Pneumonia

Rani S. Gereige and Pablo Marcelo Laufer

Pediatrics in Review 2013;34;438
DOI: 10.1542/pir.34-10-438

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Article

infectious diseases

Pneumonia
Rani S. Gereige, MD, MPH,*
Pablo Marcelo Laufer, MD

Author Disclosure

Practice Gap
The epidemiology of pneumonia is changing; chest radiographs and routine laboratory
testing are unnecessary for routine diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia in children who are candidates for outpatient treatment.

Drs Gereige and Laufer

Objectives

have disclosed no
financial relationships
relevant to this article.
This commentary does
not contain discussion
of unapproved/
investigative use of
a commercial product/
device.

The readers of this article are expected to:

1. Know the cause, clinical manifestations, differential diagnosis, and general approach
to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies of the different types of
pneumonia in children of various age groups.
2. Be aware of the challenges that face the clinician in making an accurate diagnosis of
pneumonia due to the inaccuracies and shortcomings of the various laboratory and
imaging studies.
3. Know the complications of pneumonia in children and their appropriate diagnostic
and therapeutic strategies.

Introduction
Pneumonia is commonly encountered by emergency department and primary care clinicians. Childhood pneumonia remains a signicant cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries, whereas mortality rates in the developed world have decreased
secondary to new vaccines, antimicrobials, and advances in diagnostic and monitoring techniques. (1) This review focuses on pneumonia in children: its causes in various age groups,
clinical manifestations, indications for hospitalization, and the challenges that clinicians face
in making an accurate diagnosis despite the new and emerging diagnostic tests.

Epidemiology
Abbreviations
BAL:
bronchoalveolar lavage
CAP:
community-acquired pneumonia
CA-MRSA: community-associated methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
ELISA:
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
HIV:
human immunodeciency virus
hMPV:
human metapneumovirus
IGRA:
interferon gamma release assay
LRTI:
lower respiratory tract infection
MRSA:
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
MSSA:
methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus
PCR:
polymerase chain reaction
RSV:
respiratory syncytial virus
VATS:
video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery
WHO:
World Health Organization

The incidence of pneumonia varies by age groups and between

developing and developed countries. Worldwide, the overall
annual incidence of pneumonia in children younger than 5
years is 150 million to 156 million cases, (2)(3) leading to
an estimated 2 million deaths per year, most of which occur
in developing countries. (4) Forty percent of cases require hospitalization. (5) In developed countries, the annual incidence of
pneumonia is estimated at 33 per 10,000 in children younger
than 5 years and 14.5 per 10,000 in children ages 0 to 16 years.
In the United States, pneumonia is estimated to occur in 2.6%
of children younger than 17 years. Fortunately, the mortality
rate in developed countries is less than 1 per 1000 per year. (3)
According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
pneumonia is the single largest cause of death in children
worldwide, leading to an annual death of an estimated 1.2 million children younger than 5 years. This accounts for 18% of all
deaths of children younger than 5 years worldwide. (6)
Cases of pneumonia occur throughout the year; however,
the incidence is increased during the colder months in

*Editorial Board. Department of Medical Education, Miami Childrens Hospital, Miami, FL.

Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Miami Childrens Hospital, Miami, FL.

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infectious diseases

temperate climates for unknown reasons. It is presumed

that person-to-person transmission of respiratory droplets enhanced by indoor crowding, impaired mucociliary
clearance, and the peak of viral infections that led to viral
pneumonias with secondary bacterial pneumonias are the
cause of this peak. In tropical climates, peaks of respiratory infections are seen sporadically throughout the year.
(4) Table 1 highlights the risk factors of pneumonia in
neonates and older children and teens.

Definitions
Before further discussion of this topic, it is important to discuss the denitions of the various terms related to pneumonia.

Pneumonia

inammatory process of the lungs, including airways, alveoli, connective tissue, visceral pleura, and vascular
structures. Radiologically, pneumonia is dened as an inltrate on chest radiograph in a child with symptoms of
an acute respiratory illness. (1)(7)

Walking Pneumonia
Walking pneumonia is a term typically used in school-aged
children and young adults with clinical and radiographic evidence of pneumonia but with mild symptoms in which the
respiratory symptoms do not interfere with normal activity.
Typically, Mycoplasma pneumoniae has been implicated as
the organism presumably responsible for walking pneumonia.

Community-Acquired Pneumonia

Pneumonia still remains a condition that is challenging to

accurately diagnose. Therefore, no single denition that
accurately describes childhood pneumonia currently exists. Pneumonia is dened as a lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) typically associated with fever, respiratory
symptoms, and evidence of parenchymal involvement by
either physical examination or the presence of inltrates
on chest radiography. Pathologically, it represents an

Table 1.

pneumonia

Risk Factors of Pneumonia

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) refers to an acute

pulmonary infection in a previously healthy individual acquired in the community (as opposed to hospital-acquired
or nosocomial pneumonia)(8)

Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia
A pneumonia that develops in a hospitalized child within
48 hours after admission is considered hospital-associated

(4)(29)(30)

Risk factor for pneumonia in children

Risk factor for pneumonia in neonates

Sex: M:F [ 1.25:12:1

Socioeconomic/environmental factors:
B Lower socioeconomic status (family size, crowding)
B Low maternal educational level
B Poor access to care
B Indoor air pollution
B Malnutrition
B Lack of breastfeeding
B Cigarette smoke (active and passive smoke exposure)
B Alcohol, drugs, and cigarettes use (increased risk of
aspiration) in teens
Underlying cardiopulmonary disorders and medical
conditions:
B Congenital heart disease
B Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and chronic lung disease
B Diabetes mellitus
B Cystic fibrosis
B Asthma
B Sickle cell disease
B Neuromuscular disorders (especially those associated
with altered mental status)
B Some gastrointestinal disorders (eg, gastroesophageal
reflux, tracheoesophageal fistula)
B Congenital and acquired immunodeficiency disorders

Early-onset
Prolonged rupture of the fetal membranes (>18 hours)
Maternal amnionitis
Premature delivery
Fetal tachycardia
Maternal intrapartum fever
Late-onset
Assisted ventilation (4 times higher in intubated than
in nonintubated)
Anomalies of the airway (eg, choanal atresia,
tracheoesophageal fistula, and cystic adenomatoid
malformations)
Severe underlying disease
Prolonged hospitalization
Neurologic impairment resulting in aspiration of
gastrointestinal contents
Nosocomial infections due to poor hand washing or
overcrowding

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infectious diseases

pneumonia

pneumonia. (9) Pneumonia that affects those individuals

living in chronic care facilities and those who were recently hospitalized fall in this category as well.

Etiology
A large number of microorganisms cause pneumonia,
ranging from viruses to bacteria and fungi (Table 2).
The etiologic agents of pneumonia depend on the patients age. In neonates (0-3 months of age), maternal
ora, such as group B streptococcus and gram-negative bacteria, are common causes that are vertically transmitted.
Overall, Streptococcus pneumoniae remains the most common bacterial cause of pneumonia in children older than 1
week, whereas viruses account for 14% to 35% of cases. (7)
(10) In children ages 3 months to 5 years, 50% to 60% of
cases are associated with viral respiratory infections. (11) In
school-aged children (>5 years), atypical organisms, such
as M pneumoniae and Chlamydophila (previously known
as Chlamydia) pneumoniae, are more common. (12)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae remains the leading cause of
pneumonia in school-age children and young adults.
New vaccines and emerging antibiotic resistance led to
a change in the pathogens implicated in pneumonia. The
rst vaccine that affected the epidemiology of pneumonia
in the United States was the conjugated Haemophilus inuenzae type b vaccine (1990). It drastically reduced invasive disease by this organism. In 2000, the
pneumococcal conjugated 7-valent vaccine not only decreased the rates of invasive disease signicantly (98.7
cases per 10,000 in 19981999 vs 23.4 cases per
10,000 in 2005) but also decreased the incidence of
pneumonia that required hospitalization and ambulatory
visits in children younger than 2 years. (10)(12)(13) The
rates for children ages 1 to 18 years, however, remained
stable. Conjugated vaccines reduce nasopharyngeal colonization. This effect beneted nonimmunized adults
older than 65 years through herd immunity. As expected,
the pneumococcal conjugated 7-valent vaccine led to
a shift of the most common serotypes that cause disease
in children, and the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate
vaccine introduced in 2010 provides additional coverage
against common pneumococcal serotypes 1, 3, 5, 6A, 7F,
and 19A, further decreasing the incidence of pneumonia
that requires hospitalization. (10)(12)(13)
Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (CA-MRSA) should be considered in cases of
complicated pneumonia with empyema and necrosis.
The latter can be severe when associated with inuenza
infection. In the last few years, clinicians have encountered severe secondary bacterial infections after inuenza

