A/C SYSTEMS

ME 538
Dr. Ahmed F. Elsafty
M h i l&M
Mechanical
Marine
i E
Engineering
i
i D
Dept.
t
College of Engineering and Technology
Arab Academy for Science, Technology &
Maritime Transport

Methods of Air Distribution:

Low Velocity Ducts. <2000fpm
High Velocity Ducts
Ducts.>4500fpm
>4500fpm
Or
Low pressure Ducts.
High pressure ducts
ducts.
Ducts are Circular and rectangular crosssections.

Air outlets
The object of air distribution is to create an
p
condition of temperature,
p
,
acceptable
humidity and air motion in the occupied
zone of the conditioned space.
space Perfect
applying of these principals should result
in pleasing comfort conditions for the end
user.

Air outlets

Grilles
g
Linear grilles
Diffusers
Jet nozzles
Disk valves
Louvres

Air outlets

Floor

Baseboard

Low sidewall

High sidewall

Ceiling

Cooling
performance

Excellent

Excelling if
used with
perimeter
systems

Excellent if
designed to
discharge
upward

Good

Good

Heating
performance

Excellent

Excellent if
used with
perimeter
systems

Excellent if
used with
perimeter
systems

Fair should
not be used to
heat slab
h
housed
d iin
Northern
climates

Good should
not be used to
heat slab
h
housed
d iin
Northern
climates

Air Registers and diffusers, from Long, Principals of Air Conditioning, 1979 by
Delmar Publishers Inc.

Air outlets

Lack of uniform conditions within the space

p
or
excessive fluctuations of conditions in the same
part of the space also produces discomfort.
Discomfort can arise due to any of the following:

Excessive air motion (draft).

Excessive room air temperature variations
((horizontal, vertical or both).
)
Failure to deliver or distribute air according to load
requirements at different locations
Overlay rapid fluctuations of room temperature.

Air outlets

Recommended velocities

Air Distribution
Effective Draft Temperature:
p
(oC))

= Tx - Tr a(vx - vrm)
Where:
: Effective temperature difference between any point in
th occupied
the
i d zone and
d th
the control
t l conditions.
diti
Tx: Space air temperature in a specific location, (oC).
Vx: Space air velocity in a specific location
location, (m/s)
(m/s).
Tr: Mean space air temperature or set point, (oC).
a: Conversion constant
constant, (a = 8 )).
Vrm: Mean space air velocity (0.15 m/s).
ASHRAE Fundamentals 1997

Air Distribution:
Air Diffusion Performance Index ADPI:

N 100
ADPI =
N

Where:
Wh
N : Number of points measure in occupied zone
in which (-1.7oC < < 1.1oC)
N: Total number of points measure in occupied zone

ASHRAE Fundamentals 1997

Space Diffusion Effectiveness Factor

The effectiveness
Th
ff i
off a space air
i
diffusion system can also be
assessed by using a space
diffusion effectiveness factor for
air temperature T or for air
contamination C. Both factors
are dimensionless.

T temperature, F (C)
C concentration of air contamination, g/m3
subscript re represents the re-circulating air, ex
the exhaust air, r the space air or air at the
measuring point, and s the supply air.

Effectiveness factor T compares

temperature differentials and C
compares contamination
Wh
When
1,
1 the
th space air
i diffusion
diff i iis
differentials .
considered effective.

If 1 , a portion of supply air has failed to

s ppl the occupied
supply
occ pied zone
one and e
exhaust
ha st
through the return or exhaust inlets directly.

Air outlets

Supply temperature is the same

as the room temperature
Shortly after the high velocity
primary air leaves the outlets it
induces surrounding air into the
stream
Then total air forms the shape of
an expanding cone.
Throw: is the distance from the
outlet
ou
e to
o a po
point a
at which
c the
e
velocity of the air stream has
reached a definite minimum
value.

