CHAPTER

6
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, modeling of the major components of an electric power
system was discussed. This chapter deals with the steady-state analysis of an interconnected power system during normal operation. The system is assumed. to be
operating under balanced condition and is represented by a single-phase network.
The network contains hundreds of nodes and branches with impedances specified
in per unit on a common MVA base.
Network equations can be formulated systematically in a variety of forms.
However, the node-voltage method, which is the most suitable form for many
power system analyses, is commonly used. The formulation of the network equations in the nodal admittance form results in complex linear simultaneous algebraic
equations in terms of node currents. When node currents are specified, the set of
linear equations can be solved for the node voltages. However, in a power system,
powers are known rather than currents. Thus, the resulting equations in terms of
power, known as the power flow equation, become nonlinear and must be solved
by iterative techniques. Power flow studies, commonly referred to as load flow, are
the backbone of power system analysis and design. They are necessary for planning, operation, economic scheduling and exchange of power between utilities. In
addition, power flow analysis is required for many other analyses such as transient
stability and contingency studies.
189

190

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

In this chapter, the bus admittance matrix of the node-voltage equation is

formulated, and a MATlAB function named ybus is developed for the systematic formation of the bus admittance matrix. Next, two commonly used iterative
techniques, namely Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods for the solution
of nonlinear algebraic equations, are discussed. These techniques are employed in
the solution of power flow problems. Three programs Ifgauss, Ifnewton, and decouple are developed for the solution of power flow problems by Gauss-Seidel,
Newton-Raphson, and the fast decoupled power flow, respectively.

6.2 BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

In order to obtain the node-voltage equations, consider the simple power system
shown in Figure 6.1 where impedances are expressed in per unit on a common
MVA base and for simplicity resistances are neglected. Since the nodal solution is
based upon Kirchhoff's current law, impedances are converted to admittance, i.e.,
1

Yij

JOA

jO.2

= -Zij = rij + JXij

.

jO.2

jO.08
4
FIGURE 6.1
The impedance diagram of a simple system.

6.2. BUS ADMIITANCE MATRIX

z:

191

=-j2.5

YI2

-j5

YI3

Y23 -j5

Y34 -j12.5
4
FIGURE 6.2
The admittance diagram for system of Figure 6.1.

The circuit has been redrawn in Figure 6.2 in terms of admittances and transformation to current sources. Node 0 (which is normally ground) is taken as reference. Applying KCL to the independent nodes 1 through 4 results in

= YlO VI + YI2(VI
h = Y20 V2 + Y12(V2
I,

- V2) + YI3(VI - V3)

- VI) + Y23(V2 - V3)

0= Y23(V3 - V2) + Y13(V3 - VI) + Y34(V3 - V4)

o = Y34(V4 -

V3)

Rearranging these equations yields

h = (YlO + YI2 + YI3)VI - YI2V2 - YI3V3

12 = -Y12 VI + (Y20 + YI2 + Y23)V2 - Y23 V3
o = -Y13 VI - Y23 V2 + (Y13 + Y23 + Y34) V3 - Y34 V4
0= -Y34V3

+ Y34V4

We introduce the following admittances

Yu = YIO
Y 22 = Y20

+ YI2 + YI3

+ YI2 + Y23

192

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Y33
Y44

= Y13 + Y23 + Y34

= Y34

Y 12 = Y 21 = -Y12
Y 13

= Y 31 = -Y13

Y 23

= Y 32 =

1'34 =

-Y23

Y 43 = -Y34

The node equation reduces to

t, = Yn VI + Y 12V2 + Y 13 V3 + Y 14 V4
12 = Y21 VI + Y 22 V2 + Y 23 V3 + Y 24 Y4
h = Y 31VI + 1'32 V2 + Y 33V3 + 1'34V4
14

= Y 41VI + Y42 V2 + Y 43 V3 + Y 44 V4

In the above network, since there is no connection between bus 1 and 4, Y 14 =

Y41 = 0; similarly Y 24 = Y42 = o.
Extending the above relation to an n bus system, the node-voltage equation
in matrix form is
II
12

t,
In

Yn

Y 12

Yli

Y 21

Y 22

Y 2i

YIn
Y 2n

VI
V2

Yil

Yi2

}:.
n

Yin

Vi

Yn1

Y n2

Y ni

Y nn

Vn

(6.1)

or
Ibus

= Y bus

V bus

(6.2)

where Ibus is the vector of the injected bus currents (i.e., external current sources).
The current is positive when flowing towards the bus, and it is negative if flowing
away from the bus. V bus is the vector of bus voltages measured from the reference
node (i.e., node voltages). Ybus is known as the bus admittance matrix. The diagonal element of each node is the sum of admittances connected to it. It is known as
the self-admittance or driving point admittance, i.e.,
n
Yii = LYij
j=O

j =1= i

(6.3)

The off-diagonal element is equal to the negative of the admittance between the
nodes. It is known as the mutual admittance or transfer admittance, i.e.,
(6.4)

6.2. BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX

193

When the bus currents are known, (6.2) can be solved for the n bus voltages.
(6.5)

The inverse of the bus admittance matrix is known as the bus impedance matrix
Zoos. The admittance matrix obtained with one of the buses as reference is nonsingular. Otherwise the nodal matrix is singular.
Inspection of the bus admittance matrix reveals that the matrix is symmetric
along the leading diagonal, and we need to store the upper triangular nodal admittance matrix only. In a typical power system network, each bus is connected to
only a few nearby buses. Consequently, many off-diagonal elements are zero. Such
a matrix is called sparse, and efficient numerical techniques can be applied to compute its inverse. By means of an appropriately ordered triangular decomposition,
the inverse of a sparse matrix can be expressed as a product of sparse matrix factors, thereby giving an advantage in computational speed, storage and reduction of
round-off errors. However, Zbus, which is required for short-circuit analysis, can be
obtained directly by the method of building algorithm without the need for matrix
inversion. This technique is discussed in Chapter 9.
Based on (6.3) and (6.4), the bus admittance matrix for the network in Figure
6.2 obtained by inspection is

YOOs

-j8.50
j2.50
[

j5.0~

j2.50
-j8.75
j5.00

j5.00
j5.00
-j22.50
j12.50

j12.5~

-j12.50

A function called Y = ybus(zdata) is written for the formation of the bus

admittance matrix. zdata is the line data input and contains four columns. The
first two columns are the line bus numbers and the remaining columns contain the
line resistance and reactance in per unit. The function returns the bus admittance
matrix. The algorithm for the bus admittance program is very simple and basic to
power system programming. Therefore, it is presented here for the reader to study
and understand the method of solution. In the program, the line impedances are
first converted to admittances. Y is then initialized to zero. In the first loop, the
line data is searched, and the off-diagonal elements are entered. Finally, in a nested
loop, line data is searched to find the elements connected to a bus, and the diagonal
elements are thus formed.
The following is a program for building the bus admittance matrix:

function[Y] = ybus(zdata)
nl=zdata(:,1); nr=zdata(: ,2); R=zdata(: ,3); X=zdata(: ,4);
nbr=length(zdata(:,l)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
Z = R + j*X;
%branch impedance

194

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

y= ones(nbr,l)./Z;
%branch admittance
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);
% initialize Y to zero
for k = l:nbr;
% formation of the off diagonal elements
if nl(k) > 0 & nr(k) > 0
Y(nl(k),nr(k)) = Y(nl(k),nr(k)) - y(k);
Y(nr(k),nl(k)) = Y(nl(k),nr(k));
end
end
for n = l:nbus
% formation of the diagonal elements
for k = l:nbr
if nl(k) == n I nr(k) == n
Y(n,n) = Y(n,n) + y(k);
else, end
end
end
Example 6.1
The emfs shown in Figure 6.1 are E 1 = 1.1LO and E2 = 1.0LO. Use the function Y =ybus(zdata) to obtain the bus admittance matrix. Find the bus impedance
matrix by inversion, and solve for the bus voltages.
With source transformation, the equivalent current sources are
1.1
j1.0
.
1.0
jO.8 = -j1.25 pu

h = -" = -j1.1 pu
12

The following commands

%
z =

From To
[ 0

o
1

2
2

o
o
o
o
o
o

1.0
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.08] ;

Y = ybus(z)
Ibus = [- j *1. 1 ; -j*1.25; 0; 0];
Zbus = inv(Y)
Vbus = Zbus*Ibus
result in

% bus admittance matrix

% vector of bus currents
% bus impedance matrix

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

195

0
0
0
0

- 8.50i
+ 2.50i
+ 5.00i
+ O.OOi

0
0
0
0

+
+
+
+

o+

2.50i
0 - 8.75i
0 + 5.00i
0 + O.OOi

0 + 5.00i
0 + 5.00i
0 - 22.50i
o + 12.50i

0 + O.OOi
0 + O.OOi
0 + 12.50i
o - 12.50i

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0.450i
0.440i
0.545i
0.545i

9 + 0.450i

Zbus

0.50i
0.40i
0.45i
0.45i

+
+
+
+

0.40i
0.48i
0.44i
0.44i

+
+
+
+

0 + 0.440i
0 + 0.545i
0 + 0.625i

Vbus =

1.0500
1.0400
1.0450
1.0450
The solution of equation Ibus = y bus V bus by inversion is very inefficient. It
is not necessary to obtain the inverse of Y bus' Instead, direct solution is obtained
by optimally ordered triangular factorization. In MATIAB, the solution of linear
simultaneous equations AX = B is obtained by using the matrix division operator
\ (i.e., X = A \ B), which is based on the triangular factorization and Gaussian
elimination. This technique is superior in both execution time and numerical accuracy. It is two to three times as fast and produces residuals on the order of machine
accuracy.
In Example 6.1, obtain the direct solution by replacing the statements Zbus =
inv CY) and Vbus = Zbus e Ibua with Vbus = Y\ Ibus.

6.3 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR

ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
The most common techniques used for the iterative solution of nonlinear algebraic
equations are Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson, and Quasi-Newton methods. The
Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods are discussed for one-dimensional
equation, and are then extended to n-dimensional equations.

6.3.1 GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

The Gauss-Seidel method is also known as the method of successive displacements. To illustrate the technique, consider the solution of the nonlinear equation
given by

f(x) = 0

(6.6)

196

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

The above function is rearranged and written as

x =g(x)

(6.7)

If x(k) is an initial estimate of the variable x, the following iterative sequence is

formed.

(6.8)
A solution is obtained when the difference between the absolute value of the successive iteration is less than a specified accuracy, i.e.,
(6.9)

where

is the desired accuracy.

