MCA, 2015

System Analysis and Design

DOS in CS

PART-1
DEFINITION:
System is derived from the Greek word, Systema, which means an organized relationship among functioning units or components. A system exists
because it is designed to achieve one or more objectives; for example, the transportation system, the telephone system, the accounting system, the
production system, and, for over two decades, the computer system.
A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific objective.
Component may refer to physical parts or a subsystem in a multilevel structure. The components may be simple or complex, basic or advanced. Each
component is part of the total system and has to do its share of work for the system to achieve the intended goal.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYSTEM:
There are 5 characteristics:
1. Organization (order)
2. Interaction
3. Interdependence
4. Integration
5. A central objective
Organization:
Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve objectives. An arrangement portrays a system-subsystem
relationship, defines the authority structure, specifies the formal flow of communication, and formalizes the chain of command.
Interaction:
Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions with other components of the system. The interrelationship between these components
enables the computer to perform.
Interdependence:
Interdependence means that parts of the organization or computer system depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked together according to a
plan. The output of one subsystem is the required input for another subsystem.
Integration:
Integration refers to the fullness of systems. It is concerned with how a system is tied together. It means that parts of the system work together within the
system even though each part performs a unique function.
Central Objective:
Objectives may be real or stated. A stated objective may be the real objective, but often an organization to state one objective and operate to achieve
another.

ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM
Key elements:
1. Outputs and inputs
2. Processors
3. Control
4. Feedback
5. Environment
6. Boundaries and interface
Outputs and Inputs:
A main objective of a system is to produce an output that has some value to its user. Inputs are the elements that enter the system for processing. Output is
the outcome of processing. A system feeds on input to produce output. The first concern is to determine the user's requirements of a proposed computer
systemthat is, specification of the output that the computer is expected to provide for meeting user requirements.
Processor/s:
The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors
may modify the input totally or partially, depending on the specifications of the output. If the output that is required has to be changed then the processing
should change. Sometimes, the input is modified so that it meets the requirement of the processor/s.
Control:
The control element guides the system. It is the decision-making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output.
Feedback:
Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. It measures output against a standard in some form of procedure that includes communication and
control. Feedback may be positive or negative, routine or informational. Positive feedback supports the performance of the system and it is routine in nature.
Negative feedback generally provides the controller with information for action. This type of feedback often results in enhancements to achieve the user's
requirements.
Environment:
The environment is the "suprasystem" within which an organization operates. It is the source of external elements that impose on the system. It often
determines how a system must function.
Boundaries and Interface:
A system should be defined by its boundariesthe limits that identify its components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with another
system. Each system has boundaries that determine its scope of influence and control. Knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in
determining the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

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MCA, 2015

System Analysis and Design

DOS in CS

TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Physical Systems
They are the tangible entities.
They may be static or dynamic in operation.
They can be seen and counted; they are static; for example, chair,
desk, papers.
In contrast, a programmed computer is a dynamic system. Data,
programs, output, and applications change as the user's demands or
the priority of the information requested changes.

1.
2.

3.
4.

Abstract Systems
They are conceptual or nonphysical entities.
They may be as straightforward as formulas of relationships among
sets of variables or models - model is a representation of a real or a
planned system.
Because of the models, it is easier to visualize the relationships in the
system, by an analyst.
It points out the significant elements and the key interrelationships of
a complex system.

Systems Models
The analyst begins by creating a model of the reality with which the system is concerned, before considering the function of the system.
Schematic Models: A schematic model is a two-dimensional chart depicting system elements and their linkages.
Flow System Models. A flow system model shows the flow of the material and information that hold the system together. There is an orderly flow of logic in
such models.
Static System Models: This type of model exhibits one pair of relationships such as activity -time or cost-quantity
Dynamic System Models: A dynamic model approximates the type of organization or applications that analysts deal with.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Open Systems
They have many interfaces with their environment.
They permit interaction across its boundary
They receive inputs from and deliver outputs to the outside.
Any IS that adapts the changing demands of the user will fall into this
category.

Closed Systems
1. They are isolated from environmental influences
2. In reality, a completely closed system is rare

Five important characteristics of open systems

Input from outside: When functioning properly, an open system reaches a steady state or Equilibrium.
Entropy (destruction): Open systems resist entropy by seeking new inputs or modifying the processes to return to a steady state.
Process, output, and cycles: systems produce useful output and operate in cycles, following a continuous flow path.
Differentiation: Increasing specialization of functions and a greater differentiation of their components
Equifinality: goals are achieved through differing courses of action and a variety of paths.
Man-Made Information Systems
1. It determines the nature of the relationships among decision makers.
2. It may be viewed as a decision center for personnel at all levels.

