School of Engineering, Science and Primary Industries

NEW ZEALAND DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING (NZDE)

CIVIL
SC1101

DE5207

Geotechnical Engineering 1
SCDE5207

Module 1
Soil Composition

MG5009

Engineering Site Investigation

SCCV509
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
(CIVIL, ELECTRICAL, MECHANICAL)
SC1001
i

CONTENTS
1.

Origin of Soils ....................................................................................................................... 2

Basic Definitions ................................................................................................................... 3

2.1 Density () ............................................................................................................................ 3

2.2 Weight (W) .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Unit Weight () ....................................................................................................................... 3
2.4 Specific gravity (G) .................................................................................................................. 4
3

Soil Phase Relationships........................................................................................................ 5

3.1 Soil Constituents (Engineering) ............................................................................................. 5

3.2 Soil Index Properties and Volume-Mass Relationships .......................................................... 6

4.

3.2.1

Void ratio (e)

3.2.2

Porosity (n)

3.2.3

Degree of Saturation (S)

3.2.4

Water Content (w)

3.2.5

Air content (Air voids content) (VA)

3.2.6

Solids Density (s)

3.2.7

Particle Specific Gravity (GS)

Soil Densities ........................................................................................................................ 9

4.1 Bulk density (wet density) (w) ............................................................................................... 9
4.2 Dry Density (d) ....................................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Saturated density (sat)............................................................................................................ 9
4.4 Submerged density (sub) ........................................................................................................ 9

5.

Useful Relationships ........................................................................................................... 10

Example 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Example 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 12
SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE 3 ...................................................................................................... 13

6.

Determination of the Water Content of Soil ........................................................................ 14

6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 14
6.2 Laboratory Method (NZS 4402: Test 2.1).............................................................................. 14

7.

Determination of the Solids Density of Soil Particles ............................................................ 16

7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 16
7.2 Laboratory Method (NZS 4402: Test 2.7).............................................................................. 16
SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE 4 ...................................................................................................... 18
Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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SOIL COMPOSITION
1.

Origin of Soils
Rocks are the parent materials from which most soils originate. Through time
rocks are decomposed and disintegrated by the forces of nature, and often also by
man, to produce the soils and aggregates that engineers utilise.
The term soil, as used by civil engineers, refers to a collection of solid particles, of
varying sizes, with voids in between which may contain water.
The solid particles are either organic or inorganic, depending on their origin.
Organic soils are mixtures in which a significant part of the solids is derived from
the growth and decay of plant life and/or from the accumulation of skeletons or
shells of small organisms. Peat is a good example of an organic soil, consisting
largely of decaying wood and other plant remains.
Inorganic soils are formed as a result of the breaking down of rocks into smaller
fragments. This process is referred to as rock weathering, and is either a purely
mechanical process called physical weathering (disintegration) or a chemical
alteration of the parent material referred to as chemical decomposition.
Examples of physical weathering agents are glaciers, rivers, seas or climatic
conditions such as frost and wind. Physical weathering is a mechanical
disintegration of the soil particles into smaller fragments without any change of
chemical composition. Soils so formed are usually called granular soils, while soils
formed from chemical weathering are usually clays.
Under New Zealand conditions, of course, volcanic ash is a fairly common
alternative source of soil formation.
The products of weathering may stay in the same place or may be moved to other
places by water, wind, ice or gravity. Untransported soils that are still at the place
of their origin are called residual soils.
Transported soils, on the other hand, may be classified into several groups
depending on their mode of transportation or deposition:
Alluvial soils -

transported by running water and deposited along

streams and so-called alluvial plains

Aeolian soils -

transported and deposited by wind.

Examples: Sand dunes, air transported volcanic deposits, Loess.

Colluvial soils -

formed by movement of soils from its original place by

gravity, such as during landslides.

Lacustrine soils - formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

Glacial soils -

formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

Marine soils -

formed by deposition in the seas.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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Basic Definitions

2.1 Density ()
Density is mass per unit volume:

M
V

Units: kg/m3 or t/m3

The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 or 1 t/m3.

The density of soil is not a fundamental property because it can be changed by
compaction or by altering the water content of the soil. A typical value for the density
of a gravel material which is continuously graded and compacted to a high standard is
in the order of 2200 kg/m3 or 2.2 t/m3.

2.2 Weight (W)

The weight of a body is the force exerted on it by gravity.
W = mass x gravity
ie.

W = Mg

Units:

Newton (N)
N = kg x 9.81(m/s2)

2.3 Unit Weight ()

Unit weight is weight per unit volume:

W
V

Unit weight is therefore = g

The unit weight of water w = 1000 x 9.81 N/m3
= 9.81 kN/m3
Notice, by expressing the density in t/m3 the units for will be kN/m3.
Thus, for the above soil soil = 2.2 x 9.81 kN/m3
= 21.6 kN/m3

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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2.4 Specific gravity (GS)

Specific gravity of a substance: Gsubstance =

Density of su stance
Density of

ater

Specific gravity has no dimensions. It is a number which indicates how many times the
substance is heavier (or lighter) than water. The specific gravity of water is unity
(one).
Numerically, specific gravity and density have the same value if the latter is expressed
in t/m3.