Example 6.2
Use the Gauss-Seidel method to find a root of the following equation

f(x) = x 3

6x 2

+ 9x -

=0

Solving for x, the above expression is written as

1
9

x = --x

= g(x)

6 2 4
+ -x
+-9
9

The MATlAB plot command is used to plot g(x) and x over a range of 0 to 4.5,
as shown in Figure 6.3. The intersections of g(x) and x results in the roots of
j(x). From Figure 6.3 two of the roots are found to be 1 and 4. Actually, there
is a repeated root at x = 1. Apply the Gauss-Seidel algorithm, and use an initial
estimate of
x(O)

=2

From (6.8), the first iteration is

x(1) =

1
g(2) = -9(2)3

+ 9(2)2 + 9

= 2.2222

The second iteration is

X(2)

= g(2.2222) =

-~(2.2222)3 + ~(2.2222)2 + ~ =

2.5173

The subsequent iterations result in 2.8966, 3.3376, 3.7398, 3.9568, 3.9988 and
4.0000. The process is repeated until the change in variable is within the desired

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

197

4.5 ...-----.----,-----,---,---,..-----.----,-----,------:>1
4.0

3.5
3.0

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

x
FIGURE 6.3
Graphical illustration of the Gauss-Seidel method.

accuracy. It can be seen that the Gauss-Seidel method needs many iterations to
achieve the desired accuracy, and there is no guarantee for the convergence. In this
example, since the initial estimate was within a "boxed in" region, the solution
converged in a zigzag fashion to one of the roots. In fact, if the- initial estimate
was outside this region, say x(O) = 6, the process would diverge. A test of convergence, especially for the n-dimensional case, is difficult, and no general methods
are known.
The following commands show the procedure for the solution of the given
equation starting with an initial estimate of x(O) = 2.

dx=l;
x=2;
iter = 0;
disp('Iter
while abs(dx)
iter = i tet +
g =

% Change in variable is set to a high value

% Initial estimate
% Iteration counter
g
dx
x')%Heading for results
>= 0.001 & iter < 100 %Test for convergence
1;
% No. of iterations

-1/9*x~3+6/9*x~2+4/9

dx = g-x;
% Change in variable
x = x + dx;
% Successive approximation
fprintf ( , %g' , iter), disp([g, dx, x)
end
The result is

198

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Iter

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

g
2.2222
2.5173
2.8966
3.3376
3.7398
3.9568
3.9988
4.0000
4.0000

dx

0.2222
0.2951
0.3793
0.4410
0.4022
0.2170
0.0420
0.0012
0.0000

2.2222
2.5173
2.8966
3.3376
3.7398
3.9568
3.9988
4.0000
4.0000

In some cases, an acceleration factor can be used to improve the rate of convergence. If a > 1 is the acceleration factor, the Gauss-Seidel algorithm becomes

(6.10)

Example 6.3
Find a root of the equation in Example 6.2, using the Gauss-Seidel method with an
acceleration factor of a = 1.25:
Starting with an initial estimate of x(O) = 2.and using (6.10), the first iteration is

= _~(2)3 + ~(2)2 + ~ = 2.2222

9(2)

xCI)

9
9
2 + 1.25[2.2222 - 2] = 2.2778

The second iteration is

-~(2.2778)3 + ~(2.2778)2 + ~ =

9(2.2778)
x(2)

2.5902

2.2778 + 1.25[2.5902 - 2.2778] = 2.6683

The subsequent iterations result in 3.0801, 3.1831, 3.7238, 4.0084, 3.9978 and
4.0005. The effect of acceleration is shown graphically in Figure 6.4. Care must
be taken not to use a very large acceleration factor since the larger step size may
result in an overshoot. This can cause an increase in the number of iterations or
even result in divergence. In the MATLAB command of Example 6.2, replace the
command before the end statement by x = x + 1.25 * dx to reflect the effect of the
acceleration factor and run the program.

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

199

4.5 ..------.------.---.---.------,r-----.-----,----tr-r-- ~
4.0

3.5
3.0

2.5
2.0

1.5
1.0
0.5

0
0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.5

2.0

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

x
FIGURE 6.4
Graphical illustration of the Gauss-Seidel method using acceleration factor.

We now consider the system of n equations in n variables

= CI
f2(XI, X2,"', x n ) = C2

!I(XI,X2,""Xn)

fn(Xl, X2, ... , x n )

(6.11)

= Cn

Solving for one variable from each equation, the above functions are rearranged
and written as

X2

= CI + 91(XI,X2,'"
= C2 + 92(XI, X2,'"

Xn

= en + 9n(XI,X2,'" ,xn )

Xl

,xn )
, xn )

(6.12)

The iteration procedure is initiated by assuming an approximate solution for each

of the independent variables (x~O), x~O) ... ,x~O). Equation (6.12) results in a new
approximate solution (xP), x~l) ... , x~l). In the Gauss-Seidel method, the updated
values of the variables calculated in the preceding equations are immediately used
in the solution of the subsequent equations. At the end of each iteration, the calculated values of all variables are tested against the previous values. If all changes

200

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

in the variables are within the specified accuracy, a solution has converged, otherwise another iteration must be performed. The rate of convergence can often be
increased by using a suitable acceleration factor a, and the iterative sequence becomes
(k+I) _

Xi

6.3.2

(k)

Xi

+ a (Xi(k+I)
_
cal

(k))

Xi

(6.13)

NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

The most widely used method for solving simultaneous nonlinear algebraic equations is the Newton-Raphson method. Newton's method is a successive approximation procedure based on an initial estimate of the unknown and the use of Taylor's
series expansion. Consider the solution of the one-dimensional equation given by

f(x)

=c

If xeD) is an initial estimate of the solution, and

correct solution, we must have

(6.14)
Llx(D)

is a small deviation from the

Expanding the left-hand side of the above equation in Taylor's series about
yields

Assuming the error

which results in

Llx(D)

xeD)

is very small, the higher-order terms can be neglected,

where

Adding Llx(D) to the initial estimate will result in the second approximation

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

201

successive use of this procedure yields the Newton-Raphson algorithm

(6.15)

(6.16)

(6.17)
(6.16) can be rearranged as
(6.18)
where

j(k) = (~~Yk)

The relation in (6.18) demonstrates that the nonlinear equation j(x) - c = 0 is

approximated by the tangent line on the curve at x(k). Therefore, a linear equation
is obtained in terms of the small changes in the variable. The intersection of the
tangent line with the x-axis results in x(k+l). This idea is demonstrated graphically
in Example 6.4.
Example 6.4
Use the Newton-Raphson method to find a root of the equation given in Example
6.2. Assume an initial estimate of x(O) = 6.
The MATLAB plot command is used to plot j (x) = x 3 - 6x 2 + 9x - 4 over
a range of 0 to 6 as shown in Figure 6.5. The intersections of j (x) with the x-axis
results in the roots of j(x). From Figure 6.5, two of the roots are found to be 1 and
4. Actually, there is a repeated root at x = l.
Also, Figure 6.5 gives a graphical description of the Newton-Raphson method.
Starting with an initial estimate of x(O) = 6, we extrapolate along the tangent to
its intersection with the x-axis and take that as the next approximation. This is
continued until successive x-values are sufficiently close.
The analytical solution given by the Newton-Raphson algorithm is
dj(x)
dx
~c(O)

=c-

j(x(O)

= 3x2 _

=0-

12x + 9

[(6)3 - 6(6)2

+ 9(6) -

4] = -50

202

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

50,..-----,..----....------r----..------,..----.
40
30
20
10
Of--~::=-----==--------::;;:>--.J<...----L-----l

-10'------1..------'-----'-----.1.-.-.-----1.-----'
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
x
FIGURE 6.5
Graphical illustration of the Newton-Raphson algorithm.

df
( dx

) (0)

= 3(6)2 - 12(6)

+9 =

45

Therefore, the result at the end of the first iteration is

X(I)

= x(O) + .b.x(O) = 6 -

1.1111 = 4.8889

The subsequent iterations result in

(2)

= x (I) + uX (I) = 4.8889 _

13.4431

= 4.2789

x(3)

= x(2) + .b.x(2) = 4.2789 -

2.9981
12.5797

= 4.0405

X(4)

= x(3) + .b.x(3) = 40405 _

0.3748
9.4914

= 4.0011

x(5)

= x(4) + .b.x(4) = 4 0011 -

0.0095
-9.0126

= 4.0000

22.037

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

203

We see that Newton's method converges considerably more rapidly than the GaussSeidel method. The method may converge to a root different from the expected one
or diverge if the starting value is not close enough to the root.
The following commands show the procedure for the solution of the given equation
by the Newton-Raphson method.

dx=l;
% Change in variable is set to a high value
x=input('Enter initial estimate -> '); % Initial estimate
iter = 0;
% Iteration counter
disp('iter
Dc
J
dx
x ") % Heading
while abs(dx) >= 0.001 & iter < 100 Test for convergence
iter = iter + 1;
% No. of iterations
Dc = 0 - (x~3 - 6*x~2 + 9*x - 4);
% Residual
J = 3*x~2 - 12*x + 9;
% Derivative
dx= Dc/J;
%Change in variable
x=x + dx;
% Successive solution
fprintf('%g', iter), disp([Dc, J, dx. x])
end
The result is

Enter the initial estimate -> 6

iter
Dc
J
dx
45.0000
-1.1111
1 -50.0000
2 -13.4431
22.0370
-0.6100
3
-2.9981
12.5797
-0.2383
4
-0.3748
9.4914
-0.0395
5
-0.0095
9.0126
-0.0011
6
-0.0000
9.0000
-0.0000

4.8889
4.2789
4.0405
4.0011
4.0000
4.0000

Now consider the n-dimensional equations given by (6.11). Expanding the lefthand side of the equations (6.11) in the Taylor's series about the initial estimates
and neglecting all higher order terms, leads to the expression

204

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

or in matrix form
(0)
(!!h.)
8x!
(0)
(h.)
8x!