infection. This mechanism is still not clear, but animal

models suggest that inuenza A enhances transmission
of bacteria such as S aureus. (13)
New viruses emerged in the past few years. The human metapneumovirus (hMPV) was described in 2001.
Often considered to be a pathogen associated with bronchiolitis, it is described in association with pneumonia.
Children younger than 5 years are susceptible to hMPV
infection, and infants younger than 2 years with primary
infection are particularly at risk of severe infection.
Seroepidemiologic studies indicate that virtually all children are infected with hMPV by 5 to 10 years of age.
In one series, hMPV was isolated in 8.3% (second only
to respiratory syncytial virus [RSV]) of cases of radiologically diagnosed CAP. Children with hMPV were
older than those with RSV (mean age of 19 vs 9 months)
and had a higher incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms
and wheeze. Indicators of severity (such as saturations
on admission, respiratory rate, and duration of stay) were
no different in hMPV compared with other viruses. (13)
(14)
The human bocavirus is in the parvovirus family. Although it has not been cultured yet, it can be identied
by electron microscopy. Initially, its role in pneumonia
was unclear. Preliminary evidence suggests that nearly
all children have produced antibodies to human bocavirus
by school age, and most newborns receive antibodies from
their mothers. (13)(14)

Clinical Manifestations
Pneumonia in children is a challenging diagnosis because
the presenting signs and symptoms are nonspecic, might
be subtle (particularly in infants and young children), and
vary, depending on the patients age, responsible pathogen, and severity of the infection. (1)(4)(7)(13)
In all age groups, fever and cough are the hallmark of
pneumonia. (4) Other ndings, such as tachypnea, increased work of breathing (eg, nasal aring in infants),
and hypoxia, may precede the cough. The WHO uses tachypnea and retractions to effectively diagnose pneumonia in children younger than 5 years but tachypnea
becomes less sensitive and specic as age increases (in
children >5 years). (4) Most of the clinical signs and
symptoms have a low sensitivity and specicity except
for cough, crackles (rales), retractions, rhonchi, and nasal
aring (in young infants), which are highly specic but
not sensitive, meaning that their absence might help rule
out the disease. (1) The rate of diagnosed pneumonia in
patients with fever but no cough or tachypnea is 0.28%.
Upper lobe pneumonias may present with a clinical picture suggestive of meningitis due to radiating neck pain.

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Candida species
Rate of colonization of
gastrointestinal and
respiratory tract of very
low-birth-weight infants
is 25% (during labor and
delivery)
Pneumonia in 70% of
infants with systemic
candidiasis
Congenital toxoplasmosis
Syphilis
Early-onset pneumonia

Fungi

Other

Group B streptococci
Gram-negative enteric
bacteria
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Listeria monocytogenes
Chlamydia trachomatis
Streptococcus pneumonia
Group D Streptococcus
Anaerobes

Herpes simplex virus

Enteroviruses
Adenovirus
Mumps
Congenital rubella
Cytomegalovirus

Bacteria

Viruses

Neonates

Cause by Age Groups

Pathogens

Table 2.

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Chlamydia trachomatis**
Mycoplasma hominis**
Ureaplasma urealyticum**
Bordetella pertussis

Cytomegalovirus (CMV)**
Respiratory syncytial virus
Parainfluenza
Influenza
Adenovirus
Metapneumovirus

Infants

(7)(21)(30)
Respiratory syncytial virus
Influenza A and B
Parainfluenza viruses,
usually type 3
Adenovirus serotypes
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 21,
and 35)
Human metapneumovirus
Rhinovirus
Coronaviruses (including
the severe acute
respiratory syndrome
virus and the New Haven
coronavirus)
Human bocavirus
Human parechovirus types
1, 2, and 3
Streptococcus pneumoniae
H influenzae type b
Nontypable H influenzae
Moraxella catarrhalis
Staphylococcus aureus
(including CA-MRSA)
Streptococcus pyogenes
Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Children <5 years

Epstein-Barr virus
Mumps

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Continued

Coccidioides immitis
Histoplasma capsulatum
Blastomyces dermatitidis

Streptococcus pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Chlamydia pneumoniae
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Chlamydia psittaci
Coxiella burnetti
Klebsiella pneumoniae
Legionella
Streptococcus pyogenes
Brucella abortus

Respiratory viruses
Rare causes of
pneumonia:
B Coronavirus
B Varicella-zoster

Children > 5 years

infectious diseases
pneumonia

Pediatrics in Review Vol.34 No.10 October 2013 441

pneumonia

CA-MRSAcommunity-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Neonates
Herpes simplex virus
B Most common viral
agent to cause earlyonset pneumonia
B From the mother at
time of birth
B 33%-55% of
disseminated herpes
simplex virus fatal
despite treatment
Pathogens
Comments

Table 2.

(Continued)

Infants
**Causes of afebrile
pneumonia of infancy
seen between age 2 weeks to
3-4 months. Symptoms include:
Insidious onset of
rhinorrhea and tachypnea
Staccato cough
Diffuse inspiratory crackles
With or without conjunctivitis

Children <5 years

Adenovirus serotypes 3, 7,
and 21 have been
associated with severe and
complicated pneumonia
Causes pneumonia complicated
by necrosis and empyema.
Frequently are seen after
influenza and chickenpox

Children > 5 years

infectious diseases

Lower lobe pneumonias may present as vague abdominal

pain mimicking appendicitis.
In neonates, pneumonia can occur as early or late onset. (1) Early-onset pneumonia typically presents in the
rst 3 days of life. The infection is acquired from the
mother either hematogenously through the placenta or
through aspiration of infected amniotic uid in utero
or during or after birth. It commonly presents with respiratory distress beginning at or soon after birth. Newborns
may also present with nonspecic symptoms, such as lethargy, apnea, tachycardia, and poor perfusion, occasionally
progressing to septic shock or pulmonary hypertension.
Other signs include temperature instability, metabolic acidosis, and abdominal distension. (2) Late-onset pneumonia
occurs after birth during hospitalization or after discharge
and is either nosocomial acquired or due to colonization
or contaminated equipment. Late-onset pneumonia typically presents with nonspecic signs of apnea, tachypnea,
poor feeding, abdominal distention, jaundice, emesis, respiratory distress, and circulatory collapse. Ventilator-dependent
infants may have increased oxygen and ventilator requirements and/or purulent tracheal secretions.
It is virtually impossible to clinically differentiate bacterial from viral pneumonia except that bacterial pneumonia might have a more abrupt and severe onset after
days of symptoms of an upper respiratory tract infection.
The patient may be ill appearing and sometimes experience toxic effects, with moderate to severe respiratory distress and localized chest pain. Finally, complications are
more likely to occur in bacterial pneumonia. (13)
Pneumococcal pneumonia is typically a lobar pneumonia that presents with fever, nonproductive cough, tachypnea, and decreased breath sounds over the affected
lobe. (10)(12)
Atypical bacterial pneumonia caused by M pneumoniae
or C pneumoniae usually presents with abrupt onset of
fever, malaise, myalgia, headache, photophobia, sore
throat, and gradually worsening prolonged nonproductive
cough. Atypical bacterial pneumonia may be difcult to
differentiate from viral pneumonia. Hoarseness is more frequently seen with C pneumoniae infection compared with
a viral origin. Wheezing in a child older than 5 years might
be associated with atypical bacterial (Mycoplasma or Chlamydia) and viral pneumonias and is unlikely to be due to
other bacterial causes. (13) Mycoplasma pneumoniae may
be asymptomatic or may present with minimal physical examination ndings. In one review, 75% to 100% of patients
with M pneumoniae infection have an intractable, nonproductive cough, whereas only 3% to 10% developed pneumonia. M pneumoniae is self-limited. A Cochran review
found that there is still insufcient evidence that antibiotics

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infectious diseases

are effective against LRTI caused by Mycoplasma in children. (15) Mycoplasma pneumoniae may be also associated
with a variety of extrapulmonary manifestations (Table 3).
Chlamydia pneumoniae is indistinguishable from pneumonia caused by other factors. Extrapulmonary manifestations of C pneumoniae infections may include the
following:

Meningoencephalitis
Guillain-Barr syndrome
Reactive arthritis
Myocarditis

Viral pneumonia has a gradual insidious onset. The patient usually experiences nontoxic effects, with upper respiratory tract symptoms, and auscultatory ndings are
more likely to be diffuse. Wheezing is more frequent in
viral than bacterial pneumonia.

