1.

EXERCISE SET 1
Prob 1: Prove for all n > 1 that Z/nZ is not group under multiplication of
residue classes. Let (Z/nZ) denote the residue classes of integers coprime to n.
This is a group under multiplication.
Sol: For Z/nZ to be group under multiplication, multiplicative inverse should
exist for all elements belonging to Z/nZ.
(0 a, b n 1)

a.b = 1mod(n)

(k Z+ )

ab 1 = kn

ab + k 0 n = 1
(k 0 = k)
That is multiplicative inverse exist for only those elements which are relatively
prime to n. Obvious counter example is 0 Z/nZ, but no multiplicative inverse.
Prob 2: Let G = {x R | 0 x < 1} and for x, y G, let x y = (x + y [x +
y]) = {x + y}. Prove that is a binary operation on G and that G is an abelian
group under .
Sol: For to be a binary operation, x y should be in G for x, y G, which is
true as 0 {x + y} < 1.
(1) is associative: Let x, y, z G, then
(x y) z = x + y + z [x + y + z]
x (y z) = x + y + z [x + y + z],
hence associative.
(2) x e = e x = x, is satisfied for all x G, if we take e = 0.
(3) x x1 = x1 x = e, is satisfied by x1 = 1 x G, for x = 0 x1 = 0
(4) {x + y} = {y + x} hence group is abelian.
Prob 3: G = {z C|z n = 1} for some n Z+ .
Prove that G is group under multiplication.
Sol:
(1) Let z1 , z2 , z3 G
(z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 z2 z3
z1 (z2 z3 ) = z1 z2 z3
hence multiplication is associative.
(2) z e = e z = z, this is satisfied for all z G when e = 1 G
(3) z z 1 = z 1 z = e this is satisfied by z 1 = z n1 G as (z n1 )n = 1
Hence G is a group under multiplication.
Prove that G is not group under addition.
Sol: z + e = e + z = z is only satisfied by e = 0, but 0 does not belong
to G, hence G is not a group under addition.
Prob 4: Find order of each element of the additive group Z/12Z.
Sol: |0| = 1
|1| = 12
|2| = 6
|3| = 4
|4| = 3
|5| = 12
|6| = 2
|7| = 12
|8| = 3
|9| = 4
|10| = 6
|11| = 12
1

Prob 5: Let x be an element of G. Prove that, if |x| = n for some positive

integer n then x1 = xn1 .
Sol: |x| = n implies xn = 1 as x G then x1 G such that x x1 = x1 x =
1. As xn = 1, multiplying both sides by x1 we will get x1 = xn1 .
Prob 6: Let G be a finite group and let x be an element of G of order n. Prove
0
that if n is odd, then x = (x2 )k for some integer k 0 1.
Sol: As n is odd, n = 2k + 1 where k Z+ {0}
xn = x2k+1 = 1
multiply both sides by x, we get (x2 )k+1 = x, replacing k + 1 by k 0 where k 0 Z+
0
and hence x = (x2 )k for some integer k 0 1.
Prob 7: Prove that if x2 = 1 for all x G then G is abelian.
Sol: Let
xy 6= yx
xxyy 6= xyxy
x2 y 2 6= (xy)2
1 6= (xy)2
which is contradiction as, if x, y G then xy G and hence (xy)2 = 1 therefore
xy = yx, and hence G is abelian.
Prob 8: Prove that A B is abelian iff A and B are abelian.
Sol: A B = (x, y) for x A, y B let,
p, q A and r, s B
(p, r) (q, s) = (pq, rs)
(q, s) (p, r) = (qp, sr)
so (p, r) (q, s) = (q, s) (p, r) implies pq = qp and rs = sr for all p, q A and
r, s B, that is A and B should be abelian.
Prob 9: Show that order of (a,b) is lcm of |a| and |b|.
Sol: let, |a| = n and |b| = m, order of (a,b) should be divisible by both n
and m, but lcm(n,m) is smallest number to which n and m divides, hence order of
(a,b)=lcm(|a|,|b|).
1
1
Prob 10: Prove that (a1 a2 an )1 = a1
n an1 a1 for all a1 , a2 , , an G

Sol: for a1 , a2 , , an G, (a1 a2 an ) G and hence its inverse also exist

1
in G i.e. (a1 a2 an )(a1 a2 an )1 = 1 now multiplying successively by a1
1 , a2 ,
1
till an , we will get
1
1
(a1 a2 an )1 = a1
n an1 a1 .