CI - (fI)(O)
C2 -

(12)(0)

U~h.) (0)
8x n

(0)

Xl

(h.)
(0)
8x n

~ (0)

(tn.)
(0)
8xn

~ (0)

X2

Xn

In short form, it can be written as

sc

= J(k) ~X(k)

or
~X(k)

= [J(k)rl~C(k)

(6.19)

and the Newton-Raphson algorithm for the n-dimensional case becomes

X(k+l)

= X(k) + ~X(k)

(6.20)

where

~X(k)

~ (k)
Xl
~ (k)

x2

so =

and

Xn

(ElL
yk)
8xn
(h.)
(k)
8x n

(Ilk)
(k)
(Ilk)
(k)
8x!
8

(tn.)
(k)
8x n

X2

X2

(fn)(k)

(!!h.)
(k)
(!!h.)
(k)
8x!
8
(h.)
(k)
(h.)
(k)
8x!
8
X2

Ud
(h)(k))

(6.21)

en -

~ (k)

J(k)

[ Cl
C2 --

(6.22)

is called the Jacobian matrix. Elements of this matrix are the partial
derivatives evaluated at x'. It is assumed that J(k) has an inverse during each
iteration. Newton's method, as applied to a set of nonlinear equations, reduces the
problem to solving a set of linear equations in order to determine the values that
improve the accuracy of the estimates.
The solution of (6.19) by inversion is very inefficient. It is not necessary
to obtain the inverse of J(k). Instead, a direct solution is obtained by optimally
ordered triangular factorization. In MATLAB, the solution of linear simultaneous
equations ~C = J ~X is obtained by using the matrix division operator \ (Le.,
~X = J \ ~C) which is based on the triangular factorization and Gaussian elimination.
J(k)

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

205

Example 6.5
Use the Newton-Raphson method to find the intersections of the curves

x~ +x~
eX 1 + X2

4
1

Graphically, the solution to this system is represented by the intersections of the

circle x~ + x~ = 4 with the curve e X l + X2 = 1. Figure 6.6 shows that these are
near (1, -1.7) and (-1.8,0.8).
3,-------r---,---,------,----,-----,

X~ +x~

=4

lr---__ I

Of----+------''k------+-----l
-1

-2
-~l-3--l.------l.---.L-------l.--L-.L----l

-2

-1

x
FIGURE 6.6
Graphs of Example 6.5.

Taking partial derivatives of the above functions results in the Jacobian matrix

The Newton-Raphson algorithm for the above system is presented in the following
statements.

iter = 0;

% Iteration counter

206

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

x=input('Enter initial estimates, col. vector[x1;x2]->');

Dx = [1; 1]; % Change in variable is set to a high value
C=[4; 1];
Jacobian matrix
Dx
x');
d i sp C' Iter
DC
% Heading for results
while max(abs(Dx >= 0.0001 & iter <10 %Convergence test
% Iteration counter
iter=iter+1;
f = [x(1)-2+x(2)-2; exp(x(1+x(2)] ;
% Functions
% Residuals
DC = C - f;
J = [2*x(1)
% Jacobian matrix
exp(x(1) )
% Change in variables
Dx=J\DC;
x=x+Dx;
% Successive solutions
fprintf ( , %g' , iter), disp([DC, J, Dx, x])
% Results
end
When the program is run, the user is prompted to enter the initial estimate.
Let us try an initial estimate given by [0.5; -1].

Enter Initial estimates, col. vector

Iter
1
2

b..C
2.7500
0.3513
-1. 5928
-0.7085
-0.1205
-0.1111

4
5

-0.0019
-0.0025
-0.0000
-0.0000

Jacobian matrix
1.0000 -2.0000
1.0000
1.6487
2.6068 -3.9466
3.6818
1.0000
2.0946 -3.4778
1.0000
2.8499
2.0102 -3.4593
2.7321
1.0000
2.0083 -3.4593
1.0000
2.7296

[Xl;

X2]

b..x
0.8034
-0.9733
-0.2561
0.2344
-0.0422
0.0092
-0.0009
0.0000
-0.0000
-0.0000

-t

[0.5; -1]
X

1.3034
-1. 9733
1. 0473
-1. 7389
1.0051
-1.7296
1.0042
-1. 7296
1.0042
-1. 7296

After five iterations, the solution converges to Xl = 1.0042 and X2 = -1.7296

accurate to four decimal places. Starting with an initial value of [-0.5; 1], which
is closer to the other intersection, results in Xl = -1.8163 and X2 = 0.8374.

Example 6.6
Starting with the initial values, Xl = 1, X2 = 1, and
. system of equations by the Newton-Raphson method.

X~

x~

+ x~

XIX2+X~-3x3
Xl -

XIX3

+ X2X3

X3

11

=
=

3
6

= 1, solve the following

6.3. SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS

207

Taking partial derivatives of the above functions results in the Jacobian matrix

The following statements solve the given system of equations by the NewtonRaphson algorithm
Dx=[10;10;10]; %Change in variable is set to a high value
x=[1; 1; 1];
% Initial estimate
C=[11; 3; 6];
iter = 0;
% Iteration counter
while max(abs(Dx))>=.0001 & iter<10;%Test for convergence
iter = iter + 1
% No. of iterations
F = [x(1)-2-x(2)-2+x(3)-2
% Functions
x(1)*x(2)+x(2)-2-3*x(3)
x(1)-x(1)*x(3)+x(2)*x(3)];
DC =C - F
% Residuals
J = [2*x(1) -2*x(2)
2*x(3)
% Jacobian matrix
x(2)
x(1)+2*x(2) -3
1-x(3) x(3)
-x(1)+x(2)]
Dx=J\DC
%Change in variable
x=x+Dx
% Successive solution
end
The program results for the first iteration are
DC =

J =
10
4
5

Dx

2
1
0

-2
3
1

2
-3
0

x =
4.750
5.000
5.250

5.750
6.000
6.250

After six iterations, the solution converges to Xl = 2.0000, X2 = 3.0000, and

X3 = 4.0000.
Newton's method has the advantage of converging quadratically when we
are near a root. However, more functional evaluations are required during each
iteration. A very important limitation is that it does not generally converge to a
solution from an arbitrary starting point.

208 6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.4 POWER FLOW SOLUTION

Power flow studies, commonly known as load flow, form an important part of
power system analysis. They are necessary for planning, economic scheduling, and
control of an existing system as well as planning its future expansion. The problem
consists of determining the magnitudes and phase angle of voltages at each bus and
active and reactive power flow in each line.
In solving a power flow problem, the system is assumed to be operating under
balanced conditions and a single-phase model is used. Four quantities are associated with each bus. These are voltage magnitude lVI, phase angle 6, real power P,
and reactive power Q. The system buses are generally classified into three types.

Slack bus One bus, known as slack or swing bus, is taken as reference where the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage are specified. This bus makes up
the difference between the scheduled loads and generated power that are
caused by the losses in the network.
Load buses At these buses the active and reactive powers are specified. The magnitude and the phase angle of the bus voltages are unknown. These buses are
called P-Q buses.
Regulated buses These buses are the generator buses. They are also known as
voltage-controlled buses. At these buses, the real power and voltage magnitude are specified. The phase angles of the voltages and the reactive power
are to be determined. The limits on the value of the reactive power are also
specified. These buses are called P-V buses.
6.4.1

POWER FLOW EQUATION

Consider a typical bus of a power system network as shown in Figure 6.7. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent 1r models where impedances have
been converted to per unit admittances on a common MVA base.
Application of KCL to this bus results in

Ii = YioVi + YiI(Vi - VI) + Yi2(Vi - V2) + ... + Yin(Vi - Vn )

= (YiO + Yil + Yi2 + ... + Yin)Vi - Yil VI - Yi2V2 - ... - YinVn (6.23)
or
n

t, = Vi L
j=O

Yij -

L Yij Vi
j=I

j =1= i

(6.24)

6.5. GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW SOLUTION

209

Yil
Yi2

Yin

FIGURE 6.7
A typical bus of the power system.

The real and reactive power at bus i is

(6.25)
or
(6.26)
Substituting for Ii in (6.24) yields
~

_ jQi
V*

= Vi L

Yij -

j=O

L Yij Vj

j=fi

(6.27)

j=I

From the above relation, the mathematical formulation of the power flow
problem results in a system of algebraic nonlinear equations which must be solved
by iterative techniques.

6.5 GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW SOLUTION

In the power flow study, it is necessary to solve the set of nonlinear equations
represented by (6.27) for two unknown variables at each node. In the Gauss-Seidel
method (6.27) is solved for Vi, and the iterative sequence becomes
p!,ch_jQ~ch

(k)

+ 2: Yij Vi_
",,(k+I) = _--'-_-=1

V.*(k)

2:Yij

j=fi

(6.28)

210

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

where Yij shown in lowercase letters is the actual admittance in per unit. p/ch
and Qfch are the net real and reactive powers expressed in per unit. In writing the
KCL, current entering bus i was assumed positive. Thus, for buses where real and
reactive powers are injected into the bus, such as generator buses, Pl ch and Qfch
have positive values. For load buses where real and reactive powers are flowing
away from the bus, Pl ch and Qfch have negative values. If (6.27) is solved for Pi
and Qi, we have
n

j=O

j=l

~(k+1) = ~{Vi*(k) [l!i(k) L Yij - LYijVj(k)n

j -=I i

n
n
(k+ 1) _ _ C'l<{TT*(k) [TT(k) " " .. _ " " . .V(k)]}
Qi
-:s vi
vi
~ YZJ
~ YZJ j
j=O

j -=I i

(6.29)
(6.30)

j=l

The power flow equation is usually expressed in terms of the elements of

the bus admittance matrix. Since the off-diagonal elements of the bus admittance
matrix bus, shown by uppercase letters, are Yij = -Yij, and the diagonal elements
are Yii = LYij, (6.28) becomes

v:(k+l) = _--'-

(6.31)

and
n

p?+1)

= ~{Vi*(k) [l!i(k)Yii + L YijVj(k)n

j -=I i

(6.32)

j=1
ji

Q~k+1)

= -8'{Vi*(k) [l!i(k)Yii + L YijVj(k)n

j -=I i

(6.33)

j=1

#i

Yii includes the admittance to ground of line charging susceptance and any other
fixed admittance to ground. In Section 6.7, a model is presented for transformers
containing off-nominal ratio, which includes the effect of transformer tap setting.
Since both components of voltage are specified for the slack bus, there are
2(n - 1) equations which must be solved by an iterative method. Under normal
operating conditions, the voltage magnitude of buses are in the neighborhood of
1.0 per unit or close to the voltage magnitude of the slack bus. Voltage magnitude at
load buses are somewhat lower than the slack bus value, depending on the reactive
power demand, whereas the scheduled voltage at the generator buses are somewhat
higher. Also, the phase angle of the load buses are below the reference angle in
accordance to the real power demand, whereas the phase angle of the generator

6.5. GAUSS-SEIDEL POWER FLOW SOLUTION

211

buses may be above the reference value depending on the amount of real power
flowing into the bus. Thus, for the Gauss-Seidel method, an initial voltage estimate
of 1.0 + jO.O for unknown voltages is satisfactory, and the converged solution
correlates with the actual operating states.
For P-Q buses, the real and reactive powers ~sch and Qfch are known. Starting with an initial estimate, (6.31) is solved for the real and imaginary components
h
of voltage. For the voltage-controlled buses (P-V buses) where
and IViI are
specified, first (6.33) is solved for Q~k+1), and then is used in (6.31) to solve for

pr

IViI is specified, only the imaginary part of Vi(k+l) is retained, and its real part is selected in order to satisfy

Vi(k+l). However, since

(6.34)
or
(6.35)
where e~k+l) and fi(k+l) are the real and imaginary components of the voltage
Vi(k+l) in the iterative sequence.