General Approach
History and Physical Examination
The approach to the child with suspected pneumonia begins with a detailed history and careful physical examination.
History is more likely to reveal fever, with associated respiratory symptoms, including cough and tachypnea. On physical examination, the clinician must pay special attention to
the general appearance of the patient and assess for hypoxia

Clinical Manifestations of
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Infections (7)

Table 3.

Respiratory tract disease

Intractable nonproductive to mild cough (75%-100%)
Pneumonia (3%-10%)
Chills
With or without wheezing and dyspnea
Pharyngitis (6%-59%)
Rhinorrhea (2%-40%)
Ear pain (2%-35%)
Severe earache secondary to bullous myringitis (5%)
Sinusitis
Extrapulmonary disease
Hemolytic anemia
Rash (erythematous maculopapular rash, urticaria,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome)
Joint involvement (polyarthritis)
Gastrointestinal (pancreatitis, hepatitis)
Central nervous system
Cardiac disease (pericarditis, myocarditis)

pneumonia

and cyanosis. Young infants may present with lethargy, poor

feeding, or irritability. Although the presence of fever is not
specic for pneumonia, it may be the only sign in occult
pneumonia. In a systematic review, tachypnea was twice
as frequent in children with vs without radiographic pneumonia, and its absence was the most valuable sign for ruling
out the diagnosis, making it the most sensitive sign. Other
signs of respiratory distress include increased work of
breathing (intercostal, subcostal, or suprasternal retractions;
nasal aring; grunting, head bobbing; use of accessory
muscles), apnea, and altered mental status. Signs of respiratory distress are more specic than fever or cough for LRTI
but not as sensitive.
Lung examination is a key part of the assessment. Auscultation of all lung elds should be performed, listening
for crackles (rales) or crepitations, the presence of which
correlates with pneumonia. The absence of these ndings
does not rule out pneumonia. Other ndings consistent
with consolidated lung parenchyma might include decreased breath sounds, egophony, bronchophony, tactile
fremitus, or dullness to percussion. Again, wheezing is
more likely in viral or atypical pneumonia, but when
wheezing is only heard unilaterally and is associated with
fever, bronchial obstruction (intrinsic or extrinsic) and
associated bacterial infection should be suspected.
Splinting, dullness to percussion, distant breath sounds,
and friction rub are suggestive of pleural effusion and
must be conrmed by imaging. It is important to mention that many patients clinically suspected of having
pneumonia are treated empirically with no need for imaging or laboratory workup except for severely ill children with hypoxia, respiratory distress, and inability to
eat or drink.

Diagnostic Testing and Evaluation

RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING. In a child with mild lower
respiratory symptoms consistent with CAP who is a candidate for outpatient treatment, chest radiographs are not
routinely needed to make the diagnosis. (7)(8)(16) The
presence of inltrates on chest radiograph in a child with
fever and respiratory distress conrms the diagnosis of
pneumonia; however, the absence of chest x-ray ndings
does not rule out pneumonia if there is high clinical suspicion. This is due to several factors: the radiographic
ndings may lag behind the clinical picture, dehydrated
children may not have an inltrate initially, and it is impossible to differentiate atelectasis from pneumonia on
a single chest radiograph (an inltrate that resolves in less
than 48-72 hours is more likely atelectasis than pneumonia).
An initial chest radiograph may be indicated in the following situations (16):
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infectious diseases

pneumonia

1. Severe disease, hypoxemia, or signicant respiratory

distress that requires hospitalization.
2. Inconclusive clinical ndings.
3. To rule out other causes of respiratory distress (eg,
foreign body, heart disease, underlying cardiopulmonary conditions).
4. Prolonged fever and worsening symptoms despite adequate antibiotic coverage to rule out complications
(parapneumonic effusion, pneumothorax).
5. As part of the workup of a young infant with fever
without a source and leukocytosis.
Follow-up chest radiographs are not routinely indicated in children who are adequately treated and recovered. Follow-up radiographs are indicated in complicated
pneumonias that are clinically unstable, in patients receiving adequate antibiotic coverage for 48 to 72 hours with
poor clinical improvement or worsening, and in recurrent
pneumonias that involve the same lobe to rule out a suspected anomaly, chest mass, or foreign body. Children
with complicated pneumonia treated with chest tube
placement or video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS)
do not require routine daily chest radiography if they are
clinically stable and improving.
When indicated, chest radiographs should be obtained
in the posteroanterior upright position in children younger
than 4 years and in the supine anteroposterior position in
younger children. A lateral view is preferred, and a lateral
decubitus view (with affected side down) should be obtained when a pleural effusion is suspected.
Bedside ultrasonography of the chest was studied and
compared with chest radiographs. In one prospective cohort
study of 200 patients, ultrasonography had an overall sensitivity of 86% (95% CI, 71%-94%) and a specicity of 89%
(95% CI, 83%-93%). Specicity increased to 97% in children
with consolidation greater than 1 cm by chest radiographs.
The authors concluded that bedside ultrasonography was
found to be a highly specic, noninvasive, radiation-free test
that can be used by clinicians to diagnose pneumonia. (17)

Laboratory Testing
Routine laboratory testing is not indicated to diagnose pneumonia, particularly in children who are stable, are nonhypoxic, and have suspected CAP and are candidates for
outpatient treatment. Patients with hypoxemia, severe respiratory distress, possible complicated pneumonia, or associated comorbid conditions may need further workup.

Blood Tests
A complete blood cell count with differential does not
allow differentiation among bacterial, atypical, or viral

origins or dictate management, particularly in the outpatient setting. (7)(8) A complete blood cell count with
differential is typically performed in children who are
candidates for hospitalization (Table 4). Peripheral eosinophilia suggests Chlamydia trachomatis in infants
with afebrile pneumonia of infancy. Acute phase reactants, such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive
protein, and serum procalcitonin, should not be routinely
measured in fully immunized children with mild disease
but may be useful in monitoring response to treatment
in children hospitalized with severe or complicated pneumonia. (11)(16) Other blood tests might include serum
electrolytes to assess for degree of dehydration and to rule
out hyponatremia secondary to syndrome of inappropriate
antidiuretic hormone secretion.

Microbiologic Tests
BLOOD CULTURES
Not routinely indicated in the outpatient setting in
children who have nontoxic effects and fully immunized due to low yield (only positive in 10%-12% of
children). (8)
In patients with parapneumonic effusion or empyema
the yield increases to 30% to 40%.
Should be obtained in children hospitalized with severe disease, who fail to demonstrate response despite
adequate antibiotic coverage, or in children with complicated pneumonia. (16)
Follow-up blood cultures are not necessary in patients
with clear improvement.
NASOPHARYNGEAL SAMPLES. Nasopharyngeal cultures do not provide useful information because the bacteria recovered are usually normal upper respiratory tract
ora and do not necessarily correlate with the cause of
pneumonia. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is now
available for the detection of several pathogens in nasopharyngeal samples as discussed below. The identication
of bacteria by PCR in nasopharyngeal samples is not as
useful for the same reason expressed above.
SPUTUM CULTURES
Difcult to obtain and induce in young children (<5
years) and in outpatient setting.
Should be obtained in older hospitalized children,
children who are in intensive care, those who have
complicated pneumonia, or those who do not respond
to empiric therapy; good-quality sputum samples can be
obtained.
An adequate sputum specimen for examination is one
with:

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infectious diseases

Indications for
Hospitalization (8)(16)

Table 4.