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE I

QUESTIONS

CALCULATIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How many kilograms in 1 tonne?

2. If the specific gravity of quartz is 2.65, what
would be the mass, in kg, of a 1m3 solid
block of quarts?
3. (a) State the density of water at 4oC (in
kg/m3 and in t/m3).
(b) At 0oC, the density of water is
higher/lower than at 4oC.
4. A soil sample in the laboratory is compacted
in a steel mould having an internal volume
of 1 litre. After compaction the mass of the
soil in the mould is found to be 2.05 kg.
(a) Determine the density of the compacted
soil, in t/m3.
(b) Also give the unit weight of the
compacted soil, in kN/m3.
5. The mass of an average rugby front-rower is
about 102 kg. How much would the average
weight be in kN?
6. Assuming the average density of a person is
98% that of water, what is the volume of the
above person in litres?

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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Soil Phase Relationships

3.1 Soil Constituents (Engineering)

An engineering soil consists of various-sized solid particles packed together, and with
the spaces between them known as voids.
The voids may be filled completely or partially with water and air. The three
components are thus:
(a) Solid particles
(b) Water
(c) Air (Gas)
A soil-phase diagram is a diagrammatic representation of a soil in which the three
components are separated (Figure 3.1).

VOLUME

MASS

FIG 3.1 Soil Phase Diagram

The total mass of a soil sample is taken to be constituted of the masses of the solids
and water components, the mass of the air being negligible in comparison, i.e.
Total Mass

mass solids + mass water

MS + MW

The total volume of a soil sample is the volume of solids and volume of voids, the
latter being the volume of water and air, i.e.
Total Volume =
V

Volume solids + volume water + volume air

VS + VW + VA

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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3.2

Soil Index Properties and Volume-Mass Relationships

3.2.1 Void ratio (e)

=

e =

As the name indicates, void ratio is expressed as a ratio.

Void ratio relates the volume of the voids to the volume of solids. Consequently, a
high void ratio does not necessarily imply the size of the voids is large. In fact, the
void ratio of clays are typically larger than that of granular materials like gravel and
sand.

3.2.2 Porosity (n)

=

n =

x 100%

Porosity is expressed as a percentage.

3.2.3 Degree of Saturation (S)

=

S =

x 100%

Degree of saturation is expressed as a percentage.

Degree of saturation indicates what proportion of the voids are filled with water. It
varies from 0%, for an oven-dried soil, to 100% for a saturated soil.

3.2.4 Water Content (w)

w =

x 100%

Water content is expressed as a percentage.

Water content relates the mass of water to the mass of solids.
The mass of solids is of course the same as the mass of the dry soil.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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3.2.5 Air content (Air voids content) (

x 100%

3.2.6 Solids Density (s)

Solids density is expressed in kg/m3, or more commonly, t/m3.

Solids density gives the density of the solid particles, and is therefore independent of
compaction or water content.
The density of the solid particles is the same as that of the parent material (rock) it is
derived from. The ordinary range of solids density is between 2.4 t/m3 and 2.8 t/m3.
It is common practice to use a presumption value of 2.65 t/m3 in the absence of
actual test values.

3.2.7 Particle Specific Gravity (

, being a ratio of two properties of similar units, is dimensionless.

If solids density (
specific gravity (

is expressed in t/m3 units, it is numerically equal to particle

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE 2

QUESTIONS

CALCULATIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Can the porosity of a soil exceed 100%?

2. Can the void ratio of a soil exceed 1?
3. Can the water content of soil exceed 100%?
4. Can the degree of saturation exceed 100%?
5. What is the air voids content of a saturated
soil?
6. A mass of a sample of wet soil is 234g, and
after oven-drying its mass is 200g.
Determine the water content of the soil.

7. (a) A solid rock specimen has a mass of

63.4g. The specimen displaces 24g of
water when submerged. Calculate the
specific gravity of the rock.

(b) Also give the solids density of the rock in

t/m3.
8. The air content of oven-dried soil is
calculated to be 35%. What is its porosity?

9. The water content of a saturated soil is 100%

and the particle specific gravity 2.5. What is
the void ratio?
10. What is the porosity of the above soil?

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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4.