The rate of convergence is increased by applying an acceleration factor to the

approximate solution obtained from each iteration.
(6.36)
where a is the acceleration factor. Its value depends upon the system. The range of
1.3 to 1.7 is found to be satisfactory for typical systems.
The updated voltages immediately replace the previous values in the solution
of the subsequent equations. The process is continued until changes in the real and
imaginary components of bus voltages between successive iterations are within a
specified accuracy, i.e.,

(6.37)
For the power mismatch to be reasonably small and acceptable, a very tight tolerance must be specified on both components of the voltage. A voltage accuracy
in the range of 0.00001 to 0.00005 pu is satisfactory. In practice, the method for
determining the completion of a solution is based on an accuracy index set up on
the power mismatch. The iteration continues until the magnitude of the largest element in the !::i.P and !::i.Q columns is less than the specified value. A typical power
mismatch accuracy is 0.001 pu
Once a solution is converged, the net real and reactive powers at the slack bus
are computed from (6.32) and (6.33).

212

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.6 LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

After the iterative solution of bus voltages, the next step is the computation of line
flows and line losses. Consider the line connecting the two buses i and j in Figure
6.8. The line current Iij, measured at bus i and defined positive in the direction
I tJ.. Vi

t,

ltj I Jt..

Yij

YiO

FIGURE 6.8
Transmission line model for calculating line flows.

-t

j is given by

(6.38)
Similarly, the line current I ji measured at bus j and defined positive in the direction
j - t i is given by
(6.39)
The complex powers Sij from bus i to j and Sji from bus j to i are

= ViItj
Sji = ltjIJi
Sij

(6.40)
(6.41)

The power loss in line i - j is the algebraic sum of the power flows determined
from (6.40) and (6.41), i.e.,
(6.42)

The power flow solution by the Gauss-Seidel method is demonstrated in the

following two examples.
Example 6.7 .
Figure 6.9 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with
generation at bus 1. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05 per

6.6. LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

213

unit. The scheduled loads at buses 2 and 3 are as marked on the diagram. Line
impedances are marked in per unit on a 100-MVA base and the line charging susceptances are neglected.
1

0.02

0.01

+ jO.03

Slack Bus

VI

+ jO.04

256.6
MW

0.0125

+ jO.025

110.2
Mvar

-,-1....-_--1-.-

= 1.05LO
138.6
MW

45.2
Mvar

FIGURE 6.9
One-line diagram of Example 6,7 (impedances in pu on lOO-MVA base).

(a) Using the Gauss-Seidel method, determine the phasor values of the voltage at
the load buses 2 and 3 (P-Q buses) accurate to four decimal places.
(b) Find the slack bus real and reactive power.
(c) Determine the line flows and line losses. Construct a power flow diagram showing the direction of line flow.
(a) Line impedances are converted to admittances
-

YI2 -

0.02

+1 jO.04 -10
-

'20

Similarly, Y13 = 10 - j30 and Y23 = 16 - j32. The admittances are marked on the
network shown in Figure 6.10.
At the P-Q buses, the complex loads expressed in per units are
S2sch

= _ (256.6

+ j110.2)

100

= -2.566 - )'1.102

S3 ch = _ (138.6 + j45.2) = -1.386 -

j0.452 pu
100
Since the actual admittances are readily available in Figure 6.10, for hand calculation, we use (6,28). Bus 1 is taken as reference bus (slack bus). Starting from
an initial estimate of V2(0) = 1.0 + jO.O and V3(0) = 1.0 + jO.O, V2 and V3 are
computed from (6.28) as follows
p'8ch_jQ8Ch
2 \/,*{O) 2
2

(0)

+ YI2 VI + Y23 V3
V2(I ) = - - - = - - - - - - - - YI2 + Y23

214

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Yl2

= 10 -

j20

1--~256.6

MW

Yl3

= 10 -

j30

Slack Bus
VI = 1.05LO

Y23

= 16 -

j32

-r-l--_--I-.,....

138.6
MW

45.2
Mvar

FIGURE 6.10
One-line diagram of Example 6.7 (admittances in pu on lOO-MVA base).

-2.51~~~1~102

+ (10 -

j20)(1.05

+ jO) + (16 -

j32)(1.0 + jO)

(26 - j52)

= 0.9825 -

jO.031O

and

VP)

= --"---------Y13 + Y23
_ -1.3~~~tO.452 + (10 - j30)(1.05 ;:. jO) + (16 -

j32)(0.9825 - jO.0310)

(26 - j62)

= 1.0011

- jO.0353

For the second iteration we have

\/,(2) _
2

o.;8~~~~b~(A~~

+ (10 -

j20)(1.05

+ jO) + (16 -

j32) (1.0011 - jO.0353)

(26 - j52)

= 0.9816 -

jO.0520

and
\/,(2) _
3

;:cio~~~~t~o~~~

+ (10 -

j30)(1.05

+ jO) + (16 -

j32)(0.9816 - jO.052)

(26 - j62)

= 1.0008 -

jO.0459

The process is continued and a solution is converged with an accuracy of 5 x 10- 5

per unit in seven iterations as given below.

vP) = 0.9808 -

jO.0578

vP) = 1.0004 -

jO.0488

6.6. LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

= 1.0002 -

V2(4) = 0.9803 - jO.0594

V}4)

= 0.9801 V2(6) = 0.~~01 vt) = 0.9800 -

jO.0598

V3(5) = 1.0001 - jO.0499

jO.0599

V3(6)

jO.0600

VP) = 1.0000 - jO.0500

V2(5)

= 1.0000 -

215

jO.0497
jO.0500

The final solution is

v2 =
V3

0.9800 -:- jO.0600 = 0.98183L-3.5035

pu

= 1.0000 - jO.0500 = 1.00125L-2.8624

pu

(b) With the knowledge of all bus voltages, the slack bus power is obtained from
(6.27)

PI - jQl

= VnVI(Y12 + Y13) - (Y12V2 + Y13 V3)]

= 1.05[1.05(20 - j50) - (10 - j20) (0.98 -

j.06) -

(10 - j30) (1.0 - jO.05)]

= 4.095 -

j1.890

or the slack bus real and reactive powers are PI = 4.095 pu = 409.5 MW and
Ql = 1.890 pu = 189 Mvar.
(c) To find the line flows, first the line currents are computed. With line charging
.
capacitors neglected, the line currents are

= (10 1 21 = -112 = -1.9 + jO.8

h3 = YI3(VI - V3) = (10 hI = -113 = -2.0 + j1.0
123 = Y23(V2 - V3) = (16 h2

h2

= Y12(V1 -

V2)

= -123 = 0.64

j20)[(1.05 + jO) - (0.98 - jO.06)]

j30)[(1.05

+ jO) -

(1.0 - jO.05)]

= 1.9 -

= 2.0 -

j32)[(0.98 - jO.06) - (1 - jO.05)]

The line flows are

= Vl1i2 = (1.05 + jO.0)(1.9 + jO.8) = 1.995 + jO.84

= 199.5 MW + j84.0 Mvar

8 21

= V2121 = (0.98 -

8 13

pu

jO.06)(-1.9 - jO.8) = -1.91- jO.67 pu

j67.0 Mvar
= Vl!i3 = (1.05 + jO.0)(2.0 + jl.0) = 2.1 + j1.05 pu
= 210.0 MW + j105.0 Mvar
= -191.0 MW -

j1.0

= -.64 + j.48

- j0.48

8 12

jO.8

216

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

= V3131 = (1.0 - jO.05)( -2.0 - j1.0) = -2.05 - jO.90 pu

= -205.0 MW - j90.0 Mvar
8 23 = V21i3 = (0.98 - jO.06)( -0.656 + j0.48) = -0.656 - j0.432

831

= -65.6
8 32

= 113132 = (1.0 =

pu

MW - j43.2 Mvar
jO.05)(0.64

66.4 MW

+ j44.8

+ j0.48) = 0.664 + j0.448

pu

Mvar

and the line losses are

8L

12

= 8 12

+ 8 21 =

8L 13 = 8 13 + 8 31
8L 23 = 8 23 + 8 32

8.5 MW + j17.0 Mvar

= 5.0 MW + j15.0 Mvar
= 0.8 MW + j1.60 Mvar

The power flow diagram is shown in Figure 6.11, where real power direction is
indicated by --t and the reactive power direction is indicated by t--t. The values
within parentheses are the real and reactive losses in the line.

1 199.5
409.5

0~

189

191

(8 5)

(17.0)

84.0

210.0

105.0

67.0

(5)
(15)

205

66.4

--')-

--')-

90.0
3

138.6

44.8

(0.8)
(1.6)

2
256.6

65.6

---r
~

110.2

43.2

45.2

FIGURE 6.11
Power flow diagram of Example 6.7 (powers in MW and Mvar).

Example 6.8
Figure 6.12 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system with
generators at buses 1 and 3. The magnitude of voltage at bus 1 is adjusted to 1.05
pu. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is fixed at 1.04 pu with a real power generation
of 200 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and 250 Mvar is taken from bus 2.
Line impedances are marked in per unit on a 100 MVA base, and the line charging
susceptances are neglected. Obtain the power flow solution by the Gauss-Seidel
method including line flows and line losses.

6.6. LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

0.02

217

+ jO.04

400
MW
0.01

+ jO.03

Slack Bus
VI = 1.05LO

0.0125

+ jO.025

I---lf-.-+-

250
Mvar

-~.,..----'--

200
MW

I V3 1= 1.04

FIGURE 6.12
One-line diagram of Example 6.8 (impedances in pu on lOO-MVA base).

Line impedances converted to admittances are Y12 = 10- j20, Y13 = 10- j30
\
and Y23 = 16 - j32. 'l'J!e load and generation expressed in per units are

S2 ch = _ (400 + j250) = -4.0 _

psch
3

100
200 = 2 0
100
.

j2.5

pu

Bus 1 is taken as the reference bus (slack bus). Starting from an initial estimate of
V2(0) = 1.0 + jO.O and V3(O) = 1.04 + jO.O, V2 and V3 are computed from (6.28).