Hypoxia (oxygen saturations <90%-92%)

Infants <3-6 months with suspected bacterial
infection (unless a viral cause or Chlamydia
trachomatis is suspected and they are normoxemic and
relatively asymptomatic)
Tachypnea:
B Infants <12 months of age: respiratory rate >70
breaths/min
B Children: respiratory rate >50 breaths/min
Respiratory distress: apnea, grunting, difficulty
breathing, and poor feeding
Signs of dehydration
Inability to maintain hydration or oral intake
Capillary refill time >2 seconds
Infants and children with toxic appearance or
suspected or confirmed to have infection with
a virulent organism (CA-MRSA or group A
Streptococcus)
Underlying conditions comorbidities that:
B May predispose patients to a more serious course
(eg, cardiopulmonary disease, genetic syndromes,
neurocognitive disorders)
B May be worsened by pneumonia (eg, metabolic
disorder)
B May adversely affect response to treatment (eg,
immunocompromised host, sickle cell disease)
Complications (eg, effusion/empyema)
Failure of outpatient therapy (48-72 hours with no
response)
Caretaker unable to provide appropriate observation or
to comply with prescribed home therapy
Indications for intensive care admission include:
Severe respiratory distress or impending respiratory
failure requiring
B Intubation and mechanical ventilation
B Positive pressure ventilation
Recurrent apnea or slow irregular respirations
Cardiopulmonary monitoring due to cardiovascular
compromise secondary to:
B Sustained tachycardia
B Inadequate blood pressure
B Requires pharmacologic support of blood pressure or
perfusion
B Altered mental status due to hypercarbia or hypoxemia
Pediatric Early Warning Score >6
CA-MRSAcommunity-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus.

10 or fewer epithelial cells

And 25 or more polymorphonuclear leukocytes
under low power (100).
B A predominant microorganism and/or intracellular organisms suggest the etiologic agent.
B
B

pneumonia

PLEURAL FLUID
When pleural uid is more than minimal in amount, it
should be obtained through a diagnostic (and possibly therapeutic) thoracentesis and sent for Gram
stain and culture ideally before administration of
antibiotics.
Because most children have already received antibiotics
by the time the pleural uid is sampled, thereby significantly reducing the yield of conventional cultures, antigen testing and PCR may be helpful in identifying the
causative agent.
Studies such as pH, glucose, protein, and lactate
dehydrogenase rarely change management and are
not recommended, except for white blood cell
count with differential to differentiate bacterial
from mycobacterial causes and from malignancy.
(16) Table 5 highlights the laboratory ndings in
empyema.

Rapid Tests
Nasopharyngeal swab specimen for rapid testing by PCR
or immunouorescence may be useful. (8) A positive
rapid test result for viruses in inpatient and outpatient settings might decrease the need for further testing or for
starting antibiotic therapy; it may also give the opportunity for starting antiviral therapy early. (16) Rapid tests
exist for the following microorganisms:

RSV
Inuenza viruses
Parainuenza viruses
Adenovirus
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Chlamydophila pneumonia
Coronaviruses
Bordetella pertussis
Picornavirus (rhinovirus and enterovirus)
hMPV (can only be identied by PCR)

The PCR tests for pneumococcus in sputum and

blood are not recommended because their sensitivity
and specicity in children have not been conclusively
established.

Antigen Detection and Serologic Testing

Urinary antigen detection tests have low sensitivity and
high false-positive rates. (8)(16) Hence, they are not recommended for the diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia in children. (16)
Pleural uid antigen detection: In children with parapneumonic effusion or empyema whose pleural uid
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infectious diseases

pneumonia

a. Quantiferon Gold: Measures interferon gamma

produced by lymphocytes
b. ELISA spot: Measures the number of lymphocytes
producing interferon gamma both in response to
specic M tuberculosis antigens.

Laboratory Findings in
Empyema (2)(4)(16)

Table 5.

Studies

Empyema

pH
Glucose
Lactate dehydrogenase
Gram stain and culture with or
without polymerase chain reaction
Gross appearance

<7.1
<40 mg/dL
>1000 IU/mL
Bacteria
Purulent

culture was obtained after antibiotic therapy, a positive

pneumococcal antigen in the pleural uid can be helpful
in conrming the cause.
Routine serologic testing for specic pathogens (eg,
S pneumoniae, M pneumoniae, C pneumoniae) is not indicated because results do not usually inuence management. Viral serologic testing is not practical because acute
and convalescent specimens are needed. Serologic testing
for Chlamydophila species is not readily available.
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, when suspected in an older
child, is often treated empirically. However, serologic and
PCR testing can be helpful in evaluating the younger
child or in establishing the diagnosis in patients with extrapulmonary (particularly central nervous system) manifestations. The most widely used serodiagnostic test is
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); however,
the complement xation test has better specicity. It
measures early IgM (predominantly) and IgG antibodies
(to a lesser extent) to M pneumoniae. A positive result is
dened as follows:
A 4-fold or greater increase in titer in paired sera OR
A single titer of greater than or equal to 1:32
Antibody titers rise 7 to 9 days after infection and peak
at 3 to 4 weeks. A 4-fold decline in titer also is diagnostic
if late samples are obtained. The presence of antibodies
either by enzyme immunoassay or complement xation
is highly sensitive for the detection of M pneumoniae
infection. A major disadvantage of these tests is their
false-positive results, particularly during inammatory reactions, such as neurologic syndromes, bacterial meningitis,
and acute pancreatitis.
Less commonly used diagnostic tests are as follows:
1. Tuberculin skin testing or Quantiferon gold (children
>5 years old): If pulmonary tuberculosis is suspected,
either tuberculin skin testing (puried protein derivative) or interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) can
be used. There are 2 available IGRAs:

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

IGRAs measure response to antigens not present in

BCG or Mycobacterium avium; therefore, it has better
specicity than tuberculin skin testing, especially in
children who had received BCG vaccine in whom frequent puried protein derivatives can cause a boosting
effect.
Urine antigen testing for legionellosis due to serogroup 1.
Serum and urine antigen testing for histoplasmosis.
Histoplasmosis serologic testing (immunodiffusion
and complement xation).
Cryptococcus antigen detection in serum.
The following tests can be used as part of the workup
of the immunocompromised patient with suspected
pneumonia:
a. b-D-Glucan levels: b-D-Glucan is part of the cell wall
of yeast and fungi and even Pneumocystis jirovecci
and can be elevated in fungal pneumonias. (18)
b. Galactomannan levels: Galactomannan is part of the
cell wall of molds, such as aspergillus. Antigen levels
in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) or serum are positive in suspected pneumonia due to aspergillus.
(19)

The clinician must be aware that certain antibiotics,

such as piperacillin-tazobactam or transfusion with blood
or blood-derived products such as intravenous immunoglobulin, may induce false-positive test results. (20)

Invasive Studies
Invasive studies to establish the cause of pneumonia in
children are reserved for the critically ill child or the child
with signicant comorbidity whose initial diagnostic
workup is inconclusive and in whom the risk of establishing the diagnosis outweighs the risk of the invasive procedure. (16) Invasive studies are rarely needed. Invasive
studies include the following:
Bronchoscopy with BAL - Quantitative culture techniques differentiate true infection from upper airway
contamination.
Morning gastric lavage through a nasogastric tube for
acid fast bacilli stain and culture is used in the diagnosis
of tuberculosis.
The BAL technique for obtaining cultures in intubated
patients uses a catheter inside a catheter, avoiding

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infectious diseases

sampling the upper airway and directly obtaining cultures from the alveoli. Because of the anatomy of the
lungs, samples are obtained from the right lower lobe.
Computed tomography or ultrasonography-guided
percutaneous needle aspiration of the affected lung
tissue.
Lung biopsy either by a thoracoscopic or thoracotomy
approach is rarely used in United States, but open biopsy yields diagnostic information that may affect
medical management in up to 90% of patients. In
one study, open lung biopsy conrmed the infectious
cause in 10 of 33 patients, 8 of whom had a prior nondiagnostic BAL. Lung biopsy is commonly used in immunocompromised patients.