2. EXERCISE SET 2
Prob 1: Let x and y be the elements of order 2 in any group G. Prove that if
t = xy then tx = xt1 .
Sol: |x| = 2 and |y| = 2 implies x = x1 and y = y 1
t = xy
1

= (xy) = y 1 x1 = yx
tx = xyx
xt1 = xyx
tx = xt1


For Problem 2 and 3: Let X2n = x, y|xn = y 2 = 1, xy = yx2 .
Prob 2: Show that if n = 3k, then X2n has order 6.
Sol:
x = xy 2 = (xy)y = (yx2 )y = (yx)(xy) = (yx)(yx2 ) = y(xy)x2 = yyx2 x2 = y 2 x4 = x4
i.e. x = x4 so we get x3 = 1, hence order of x2n is 6,
X2n = {1, x, x2 , y, yx, yx2 }.
Prob 3: Show that if gcd(3, n) = 1, then x satisfies the additional relation:
x = 1. In this case deduce that X2n has order 2.
Sol:
gcd(3, n) = 1
3a + nb = 1
x1 = x3a+nb = (x3 )a (xn )b = 1
so, X2n has order 2, X2n = {1, y}.


For Problem 4-8: Let Y = u, v|u4 = v 3 = 1, uv = v 2 u2
Prob 4: Show that v 2 = v 1 .
Sol:
v3 = 1
1
v vv 2 = v 1
v 2 = v 1
Prob 5: Show that v commutes with u3 .
Sol:
v 2 u3 v = (v 2 u2 )(uv) = (uv)(uv) = uv 3 u2 = u3
as, v 2 u3 v = u3 , multiplying both sides by v we get,u3 v = vu3 .
Prob 6: show that v commutes with u.
Sol:
u4 = 1
u9 = u
(u3 )3 = u

(v 2 u3 v)3 = u
(v 2 u9 v) = u
u9 v = vu
uv = vu
Prob 7: Show that uv = 1.
Sol:
uv = vu
u = vuv 2
u = vv 2 u2 v
u = u2 v
u3 u = u3 u2 v
uv = 1
Prob 8: Show that u = 1, deduce that v = 1, and conclude that Y = 1.
Sol:
u4 v 3 = 1
u3 uvv 2 = 1
u3 v 2 = 1
u2 uvv = 1
u2 v = 1
u=1
as, uv = 1 and u = 1 then v = 1, and hence Y=1.
Prob 9: Prove that if is the m-cycle (a1 a2 am ), then for all i {1, 2, , m},
i (ak ) = ak+i , where k +i is replaced by its least positive residue mod(m). Deduce
that || = m.
Sol: Using process of induction, 1 (ak ) = ak+1 is true. Let m (ak ) = ak+m
then for i = m + 1, m+1 (ak ) = 1 m (ak ) = 1 (ak+m ) = ak+m+1 i.e.equation is
true for m + 1 whenever it is true for m, hence this equation is true for all i Z+ .
Whenever k + i m, is replaced by x where k + i (x)mod(m) and 0 x m 1.
As i (ak ) = ak+i , let ak = ak+i for all 0 k m 1, then (k)mod(m) =
(k + i)mod(m) which implies m|i, smallest i divisible by m is m hence || = m.
Prob 10: Let be the m-cycle (1 2 3 m). Show that i is also a m-cycle iff
i is relatively prime to m.
Sol 1: Suppose i is m-cycle then
i = (1, 1 + i, , 1 + (m 1)i)
and so {1, 1 + i, 1 + 2i, . . . , 1 + (m 1)i} must be distinct mod(m). Let gcd(i, m) 6=
1 then there exist prime p, such that i = pk1 and m = pk2 where (k1 , k2 , p
Z+ ), (0 < k1 , k2 < m)
mk1 = ik2
1 + mk1 = 1 + ik2
1mod(m) = (1 + ik2 )mod(m)

which is contradiction, hence gcd(i, m) = 1 for i be the m-cycle.

Suppose gcd(i, m) = 1, then {1, 1 + i, . . . , 1 + (m + 1)i} are distinct mod(m). If
not then
(0 l < j m 1),

1 + li = 1 + ji

(0 < i m 1)

(l j)i = 0mod(m)
(l j)i = km
k Z+
Since gcd(i, m) = 1 there are integers k1 and k2 such that k1 i+k2 m = 1. Mutiplying
both sides by l j we get,
k1 (l j)i + k2 (l j)m = l j
which implies m|l j, but this is not possible since 0 < l j < m. Therefore if i
and m are relatively prime then i is an m-cycle.
3.