VP) =

----!:...--------

Y12 + Y23
-1:g~~~5 + (10 - j20) (1.05

+ jO) + (16 -

j32)(1.04

+ jO)

(26 - j52)

= 0.97462 -

jO.042307

Bus 3 is a regulated bus where voltage magnitude and real power are specified. For
the voltage-controlled bus, first the reactive power is computed from (6.30)
(1)

Q3

= -~{V3*(0) [V3(0) (Y13 + Y23) - Y13 VI - Y23 V2(1) ]}

= -~{(1.04 - jO)[(1.04 + jO)(26 - j62) - (10 (16 - j32)(0.97462 - jO.042307)]}

= 1.16

j30) (1.05

+ jO) -

218

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

The value of Q~l) is used as Q3ch for the computation of voltage at bus 3. The
complex voltage at bus 3, denoted by ~~I), is calculated
(1)

pSCh_jQsch

(I )

Vc3

+ YI3 VI + Y23 V2

3 v.*(O) 3
_ _-----'3'--

YI3

2i~ol..~~6

=
= 1.03783 -

+ Y23

+ (10 -

+ jO) + (16 -

j30) (1.05

j32)(0.97462 - jO.042307)

(26 - j62)

jO.005170

Since 11131 is held constant at 1.04 pu, only the imaginary part of
i.e, fY) = -0.005170, and its real part is obtained from

e~1)

J(1.04)2 -

vS) is retained,

(0.005170)2 = 1.039987

Thus

VP)

= 1.039987 -

jO.005170

For the second iteration, we have

VP)

= --=--------YI2

+ Y23

_ .97.wi~;.&~;307 + (10 -

j20) (1.05)

+ (16 -

j32)(1.039987

+ jO.005170)

(26 - j52)

= 0.971057 Q3(2)

jO.043432

0.<{
*(1) [ ( 1 )
(2) 1
= -os
V3
V 3 (YI3 + Y23 - YI3 VI - Y23V2 }
= -8'{(1.039987 + jO.005170)[(1.039987 - jO.005170)(26 -

j62) (10 - j30) (1.05 + jO) - (16 - j32)(0.971057 - jO.043432)]}

= 1.38796
pSCh_jQsch
3 v.*(1) 3

(2) __--'3'--

Vc3

(2)

+ YI3 VI + Y23 V_2

+ Y23
1.0~909~?~;g~~17 + (10 - j30) (1.05) + (16 - j32)(.971057 - j.043432)

(26 - j62)

= 1.03908 -

YI3

jO.00730

6.6. LINE FLOWS AND LOSSES

219

Since 1V31 is held constant at 1.04 pu, only the imaginary part of v::~) is retained,
i.e, f~2) = -0.00730, and its real part is obtained from

e~2) =

J(1.04)2 -

= 1.039974

(0.00730)2

or

vP) = 1.039974 -

jO.00730

The process is continued and a solution is converged with an accuracy of 5 x 10- 5

pu in seven iterations as given below.

vP)
V2(4)

= 0.97073 - jO.04479

Q~3)

= 0.97065

Q~4) = 1.44833

- jO.04533

Q~5)

= 1.42904

V2(6)

= 0.97061

- jO.04565

Q~6)

= 1.45621
= 1.45947

VP)

= 0.97061

- jO.04569

Q~7)

= 1.46082

V2(5) = 0.97062 - jO.04555

vP)

vi
vi

= 1.03996 - jO.00833

= 1.03996 ) = 1.03996 V3(6) = 1.03996 vP) = 1.03996 )

jO.00873
jO.00893
jO.00900
jO.00903

The final solution is

V2 = 0.97168L-2.6948

83

= 2.0 + j1.4617

V3

1.04L-.498

pu

pu
pu

8 1 = 2.1842 + j1.4085

pu

~--

Line flows and line losses are computed as in Example 6.7, and the results expressed in MW and Mvar are

8 12 = 179.36 + j118.734 8 21 = -170.97 - jlO1.947

8 13 = 39.06 + j22.118
8 31 = -38.88 - j 21.569
8 23 = -229.03 - j148.05 8 32 = 238.88 + j167.746

= 8.39 + j16.79
8L 13 = 0.18 + jO.548
8L23 = 9.85 + j19.69
8L12

The power flow diagram is shown in Figure 6.13, where real power direction
is indicated by - t and the reactive power direction is indicated by I-t. The values
within parentheses are the real and reactive losses in the line.

220

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

218.423

1
)

179.362

--t-+-

118.734

140.852

39.061

(.183)
--t-+- (.548)
22.118
~

170.968 2

(8.393)
(16.787)

...

101.947

38.878

~78 (9.847) 229.0~2

-+---21.569

---+--

167.746

(19.693)

400

250
I )
148.053

146.177
FIGURE 6.13
Power flow diagram of Example 6.8 (powers in MW and Mvar).

6.7 TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

In Section 2.6 it was shown that the flow of real power along a transmission line is
determined by the angle difference of the terminal voltages, and the flow of reactive
power is determined mainly by the magnitude difference of terminal voltages. Real
and reactive powers can be controlled by use of tap changing transformers and
regulating transformers.
In a tap changing transformer, when the ratio is at the nominal value, the
transformer is represented by a series admittance Yt in per unit. With off-nominal
ratio, the per unit admittance is different from both sides of the transformer, and the
admittance must be modified to include the effect of the off-nominal ratio. Consider
a transformer with admittance Yt in series with an ideal transformer representing
the off-nominal tap ratio l:a as shown in Figure 6.14. Yt is the admittance in per
unit based on the nominal tum ratio and a is the per unit off-nominal tap position
allowing for small adjustment in voltage of usually 1O percent. In the case of
phase shifting transformers, a is a complex number. Consider a fictitious bus x
between the tum ratio and admittance of the transformer. Since the complex power
on either side of the ideal transformer is the same, it follows that if the voltage goes
through a positive phase angle shift, the current will go through a negative phase
angle shift. Thus, for the assumed direction of currents, we have
(6.43)
(6.44)

The current Ii is given by

6.7. TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS

I_
i

) t- ' - -+

221

----,Hf-----<3
X

_Y_t

l:a
FIGURE 6.14
Transformer with tap setting ratio a:1

Substituting for Vx , we have

(6.45)
Also, from (6.44) we have

substituting for Ji.from (6.45) we have

J.
J

= _Yt Vi + ~Va*
lal2 J

(6.46)

writing (6.45) and (6.46) in matrix form results in

[ L]

J;

_lli] [ V;Vi ]

[Yt

-~ ~

(6.47)

For the case when a is real, the tt model shown in Figure 6.15 represents the admittance matrix in (6.47). In the 1r model, the left side corresponds to the non-tap
side and the right side corresponds to the tap side of the transformer.
Tap side

Non-tap side

I- a)Yt
( --ar

FIGURE 6.15
Equivalent circuit for a tap changing transformer.

222

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.8 POWER FLOW PROGRAMS

Several computer programs have been developed for the power flow solution of
practical systems. Each method of solution consists of four programs. The program for the Gauss-Seidel method is lfgauss, which is preceded by Ifybus, and is
followed by busout and Iineftow. Programs Ifybus, busout, and Iineftow are designed to be used with two more power flow programs. These are Ifnewton for
the Newton-Raphson method and decouple for the fast decoupled method. The
following is a brief description of the programs used in the Gauss-Seidel method.
Ifybus This program requires the line and transformer parameters and transformer
tap settings specified in the input file named Iinedata. It converts impedances
to admittances and obtains the bus admittance matrix. The program is designed to handle parallel lines.

Ifgauss This program obtains the power flow solution by the Gauss-Seidel method
and requires the files named busdata and Iinedata. It is designed for the direct use of load and generation in MW and Mvar, bus voltages in per unit,
and angle in degrees. Loads and generation are converted to per unit quantities on the base MVA selected. A provision is made to maintain the generator
reactive power of the voltage-controlled buses within their specified limits.
The violation of reactive power limit may occur if the specified voltage is
either too high or too low. After a few iterations (loth iteration in the Gauss
method), the var calculated at the generator buses are examined. If a limit is
reached, the voltage magnitude is adjusted in steps of 0.5 percent up to 5
percent to bring the var demand within the specified limits.

busout This program produces the bus output result in a tabulated form. The bus
output result includes the voltage magnitude and angle, real and reactive
power of generators and loads, and the shunt capacitor/reactor Mvar. Total
generation and total load are also included as outlined in the sample case.

Iineftow This program prepares the line output data. It is designed to display the
active and reactive power flow entering the line terminals and line losses as
well as the net power at each bus. Also included are the total real and reactive
losses in the system. The output of this portion is also shown in the sample
case.

6.9. DATA PREPARATION

223

6.9 DATA PREPARATION

In order to perform a power flow analysis by the Gauss-Seidel method in the MAT-

LAB environment, the following variables must be defined: power system base
MVA, power mismatch accuracy, acceleration factor, and maximum number of iterations. The name (in lowercase letters) reserved for these variables are basemva,
accuracy, accel, and maxiter, respectively. Typical values are as follows:

basemva = 100;
accel
= 1.6;

accuracy = 0.001;
maxiter = 80;

The initial step in the preparation of input file is the numbering of each bus. Buses
are numbered sequentially. Although the numbers are sequentially assigned, the
buses need not be entered in sequence. In addition, the following data files are required.
BUS DATA FILE - busdata The format for the bus entry is chosen to facilitate the required data for each bus in a single row. The information required must be
included in a matrix called busdata. Column 1 is the bus number. Column 2 contains the bus code. Columns 3 and 4 are voltage magnitude in per unit and phase
angle in degrees. Columns 5 and 6 are load MW and Mvar. Column 7 through 10
are MW, Mvar, minimum Mvar and maximum Mvar of generation, in that order.
The last column is the injected Mvar of shunt capacitors. The bus code entered in
column 2 is used for identifying load, voltage-controlled, and slack buses as outlined below:
1 This code is used for the slack bus. The only necessary information for this bus
is the voltage magnitude and its phase angle.

o This code is used for load buses. The loads are entered positive in megawatts
and megavars. For this bus, initial voltage estimate must be specified. This is
usually 1 and 0 for voltage magnitude and phase angle, respectively. If voltage magnitude and phase angle for this type of bus are specified, they will
be taken as the initial starting voltage for that bus instead of a flat start of 1
andO.
2 This code is used for the voltage-controlled buses. For this bus, voltage magnitude, real power generation in megawatts, and the minimum and maximum
limits of the megavar demand must be specified.
LINE DATA FILE - Iinedata Lines are identified by the node-pair method. The
information required must be included in a matrix called Iinedata. Columns 1 and
2 are the line bus numbers. Columns 3 through 5 contain the line resistance, reactance, and one-half of the total line charging susceptance in per unit on the specified

224

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

MVA base. The last column is for the transformer tap setting; for lines, 1 must be
entered in this column. The lines may be entered in any sequence or order with
the only restriction being that if the entry is a transformer, the left bus number is
assumed to be the tap side of the transformer.
The IEEE 30 bus system is used to demonstrate the data preparation and the
use of the power flow programs by the Gauss-Seidel method.