Differential Diagnosis
When the clinician is faced with a child presenting with fever, tachypnea, cough, respiratory distress, and inltrates
on chest radiograph, the diagnosis of pneumonia is highly
likely. (7) Other diagnoses, however, must be considered.
In a neonate with respiratory distress, congenital anatomical cardiopulmonary anomalies must be ruled out, such as
tracheoesophageal stula, congenital heart disease, and
sepsis. In infants and young children, foreign body aspiration (even if no history of any witnessed aspiration), bronchiolitis, heart failure, sepsis, and metabolic acidosis may all
cause tachypnea. In these cases, a careful history and physical examination and a supportive imaging study can distinguish pneumonia from other conditions.
In adolescents and young adults, Lemierre syndrome
(jugular vein suppurative thrombophlebitis) must be
considered. Lemierre syndrome is typically caused by
Fusobacterium species that infect the carotid sheath and
spread to lungs and mediastinum.
Children who present with respiratory distress and
wheezing may have CAP; however, rst-time wheezing
of asthma with or without bronchiolitis can be the true
diagnosis. A patient with asthma or bronchiolitis may
have a radiographic picture that is normal or has inltrates
that could potentially be due to atelectasis.
Other entities that may mimic pneumonia on clinical
examination or on radiographs in children are listed in
Table 6

Treatment
Treatment of pneumonia varies between inpatient and
outpatient settings. In either setting, supportive care includes the use of antipyretics, suctioning, and hydration
when needed. Mucolytics and cough suppressants have

pneumonia

no role in the treatment of pneumonia. (21)(22) Zinc supplementation has been studied and found to be an effective
adjunct to decreasing the incidence and prevalence of
pneumonia in children 2 to 59 months. (23)(24) In most
cases of CAP, the chances of having a specic etiologic diagnosis are low, leading the clinician to treat empirically.
The Figure gives highlights of the decision tree of the approach to the child with suspected pneumonia.

Outpatient Management
EMPIRIC THERAPY. Antimicrobial therapy is not routinely recommended in preschool children with pneumonia
(viruses are more common). (21) Because S pneumoniae
remains the most commonly implicated pathogen, amoxicillin or amoxicillin-clavulanate remains the most appropriate rst-line antimicrobial agent used empirically for CAP in
fully immunized, healthy, young preschool children with
mild to moderate symptoms. (25) Clavulanate adds the
benet of action against b-lactamaseproducing organisms (H inuenza and Moraxella catarrhalis). S pneumoniae resistance to penicillin is due to a penicillinbinding protein (PBP2x) that has decreased afnity
to b-lactams. Increasing the dose of amoxicillin (90100 mg/kg daily) may overcome this mechanism of resistance and should be prescribed if the clinician suspects
resistance (eg, children in day care or siblings in day
care, history of frequent infections). Amoxicillin-clavulanate is dispensed in 2 different amoxicillin-clavulanate
ratios: 7:1 and 14:1. The 14:1 ratio should be used when
high-dose amoxicillin is required to reduce the possibility
of antibiotic-associated diarrhea.
In school-aged children and teens with a clinical picture compatible with atypical CAP, coverage using a macrolide (azithromycin or clarithromycin) should be
considered. A systematic review of studies in developing
countries found no signicant difference in the treatment
failures or relapse rates between 3- and 5-day courses of
antibiotics in children ages 2 to 59 months with outpatient management of CAP. (26)
In children with moderate to severe CAP suspected of
having inuenza infection and because early antiviral
therapy provides the maximum benet, treatment with
antiviral therapy should not be delayed until conrmation
of a positive inuenza test result. It is also worth noting
that treatment after 48 hours of symptoms might still
provide clinical benets in severe cases of inuenza. (16)

Inpatient Management
Table 4 highlights the indications for hospitalizations and
intensive care admission.
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infectious diseases

pneumonia

Mimickers of Pneumonia
in Children
Table 6.

Anatomical considerations
Prominent thymus
Breast shadows
Bronchogenic cyst
Vascular ring
Pulmonary sequestration
Congenital lobar emphysema
Atelectasis (due to a foreign body or mucous plug)
Aspiration of gastric contents secondary to
Gastroesophageal reflux
Tracheoesophageal fistula
Cleft palate
Neuromuscular disorders
Chronic pulmonary disorders
Asthma
Bronchiectasis
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
Cystic fibrosis
Pulmonary fibrosis
a1-Antitrypsin deficiency
Pulmonary hemosiderosis
Alveolar proteinosis
Desquamative interstitial pneumonitis
Sarcoidosis
Histiocytosis X
Drugs and chemicals
Nitrofurantoin
Bleomycin
Cytotoxic drugs
Opiates
Radiation therapy
Smoke inhalation
Lipoid pneumonia
Vasculitis
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener)
Juvenile idiopathic arthritis
Others
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Neoplasm
Pulmonary edema due to heart failure
Pulmonary infarction
Acute respiratory distress syndrome
Graft-vs-host disease
Poor inspiratory film
Near drowning
Underpenetrated film
Adapted from Barson WJ. Clinical Features and Diagnosis of
Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Children. UpToDate. June 2012.

EMPIRIC THERAPY. It is helpful for the clinician to be

familiar with the antibiograms of the local community
hospitals when deciding on empiric therapy. Fully immunized infants or school-aged children hospitalized with
CAP must be empirically prescribed an antibiotic regimen that provides coverage for S pneumoniae using ampicillin or penicillin G (if no signicant local resistant
strains in community data). Ampicillin-sulbactam
provides additional coverage against H inuenzae,
M catarrhalis, or methicillin-sensitive S aureus (MSSA).
The currently available intravenous formulations of
ampicillin-sulbactam do not permit high-dose ampicillin
(300-400 mg/kg daily) when pneumococci with high
ampicillin mean inhibitory concentration is suspected.
If this dose is desired, a combination of ampicillinsulbactam at 300 mg/kg daily (dosing ampicillin at
200 mg/kg daily) and regular ampicillin at 100 to 200
mg/kg daily is a recommended regimen. The alternative
is third-generation cephalosporin (ceftriaxone at 100 mg/kg
daily or cefotaxime at 200 mg/kg daily) used in infants
and children who are not fully immunized, in regions with
high rates of invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal
strains, and in infants and children with severe life-threatening
infections and/or pneumonia complications, such as empyema. In patients with suspected M pneumoniae or C
pneumoniae, the addition of an oral or parenteral macrolide to empiric cephalosporin or b-lactam antibiotic
should be considered. In hospitalized patients with other
comorbidities or clinical or radiographic ndings suggestive of S aureus, vancomycin, linezolid, or clindamycin
should be added to the regimen (Table 7). (16) Ceftaroline, a fth-generation cephalosporin, may provide an attractive alternative in those patients with complicated
pneumonia. Ceftaroline does not yet have an indication
in pediatrics hence, data on dosing is limited. Ceftaroline
is the rst cephalosporin with proven efcacy against S aureus expressing the penicillin-binding protein PBP2a and
pneumococci expressing PBP2x. Even though ceftaroline
is indicated for use, it has not been approved for treating
lung infections due to MRSA, but it is indicated for MSSA.
There is no evidence that chest physiotherapy plays a benecial role in the management of pneumonia or leads to
a decrease in the length of stay or a change in the outcome.
(27)
Complicated pneumonia (eg, parapneumonic effusion,
lung abscess) is an indication for hospitalization. The antibiotic choice in these patients must provide a broader
coverage for b-lactam resistant bacteria and CA-MRSA.
In addition, coverage for anaerobes must be provided in
children with lung abscess or aspiration pneumonia until
a specic etiologic agent is identied.

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infectious diseases

SPECIFIC THERAPY. When a bacterial pathogen is identied on

blood or pleural uid cultures, susceptibility testing should guide the
antibiotic choice (Table 8).
The treatment regimen for uncomplicated cases must be continued for a total of 7 to 10 days
(parenteral and oral therapy). In
hospitalized cases whose baseline
inammatory markers are checked,
some centers recommend continuing antibiotics until the erythrocyte
sedimentation rate falls below 20
mm/h. Longer antibiotic regimen
is recommended in complicated
cases, starting parenterally and continuing orally. Suggested antibiotic
courses are 4 weeks total or 2 weeks
after defervescence and clinical
improvement.
Children receiving adequate anFigure. General approach
tibiotic coverage for 48 to 72 hours
without clinical improvement or
with deterioration of clinical picture should undergo
further investigation to rule out alternative diagnosis (foreign body), antibiotic resistance, or complicated pneumonia. (16)
Children with allergy to b-lactams become a therapeutic challenge. History is essential in this situation because
many children whose parents report penicillin allergy are
not necessarily truly allergic. If real allergy is suspected,
options are carbapenems (meropenem, 20-40 mg/kg
per dose every 8 hours), which rarely cross react with
penicillins or cephalosporins, or clindamycin (even in
hospitals with reported clindamycin resistance >30%
on antibiograms), or combination of antibiotics, such
as vancomycin or linezolid plus aztreonam. Quinolones
such as levooxacin will cover most respiratory pathogens that cause pyogenic and walking pneumonia.

