially designed high speed tapered roller bearings can operate
successfully at speeds of over 200 m/s (40 000 ft/min or about 3 200 000 DN). These speeds can be
achieved for either of these cases provided there is proper setting, adequate lubrication, no shock,
vibration
or
unusual
loading,
and
there
is
adequate
heat
dissipation.
Bearing material limitations
Standard bearing steels cannot maintain the desired minimum hot hardness of 58 Rc much above
135 C (275 F). Special steels that retain their hardness at elevated temperatures are available.
Timken CBS 600 TM VIMVAR steel should be considered for temperatures between 150 to 230 C
(300 to 450 F) and Timken CBS 1 000 TM VIMVAR steel should be used for temperatures above
230 C (450 F).
WARNING: Never spin a bearing with compressed air. The force of the compressed air may cause
the rollers to be expelled with great velocity, creating a risk of serious bodily harm. Proper bearing
maintenance and handling practices are critical. Failure to follow installation instructions and failure
to maintain proper lubrication can result in equipment failure, creating a risk of serious bodily harm.
BEARING DYNAMICS AND SOUNDS:

Preface
A growing awareness of noise pollution, prompted in part by government regulations, has been
noticeable during recent years. One is hard-pressed to single out an industry that has not been
affected, either as a user or a supplier.
In its role as a supplier, The Timken Company can look back on a long history --predating the
current emphasis on noise abatement by many years--of actively practicing noise control. This

philosophy is exemplified not only by an extensive sound test program in its production facilities but
also by an ongoing commitment to research in both fundamental and practical aspects of bearing
related sound.
It is very useful to picture the bearing as playing one of two very distinct roles. In one of these, its
passive role as a transmitter, the bearing merely provides a path for energy transfer between the
rotating and the stationary member, while in the second or active role, it causes its immediate
environment to be excited by virtue of its rotation. It is important to recognize this distinction,
particularly in situations calling for a diagnosis. Essentially, bearings play a significant role in the
transmission of vibration in rotating equipment, however, they usually are not the predominant
source of vibration.
Nomenclature
Symbol Description

Units

d0

Cone raceway mean diameter

mm, in

D0

Cup raceway mean diameter

mm, in

DW0

Roller mean diameter

mm, in

Excitation frequency

Hz

Harmonic index of carrier frequency, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..

Harmonic index of modulating frequency, 0, 1, 2, 3, ..

K1, K2, K3 Geometry-related constants

Kbearing

Bearing stiffness

N/m, lbf/in

Khousing

Housing stiffness

N/m, lbf/in

Ksystem

System stiffness

N/m, lbf/in

Rotational speed

rpm

Number of rollers per row

a (alpha) included cup angle

degree

(beta) included cone angle

degree

n (nu)

degree

included roller angle

The bearing as a transmitter

Simply put, a bearing may be thought of as a massless spring/damper connecting a shaft to its
housing. Typically, the interest lies in determining how vibration is transferred from housing to shaft
or vice versa. For example, the excitation of meshing gears is carried along the shaft, through the
bearing and to the exposed housing surface, where some of the energy is converted to airborne
noise.
Tapered roller bearings enjoy an advantage not found in other types of rolling element bearings.
Since two bearings typically are adjusted against one another, the setting will govern the axial force.
This influences the stiffness of the bearings and thereby the stiffness of the system. By merely
varying the bearing setting, it may be possible to shift any unwelcome resonances out of the
frequency range of interest. Maximum stiffnesses of approximately 1.75 x 109 N/m (10 x 106 lbf/in)
are
common
in
tapered
roller
bearings.
In manipulating the system stiffness, it is essential that the stiffness of the bearing supports
(housing) be taken into account. In simple conceptual terms:
1/Ksystem = 1/Kbearing + 1/Khousing
While the prediction of stiffness in bearings is cumbersome at best, dealing with their damping
characteristics is even more elusive. It has been demonstrated, however, that bearing setting will
affect the amount of damping which can be realized.

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The bearing as an exciter

The excitation potential of any rolling element bearing is determined primarily by the topography of
its rolling surfaces. For example, a severe force pulse would result if a gross imperfection, such as a
spall of sufficient size, were present in an operating bearing. Similarly, small imperfections such as
brinell marks, nicks and any other deviations from perfect roundness of the components, will cause
smaller fluctuation in the dynamic force. Hertzian theory tells us that even minute deformations can
result in forces of significant magnitude. Therefore, this is the mechanism causing the bearing to act
as
an
exciter.
Surface irregularities of various origins lead to dynamic forces. These forces do not remain localized
but are transmitted quite readily into the supporting structure.
The dependence upon a number of rather unwieldy variables prohibits the mathematical
determination of the magnitude of these forces in any one bearing. Their frequencies can be
determined very accurately, though, from the gross dimensions of the bearing and its operating
speed. Three constants can be defined in terms of either the angles or the diameters of the bearing:

These constants, along with the operating speed (S), the number of rollers (Z) and a harmonic index
(i), permit the calculation of certain frequencies. They, in turn, identify specific disturbances (Table
1).
Table
1
Type of Disturbance and Resulting Excitation Frequencies
Disturbance

Frecuency, Hz

Eccentricity of Rotating Member

f0 = S/60

Out-of-Round of Rotating Member

f1i = i * f0

Roller Irregularity, e.g., nick or spall f2i = 2 * k1 * k3 * f1i

Cone Irregularity, e.g., nick or spall f3i = Z * k1 * f1i
Cup Irregularity, e.g., nick or spall

f4i = Z * k1 * k2 * f1i

Roller Size Variation (Rotating Cone) f5i = k1 * k2 * f1i

Roller Size Variation (Rotating Cup) f6j = k1 * f1i
Measurement considerations
The frequencies listed in Table 1 are applicable whenever a bearing is evaluated. A typical approach
employs an accelerometer attached on or near the bearing. By performing a narrow band frequency
analysis of the acceleration signal, one can usually determine if the bearing is damaged or meets a
user established vibration criterion.
To avoid ambiguity when identifying the acceleration spikes occurring at the above frequencies, the
bandwidth must be sufficiently narrow. For example, as the operating speed decreases, so should
the bandwidth.
It is not uncommon to observe modulation, particularly when the signal is obtained in a direction
perpendicular to the axis of the bearing. Under these circumstances, the predominant evidence will
be found at the frequencies f2i f5j or f2i f6j where i and j denote harmonic indices.

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Up to this point it has been assumed that the bearing operates with a 360 load zone. If this is not
the case, such as when operating with radial load and end play, the rollers moving in and out of the
load zone cause a spectrum that tends to have a "smeared" appearance.
As one of the final steps in its quality assurance program, The Timken Company subjects its
bearings to a vibration analysis in highly specialized, accelerometer-equipped test machines.
In addition, the following rationale is employed: "The vibration (dynamic force) level of a bearing,
operating at a specific speed and under a specific preload, is compared to and must meet an
established standard. If this is the case, then by implication the geometric imperfections are of such
small magnitude that the bearing's potential to act as an exciter is considered acceptable." Note that
this implies that the merit of the bearing is strictly a function of the geometric imperfections, not
one of speed and/or load and/or the bearing supports. The vibration signature may, of course, differ
under other combinations of speed and load.
Acoustic implications
The mechanical energy in the bearing-generated dynamic forces and those presented to the bearing
from the rotating member for transmission to the stationary member, will first be transferred to the
structure supporting the bearing. The energy then permeates the structure and will be partially
converted to acoustic energy upon arriving at an air/solid interface. Depending upon the mass,
stiffness, geometry and boundary crossings characterizing the structure, the mechanical energy will
undergo modifications. As a result of this transfer function, the prevailing acoustic energy (or
airborne sound) will be a function not only of the mechanical vibration of the bearing but also the
attenuation/amplification characteristics of each particular structure.
One such structure is the quality assurance equipment employed by The Timken Company. Bearings
are tested for vibration in a relatively unenclosed configuration, i.e., one in which a large percentage
of the bearing surface is exposed. Clearly, this condition is acoustically quite different from one in
which
the
bearing
is
fully
enclosed,
as
for
example,
in
a
machine
tool.
The structure greatly influences the outcome of an acoustic measurement. Since sound is mainly
caused by transverse vibration of the housing walls, a stiffer housing tends to be less noisy than one
that is less rigid. Thus, any comparisons made or conclusions drawn between dissimilar structures
are at best haphazard. The design of the structure can profoundly affect the overall noise
characteristics of the system. This is the most important reason for not attaching sound level
specifications, dB(A), to bearings.
Design considerations
Usually, resonances can be shifted or minimized by selective design, i.e., the shrewd manipulation
of mass and/or stiffness. Where possible, impedance mismatches should be part of the design. For
example, the vibration path between some electric motors and their bases is interrupted by rubberlike inserts. Also, consideration should be given to damping, either in the form of visco-elastic layers
or
mechanical
discontinuities.
The latter is realized wherever bolts, rivets or interference fits.
Within this context, the excitation potential of the bearing can be optimized by a variety of different
techniques. An increase in the operating speed of a bearing causes an upward shift toward the
frequency range of maximum hearing sensitivity. Simultaneously, the overall vibration level
increases. A variation in preload/end play of the bearing can be utilized to bring about a "most
favorable" condition. Run-in will typically result in some "quieting". The same effect can be observed
by going from a condition of marginal lubrication to one of "adequate" lubrication, but there is a
point where additional lubricant flow no longer produces a benefit. It is good practice to fully enclose
the bearing to minimize the direct acoustic path.
Assistance is readily available from Timken Company sales engineers. Their experience can assist
the user in selecting the proper bearing.

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