Example 6.9
Figure 6.16 is part of the American Electric Power Service Corporation network
which is being made available to the electric utility industry as a standard test case
for evaluating various analytical methods and computer programs for the solution
of power system problems. Use the Ifgauss program to obtain the power solution
by the Gauss-Seidel method. Bus 1 is taken as the slack bus with its voltage adjusted to 1.06LO pu. The data for the voltage-controlled buses is

Bus
No.
2
5
8
11
13

Regulated Bus Data

Voltage
Min. Mvar Max.Mvar
Magnitude Capacity
Capacity
1.043
-40
50
1.010
-40
40
1.010
-10
40
1.082
-6
24
1.071
-6
24

Transformer tap setting are given in the table below. The left bus number is assumed to be the tap side of the transformer.

Transformer Data
Transformer Tap Setting
Designation pu
4-12
0.932
6- 9
0.978
6-10
0.969
28 -27
0.968
The data for the injected Q due to shunt capacitors is

Injected Q due to Capacitors

Bus No.
Mvar
10
19
24
4.3

6.9. DATA PREPARATION

1
Three Winding Transformer
Equivalents

13

10

~2 W
14

28

26

G: Generators
C: Synchronous condensers

FIGURE 6.16
30-busIEEE samplesystem.

225

226

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Generation and loads are as given in the data prepared for use in the MATLAB
environment in the matrix defined as busdata. Code 0, code 1, and code 2 are used
for the load buses, the slack bus and the voltage-controlled buses, respectively.
Values for basemva, accuracy, accel and maxiter must be specified. Line data are
as given in the matrix called Iinedata. The last column of this data must contain 1
for lines, or the tap setting values for transformers with off-nominal tum ratio. The
control commands required are Ifybus, Ifgauss and Iineflow. A diary command
may be used to save the output to the specified file name. The power flow data and
the commands required are as follows.

clear
% clears all variables from workspace.
basemva = 100; accuracy = 0.001; accel = 1.8; maxiter = 100;
% IEEE 30-BUS TEST SYSTEM (American Electric Power)
%
Bus Bus Voltage Angle --Load-- ---Generator---Injected
MW Mvar Qmin Qmax Mvar
%
No code Mag. Degree MW Mvar
busdata=[l 1 1.06
0
0.0 0.0
o
0.0 0.0
0
0
2 2 1.043 0
21.70 12.7
o
40.0 0.0 -40 50
o
3 0 1.0
0
2.4
1.2
0.0 0.0
0
0
4 0 1.06
0
7.6
1.6
o
0
0
0.0 0.0
o
5 2 1.01
0
94.2 19.0
0.0 0.0 -40 40
6 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
o
0
0
0.0 0.0
o
7 0 1.0
0
22.8 10.9
0
0
0.0 0.0
o
8 2 1.01
0
30.0 30.0
0.0 0.0 -10 40
o
9 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
0
0
0.0 0.0
10 0 1.0
0
5.8
2.0
19
0.0 0.0
0
0
o
11 2 1.082 0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.0 -6 24
12 0 1.0
0
11.2
7.5
o
o
000
13 2 1.071 0
0.0
0.0
o
o o -6 24
o
14 0 1.0
0
6.2
1.6
o 000
o
15 0 1.0
0
8.2
2.5
o 000
16 0 1.0
0
3.5
1.8
o
o
000
17 0 1.0
0
9.0
5.8
o
o 000
18 0 1.0
0
3.2
0.9
o
o 000
19 0 1.0
0
9.5
3.4
o
o 000
20 0 1.0
0
2.2
0.7
o
000
o
21 0 1.0
0
17.5 11.2
o
o 000
22 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
o
o 000
23 0 1.0
0
3.2
1.6
o
o
000
24 0 1.0
0
8.7
6.7
o 0 0 0 4.3
25 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
o
o 000
o
26 0 1.0
0
3.5
2.3
o 000
o
27 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
o
000
o
28 0 1.0
0
0.0
0.0
o 000
o
29 0 1.0
0
2.4
0.9
o 000
30 0 1.0
0
10.6
1.9
o 0 0 0 0] ;

6.9. DATA PREPARATION

% Line Data
%
Bus
%
nl
%
linedata=[l
1
2
3
2
2
4
5
6
6
6
6
9
9
4
12
12
12
12
14
16
15
18
19
10
10
10
10
21
15
22
23
24
25
25
28
27
27
29
8
6

bus
nr
2
3
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
8
9
10
11
10
12
13
14
15
16
15
17
18
19
20
20
17

21
22
22
23
24
24
25
26
27
27
29
30
30
28
28

pu
0.0192
0.0452
0.0570
0.0132
0.0472
0.0581
0.0119
0.0460
0.0267
0.0120
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1231
0.0662
0.0945
0.2210
0.0824
0.1073
0.0639
0.0340
0.0936
0.0324
0.0348
0.0727
0.0116
0.1000
0.1150
0.1320
0.1885
0.2544
0.1093
0.0000
0.2198
0.3202
0.2399
0.0636
0.0169

pu
0.0575
0.1852
0.1737
0.0379
0.1983
0.1763
0.0414
0.1160
0.0820
0.0420
0.2080
0.5560
0.2080
0.1100
0.2560
0.1400
0.2559
0.1304
0.1987
0.1997
0.1923
0.2185
0.1292
0.0680
0.2090
0.0845
0.0749
0.1499
0.0236
0.2020
0.1790
0.2700
0.3292
0.3800
0.2087
0.3960
0.4153
0.6027
0.4533
0.2000
0.0599

227

1/2 B 1 for Line code or

tap setting value
pu
0.02640
1
0.02040
1
0.01840
1
0.00420
1
0.02090
1
0.01870
1
0.00450
1
0.01020
1
0.00850
1
0.00450
1
0.0
0.978
0.0
0.969
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
0.932
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
0.968
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0
1
0.0214
1
0.065
1] ;

228

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

%
lfybus
lfgauss
busout
lineflow

% Forms the bus admittance matrix

% Power flow solution by Gauss-Seidel method
% Prints the power flow solution on the screen
% Computes and displays the line flow and losses

The Ifgauss, busout and the Iineftow produce the following tabulated results.
Power Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel Method
Maximum Power mismatch = 0.000951884
No. of iterations = 34
Bus Voltage
No. Mag.
i

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

1.060
1.043
1.022
1.013
1.010
1.012
1.003
1.010
1.051
1.044
1.082
1.057
1.071
1.043
1.038
1.045
1.039
1.028
1.025
1.029
1.032
1.033
1.027
1.022
1.019
1.001
1.026
1.011

Angle
Degree
0.000
-5.496
-8.002
-9.659
-14.380
-11. 396
-13.149
-12.114
-14.432
-16.024
-14.432
-15.301
-15.300
-16.190
-16.276
-15.879
-16.187
-16.881
-17.049
-16.851
-16.468
-16.455
-16.660
-16.829
-16.423
-16.835
-15.913
-12.056

-----Load----MW
Mvar
0.000
21.700
2.400
7.600
94.200
0.000
22.800
30.000
0.000
5.800
0.000
11. 200
0.000
6.200
8.200
3.500
9.000
3.200
9.500
2.200
17.500
0.000
3.200
8.700
0.000
3.500
0.000
0.000

0.000
12.700
1.200
1.600
19.000
0.000
10.900
30.000
0.000
2.000
0.000
7.500
0.000
1.600
2.500
1.800
5.800
0.900
3.400
0.700
11.200
0.000
1.600
6.700
0.000
2.300
0.000
0.000

--Generation-- Injected
Mvar
Mvar
MW
260.950
40.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

-17.010
48.826
0.000
0.000
35.995
0.000
0.000
30.759
0.000
0.000
16.113
0.000
10.406
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
19.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.30
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