EXERCISE SET 3

Prob 1: Show that if n is not prime then Z/nZ is not a field.

Sol: For Z/nZ to be a field each element should have multiplicative inverse.
a
b = 1
(0 a, b n 1)
ab + kn = 1
(k Z)
which implies inverse of only those elements exist which are relatively prime to n,
hence n has to be a prime number.
Prob 2: Let p be a prime. Prove that order of GL2 (Fp ) is p4 p3 p2 + p.
Sol: |Fp | = p, GL2 (Fp ) is set of all 2 2 matrices
having entries from Fp whose


determinant is not zero. Let A = A1 A2 to be a column matrix for 2 2
matrices. For A GL2 (Fp ), there are p2 1 choices for A1 (A1 6= 0), determinant
of 2 2 is zero iff one column is a multiple of another i.e. A2 = kA2 where k Fp ,
det(A) = 0 iff A2 = {0A1 , 1A1 , , (p 1)A1 } so there are are only (p2 p) choices
for A2 , hence there are (p2 1)(p2 p) choices for A GL2 (Fp ). Hence order of
GL2 (Fp ) is p4 p3 p2 + p.
Prob 3: Show that GLn (F) is non-abelian for any n 2 and
Sol: For GLn (F) to be abelian, for all A, B GL
 n (F)AB
=
1 2
2
true for all n 2 and any F. Counter example is
3 4
1


 

2 3
1 2
11 16
where as
=
.
1 4
3 4
13 18

any F.
BA,
is not
 which


3
4 11
=
,
4
10 25

Prob 4: Compute order of each element in Q8 .

Sol: |1| = 1, | 1| = 2, |i| = | i| = |j| = | j| = |k| = | k| = 4.
Prob 5: Let : G H be a Homomorphism, prove that (xn ) = (x)n for all
n Z+ .
Sol: Using process of induction, for n = 1 (x1 ) = (x)1 , let (xk ) = (x)k for
n = k + 1, (xk+1 ) = (xk x1 ) = (xk )x1 = (x)k (x)1 = (x)k+1 which implies,
equation is true for n = k + 1 whenever it is true for n = k hence equation is true
for all n Z+ .

Prob 6: Let G and H be groups and let : G H be a homomorphism. Prove

that kernel of is subgroup of G.
Sol: Kernel of is nonempty as 1G ker() as (1G 1G ) = (1G ) (1G ) =
1H . Let g1 , g2 ker(), then g1 g2 ker() as (g1 g2 ) = (g1 )(g2 ) = 1H , hence
kernel of is closed under multiplication. g11 ker() as,
(g11 g1 ) = (1G )
(g11 )(g1 ) = 1H
(g11 ) = 1H
hence kernel of is closed under inverse, therefore it is a subgroup of G.
Prob 7: Define a map : R2 R by ((x, y)) = x. Prove that is a
homomorphism and find kernel of .
Sol: Let (x, y), (v, w) R2 ((x, y)(v, w)) = ((x + v, y + w)) = x + v and
((x, y))((v, w)) = x + v, hence is a homomorphism. Kernel of is (0, y) where
y R.
Prob 8: Let G be any group. Prove that map from G to itself defined by g 7 g 2
is homomorphism iff G is abelian.
Sol: Let : G G such that (g) = g 2 for all g G. Let a, b G, then
(ab) = (ab)2 and (a)(b) = a2 b2 , lets assume (ab)2 = a2 b2 multiplying both sides
by a1 and b1 we get, a1 (ab)2 b1 = a1 a2 b2 b1 ba = ab i.e. if a homomorphism
then G is abelian. Now, take G to be abelian i.e. ab = ba multiplying both sides by
a and b, we get a2 b2 = (ab)2 which implies (a)(b) = (ab) i.e. when G is abelian
is homomorphism. Hence is homomorphism iff G is abelian.
Prob 9: Prove that for each fixed nonzero k Q the map from Q to itself
defined by q 7 kq is an automorphism.
Sol: Define : Q Q such that (q) = kq, is a homomorphism as
(a + b) = k(a + b) = ka + kb = (a)(b)