Complications and Sequelae

Children with pneumonia might experience several complications. (7)(13)The complications are more likely
due to bacterial pneumonias than atypical or viral pneumonias. The rate of complications in hospitalized children with pneumococcal pneumonia is estimated at
40% to 50%.
Patients with chronic illness or comorbid conditions
are more subject to complications that result in increased

pneumonia

to childhood pneumonia.

length of stay. Prolonged or persistent fever or worsening

of symptoms despite adequate antibiotic coverage in
a child is suspect for complications. Table 9 lists the complications of pneumonias
Necrotizing pneumonia is suspected when a translucent lesion is seen on chest radiography in a child with
prolonged fever or septic appearance. Diagnosis is conrmed with contrast-enhanced computed tomography.
Most necrotizing pneumoniae in pediatrics are caused by

Table 7.

Empiric Antibiotic Regimen

(4)(7)
Outpatient

Inpatient

First line
Young children
B Amoxicillin
Adolescent:
B Azithromycin
Second line (adolescent)
Macrolide or doxycycline
Fluoroquinolones (eg, levofloxacin,
moxifloxacin) Also used for
adolescent or older child with
type 1 hypersensitivity to
b-lactam antibiotics

First line
Ampicillin
Cephalosporin
D
Azithromycin
Second line
Vancomycin
Clindamycin
Linezolid

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infectious diseases

Table 8.

pneumonia

Specific Antibiotic Regimen

Pathogen
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Penicillin susceptible

Intermediate and resistant

strains

Pneumococcal serotype
19A

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

(7)(31)

Antibiotic(s)

Comments

Penicillin or ampicillin
(drug of choice)
Cefuroxime
Cefotaxime
Ceftriaxone
Clindamycin (oral or
intravenous)
Cefotaxime
Ceftriaxone
Linezolid and
Clindamycin
Cefdinir

50-90 mg/kg daily

For patients allergic to b-lactam antibiotics

Most active oral cephalosporin in vitro against

penicillin-resistant strains

Vancomycin, linezolid, or
levofloxacin

Multidrug resistant to penicillin, macrolides,

clindamycin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole

Azithromycin

10 mg/kg in 1 dose on the first day and 5 mg/kg in

1 dose for 4 days
15 mg/kg per day in 2 divided doses for 10 days
30 to 40 mg/kg per day in 4 divided doses for 10
days
20 to 50 mg/kg per day in 4 divided doses for 10
days (maximum daily dose 1 to 2 g)
2 to 4 mg/kg per day in 1 or 2 divided doses for 10
days (maximum daily dose 100 to 200 mg)
In children age 8 years

Clarithromycin
Erythromycin
Tetracycline
Doxycycline
Doxycycline or a
fluoroquinolone

If macrolide resistance is suspected or documented,

particularly if the child is severely ill
Chlamydia pneumoniae
Children age 8 years
and adults

Doxycycline

2 to 4 mg/kg per day divided into 2 doses

(maximum daily dose, 200 mg) for 10 to 14 days

Children age <8 years

Erythromycin

30 to 40 mg/kg per day divided into 4 doses for 10

to 14 days

S aureus and pneumococci. Pneumatoceles are frequently

encountered, and radiologic cure lags behind clinical cure.
Lung abscess presents with nonspecic clinical signs
and symptoms similar to those of pneumonia. It has an
indolent course and is often associated with a parapneumonic effusion. Lung abscesses may occur in healthy children or may be secondary to a congenital (cystic
malformation) or acquired (cystic brosis, immunodeciency) lung anomaly. (25) Up to 90% of cases might
be adequately treated with a prolonged course of intravenous antibiotics.
Parapneumonic effusion can be in the form of pleural
effusion or empyema. The pleural uid analysis allows differentiating one from the other (Table 5). Empyema
is a pleural effusion that has become purulent or
semipurulent.

Treatment of Complications
PARAPNEUMONIC EFFUSION. The effectiveness of
treating pleural effusion and empyema in children and
teens is unknown because there is a lack of well-designed
controlled studies. Traditionally, pleural uid is obtained
by needle aspiration for culture, and antibiotic therapy is
started. Further chest tube drainage is resorted to if there
is no improvement or the patients condition worsens. In
severe cases, surgical intervention may be necessary. (4)
The management of parapneumonic effusion depends
on the size of the effusion and the childs degree of respiratory compromise. (16)
A small, uncomplicated effusion (<10 mm on lateral
radiograph or opacication less than one-fourth of
the hemithorax) can be empirically treated without

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need for needle aspiration or

chest tube drainage (with or
without brinolysis) or VATS.
A moderate-sized effusion (>10
mm rim of uid with less than
half the hemithorax opacied)
in a child with respiratory compromise or empyema requires
chest tube drainage with brinolytics or VATS (regardless of culture results).
A large effusion (opacies >50%
of hemithorax) consistent with
empyema (positive culture) requires chest tube drainage with
brinolytics or VATS. (Both have
been found to be equally effective
and associated with decreased
morbidity.) The choice of drainage procedure depends on local expertise. Either VATS or
open chest debridement with
decortication is indicated in a patient who continues to have
moderate to large effusions and
respiratory compromise despite
2 to 3 days of chest tube and brinolysis. Decortication is associated with higher morbidity
rates. A chest tube that demonstrates lack of intrathoracic air
leak and less than 1 ml/kg daily
during the past 12 hour drainage
can be clamped or removed.
Fibrinolytics are used along with
chest tube placement for moderate
to large effusions. The initial dose
of brinolytics is administered at
the time of chest tube placement
with a dwell time, during which
the chest tube is clamped, before
applying suction to the tube. In various studies, the dwell time varied
between 1 and 4 hours with a repeat
administration of brinolytics anywhere from every 8, 12, or 24 hours
later. On the basis of the currently
available data, both chest tube
with brinolysis and VATS are considered equally acceptable initial

Table 9.

Pneumonia Complications

Complications
Respiratory complications
Pleural effusion
Empyema

Pneumatocele

Necrotizing pneumonia

Lung abscess

pneumonia

(2)(4)(13)(21)

Comments
Associated with hypoalbuminemia
Affects 1:150 children with pneumonia
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae
3 Stages:
B Exudative phase
B Fibrinopurulent phase
B Organizing phase
Associated with hypoalbuminemia
3% of all pediatric hospitalizations
One-third of admissions for pneumococcal
pneumonia
Classically associated with S aureus
May occur with a variety of organisms
Frequently associated with empyema
Many involute spontaneously without treatment
Surgery for refractory cases
Occasionally lead to pneumothorax
Seen in:
B S pneumonia (especially serotype 3 and
serogroup 19)
B S aureus
B Group A Streptococcus
B Mycoplasma pneumoniae
B Legionella
B Aspergillus
Prolonged fever
Septic appearance
Diagnosis:
B Chest radiography radiolucent lesion
B Confirmed with contrast enhanced computed
tomography
Rare
Predisposing factors:
B Aspiration (1-2 weeks after event)
B Airway obstruction
B Congenital lung anomaly
B Acquired lung anomaly
S aureus is the most frequently involved
organism. Other organisms include anaerobes,
Klebsiella, and streptococcal species
Should be suspected when:
B Unusually persistent consolidation
B Persistent round pneumonia
B Increased volume of involved lobe (bulging
fissure)
Complications:
B Intracavitary hemorrhage
B Empyema
B Bronchopleural fistula
B Septicemia
B Cerebral abscess
B Inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone
Continued

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infectious diseases

pneumonia

Table 9. (Continued)

Complications
Bronchopleural fistula
Pneumothorax
Other complications
Hyponatremia

Comments

45% of children with community-acquired

pneumonia
One-third of children hospitalized with
community-acquired pneumonia
Increase length of stay, complications and
mortality (in severe cases)
Secondary to syndrome of inappropriate
antidiuretic hormone secretion

Sepsis or systemic
inflammatory response
system, meningitis,
pericarditis, endocarditis,
osteomyelitis, septic
arthritis, central nervous
system abscess, and
atypical hemolytic-uremic
syndrome

drainage strategies, and either measure is found to be superior to chest tube alone. (16)
Additional imaging and further investigation to assess
effusion progression are indicated for the child not responding to broad-spectrum therapy after 48 to 72 hours
to assess progression of the effusion. For children receiving mechanical ventilatory support with no improvement,
BAL or a percutaneous lung aspirate should be performed
for culture to determine antibiotic resistance. An open lung
biopsy for a Gram stain and culture should be obtained in
the persistently and critically ill child receiving mechanical
ventilatory support in whom previous investigations have
not yielded a microbiologic diagnosis. (16)

Lung Abscess
Up to 90% of patients with a lung abscess may be adequately treated with intravenous antibiotics alone or with
combination of intravenous antibiotics transitioning to oral
antibiotics without requiring drainage of the abscess. (2)

Discharge Criteria
Children hospitalized with pneumonia are eligible for discharge when they demonstrate any of the following (Table 10) (15):
Clinical improvement in level of activity and appetite,
with a decreased fever for at least 12 to 24 hours.
Sustained pulse oximetry measurements greater than
90% in room air for at least 12 to 24 hours.