Isothermal jet

Air outlets

If there
th
i a difference
is
diff
b t
between
th room
the
and supply air temperatures then there
will be a drop or rise due to density
difference.
As the jet progresses into the room
primary air mixes with room air
absorbing the room load.
If the velocity is higher than 150 fpm the
momentum of the jet will overcome the
buoyant force and keep the flow
horizontal.
horizontal
Drop (rise): is the vertical distance the
air moves between the time it leaves the
outlet and the time it reaches the end of
its throw

Non-Isothermal jet

Air outlets

Ceiling effect

If the
th jet
j t is
i projected
j t d parallel
ll l to
t and
d within
ithi a few
f
i h off a wallll or ceiling
inches
ili the
th jet
j t will
ill
take on the form of a half cone.

Essentially the same flow must now be distributed thru one half of a larger cone.
Maximum velocities will remain close to the surface, creating a low pressure region
between the jet and the surface. Thus the jet hugs the surface while induction is
limited to the free side of the jet.

The net result: the throw of the

jet will be increased, and the
drop for horizontal projections
decreased as the jet is pushed
toward the surface by the rush
of induced air.

Air outlets Outlets in parallel

When two
Wh
t
j t located
jets
l
t d att a distance
di t
D are discharging
di h i
i parallel,
in
ll l each
h has
h
a
maximum velocity core, and each behaves independently until it reaches a distance
L where the two interfere.
Up to the point of interference the maximum velocities lie along the centerline of each
jet. Past the point of interference the maximum velocity then occurs on a line midway
between the outlets.
At this p
point a secondaryy jjet conical p
profile is formed which behaves as if it were
emanating from an outlet twice the size of either of the actual outlets.
The net result of the mixing
g under
these conditions is that the throw of
the two parallel jets exceeds that of
one individually and likewise the
drop increases.
increases

Air outlets

Induction is the entrainment of

room air by the air ejected from
the outlet and is a result of the
velocity of the outlet air.
The air coming directly from the
outlet is called primary air. The
room air which is picked up and
carried along
g by
y the p
primary
y air is
called secondary air.
The entire stream, composed of a
mixture of primary and secondary
air is called total air.
air,
air
Induction is expressed by the
momentum equation

Induction

M 1V1 + M 2V2 = ( M 1 + M 2 ) V3
M1 = mass of primary air
M2 = mass of secondary air
V1 = velocity of primary air
V2 = velocity of secondary air
V3 = Velocity of total air

Air outlets

IMPORTANCE OF INDUCTION:

Since throw is a function of velocity and since

the rate of decrease of velocity is dependent on
the rate of induction, the length of throw is
dependent on the amount of induction that
occurs.

The amount of induction for an outlet is a direct

function of the perimeter of the primary air
stream cross-section.

For two outlets having the same area, the outlet

with the larger perimeter has the greatest
induction and, therefore, the shortest throw.

Thus, for
Th
f a given
i
air
i quantity
tit discharged
di h
d into
i t a
room with a given pressure, the minimum
induction and maximum throw is obtained by a
single outlet with a round cross-section.
Conversely the greatest induction and the
Conversely,
shortest blow occur with a single outlet in the
form of a long narrow slot.

Induction

Induction ratio
(i)
Is defined as the ratio of the
total air to the primary air.

Total air
i=
Primary air
Primar + Secondary
Primary
Secondar air
i=
Primary air

Air outlets

Blades setting

SPREAD: The angle of divergence of the air

stream after it leaves the outlet.
outlet
Spread is the result of the momentum law.
Straight Vanes: Outlets with vanes set at a
straight angle result in a spread of
approximately 19-20 in both the horizontal
and vertical plane.
Diverging Vanes: Outlets with vanes set to give
an angular spread to the discharge air have a
marked effect on direction and distance of
travel. Vertical vanes with the end vanes set at
a 45
45 angle,
angle and all other vanes set at
intermediate angles to give a fanning effect,
produce an air stream with a horizontal
included angle of approximately 60. Under
this condition throw is reduced about 50%.

Air outlets

Even though relatively high velocities

are used
d thru
th the
th face
f
off the
th return
t
grille, the approach velocity drops
markedly just a few inches in front of
the grille.
grille
This means that the location of a
return grille is much less critical than a
supply grille.
grille
Also a relatively large air quantity can
be handled thru a return grille without
causing drafts.
General drift toward the return grille
must be within acceptable limits of
less
than
50
fpm;
p ;
otherwise
complaints resulting from drafts may
result.