Soil Densities
The density of any substance is the mass of the substance per unit volume. This is also
true for any soil. However, when soil engineers talk about density they often find it
necessary to stipulate the soil as being dry or wet or saturated or submerged. The
following terms are therefore relevant:

4.1 Bulk density (wet density) (w)

The bulk density is the total mass of the soil divided by the total volume of the sample.

w =

(t/m3 or kg/m3)

The terms bulk density and wet density are synonymous. Both denote the density of
the soil when it is neither dry nor completely saturated. This is the condition in which
most soils occur above the water table.

4.2 Dry Density (d)

Dry density is the dry mass of the soil (ie. the mass of the solid particles) divided by
the total volume occupied by the soil in this condition.

d =

(t/m3 or kg/m3)

Bulk density (), dry density (d and water content (w) are related as follows:
w = d (1 + w)

4.3 Saturated density (sat)

As the name implies, this is the mass of the soil when all the voids are filled with water
(ie. the soil is saturated) divided by the total volume.
This is the condition normally taken to prevail under the water table.

4.4 Submerged density (sub)

Below the water table, the soil is normally taken to be completely saturated. Due to
bouyancy, the weight of the soil particles below the water table is reduced to a value
called the submerged weight. The submerged density is the submerged weight (in
terms of mass units) of a given volume of the soil, divided by the total volume of the
soil.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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5.

Useful Relationships
The following relationships can be derived from the fundamental definitions given in
the previous sections:

w = (1 + w) d

n =

Se = wGs

sub = sat - w

Also remember that:

w =

Gs =

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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Example 1
The water content of a sample of saturated clay is 32.3%, and the specific gravity of the soil
particles 2.7. calculate the void ratio, porosity, bulk density and dry density.

Solution: (using formulae)

Given:

(a)

From

(b)

From

(c)

From

d)

From

Gs = 2.7

w = 0.323

s = 1

Se

0.872

46.6%

wGs

= (1 + w) d:

1000
=

1908 kg/m3

1442 kg/m3

d =

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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Example 2
A sample of clay has a volume of 0.001m3 and a mass of 1.955kg. The water content is
25.3% and the solids density 2.7 t/m3. Find the bulk density, void ratio, porosity and degree
of saturation.
Solution: (using formulae)

Given:

M = 1.955 kg;

V = 0.001 m3;

w = 0.253;

Gs = 2.7

= 1955 kg/m3

(a)

Bulk density

(b)

From

= wGs

Se

0.253 x 2.7

Se

0.683 .. (1)

Se

and from

1955

1000

1955 + 1955e = 3383

ie =

e =

(c)

From

(d)

From

Se = wGs

e = 0.73

S =

n = 42.2%

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

S = 93.6%

Page 12 of 19

SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE 3

3.1

Select the answer that best fits in each case:

(a)

If the porosity of a soil is 50%, its void ratio is:

(i)
(iii)

0.5
1.5

(ii)
(iv)

1.0
0.75

(b) If the solids density is 2.65 t/m3, the void ratio 0.8, and the water content 10%,
the dry density is:
(i)
(iii)
3.2

0.679 t/m3
2.312 t/m3

(ii)
(iv)

1.472 t/m3
1.619 t/m3

A soil sample has a bulk density of 1.73 t/m3, and a void ratio of 0.84. If the particle
specific gravity is 2.70, determine the samples degree of saturation, dry density, and
water content.
[57.5%; 1467kg/m3; 17.9%]

3.3

The wet density of a soil is 2100 kg/rn3, the water content 8%, and the solids density
2.65 t/m3. Determine the dry density, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation.
[1944kg/m3; 0.36; 26.6%; 58.4%]

3.4

3.5

A soil sample has a mass of 30.5kg and a volume of 0.0185m3. When dried in an oven
its mass reduces to 26.5 kg. If the solids density is 2.65 t/m3, determine:
(a) Bulk density
(b) Dry density
(c) Water content
(d) Void ratio
(e) Porosity
(f) Degree of saturation
The mass of an undisturbed soil sample, immediately
after sampling, was determined as 1349g. The sample
was then coated with wax by immersing in molten
paraffin wax to prevent drying out, and taken to the
laboratory. The mass of the coated sample was
determined as 1457g, and its volume by water
displacement as 784 cm3.
A piece of soil was then removed and all the wax removed, after which it was
weighed, dried, and weighed again; its mass before and after drying was determined
as 408g and 352g respectively. The particle specific gravity is 2.70, and that of the wax
0.91. Calculate the samples dry density.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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6.

Determination of the Water Content of Soil

6.1 Introduction

Definition:

The water content (w) of a soil is the mass of water, which can be
removed from the soil by heating to 105 C, expressed as a
percentage of the dry mass.
In the laboratory water content is determined by oven-drying.
In the field, water content can be determined by means of a nuclear density
meter.
Traditional field methods include the Sandbath method, the Alcohol method, and
the Speedy moisture tester. These methods have limitations because of the
difficulties in controlling the severity and the duration of the heat application.