(a, b Q)

is injective as (m) = (n) implies m = n. is surjective as for each q Q there

exist t Q such that k 1 t = q where k 1 Q {0}, hence is bijective which
implies it is an isomorphism Q onto Q hence by definition it is automorphism.
Prob 10: Let A be an abelian group and fix some k Z. Prove that the
map a 7 ak is a homomorphism. If k = 1 prove that this homomorphism is an
isomorphism.
Sol : Define : A A such that (a) = ak . Let a, b A (ab) = (ab)k and
(a)(b) = ak bk as A is abelian (ab)k = ak bk hence is homomorphism. is a
bijection for k = 1 because each element has unique inverse and as A is a group
inverse exist for each element. Hence is an isomorphism.
Prob 11: Show that the additive group R acts on the x, y plane R R by
r.(x, y) = (x + ry, y).
Sol : Let a, b R, a.(b.(x, y)) = a.(x+by, y) = (x+by+ay, y) = (x+(a+b)y, y) =
(a + b).(x, y), and 1.(x, y) = (x + 0y, y) = (x, y) hence by definition of group action
the additive group R acts on the x, y plane R R.

Prob 12: Let G be a group acting on a set A and fix some a A. Show that
P = {g G| ga = a} is subgroup of G.
Sol : P is nonempty as 1 P .Let m, n P , (mn)a = m(n(a)) = m(a) = a,
which implies mn P , i.e. P is closed under multiplication, m1 P as
a = 1a = (m1 m)a = m1 (m(a)) = m1 (a)
which implies p is closed under inverses. Hence P is subgroup.
Prob 13: Let G be any group and let A = G. Show that the maps defined by
g.a = gag 1 for allg, a G do satisfy the axioms of a group action.
Sol : Let m, n G m.(n.a) = m.(nan1 ) = mnan1 m1 = (mn)a(mn)1 =
(mn).a and 1.a = 1a11 = a hence both axioms are satisfied.
For Prob 14-15: Let G be a group and let G act on itself by left conjugation,
so each g G maps G to G by x
7 gxg 1 for fixed g G.
Prob 14: Prove that conjugation by g is an Automorphism.
Sol : Define : G G such that (x) = gxg 1 . Let x, y G, (xy) =
gxyg 1 = (gxg 1 )(gyg 1 ) = (x)(y), hence homomorphism. is injective as,
(x) = (y) implies x = y. is surjective as, for every x G there exist y such
that g 1 xg = y. Hence is a bijection and conjugation by g is an automorphism.
Prob 15: Show that x and gxg 1 have the same order.
Sol : Let |x| = n and (gxg 1 )m = 1, which implies xm = 1 so, n|m smallest m
to which n divides except zero is n, hence |gxg 1 | = n.
Prob 16: Let H be a group acting on set A. Prove that the relation on A
defined by a b iff a = hb for some h H is an equivalence relation.
Sol : a a as a = 1a where 1 H. Let a b then b a, as a b implies a = hb
multiplying both sides by h1 we get, h1 a = b as h1 H hence symmetric. Let
a b and b c then a c, as a b implies a = h1 b and b c implies b = h2 c
now substituting we get, a = (h1 h2 )c as as (h1 h2 ) H hence transitive. Therefore
relation is an equivalence relation.
For Prob 17-19: Let A be a nonempty set and let k be a positive integer with
k |A|. The symmetric group SA acts on set B consisting of all subset of A of
cardinality k by .{a1 , . . . , ak } = {(a1 ), . . . , (ak )}.
Prob 17: Prove that this is a group action.
Sol : Let , SA then .(.{a1 , . . . , ak }) = .{(a1 ), . . . , (ak )} = { (a1 ), . . . , (ak )} =
( ).{(a1 ), . . . , (ak )}, and 1.{a1 , . . . , ak } = {1a1 , . . . , 1ak } = {a1 , . . . , ak }. Hence
by definition this is a group action.
Prob 18: For which values k the action of SA on k-element subsets is faithful
where |A| = n.
Sol : Let G be a group. G acting on a set B is equivalent to giving a group
homomorphism : G Aut(B), as follows. Consider the two sets
S1 = {f : GB B|f is a group action, that is, f satisfiesf (g, f (h, b)) = f (gh, b) and f (e, b) = b}