Stable and/or baseline mental

and cardiorespiratory status.
Ability to tolerate their home
antiinfective regimen, and the
caretaker at home has the ability
to administer therapy.
Ability to maintain adequate
uid and nutrition orally.
In addition, children hospitalized
with pneumonia eligible for discharge:
Who have had a chest tube and
meet the requirements listed
above, the chest tube must have
been discontinued 12 to 24
hours before discharge with no
clinical evidence of deterioration
since chest tube removal
Must have a follow-up plan prior
to discharge.

Follow-up
Children hospitalized with pneumonia must follow up
with their primary care physician soon after discharge
to ensure continued improvement and adherence with
the antibiotic regimen prescribed. It is important to discuss with caretakers that cough may persist for several
weeks to 4 months after a CAP and 3 to 4 months after
viral pneumonia or pertussis. Recovering children may
continue to have moderate dyspnea on exertion for 2
to 3 months.

Special Considerations
Immunodeficiency
Children and young adults who are immunocompromised secondary to congenital or acquired immunodeciency require special considerations in their treatment
regimen in addition to coverage for the typical pathogens
discussed in the normal host (2):
Gram-negative bacilli (including Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and S aureus are common causes in neutropenic
patients or in patients with white blood cell defects.
History of exposure to an aquatic reservoir of Legionella
pneumophila, such as a river, lake, air-conditioning tower,
or water distribution system, places the patient at risk for
legionellosis.
Opportunistic fungi, such as Aspergillus and Candida,
are the most common fungal pathogens in immunocompromised patients. Aspergillus affects the lungs
through spore inhalation.

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infectious diseases

pneumonia

Sickle Cell

Pneumonia Discharge
Criteria (15)

Table 10.

Clinical improvement (activity level, appetite)

Afebrile for 12-24 hours
Sustained pulse oximetry >90% on room air for 12-24
hours
Baseline and stable cardiorespiratory and mental status
Ability to tolerate oral anti-infective therapy and
ability of caretaker to administer it
Ability to tolerate oral intake of food and fluids
For children who had a chest tube, the tube must have
been discontinued 12-24 hours before discharge with
no clinical signs of deterioration
Availability of a follow-up plan before discharge

Other opportunistic pathogens include Fusarium species and Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly known as
Pneumocystis carinii).
Viral pathogens to be considered include rubeola, cytomegalovirus, varicella zoster virus, and Epstein-Barr
virus.
Atypical mycobacteria are a signicant pathogen in
children infected with human immunodeciency virus
(HIV).
HIV-positive patients or patients receiving immunosuppressive or chronic steroid therapy must be treated
for latent tuberculosis. (21)
The treatment of HIV-infected children depends
on their CD4 cell count. Most children in the United
States benet now from antiretrovirals and have normal immune status so their treatment parallels those
without HIV infection. Those children whose CD4
cell count is low are at risk of unusual pathogens, such
as Pneumocystis jirovecii or cryptococcus; consulting
with an infectious disease specialist is recommended.
(28)

Cystic Fibrosis
Pneumonia in patients with cystic brosis is caused by infection by S aureus, P aeruginosa, and H inuenzae
(mostly nontypable strains) early in their disease. Older
children with cystic brosis have multiple drug-resistant
gram-negative organisms, such as Burkholderia cepacia,
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Achromobacter xylosoxidans. Aspergillus species and nontuberculous mycobacteria also may also cause disease in this population.
These patients rarely get rid of their bacteria, so reviewing
previous cultures is very important.

In patients with sickle cell anemia who present with fever,

hypoxia, and respiratory distress due to acute chest syndrome, atypical bacterial pathogens are primarily the culprits. Other causes include S pneumoniae, S aureus, and
H inuenzae.
Other special considerations for therapy include the
following:
Residence or travel to certain geographic areas that are
endemic for specic pathogens, such as tuberculosis
(Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Eastern Europe),
or exposure to individuals at high risk for tuberculosis,
including homeless, incarcerated individuals, and
HIV-infected patients.
Exposure to certain animals such as the deer mouse
(hantavirus), bird droppings (Histoplasmosis), birds
(Chlamydophila psittaci), sheep, goats, or cattle (Coxiella
burnetii Q fever)

Prevention and/or Control

The most effective prevention method based on strong
evidence is active immunization of children against
H inuenzae type b, S pneumoniae, inuenza, and pertussis. Inuenza virus vaccine should be administered annually to all infants 6 months or older and to adult
caretakers of infants younger than 6 months. The latter
should also receive the pertussis vaccine. High-risk infants
should receive the RSV-specic monoclonal antibody
based on the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation. (4)(16) Several measures can be adopted
to prevent or decrease transmission. Because transmission
occurs by droplet or contact, good hand washing and
good personal hygiene are the most important measures.
Standard isolation precaution is required in hospitalized
patients with pneumococcal pneumonia and negative isolation in patients with TB. Other measures include limiting exposure to infected individuals and to cigarette
smoke. Additional infection control measures based on
cause include the following:
Respiratory syncytial and parainuenza viruses gown
and gloves (ie, contact precautions).
Inuenza virus, group A Streptococcus (for the rst 24
hours of treatment), MSSA, Bordetella pertussis (until patient has received 5 days of effective therapy), and M
pneumoniae mask within 3 ft (ie, droplet precautions).
Adenovirus contact and droplet precautions.
Methicillin-resistant S aureus special organism precautions; contact and droplet precautions and dedicated patient equipment.
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infectious diseases

pneumonia

Summary Points and Practice

Changes
On the basis of strong evidence, chest radiographs are
not routinely needed to make the diagnosis of
pneumonia, particularly in suspected CAP in a child
with mild lower respiratory symptoms who is
a candidate for outpatient management. (16)
On the basis of strong evidence, infants younger than
3 months with suspected bacterial pneumonia will
likely benefit from hospitalization.
Moderate evidence indicates that blood cultures
should not be routinely performed in a child older than
3 to 6 months with suspected CAP who is fully
immunized, who has nontoxic effects, and who is
a candidate for outpatient management.
On the basis of moderate evidence, blood cultures may
recover the causative organism in children
hospitalized with severe pneumonia, in those who do
not demonstrate clinical response despite adequate
antibiotic coverage, or in children with complicated
pneumonia.
On the basis of moderate evidence, fever and
tachypnea are the most sensitive clinical signs of
pneumonia, particularly after the first 3 days of illness
On the basis of strong evidence, oral antibiotics are as
effective as intravenous antibiotics in the treatment
of mild-moderate CAP. (5)

(The evidence-based practice guidelines for the management of CAP in children older than 3 months (16) serves as
a resource for the clinician desiring more details related to
decisions surrounding diagnosis and management.)