6.9. DATA PREPARATION

29
30

1.006
0.994

-17 .133
-18.016

Total

229

2.400
10.600

0.900
1.900

0.000
0.000

0.000
0.000

0.00
0.00

283.400

126.200

300.950

125.089

23.30

Line Flow and Losses

--Line-from to

--Line loss-- Transformer

MW
Mvar
tap

260.950
177.743
83.197

-17.010
-22.140
5.125

261.504
179.117
83.354

5.461
2.807

10.517
7.079

18.300
1 -172.282
4
45.702
82.990
5
6
61.905

36.126
32.657
2.720
1.704
-0.966

40.497
175.350
45.783
83.008
61. 913

5.461
1.106
2.995
2.047

10.517
-0.519
8.178
2.263

-2.400
-80.390
78.034

-1. 200
1.954
-3.087

2.683
80.414
78.095

2.807
0.771

7.079
1.345

-7.600
-44.596
70.132
44.131

-1.600
-3.239
4.432
-17.624
14.627

7.767
44.713
77.390
72.313
46.492

1.106
0.771
0.605
0.000

-0.519
1.345
1.181
4.686

2
7

-94.200
-79.995
-14.210

16.995
6.474
10.467

95.721
80.256
17.649

2.995
0.151

8.178
-1.687

2
4
7
8
9
10
28

0.000
-59.858
-69.527
37.537
29.534
27.687
15.828
18.840

0.000
3.229
18.805
-1.915
-3.712
-7.318
0.656
-9.575

0.000
59.945
72.026
37.586
29.766
28.638
15.842
21.134

2.047
0.605
0.368
0.103
0.000
0.000
0.060

2.263
1.181
-0.598
-0.558
1.593
1.279
-13.085

-22.800
14.361

-10.900
-12.154

25.272
18.814

0.151

-1.687

1
2
3
2

Power at bus & line flow

MW
Mvar
MVA

3
1
4
4
2
3
6
12
5

~77.263

0.932

0.978
0.969

230 6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

-37.170

1.317

37.193

0.368

-0.598

6
28

-30.000
-29.431
-0.570

0.759
3.154
-2.366

30.010
29.599
2.433

0.103
0.000

-0.558
-4.368

6
11
10

0.000
-27.687
0.003
27.731

0.000
8.911
-15.653
6.747

0.000
29.086
15.653
28.540

0.000
-0.000
0.000

1.593
0.461
0.811

6
9
20
17
21
22

-5.800
-15.828
-27.731
9.018
5.347
15.723
7.582

17.000
0.623
-5.936
3.569
4.393
9.846
4.487

17.962
15.840
28.359
9.698
6.920
18.551
8.811

0.000
0.000
0.081
0.014
0.110
0.052

1.279
0.811
0.180
0.037
0.236
0.107

0.000
-0.003

16.113
16.114

16.113
16.114

-0.000

0.461

4
13
14
15
16

-11. 200
-44.131
-0.021
7.852
17 .852
7.206

-7.500
-9.941
-10.274
2.428
6.968
3.370

13.479
45.237
10.274
8.219
19.164
7.955

0.000
0.000
0.074
0.217
0.053

4.686
0.132
0.155
0.428
0.112

12

0.000
0.021

10.406
10.406

10.406
10.406

0.000

0.132

12
15

-6.200
-7.778
1.592

-1.600
-2.273
0.708

6.403
8.103
1.742

0.074
0.006

0.155
0.006

12
14
18
23

-8.200
-17.634
-1.586
6.009
5.004

-2.500
-6.540
-0.702
1.741
2.963

8.573
18.808
1.734
6.256
5.815

0.217
0.006
0.039
0.031

0.428
0.006
0.079
0.063

12
17

-3.500
-7.152
3.658

-1.800
-3.257
1.440

3.936
7.859
3.931

0.053
0.012

0.112
0.027

10

11
12

13
14

15

16

6.9. DATA PREPARATION

16
10

-9.000
-3.646
-5.332

-5.800
-1.413
-4.355

10.707
3.910
6.885

0.012
0.014

0.027
0.037

15
19

-3.200
-5.970
2.779

-0.900
-1. 661
0.787

3.324
6.197
2.888

0.039
0.005

0.079
0.010

18
20

-9.500
-2.774
-6.703

-3.400
-0.777
-2.675

10.090
2.881
7.217

0.005
0.017

0.010
0.034

19
10

-2.200
6.720
-8.937

-0.700
2.709
-3.389

2.309
7.245
9.558

0.017
0.081

0.034
0.180

10
22

-17.500
-15.613
-1.849

-11.200
-9.609
-1. 627

20.777
18.333
2.463

0.110
0.001

0.236
0.001

10
21
24

0.000
-7.531
1.850
5.643

0.000
-4.380
1.628
2.795

0.000
8.712
2.464
6.297

0.052
0.001
0.043

0.107
0.001
0.067

15
24

-3.200
-4.972
1.771

-1. 600
-2.900
1.282

3.578
5.756
2.186

0.031
0.006

0.063
0.012

22
23
25

-8.700
-5.601
-1. 765
-1.322

-2.400
-2.728
-1.270
1.604

9.025
6.230
2.174
2.079

0.043
0.006
O.OO~

0.067
0.012
0.014

24
26
27

0.000
1.330
3.520
-4.866

0.000
-1.590
2.372
-0.786

0.000
2.073
4.244
4.929

0.008
0.044
0.026

0.014
0.066
0.049

25

-3.500
-3.476

-2.300
-2.306

4.188
4.171

0.044

0.066

25

0.000
4.892

0.000
0.835

0.000
4.963

0.026

0.049

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26
27

231

232

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

28
29
30

-18.192
6.178
7.093

-4.152
1.675
1.663

18.660
6.401
7.286

-0.000
0.086
0.162

1.310
0.162
0.304

27
8
6

0.000
18.192
0.570
-18.780

0.000
5.463
-2.003
-3.510

0.000
18.994
2.082
19.106

-0.000
0.000
0.060

1.310
-4.368
-13.085

27
30

-2.400
-6.093
3.716

-0.900
-1. 513
0.601

2.563
6.278
3.764

0.086
0.034

0.162
0.063

-10.600
27
-6.932
29
-3.683
Total loss

-1. 900
-1.359
-0.537

10.769
7.064
3.722

0.162
0.034
17 .594

0.304
0.063
22.233

28

29

30

6.10

0.968

NEWTON-RAPHSON POWER FLOW SOLUTION

Because of its quadratic convergence, Newton's method is mathematically superior

to the Gauss-Seidel method and is less prone to divergence with ill-conditioned
problems. For large power systems, the Newton-Raphson method is found to be
more efficient and practical. The number of iterations required to obtain a solution .
is independent of the system size, but more functional evaluations are required at
each iteration. Since in the power flow problem real power and voltage magnitude
are specified for the voltage-controlled buses, the power flow equation is formulated in polar form. For the typical bus of the power system shown in Figure 6.7,
the current entering bus i is given by (6.24). This equation can be rewritten in terms
of the bus admittance matrix as
n

t, = LYijYj

(6.48)

j=l

In the above equation, j includes bus i. Expressing this equation in polar form, we
have
n

t, = L IYijllYjILOij + dj

(6.49)

j=l

The complex power at bus i is

(6.50)

233

6.10. NEWTON-RAPHSON POWER FLOW SOLUTION

Substituting from (6.49) for Ii in (6.50),

n

= IViIL-Oi L

Pi - jQi

+ OJ

(6.51)

+ OJ)

(6.52)

IYijllYjILOij

j=l

Separating the real and imaginary parts,

n

Pi

= L !ViIIYjIIYij! cos (Oij -

Oi

j=l

Qi

=-

IViIlYjIIYij! sin (Oij -

Oi

+ OJ)

(6.53)

j=l

Equations (6.52) and (6.53) constitute a set of nonlinear algebraic equations in

terms of the independent variables, voltage magnitude in per unit, and phase angle
in radians. We have two equations for each load bus, given by (6.52) and (6.53), and
one equation for each voltage-controlled bus, given by (6.52). Expanding (6.52)
and (6.53) in Taylor's series about the initial estimate and neglecting all higher
order terms results in the following set of linear equations.
~P2 (k)

I::!.O(k)

8Pn (k)

I::!.o~k)

2!h-(k)

2!h-(k)

81V21

8IVnl

1::!.1V2(k)

~ (k)

~ (k)

QE1.. (k)

QE1..(k)

8P2 (k)

8 02

80 n

81V21

I::!.p~k)

8Pn (k)
802

8Pn (k)
80 n

81V21

8IVnl

I::!.Q~k)

!!!h.(k)

!!!h. (k)

80 2

80n

I::!.Q~)

8Qn (k)

8Qn (k)
80n

I::!.p'(k)

882

8Pn (k)

8 V21

8Vn l

8IVnl

I::!.IV~k)1

In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The Jacobian matrix
k)
gives the linearized relationship between small changes in voltage angle I::!.oi
and voltage magnitude I::!. IVi(k) I with the small changes in real and reactive power
b..p?) and I::!.Q~k). Elements of the Jacobian matrix are the partial derivatives of
(6.52) and (6.53), evaluated at I::!.oi k) and I::!.IVi(k) I. In short form, it can be written
as

(6.54)
For voltage-controlled buses, the voltage magnitudes are known. Therefore, if m
buses of the system are voltage-controlled, m equations involving I::!.Q and I::!. V

234

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

and the corresponding columns of the Jacobian matrix are eliminated. Accordingly,
there are n - 1 real power constraints and n - 1 - m reactive power constraints,
and the Jacobian matrix is of order (2n - 2 - m) x (2n - 2 - m). J 1 is of the
order (n - 1) x (n - 1), J 2 is of the order (n - 1) x (n - 1 - m), J3 is of the
order (n - 1 - m) x (n - 1), and J 4 is of the order (n - 1 - m) X (n - 1 - m).
The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of Jl are

8R

!4/ = L
IVi IIVJ IIYijIsin( Oij jli

8i + 8j)

~; = -IViIIVJIlYijlsin(Oij -

+ 8j)

(6.55)

uUz

8i

i= i

(6.56)

The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 2 are

8Pi
81Vil

= 21VillYiil COSOii + ~ IVJIlYijl COS(Oij - 8i + Dj)

(6.57)

Jr Z

~01 = IViIlYijl COS(Oij - 8i + Dj)

i= i

(6.58)

~~~ = L /ViIIVJIlYijl COS(Oij - s; + 8j)

(6.59)

The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 3 are

oo;

jli

~~~ =

-IViIlVJIIYijl COS(Oij -

s, + Dj)

i= i

(6.60)

The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 4 are

8Q

_ L...J
~ IVIIYi.lsin(O..
_ s. + r.)
81l1;I = -2Il1;IIYi.lsinO"
1
tt
tt
J
1J
1J

_1

U1

iii

~~;I = -IViIIYijl sin(Oij - Di + 8j)

i= i

UJ

(6.61)

(6.62)

The terms D.Pi(k) and D.Q~k) are the difference between the scheduled and calculated values, known as the power residuals, given by
(6.63)
(6.64)

6.10. NEWTON-RAPHSON POWER FLOW SOLUTION

235

The new estimates for bus voltages are

(6.65)
(6.66)
The procedure for power flow solution by the Newton-Raphson method is as
follows:

Plch and Q:ch are specified, voltage magnitudes and

phase angles are set equal to the slack bus values, or 1.0 and 0.0, i.e., IVi(O) I =
1.0 and 8}O) = 0.0. For voltage-regulated buses, where IViI and prh are
specified, phase angles are set equal to the slack bus angle, or 0, i.e., 8}O) = O.

1. For load buses, where

2. For load buses, p?) and Q~k) are calculated from (6.52) and (6.53) and
k)
6.pl and 6.Q~k) are calculated from (6.63) and (6.64).
3. For voltage-controlled buses, pl
(6.63), respectively.

k)

and 6.p?) are calculated from (6.52) and

4. The elements of the Jacobian matrix (Jl, J2, J3, and J4) are calculated
from (6.55) - (6.62).
5. The linear simultaneous equation (6.54) is solved directly by optimally ordered triangular factorization and Gaussian elimination.
6. The new voltage magnitudes and phase angles are computed from (6.65) and
(6.66).
7. The process is continued until the residuals 6.~(k) and 6.Q~k) are less than
the specified accuracy, i.e.,

\6.Pi(k) I ::; e

I6.Q~k) I ::;

(6.67)

The power flow solution by the Newton-Raphson method is demonstrated in

the following example.
Example 6.10
Obtain the power flow solution by the Newton-Raphson method for the system of
Example 6.8.

236

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Line impedances converted to admittances are Y12 = 10 - j20, Y13

and Y23 = 16 - j32. This results in the bus admittance matrix

Ybus

= 10 -

j30,

20-j50 -1O+j20 -1O+ j30]

-10 + j20
26 - j52 -16 + j32
[
-10 + j30 -16 + j32
26 - j62

Converting the bus admittance matrix to polar form with angles in radian yields

Y bus =

53.85165L-1.9029
22.36068L 2.0344
31.62278L1.8925 ]
22.36068L2.0344 58.13777L-1.1071
35.77709L2.0344
[ 31.62278L1.8925
35.77709L2.0344 67.23095L-1.1737

From (6.52) and (6.53), the expressions for real power at bus 2 and 3 and the
reactive power at bus 2 are

P2 = 1V21IVI11Yin Icos(821 - 82 + ( 1) + IVlI1Y221 cos 822 +

1V211V311Y23/ COS(823 - 82 + (3)
P3 = 1V3 IIVdIY31 ICOS(831 - 83 + (1) + 1l--3 II V:! 111'32 ICOS(832 83 + ( 2) + IVl 111'331 cos 833
Q2 = -1V211V1 II~Y:n Isine821 - 82 + (1) - 1V22II Yin Isin 822 IV:! IIl--311Y23I sine823 - 82 + (3)
Elements of the Jacobian matrix are obtained by taking partial derivatives of the
above equations with respect to 82, 83 and IV:!I.