and
S2 = { : G Aut(B)| is a group homomorphism}.
Define : S1 S2 by ((f )(g))(b) = f (g, b). It is obvious that (f )(g)
Aut(B) since f is an action. We need to check that (f ) is a group homomorphism
from G Aut(B). Let g1 , g2 G then we need to check that (f )(g1 g2 ) =
(f )(g1 ) (f )(g2 ). Both these are elements in Aut(B) and so it suffices to check
they are equal when we apply them on b B. ((f )(g1 g2 ))(b) = f (g1 g2 , b) and
((f )(g1 ) (f )(g2 ))(b) = ((f )(g1 ))(f (g2 , b)) = f (g1 , f (g2 , b)) since f is a group
action f (g1 g2 , b) = f (g1 , f (g2 , b)) which implies (f ) is a group homomorphism if
f is a group action.
Define : S2 S1 given as (())(g, b) = (g)(b). We need to check that ()
is a group action from G B B. Let g1 , g2 G and denote by 1 the identity element of G. Then we need to check that (())(g1 g2 , b) = (())(g1 , (())(g2 , b))
and (())(1, b) = b. (())(g1 g2 , b) = (g1 g2 )(b) and (())(g1 , (())(g2 , b)) =
(())(g1 , (g2 )(b)) = (g1 ) (g2 )(b), (g1 g2 ) = (g1 ) (g2 ) as is a group homomorphism. (())(1, b) = (1)(b) but as is a group homomorphism (1) goes
to identity in Aut(B) but IdAut(B) (b) = b hence (())(1, b) = b. As, whenever
is a group homomorphism () satisfies both the properties of group action, hence
() is a group action if is a group homomorphism.
Now we need to check that = IdS2 , that is, we want to check ( ) =
for S2 . As S2 , equality can be checked by applying both sides on an
element g G. ( )()(g) = (g) now, both these are elements of Aut(B) so it
is suffice to check that they are equal when applied on b B. ( )()(g)(b) =
(((())(g)))(b) = (())(g, b) = (g)(b) hence, = IdS2 . Also, we need
to check that = IdS1 i.e. we want to check ( )f = f both of these are
elements of S1 as f S1 , so it is suffice to check that they are equal when applied
on (g, b) G B. ( )(f (g, b)) = (((f )))(g, b) = ((f )(g))(b) = f (g, b)
hence, = IdS1 .
Group action f is said to be faithful when (f ) is injective i.e. (((f ))(g1 ))(B) =
(((f ))(g2 ))(B) implies g1 = g2 , for all f S1 where g1 , g2 G. For the given
problem G = SA and elements of G are distinct permutations of A. Let B be
a k-element subset of A. Let x , y SA be two distinct permutations of A.
Since these permutations are distinct there exist a A such that x (a) 6= y (a).
We now can choose a k-element subset B of A where k is less than n, such that
a B but y1 x (a)
/ B. Since x (B) contains x (a) but y (B) does not contain
1
y y x (a) = x (a) hence, as x 6= y implies x (B) 6= y (B) hence action is
faithful. For k = n there will be only one element in B and hence only one element
in Aut(B) i.e. IdAut(B) and hence kernel of group homomorphism (f ) will be
whole of SA , hence action will not be faithful. Therefore action is faithful for
0 k n 1.
Prob 19: For which values of k the action of SA on ordered k-tuple is faithful
where |A| = n.
Sol : Group action f is said to be faithful when (f ) is injective i.e. (((f ))(g1 ))(B) =
(((f ))(g2 ))(B) implies g1 = g2 for all f S1 where g1 , g2 G. For the given
problem G = SA and elements of G are distinct permutations of A, and B is an
ordered k-tuple of A. Let x , y SA be two distinct permutations of A. Since
these permutations are distinct there exist a A such that x (a) 6= y (a). We