THE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

Steps:
1. Recognition of NeedWhat Is the Problem?
We must know what the problem is before it can be solved. This need leads to a preliminary survey or an initial investigation to determine whether an
alternative system can solve the problem.
If the problem is serious enough, management may want to an analyst look at it. Such an assignment implies a commitment, especially if the analyst is hired
from the outside. In larger environments, where formal procedures are the norm, the analyst's first task is to prepare a statement specifying the scope and
objective of the problem. He she then reviews it with the user for accuracy.
Impetus for System Change
The idea for change originates in the environment or from within the Firm. Environment-based ideas originate from customers, vendors, government
sources, and the like. User-originated ideas also prompt initial investigations. A systems analyst is in a unique position to detect and even recommend
change. Experience and previous involvement in the user's area of operations make him/her a convenient resource for ideas.
2. Feasibility Study
Feasibility study is a test of a system proposal according to its workability, impact on the organization, ability to meet user needs, and effective use of
resources. It focuses on three major questions:
1. What are the user's demonstrable needs and how does a candidate system meet them?
2. What resources are available for given candidate systems? Is the problem worth solving?
3. What are the likely impacts of the candidate system on the organization? How well does it fit within the organization's master MIS plan?
The objective of a feasibility study is not to solve the problem but to acquire a sense of its scope. The problem definition is crystallized and aspects of the
problem to be included in the system are determined.
The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal, which will contain,
1. Statement of the problem: The problem that led to analysis.
2. Summary of findings and recommendations: A list of the major findings and recommendations of the study.
3. Details of findings: An outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by the existing system, followed by coverage of the objectives and
procedures of the candidate system.
4. Recommendations and conclusions: Specific recommendations regarding the candidate system, including personnel assignments, costs, project
schedules, and target dates.
After the proposal is reviewed by management, it becomes a formal agreement that paves the way for actual design and implementation.
3. Analysis
It is a detailed study of the various operations performed by a system and their relationships within and outside of the system.
A key question is: What must be done to solve the problem?
During analysis, data are collected on the available files, decision points, and transactions handled by the present system. Some logical system models and
tools are used in analysis. Once analysis is completed, the analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done. The next step is to decide how the problem
might be solved. Thus, in systems design, we move from the logical to the physical aspects of the life cycle.
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MCA, 2015

System Analysis and Design

DOS in CS

4. Design
The term design describes a final system and the process by which it is developed. The term design describes a final system and the process by which it is
developed. It refers to the technical specifications that will be applied in implementing the candidate system. It also includes the construction of programs
and program testing.
First step is to determine how the output is to be produced and in what format.
Second, input data and master files (data base) have to be designed to meet the requirements of the proposed output.
Finally, details related to justification of the system and an estimate of the impact of the candidate system on the user and the organization are documented
and evaluated by management as a step toward implementation.
The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flowcharts, record layouts, report layouts, and a workable plan for implementing the
candidate system.
5. Implementation
It is primarily concerned with user training, site preparation, and file conversion. The candidate system is linked to terminals or remote sites. During the final
testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training.
System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of the system to access, updates, and retrieve data from new files. Once the programs become available,
test data are read into the computer and processed against the file(s) provided for testing. If successful, the program(s) is then run with "live" data.
Otherwise, an analytic procedure is used to locate and correct errors in the program. A parallel run can conducted where the new system runs simultaneously
with the "old" system. This method, though costly, provides added assurance against errors in the candidate system and also gives the user staff an
opportunity to gain experience through operation.
6. Post-Implementation and Maintenance
If the new information is inconsistent with the design specifications, then changes have to be made. Hardware also requires periodic maintenance to keep in
tune with design specifications. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards. User priorities, changes in organizational
requirements, or environmental factors also call for system enhancements.
Project Termination:
A system project may be dropped at any time prior to implementation, although it becomes more difficult (and costly) when it goes past the design phase.
Generally, projects are dropped if, after a review process, it is learned that:
Changing objectives or requirements of the user cannot be met by the existing design.
Benefits realized from the candidate system do not justify commitment to implementation.
There is a sudden change in the user's budget or an increase in design costs beyond the estimate made during the feasibility study.
The project greatly exceeds the time and cost schedule.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR CANDIDATE SYSTEMS

The demand for the computer systems are made up of:
Operations of existing systems.
Maintenance that focuses on "patching" programsoften representing over 50 percent of maintenance.
Enhancements that involve major modifications in program structure or equipment.
Requests for candidate systems.
All these demands require resourceshuman, financial, and technological. On the human side, the computer department has to provide the following:
1. Computer operators to run equipment.
2. Data entry personnel.
3. Systems analysts to define and design specifications.
4. Application programmers to convert system specifications to computer programs.
5. Maintenance programmers to repair errors.
6. Supervisors, project leaders, and managers to coordinate the jobs with the users.
The technical factor involves the system department's ability to handle a project; depends on the availability of qualified analysts, designers, and software
specialists to do the work.
The behavioral factor involves (1) the user's past experience with an existing system, (2) the success record of the analyst, and (3) the influence the user can
exert on upper management to finance a candidate system.
The economic factor, it focuses on the system's potential return on investment.
Political Considerations:
Politics is the art of using influence and building partnerships when routine procedures do not achieve the right results. When system projects are developed,
a collaborative relationship with the end user is helpful. A user who participated in building a system rarely criticizes it. If such a participative relationship
comes too late, resistance can crop up and politics comes into play. The trick is to anticipate resistance early and turn it into support.
Planning and Control for System Success:
First, a plan must be devised with specific details like, cost, time, etc.
Second, in larger projects, a project team must be formed.
Finally, the project should be divided into manageable modules, which would result in the phases.
Work units have to be structured at three major levels

At the lowest level, work assignments are broken down into small manageable tasks, which is usually a well-defined, structured work unit that can be
carried out by one individual.

The second level at which work units are structured involves activities that are designed to produce results. An activity is a group of logically related tasks
that serve one phase of the system development life cycle.

A phase, a third level of control, is a set of activities that bring the project to a critical milestone.

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