6.2 Laboratory Method (NZS 4402: Test 2.1)

Procedure
Weigh empty container (with lid).
Weigh container containing the moist soil sample (with lid).
Remove lid, dry in oven at 105-110C, and weigh again (with lid).

(M1)
(M2)
(M3)

Calculations

Water Content:

Reporting accuracy: (a) To two significant figures for w < 10%

(b) To three significant figures for w 10%

w =

x 100%
(eg. 7.6%)
(eg. 14.6%)

Notes:
1

Sample size and weighing accuracy for various soil groups

Fine Soil
Sample size: at least
Weighting accuracy
(to the nearest )

Medium Soil

Coarse Soil

30 g

300 g

3000 g

0.01 g

0.1 g

1g

For water content determinations in the LL, PL, cone penetration, and sedimentation
tests the weighing accuracy is to the nearest 0.001 g.
2

Drying Temperature

It is important to adhere to the specified temperature range of 105-110 C.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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Drying of soils at temperatures beyond this range can lead to significantly

different losses in mass and consequently in errors in the determination of water
content.

Certain soils may contain gypsum which on heating loses water of crystallisation.
Such soils shall be dried to constant mass at not more than 80 C.

Drying time

The period required for drying will depend on the type of soil and the size of the
sample.

The sample shall be deemed to be dry when the change in mass of the cooled
sample after successive drying periods of 4 hours at 105-110 C does not exceed
0.1 % of the dry mass of the soil.

A period of 16 to 24 hours is normally a sufficient length of time for drying most

soils.

The drying time will also be influenced by the amount of material in the oven. Soil
samples approaching oven dryness will readily absorb water from wet samples
placed in the oven with them, and may not return to oven dry state until all
samples in the oven are dry.

Drying of large samples

For samples larger than 300g a container without a lid may be used provided the
moist sample is weighed immediately after being taken and provided the dry
sample is weighed immediately after being removed from the oven (or after
cooling in a desiccator).

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

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7.

Determination of the Solids Density of Soil Particles

7.1 Introduction
Solids density is defined as the mass of the solids divided by the volume of the solids.

7.2 Laboratory Method (NZS 4402: Test 2.7)

Apparatus:

The apparatus basically consists of a container, which can be accurately closed off
to a consistent volume every time, called a pycnometer.

This may be a gas jar with a fitting rubber stopper and glass plate that may be
used as a cover (for coarse grained material), or a standard density bottle with a
glass stopper (for line grained soils).

FIG 7.1 Pycnometers for determination of Particle Solid Density

Procedure

Weigh pycnometer empty (cleaned and dried).

Weigh pycnometer with dry soil sample.
Weigh pycnometer containing soil sample and topped up with water.
Weigh pycnometer filled with water only.

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

(M1)
(M2)
(M3)
(M4)

Page 16 of 19

Notes

During each of the 4 weighings, the pycnometer is covered with the appropriate glass
plate or stopper.

Before determining M3, i.e. pycnometer with the soil sample topped up with water, it
is important to ensure that all entrapped air is removed between the soil particles. For
coarse soils this may be achieved by shaking and stirring. For fine grained soils it is
recommended to apply a vacuum. Experience has shown that incomplete removal of
entrapped air is the greatest source of error in the test.

After determining M3, measure the temperature of the water in the jar with a
thermometer.

Air-free distilled water must be used.

The test shall be conducted in duplicate. If the results of the two tests differ by more
than 0.02t/m3, repeat the test.

Calculations
=

where:

M1
M2
M3
M4

=
=
=
=
=

(t/m3)

mass of the clean dry pycnometer

mass of the pycnometer containing the soil sample
mass of pycnometer containing the soil sample and topped up with water
the mass of the pycnometer filled with water only
density of water (t/m3) (See table 2.7 from NZS 4402, reproduced below)

Table 2.7 Absolute Density of Water (t/m3)

Temperature (C)
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Density
1.000
0.9999
0.9999
0.9998
0.9998
0.9997
0.9996
0.9995
0.9994
0.9992
0.9991
0.9989
0.9988

Temperature (C)
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Geotechnical Engineering 1 - Module 1 Soil Composition

Density
0.9986
0.9984
0.9982
0.9980
0.9978
0.9975
0.9973
0.9970
0.9968
0.9965
0.9962
0.9959
0.9956
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SELF EVALUATION EXERCISE 4

4.1

The mass of a container with a wet soil sample is 1456g before drying, and 1400g after
drying. The mass of the container is 1000g. Determine the water content of the soil.

4.2

Determine the solids density from the following results. Comment on the validity of
the results.

Mass of ...
(including glass plate)

Test 1
(g)

Test2
(g)

Pycnometer only

216.4

216.4

Pycnometer and dry soil

374.8

326.0

Pycnometer, soil and water

1318.5

1288.8

Pycnometer and water only

1220.3

1220.3

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