now can choose an ordered k-tuple B where k is less than n, such that a B
but y1 x (a)
/ B. Since x (B) contains x (a) but y (B) does not contain
y y1 x (a) = x (a) hence, as x 6= y implies x (B) 6= y (B) hence action is
faithful. For k = n as x (a) 6= y (a) hence x (B) 6= y (B) since a B, because
unlike k-element subset, ordered k-tuple has n elements in B. Hence action is
faithful for 0 k n.
Prob 20: Let A and B be groups. Prove that A B
= B A.
Sol : Define : A B B A such that (x, y) = (y, x) for x A,y B. Let
a, b A, c, d B then ((a, b)(c, d)) = ((ac, bd)) = (bd, ac) and ((a, b)((c, d)) =
(b, a)(d, c) = (bd, ac), hence is homomorphism. is injective as (x, y) = (a, b)
implies x = a and y = b. is surjective as for every element (y, x) B A there
exist element (x, y) A B. Hence is bijection which implies it is isomorphism.
Prob 21: Show that {1, s} can not kernel of group homomorphism from D6 to
any other group.
Sol : Let is a group homomorphism from G to H, and let k = ker(),
then for x G, Kx = xK where Kx = {kx|k K} and xK = {xk|k K}.
D6 = {1, r, r2 , r3 , s, sr, sr2 }, {1, s} can not be kernel because of following counter
example. r.{1, s} = {r, rs} whereas {1, s}.r = {r, sr} as rs 6= sr in D6 because
rs = sr1 and r1 = r2 in D6 . Hence {1,s} can not be kernel.
4. EXERCISE SET 4
Prob 1: Find all subgroups of Z45 , giving generator for each.
Sol: If m|45 then Z45 has subgroup of order n/m given by < m >. The positive
divisors of 45 are 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45 then the corresponding subgroups are < 1 >, <
3 >, < 5 >, < 9 >, < 15 >, < 45 >.
Prob 2: If x is an element of the finite group G and |x| = |G|, prove that
G =< x >.
Sol: Let |x| = n then for k < n where k Z+ {0} all xk are different. If x G
then all the powers of x should be elements of G as G is a group, and as |G| = |x|
then all the elements of G are the those generated by x then by the definition of
generator of a group, G =< x >.
Prob 3: Find all generators of Z/48Z.
Sol: m generates Z/48Z if gcd(m, 48) = 1. Therefore generators of Z/48Z are
{1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47}.
Prob 4: Find all generators of Z/202Z.
Sol: m generates Z/202Z if gcd(m, 202) = 1. Therefore generators of Z/48Z are
all the odd numbers till 202 except 101.
Prob 5: Find number of generators for Z/49000Z .
Sol: Prime factorization of 49000 is 23 53 72 . Then number of generators of
49000 is equal to 49000(no. of divisors of 2, 5, 7 till 49000 no. of divisors of 10, 14, 35 till 49000+

10

no. of divisors of 70 till 49000) that is equal to (4900024500980070004900

3500 1400 + 700) = 16800.
Prob 6: In Z/48Z write out all elements of < a > for every a.
Sol:
1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31, 35, 37, 41, 43, 47 = {Z/48Z}
2, 10, 14, 22, 26, 34, 38, 46 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48}
3, 9, 15, 21, 33, 39, 45 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, 39, 42, 45, 48}
4, 20, 28, 44 = {4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48}
6, 18, 30, 42 = {6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48}
8, 40 = {8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48}
12, 36 = {12, 24, 36, 48}
16, 27 = {16, 32, 48}
24 = {24, 48}
48 = {48}.
Prob 7:List all subgroups of Z48 .
Sol: < 1 >, < 2 >, < 4 >, < 6 >, < 8 >, < 12 >, < 16 >, < 24 >, < 48 > are the
subgroups of Z48 .
Prob 8: Let Z48 =< x >. For which integers a does map to a defined by
a : 1 xa extend to an isomorphism from Z/48Z onto Z48 .
Sol: All integers a such that (a, 48) = 1, that is, a = 1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 25, 29, 31, 35, 37, 41, 43, 47
Prob 9: Let Z36 =< x >. For which integers a does the map a defined by
a : 1 xa extend to a well defined homomorphism from Z/48Z into Z36 . Can a
ever be a surjective homomorphism.
Sol: As order of 1 is 48 in Z/48Z, hence 1 must map to an element of order
dividing 48 i.e. a can be equal to {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12} but since a can not be equal to
36 hence this mapping can not be surjective homomorphism.
Prob 10: What is order of 30 in Z/54Z? Write out all of the elements and their
orders in < 30 >.
Sol : |30| = 5, < 30 >= {0, 30, 6, 36, 12, 42, 18, 48, 24} and their orders are
{1,9,9,3,9,9,3,9,9} respectively.
Prob 11: Find all cyclic subgroups of D8 .
Sol : Following are the cyclic subgroups of D8 : < 1 >, < s >, < sr >, < sr2 >
, < sr3 >, < r >, < r2 >.
Prob 12: Prove that following groups are not cyclic.

11

Z2 Z2 .
Sol : As Z2 = {0, 1}, hence Z2 Z2 = ({0, 0}, {0, 1}, {1, 0}, {1, 1}) i.e
|Z2 Z2 | = 4, therefore if this group is cyclic there should exist an element
of order 4, but since there is no element of order 4 in given group, hence
not cyclic.
Z2 Z.
Sol : Z2 Z is either of the form {0, x} or of the form {1,x} where x Z.
{0, x} can not be the generator as it can not generate {1, x}, hence it must
be of the form {1,x} if x 6= 1 then it can not generate {1,1}, and if x = 1
then they can not generate {0, 1} hence not cyclic.