Return grilles

Return grille
500 cfm at a face velocity
y of 500 fpm
p

Air Diffusers

Air outlets
Ai
tl t and
d diffusing
diff i equipment
i
t iintroduce
t d
air
i iinto
t a conditioned
diti
d space tto
obtain a desired indoor atmospheric environment. Return and exhaust air is
removed from a space through return and exhaust inlets. Various types of
diff sing eq
diffusing
equipment
ipment are a
available
ailable as standard man
manufactured
fact red prod
products
cts
Slot diffusers are deployed primarily in applications in which suspended
panel ceilings leave a narrow gap of only 16-120 mm in width.
They are suitable for installation in rooms ranging in height from approx. 2.60
m to 4.00 m. They offer high induction, resulting in swift reduction of the
supply air temperature differential and the air discharge velocity.
The recommended volume flow range is 25 to l/s m, while the permissible
supply air temperature differential stands at 10 K. The stable discharge
behavior of slot diffusers makes them suitable for use in systems with
constant or variable volume flow. The air discharge direction can be adapted
as necessary to the desired room conditions.
Slot diffusers are generally supplied with rear-mounted plenum box, whereby
the air duct system is connected via the side-mounted round spigot.

Slot Diffuser

A slot diffuser consists of a plenum box with single

or multiple
p slots and air deflecting
g vanes.

Air discharged from a slot diffuser can be projected

horizontally or vertically.

With multiple slots, air can be horizontally

discharged either left or right, or a combination of
both, or one slot can discharge vertically while
another discharges horizontally.

The function
Th
f
ti off the
th plenum
l
box
b is
i to
t distribute
di t ib t th
the
air more evenly at the slot.

The plenum box is insulated internally

internally.

Ceiling Diffusers

A ceiling diffuser consists of a series of concentric rings or inner cones made

up of vanes arranged in fixed directions and an outer shell or frame

Ceiling diffusers can be round, square, or rectangular.

Square diffusers are most widely used.

Supply air is discharged through the concentric air passages or directional

passages in one, two, three, or in all directions by using different types of inner
cone and
d vanes.

Swirl diffusers

Swirl
S
i l diff
diffusers consist
i t off a diff
diffuser fface with
ith
fixed, radially arranged air control elements.
They are available in square or round design.
Connection to the air duct system is effected
via the plenum box, in either vertical or
horizontal configuration.
Swirling, horizontal discharge of the supply air
at a high induction rate guarantees swift
temperature equalization and fast reduction of
the
h flflow velocity.
l i
Up to 30 room air changes per hour are
attainable at supply air temperatures between
+10K and -10K.
In order to stabilize the supply air flow, all sizes
must be installed flush with the ceiling.

Air Grilles
Ventilation grilles suitable for
supply and exhaust air.
The all
all-round
round face frame is
available in a width of 27 mm
or 23 mm, with horizontal,
individually adjustable drip
blades and concealed screw
attachment.
attachment
Optionally available with screw
clamp attachment or visible
screw attachment (warted
holes).
)

Select the Type of Supply Outlet

Selection
S
l i off the
h supply
l outlet
l depends
d
d on the
h ffollowing:
ll i
Requirements of indoor environmental control.
Shape,
Shape size,
size and ceiling height of the building
building.
Surface effect.
Volume flow per ft2 of floor area.
Appearance.

Volume Flow per ft2 Floor Area

Select the Specific Supply Outlet from

Manufacturers Catalogue

Sound
S
d Level.
L
l The
Th combined
bi d sound
d level
l
l off terminal
t
i l and
d outlet
tl t should
h ld
be at least 3 dB lower than the recommended NC criteria in the
conditioned space. For optimum noise control, the recommended air
velocities
elocities at the ssupply
ppl o
outlet
tlet are as follo
follows:
s

Residences, apartments, churches, hotel guest rooms, theaters, private offices, 500 to 750
fpm (2.5 to 3.75 m / s)
General
Ge
e a offices
o ces 500 to 1250
50 fpm
p ((2.5
5 to 6
6.25
5 m / s)
The outlet velocity for the ceiling diffuser can be calculated by dividing the volume flow by
area factor Ak, given in the manufacturers catalog.