References
1. Ebell MH. Clinical diagnosis of pneumonia in children. Am Fam
Physician. 2010;82(2):192193

2. Puligandla PS, Laberge JM. Respiratory infections: pneumonia,

lung abscess, and empyema. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2008;17(1):
4252
3. Browne LR, Gorelick MH. Asthma and pneumonia. Pediatr
Clin North Am. 2010;57(6):13471356
4. Schlaudecker EP, Frenck RW Jr. Adolescent pneumonia. Adolesc
Med State Art Rev. 2010;21(2):202219, viiviii
5. Wilder RA. Question 1: are oral antibiotics as efcacious as
intravenous antibiotics for the treatment of community acquired
pneumonia? Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(1):103104
6. World Health Organization. Pneumonia. Fact sheet No. 331. April
2013. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs331/en/
7. Shah S, Sharieff GQ. Pediatric respiratory infections. Emerg Med
Clin North Am. 2007;25(4):961979, vi
8. Esposito S, Principi N. Unsolved problems in the approach to
pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Infect Dis.
2012;25(3):286291
9. Scott JA, Wonodi C, Moisi JC, et al; Pneumonia Methods
Working Group. The Denition of pneumonia, the assessment of

severity, and clinical standardization in the Pneumonia Etiology

Research for Child Health study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54(Suppl
2):S109S116.
10. Lynch JP III, Zhanel GG. Streptococcus pneumoniae: epidemiology and risk factors, evolution of antimicrobial resistance, and
impact of vaccines. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2010;16(3):217225
11. Virkki R, Juven T, Rikalainen H, Svedstrm E, Mertsola J,
Ruuskanen O. Differentiation of bacterial and viral pneumonia in
children. Thorax. 2002;57(5):438441
12. Nohynek H, Madhi S, Grijalva CG. Childhood bacterial
respiratory diseases: past, present, and future. Pediatr Infect Dis J.
2009;28(10 Suppl):S127S132
13. Prayle A, Atkinson M, Smyth A. Pneumonia in the developed
world. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2011;12(1):6069
14. Don M, Canciani M, Korppi M. Community-acquired pneumonia in children: whats old? Whats new? Acta Paediatr. 2010;99
(11):16021608
15. Mulholland S, Gavranich JB, Gillies MB, Chang AB. Antibiotics for community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections
secondary to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;9(Issue 9):CD004875 10.1002/14651858.
CD00487.pub4
16. Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al; Pediatric Infectious
Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America.
Executive summary: the management of community-acquired
pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age:
clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases
Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect
Dis. 2011;53(7):617630
17. Shah VP, Tunik MG, Tsung JW. Prospective evaluation of
point-of-care ultrasonography for the diagnosis of pneumonia
in children and young adults. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167(2):
119125
18. Mularoni A, Furfaro E, Faraci M, et al. High Levels of b-Dglucan in immunocompromised children with proven invasive
fungal disease. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2010;17(5):882883
19. Hage CA, Knox KS, Davis TE, Wheat LJ. Antigen detection in
bronchoalveolar lavage uid for diagnosis of fungal pneumonia.
Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2011;17(3):167171
20. Boonsarngsuk V, Niyompattama A, Teosirimongkol C, Sriwanichrak
K. False-positive serum and bronchoalveolar lavage Aspergillus
galactomannan assays caused by different antibiotics. Scand J Infect
Dis. 2010;42(6-7):461468
21. Ranganathan SC, Sonnappa S. Pneumonia and other respiratory infections. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56(1):135156, xi
22. Chang CC, Cheng AC, Chang AB. Over-the-counter (OTC)
medications to reduce cough as an adjunct to antibiotics for acute
pneumonia in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;
2(Issue 2):CD006088 10.1002/14651858.CD006088.pub3
23. Lassi ZS, Haider BA, Bhutta ZA. Zinc supplementation for the
prevention of pneumonia in children aged 2 months to 59 months.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010; (12, Issue 12)CD005978
10.1002/14651858.CD005978.pub2
24. Yakoob MY, Theodoratou E, Jabeen A, et al. Preventive zinc
supplementation in developing countries: impact on mortality and
morbidity due to diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria. BMC Public
Health. 2011;11(Suppl 3):S23 http://www.biomedcentral.com/
1471-2458/11/S3/S23
25. Clifford V, Tebruegge M, Vandeleur M, Curtis N. Question 3:
can pneumonia caused by penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae be treated with penicillin? Arch Dis Child. 2010;95(1):7377

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26. Sutijono D, Hom J, Zehtabchi S. Efcacy of 3-day versus 5-day

antibiotic therapy for clinically diagnosed nonsevere pneumonia in
children from developing countries. Eur J Emerg Med. 2011;18(5):
244250
27. Gilchrist FJ. Is the use of chest physiotherapy benecial in
children with community acquired pneumonia? Arch Dis Child.
2008;93(2):176178
28. Punpanich W, Groome M, Muhe L, Qazi SA, Madhi SA.
Systematic review on the etiology and antibiotic treatment of
pneumonia in human immunodeciency virus-infected children.
Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30(10):e192e202

pneumonia

29. Wonodi CB, Deloria-Knoll M, Feikin DR, et al; Pneumonia

Methods Working Group and PERCH Site Investigators. Evaluation of risk factors for severe pneumonia in children: the Pneumonia
Etiology Research for Child Health study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54
(Suppl 2):S124S131
30. Chang AB, Chang CC, OGrady K, Torzillo PJ. Lower
respiratory tract infections. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56(6):
13031321
31. Esposito S, Cohen R, Domingo JD, et al. Do we know when,
what, and for how long to treat? antibiotic therapy for communityacquired pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31(6):e78e85

PIR Quiz
This quiz is available online at http://pedsinreview.org. NOTE: Learners can take Pediatrics in Review quizzes and claim credit online only. No paper
answer form will be printed in the journal.

New Minimum Performance Level Requirements

Per the 2010 revision of the American Medical Association (AMA) Physicians Recognition Award (PRA) and credit system, a minimum performance
level must be established on enduring material and journal-based CME activities that are certified for AMA PRA Category 1 CreditTM. In order to
successfully complete 2013 Pediatrics in Review articles for AMA PRA Category 1 CreditTM, learners must demonstrate a minimum performance level
of 60% or higher on this assessment, which measures achievement of the educational purpose and/or objectives of this activity.
In Pediatrics in Review, AMA PRA Category 1 CreditTM may be claimed only if 60% or more of the questions are answered correctly. If you score less
than 60% on the assessment, you will be given additional opportunities to answer questions until an overall 60% or greater score is achieved.

1. Anticipatory guidance to parents of children recovered from pneumonia includes discussion about the length
of time that cough may persist. What is the length of time that cough may normally persist after a communityacquired pneumonia?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

2
4
2
3
4

weeks.
weeks.
months.
months.
months.

2. Prevention of pneumonia in children includes active immunization of adult caretakers of infants younger than
6 months against which of the following pathogens?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Bordetella pertussis.
Haemophilus influenzae type b.
Neisseria meningitidis.
Respiratory syncytial virus.
Tuberculosis.

3. A 10-year-old boy presents with a history of fever, headache, malaise, mild sore throat, and worsening
nonproductive cough. Lung examination reveals diffuse crackles. Chest radiographs reveal bilateral diffuse
patchy infiltrates. The next step in management is to prescribe:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Amoxicillin.
Amoxicillin-clavulanate.
Azithromycin.
Cephalexin.
Penicillin.

Pediatrics in Review Vol.34 No.10 October 2013 455

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infectious diseases

pneumonia

4. A previously healthy, fully immunized 3-year-old girl presents with a 4-day history of gradual onset of runny
nose, cough, fatigue, and slightly fast breathing. She continues to drink liquids but refuses solid foods.
Temperature is 38.3C. Physical examination reveals a tired-appearing child with mild tachypnea and subtle
intercostal retractions. Lung examination reveals adequate aeration and crackles over all lung fields bilaterally.
The next step in management is:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Amoxicillin (50 mg/kg daily).

Blood culture.
Chest radiographs.
Close observation and follow-up.
Complete blood cell count.

5. One week ago, a previously healthy 6-year-old boy was seen in the outpatient clinic with a 5-day history of
fever, chills, fatigue, muscle aches, and cough. Laboratory testing revealed a diagnosis of influenza A for which
he was not treated because of delay in diagnosis. Today he returned to the clinic looking significantly worse,
with tachypnea, dyspnea, and retractions. Chest radiography suggests a small empyema in the right lower lobe.
The next step in management is to prescribe:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Ampicillin.
Amoxicillin-clavulanate.
Azithromycin.
Ceftriaxone and clindamycin.
Penicillin.

Parent Resources from the AAP at HealthyChildren.org

English only: http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/chest-lungs/Pages/Pneumonia.aspx

Corrections
In the April 2013 article Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (Trent M. Pediatr Rev. 2013;34(4):163172), the video link at the
end of the second-to-the-last paragraph in the section titled Does Outpatient Treatment Work for Adolescents? should
read as follows: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGuXF8vpujQ.
Readers can also search PID and Johns Hopkins on the general YouTube web page to locate the video.
Also, the beginning of the second sentence in the following paragraph should read, One Brazilian trial has demonstrated
that ceftriaxone 250 mg intramuscularly (IM) plus 1 g of azithromycin given orally at baseline each week for 2 weeks.
The journal regrets these errors.

456 Pediatrics in Review Vol.34 No.10 October 2013

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Pneumonia
Rani S. Gereige and Pablo Marcelo Laufer
Pediatrics in Review 2013;34;438
DOI: 10.1542/pir.34-10-438

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References

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