Z Z.
Sol : If {a, b} is generator then its obvious that 1 a, b 1. None of
them except {1, 1} and {1, 1} can generate {1, 1} but then {1, 2} can
not be generated by them, hence not cyclic.
Prob 13: Prove that the following pairs of groups are not isomorphic.
Z Z2 , Z.
Sol : There is a element {0, 1} in Z Z2 of order 2, but there is not a single
element of order 2 in Z.
Q Z2 , Q.
Sol : There is a element {0, 1} in Q Z2 of order 2, but there is not a
single element of order 2 in Q.
Prob 14: Prove that Q Q is not cyclic.
Sol : Let {a, b} be the generator, then obviously a, b Q i.e a/2, b/2 Q but
{a, b} can not generate {a/2, b/2} hence not cyclic.
Prob 15: Assume |x| = n and |y| = m. Suppose that x and y commute:
xy = yx. Prove that |xy| divides the least common multiple of m and n. Need this
be true if x and y do not commute? Give an example of commuting elements x,y
such that the order of xy is not equal to least common multiple of |x| and |y|.
Sol : Let k = lcm(|x|, |y|) so m|k and n|k. Then (xy)k = xk y k = 1 hence k
divides order of xy. No, we have a counter example. Let x = (1, 2) and y = (2, 3)
then |x| = |y| = 2 but xy = (1, 2, 3) has order 3. Take G = Z/2Z and take
x, y = (1, 1) as both have order 2, but xy = (0, 0) has order 1, here order of xy is
not equal to least common multiple of |x| and |y|.
Prob 16: Show that if H is any group and h is an element of H with hn = 1,
then there is a homomorphism from Zn =< x > to H such that x h.
Sol : Since hn = 1, there is a m N such that | < h > | = m so m|n. Define
: Zn H such that (xk ) = hk then (xk )(xl ) = hk+l = (xk+l ), hence is a
homomorphism where k, l m, if k, l m then they will be replaced by x, y, such
that k x(mod m) and l y(mod m).

12

Prob 17: Show that if H is any group with h H, then there is homomorphism
: Z H such that 1 h.
Sol : Since Z is cyclic, its image under any homomorphism will be the cyclic
group generated by the image of 1. Since < h > is isomorphic to some cyclic group
Zn or Z, and hence map from Z to cyclic group which maps generator to generator
is a homomorphism.
Prob 18: Let p be a prime and let n be a positive integer. Show that if x is an
n
element of the group G such that xp = 1 then |x| = pm for some
Qnm n.
n
p
n
k
Sol : As x G and x = 1. Let |x| = a then a|p . Let a = k=1 (p
k ) and let
Qn
k
n
b
n
bQ= p a then x = 1 and hence a|b that is, k=1 (pk )|p which is equivalent to
n
k
nt
where pt = p this is possible only when 1 , . . . , n = 0 that
k=1,k6=t (pk )|p
m
is a = p where m n.
Prob 19: Let p be an odd prime and let n be a positive integer. Use binomial
n1
n2
theorem to show that (1 + p)p
1(mod pn ) but (1 + p)p
6= 1(mod pn ).
Sol : Let ordp (n) denote the highest order of p that divides n. Writing
Qk1
 m
pm j=1 (pm j)
p
=
Qk1
k
k j=1 j
we can see that ordp (j) = ordp (pm j) as whenever j = kp where k Z+ and
(k, p) = 1 then, (pm j) = (pm kp ) = p (pm k) as ordp (pm k) =
m

0 hence ordp (j) = ordp (pm j) = . Hence ordp pk = m ordp (k). Now,
Ppn1
n1

n1

n1
(1 + p)p
= k=0 (pk p k ) as ordp (pk p k ) = k + n 1 ordp (k) for k 1
term k 1 ordp (k) 0 and hence except for k = 0 all term of binomial expansion
n1
will be divisible by pn and hence (1 + p)p
1(mod pn ).