Drop of Cold Air Jet. Drop of a cold air jet should be checked if the
cold jet enters the occupied zone directly.

Total Pressure Loss of the Supply Outlet.

Air outlets

SOUND POWER ((Lw)):

is a measure of the total acoustic
energy being emitted at the source in
all directions
It is completely independent of the
room surroundings.
Sound power data is derived from
testing methods as outlined by ARI.
If the equipment sound power data
and the acoustic characteristics
(attenuating effects) of the space are
known,, it is p
possible to estimate or
calculate the sound pressure level in
the space.
Because sound power levels cannot
be measured directly,
directly
they are
calculated from sound pressure
measurements, in dB, conducted in a
sound laboratory.

Introduction to sound

WHAT IS A DECIBEL (dB)

A decibel
d ib l is
i
a unit
it off
measurement used to express
the relative difference in
power
between
acoustic
signals.

dB = 10 log

Sound level (watts)

Reference level (10 -12 watts)

Air outlets

Introduction to sound

SOUND PRESSURE ((Lp)):

measured in dB, is what the ear
(receiver) detects, and it varies in
direct relationship to the distance to
the source , the room volume, the
sound absorption of the room, and the
background noise.

Sound
S
d pressure values
l
without
ith t
reference to both the distance from the
source and the frequency range are
essentiallyy meaningless.
g

A sound pressure level in the space

may be calculated from known point
source sound power level data by
knowing the acoustic characteristics of
the environment surrounding the
source.

WHAT IS A DECIBEL (dB)

A decibel
d ib l is
i
a unit
it off
measurement used to express
the
relative
difference
between acoustic signals.

Sound level
dB = 10 log
Reference level
Reference is 0.0002 microbars

Air outlets

Introduction to sound

The A-weighted sound level dB(A):

was developed to approximate the human ear
ears
s response to sound (500 - 3,000
3 000 Hz) at
low to moderate levels, and is often used to rate HVAC noise in the areas of
conversation and community noise exposure limits as well as to establish acoustical
design goals. The weighting is achieved by subtracting (filtering) decibels from the
octave band frequencies below 1000Hz to compensate for the human ear
ears
s lack of
sensitivity in those frequency ranges. A-weighted sound level measurements are
relatively easy to perform and may be measured with an inexpensive sound meter.

The A-weighted
A weighted sound level is
most useful when comparing
the relative loudness of one
acoustic
environment
to
another similar environment.
Measuring
the
A-weighted
sound level at various CFM
deliveries could help determine
if reducing the air quantity to
the diffuser is an effective
method of noise control.
control

Air outlets

Introduction to sound

NOISE CRITERIA (NC):

The NC curves are a family of criteria curves that may be used to establish and
evaluate acceptable noise criteria limits for occupied spaces. These curves do not
adequately predict acoustic quality other than attempting to achieve reasonable
loudness levels and avoid speech interference from HVAC noise. The NC curves work
well when low-frequencies
low frequencies are not important.
important

The NC curve establishes the

maximum acceptable
p
upper
pp
limit for each octave band.

Experience has shown that

problems are not
noise p
avoided unless the shape of
the actual noise spectrum
approximates that of the
chosen
h
NC curve over three
th
to four contiguous octave
bands.

Recommended Criteria for

Indoor Design RC or NC
Range

Note:
N
t Th
These are for
f unoccupied
i d
spaces, with all systems operating.
*Design goals can be increased by 5
dB when dictated by budget
constraints or when intrusion from
other sources represents a limiting
condition.
An acoustical expert should be
consulted for guidance on these critical
spaces.
S
Source:
ASHRAE H
Handbook
db k 1987,
1987
HVAC Systems and Applications.

Air outlets

LpNC, LwNC:
The difference between Lw Lp is
called room effect and reflects the
decay in the sound power caused by:

1. The distance between the outlet and

the occupant.
2. Sound absorptivity characteristics of
the room.

The softer the room the higher the

room effect.

The figure reflects a 10dB room effect

which is normal for most general office
spaces.

The performance of the outlet with a

10 dB room effect results in a room
NC of 44.

Room effect

Air outlets

IMPACT OF DIRECTIVITY

p
pattern.
p
Sound tends to radiate from its source in a spherical

When an outlet is placed in a only 1/2 a sphere is available. So, the intensity of sound
doubles as it leaves a ceiling outlet, its location is said to have a directivity factor of 2.
The sound power ratings for outlets are based on a directivity factor of 2
2.

Difference between two sources dB

0-1

2-4

5-9

10 and >

Decibels to be added to the higher

Should an outlet be placed near the

j
junction
ti
off two
t
surfaces,
f
th directivity
the
di ti it
factor increases to 4. This doubles the
sound power of the outlet and results in a
3dB increase in its sound rating.
Placing an outlet in a corner would
increase the directivity factor to 8 and
result in a 6dB increase in the outlet
sound rating.

Air outlets

1
1.

2.
3.

4.

TYPICAL EXAMPLE

Two Krueger 14 inch round ceiling outlets were picked whose rated resultant room NC
was 35 dB. The following paragraphs will take you through the steps required to arrive at
the final room NC level.
CHECK BASIS:
BASIS A review
i
off the
th Krueger
K
ratings
ti
reveals
l a room effect
ff t off 18 dB was
assumed to produce the ratings. Normally a 10 dB room effect is typical for office
spaces. The difference 18 10 = 8 dB must be added back to the 35 dB to reflect more
accurately the outlet performance. The 14 inch outlet will therefore produce a room NC
of 35 + 8 = 43 db
CHECK DIRECTIVITY: Each outlet is located well toward the center of the ceiling and is
not close to any walls or columns. Therefore, there is no directivity adjustment.
CHECK ACCESSORIES: Balancing dampers will be needed for each outlet. Assume
they are located in the ductwork 5 Feet upstream of the outlet and a review of the
manufacturers data shows an extra 3 dB of sound will be generated. Each outlet now
produces a room NC of 43 + 3 = 46 dB.
dB
MULTIPLE OUTLETS: The room is equipped with two 14 inch outlets each producing
NC 46 dB. The difference between the two Sound sources is zero. Combining the two,
the final room NC will therefore 46 + 3 = 49 db

Air outlets

TYPICAL EXAMPLE

NC 49

Air outlets

Problems:

Architectural problems:
Cornice

Duct layout problems

Structure problems: Beams

Variable air volume

Sound level

Selection

Air outlets

Nomenclature

Air outlets

Nomenclature

Air outlets

Tabular selection

Air outlets

Selection of double deflection grille

Grilles with ceiling effect

Air outlets

Effective outlet area

Air outlets

Drop and rise

Air outlets

Linear Grille

Air outlets

Slot diffuser

Air outlets

Introduction to sound

Equal loudness curve:

T
Two
diff
different
t 60 decibel
d ib l sounds
d will
ill nott in
i generall have
h
th same loudness
the
l d
measured in dB, is what the ear (receiver) detects, and it varies in direct relationship
to the distance to the source , the room volume, the sound absorption of the room,
and the background noise.

Saying that two sounds have

equal intensity is not the
same thing as saying that
th have
they
h
equall loudness.
l d
Since the human hearing
sensitivity
varies
with
frequency equal loudness
frequency,
curves was plotted which
show that variation for the
average human ear.
If 1000 Hz is chosen as a
standard frequency, then
each equal loudness curve
can be referenced to the
decibel level at 1000 Hz.

Thank you

Air outlets

Room air movement

The performance of the outlet and the room air movement are related to
each other as follows:

1) Total air in circulation = Outlet CFM x Inductin ratio

2) Average room velocity =

3) K =

1.4 x total CFM in circulation

area of wall opposite outlet

average room velocity

outlet CFM
=
1.4 x induction ratio
clear area of wall opposite outlet