n2
P
n2
n2

n2
p
p
k
(1 + p)p
=
) as ordp (pk p k ) = k + n 2 ordp (k) for
k=0 (p
k
k 2 term k 2 ordp (k) 2 and hence except for k = 0, 1 all terms of binomial
n2
expansion will be divisible by pn and hence (1 + p)p
1 + pn1 (mod pn ), which
pn2
n
implies (1 + p)
6= 1(mod p ).
Prob 20: Let n be an integer 3. Use the Binomial Theorem to show that
n2
n3
(1 + 22 )2
1(mod 2n ) but (1 + 22 )2
6= 1(mod 2n ).
n2
P
n2

n2

n2
2
Sol : (1 + 22 )2
= k=0 (22k 2 k ) as ord2 (22k 2 k ) = 2k + n 2 ord2 (k)
for k 1 term (2k 2 ord2 (k)) 0 and hence except k = 0 all terms of binomial
n2
1(mod 2n ).
expansion will be divisible by 2n and hence (1 + 22 )2




n3
P
n3
n3
n3
2
(1 + 22 )2
= k=0 (22k 2 k ) as ord2 (22k 2 k ) = 2k + n 3 ord2 (k) for
k 2 term (2k 2 ord2 (k)) 0 and hence except k = 0, 1 all terms of binomial
n3
expansion will be divisible by 2n and hence (1+22 )2
(1+2n1 )(mod 2n ) which
n3
implies (1 + 22 )2
6= 1(mod 2n ).
Prob 21: Show that (Z/2n Z) is not cyclic for any n 3.
Sol : Let H =< x > be a cyclic group, if |H| = n < , then for each positive
integer a dividing n there is a unique subgroup of H of order a. This subgroup is

13

cyclic subgroup < xd >, where d = na ( chap 2 Theorem 7, Abstract Algebra by

Dummit and Foote).
For n 3 there 3 terms 2n 1, 2n1 +1, 2n1 1 (Z/2n Z) and all are distinct
hence (Z/2n Z) is not cyclic group.
Prob 22: Let G be a finite group and let x G.
Prove that if g NG (< x >) then gxg 1 = xa for some a Z.
Sol : NG (< x >) = {g G|g < x > g 1 =< x >} as < x > is cyclic
group generated by x. Then by definition of NG (< x >), gxm g 1 = xn for
m, n Z putting m = 1 and n = a we get gxg 1 = xa .
Prove conversly that if gxg 1 = xa for some a Z then g < x > g 1 =<
x >.
Sol : As gxg 1 = xa which implies gxk g 1 = xak where k Z, as
xak < x > hence gxk g 1 < x > which implies g < x > g 1 <
x >. Let |x| = n then gxi g 1 for 0 i n 1 are all distinct, because
gxa g 1 = gxb g 1 implies xa = xb that is |g < x > g 1 | =< x >= n and
hence g < x > g 1 =< x >.
Prob 23: Let G be a cyclic group order n and let k be an integer relatively
prime to n. Prove that map x xk is surjectice.
Sol: Let x be a generator of cyclic group G. Since (k, |x|) = 1 then < xk >= G
since map is from G G hence and both x and xk generates G hence map is
surjective.
Prob 24: Let Zn be a cyclic group of order n and for each integer let a : Zn
Zn by a (x) = xa for all x Zn .
Prove that a is an automorphism of Zn iff (a, n) = 1.
Sol: If (a, n) = 1 then < x >=< xa > where |x| = n hence there
is a surjective homomorphism as |x| = |xa | = n and since Zn is finite
surjective homomorphism implies injective. Hence (a, n) = 1 implies a is
an automorphism. Now, if a is an automorphism then a (x) = xa is also
a generator which implies (a, n) = 1.
Prove that a = b iff a b(mod n).
Sol: If a = b this should also hold true when applied on x G,
a (x) = b (x) which implies xa = xb hence a b(mod n). If a b(mod n)
then a = kn + b then xa = xkn+b = xb which immplies a (x) = b (x) that
is a = b .
Prove that every automorphism of Zn is equal to a for some integer a.
Sol: Let be an automorphism of Zn . Then (x) = xa for some a, since
(x) Zn since x is an generator then as xa is also a generator and hence
= a .
Prove that a b = ab . Deduce that map a a is an isomorphism of
(Z/nZ) onto the Aut(Zn ).

14

Sol: a b (x) = a (xb ) = xab = ab (x) hence a b = ab . Map

a a is surjective as by part (c) every automorphism is of the form a
where (a, n) = 1 and every such a belongs in (Z/nZ) . This map is also
injective as by part (b) a = b implies a = b where a, b (Z/nZ) . Hence
map is an isomorphism.