8P2
88 = 1V211V1II Y21 Ism(821 - 0.2,.+ (1) + 1V211l--311Y231
2
sin(8 23 - 82 + ( 3)
8P2
t
88 = -1V:!11V311Y23I sin(023 - 82 + (3)
3
8P2
81V21 = IVI11Y2d COS(021 - 82 + 8t} + 21V2 I1Y221 cos 022 +

1l--3 I1Y23 ICOS(023 - 82 + ( 3)

8P3
.
88 = -1V311V21 1Y32Ism(032 - 83 + (2)
2
8P3

88 = 1V3 IIVI 11Y31Ism(031 - 83 + (1) + 1V311V211Y321

3
sin(032 - 83 + (2)
8P3
81V21 = 1l--3I1 Y321 COS(032 - 83 + ( 2)

6.10. NEWTON-RAPHSON POWERFLOW SOLUTION

8Q2
88
2

8Q2
88
3

= -1V211V311Y231 COS(823 -

237

1V21IVI11 Y211 COS((hl - 82 + 81) + 1V21 1V3 11Y23 1

COS(823 - 82 + 83)

~~:I = -IVI11Y211 sin(821 -

82 + 83)

82 + 8t} - 21V2 11Y22 1sin 822 -

1V31 1Y23 Isin(823 - 82 + 83)

The load and generation expressed in per units are
ssch - _
2psch =
3

(400

200
100

+ j250) - -40 - '25

100
.
J.

= 2 .0

pu

pu

The slack bus voltage is VI = 1.05LO pu, and the bus 3 voltage magnitude is
11131 = 1.04 pu. Starting with an initial estimate of 1V2(0) I = 1.0, 8~0) = 0.0, and
81) = 0.0, the power residuals are computed from (6.63) and (6.64)

b..pJO) =

P2ch -

pJO) = -4.0 - (-1.14) = -2.8600

b..pJO)

= Pg ch - pJO) =

b..Q~O)

= Q2ch -

Q~O)

2.0 - (0.5616)

= -2.5 -

(-2.28)

= 1.4384

= -0.2200

Evaluating the elements of the Jacobian matrix with the initial estimate, the set of
linear equations in the first iteration becomes
-2.8600 ]
1.4384
[

[54.28000
-33.28000

-33.28000
66.04000

-27.14000

16.64000

-0.2200

24.86000] [
-16.64000
49.72000

b..8~0)

b..81)
b..1V2(0)1

Obtaining the solution of the above matrix equation, the new bus voltages in the
first iteration are

b..8~0)

= -0.045263

b..81) = -0.007718
b..1V2(0) 1 = -0.026548

8~1) = 0 + (-0.045263) = -0.045263

1)
81

= 0 + (-0.007718) = -0.007718
IVP) I = 1 + (-0.026548) = 0.97345

Voltage phase angles are in radians. For the second iteration, we have
-0.099218 ]
0.021715
[

-0.050914

[51.724675
-32.981642

-31.765618
65.656383

-28.538577

17.402838

21.302567 ] [ b..8~1) ]
-15.379086
b..811)
48.103589

b..IVP) I

238

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

and

~0~1) = -0.001795
~0~1) = -0.000985
~/VP)I = -0.001767

0~2) = -0.045263 + (-0.001795) = -0.04706

0~2) = -0.007718 + (-0.000985) = -0.00870

/V?) I = 0.973451 + (-0.001767) = 0.971684

For the third iteration, we have

-0.000216 ]
0.000038
[

-0.000143

51.596701 -31.693866
21.147447 ] [ ~0~2)
-32.933865
65.597585 -15.351628
~0~2)
-28.548205

17.396932

47.954870

~/V?) I

and

~0~2) = -0.000038
~0~2) = -0.0000024
~1~(2)1 = -0.0000044

0~3)
0~3)

= -0.047058 + (-0.0000038) = -0.04706

= -0.008703 + (-0.0000024) = 0.008705
/VP) I = 0.971684 + (-0.0000044) = 0.97168

The solution converges in 3 iterations with a maximum power mismatch of 2.5 x

10- 4 with V2 = 0.97168L-2.696 and V3 = 1.04L-0.4988. From (6.52) and
(6.53), the expressions for reactive power at bus 3 and the slack bus real and reactive powers are

-1V3I/VII1 Y31I sin(031 - 03 + 01) - /V31/V211Y321

sin(032 - 03 + 02) - /V3121Y331sin033
2l
PI = /vd Yn lcos On + /Vll/V211Y121 COS(012 - 01 + 02) + /Vll/V31
1Y13I COS(013 - 01 + 03)
2
Ql = -/V11 IYnlsinOn - /Vll/V211Y12I sin(012 - 01 + 02) - /Vl//V31
1Y13/ sin(013 - 01 + 03)

Q3 =

Upon substitution, we have

Q3 = 1.4617 pu
PI = 2.1842 pu
Ql = 1.4085 pu
Finally, the line flows are calculated in the same manner as the line flow calculations in the Gauss-Seidel method described in Example 6.7, and the power flow
diagram is as shown in Figure 6.13.
A program named Ifnewton is developed for power flow solution by the
Newton-Raphson method for practical power systems. This program must be preceded by the Ifybus program. busout and lineflow programs can be used to print
the load flow solution and the line flow results. The format is the same as the
Gauss-Seidel. The following is a brief description of the Ifnewton program.

6.10. NEWTON-RAPHSON POWERFLOW SOLUTION

239

Ifnewton This program obtains the power flow solution by the Newton-Raphson
method and requires the busdata and the Iinedata files described in Section 6.9. It is designed for the direct use of load and generation in MW and
Mvar, bus voltages in per unit, and angle in degrees. Loads and generation
are converted to per unit quantities on the base MVA selected. A provision
is made to maintain the generator reactive power of the voltage-controlled
buses within their specified limits. The violation of reactive power limit may
occur if the specified voltage is either too high or too low. In the second iteration, the var calculated at the generator buses are examined. If a limit is
reached, the voltage magnitude is adjusted in steps of 0.5 percent up to 5
percent to bring the var demand within the specified limits.
Example 6.11
Obtain the power flow solution for the IEEE-3D bus test system by the NewtonRaphson method.
The data required is the same as in Example 6.9 with the following commands

clear
basemva

% clears all variables from the workspace.

accuracy = 0.001; maxiter = 12;

100;

busdata = [same as in Example 6.9];

linedata = [same as in Example 6.9];
lfybus
lfnewton
%Power flow
busout
%Prints the
lineflow % Computes and

% Forms the bus admittance matrix

solution by Newton-Raphson method
power flow solution on the screen
displays the line flow and losses

The output of Ifnewton is

Power Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson Method

Maximum Power mismatch = 7.54898e-07
No. of iterations = 4
Bus Voltage
No. 'Mag.
1
2
3

1.060
1.043
1.022

Angle
Degree
0.000
-5.497
-8.004

-----Load----MW
Mvar
0.000
21. 700
2.400

0.000
12.700
1.200

--Generation-- Injected
Mvar
Mvar
MW
260.998
40.000
0.000

-17.021
48.822
0.000

0.00
0.00
0.00

240

6. POWERFLOW ANALYSIS

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

1.013
-9.661
1.010 -14.381
1.012 -11. 398
1.003 -13.150
1.010 -12.115
1.051 -14.434
1.044 -16.024
1.082 -14.434
1.057 -15.302
1.071 -15.302
1.042 -16.191
1.038 -16.278
1.045 -15.880
1.039 -16.188
1.028 -16.884
1.025 -17.052
1.029 -16.852
1.032 -16.468
1.033 -16.455
1.027 -16.662
1.022 -16.830
1. 019 -16.424
1.001 -16.842
1.026 -15.912
1.011 -12.057
1.006 -17.136
0.995 -18.015

Total

7.600
94.200
0.000
22.800
30.000
0.000
5.800
0.000
11. 200
0.000
6.200
8.200
3.500
9.000
3.200
9.500
2.200
17 .500
0.000
3.200
8.700
0.000
3.500
0.000
0.000
2.400
10.600

1.600
19.000
0.000
10.900
30.000
0.000
2.000
0.000
7.500
0.000
1.600
2.500
1.800
5.800
0.900
3.400
0.700
11. 200
0.000
1.600
6.700
0.000
2.300
0.000
0.000
0.900
1.900

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.000
35.975
0.000
0.000
30.826
0.000
0.000
16.119
0.000
10.423
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
19.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.30
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

283.400

126.200

300.998

125.144

23.30

The output of the Iineflow is the same as the line flow output of Example 6.9 with
the power mismatch as dictated by the Newton-Raphson method.

6.11 FAST DECOUPLED POWER FLOW SOLUTION

Power system transmission lines have a very high X / R ratio. For such a system,
real power changes I::::.P are less sensitive to changes in the voltage magnitude
and are most sensitive to changes in phase angle 1::::.8. Similarly, reactive power is
less sensitive to changes in angle and are mainly dependent on changes in voltage
magnitude. Therefore, it is reasonable to set elements J 2 and J3 of the Jacobian
matrix to zero. Thus, (6.54) becomes

[ AP]
AQ -_ [ i.
0

4 ] [

A~tl ]

(6.68)

6.11. FASTDECOUPLED POWERFLOW SOLUTION

241

or

8P
.6.P = Jl.6.6 = [ 86] .6.6

.6.Q

= J4.6.IVI = [~~I]

(6.69)

AIVI

(6.70)

(6.69) and (6.70) show that the matrix equation is separated into two decoupled
equations requiring considerably less time to solve compared to the time required
for the solution of (6.54). Furthermore, considerable simplification can be made to
eliminate the need for recomputing J 1 and J4 during each iteration. This procedure
. results in the decoupled power flow equations developed by Stott and Alsac[7576]. The diagonal elements of J 1 described by (6.55) may be written as

~i =
t

i: IVillVjllYijl

sin(Bij

- s. + OJ) -IViI2IYiil sin Bii

j=l

Replacing the first term of the above equation with -Qi, as given by (6.53), results
in

Where Bii = IYiiIsin Bii is the imaginary part of the diagonal elements of the bus
admittance matrix. B ii is the sum of susceptances of all the elements incident to bus
i. In a typical power system, the self-susceptance Bii ~ Qi, and we may neglect
Qi. Further simplification is obtained by assuming IVil 2 ~ lVii, which yields
(6.71)
Under normal operating conditions, OJ - Oi is quite small. Thus, in (6.56) assuming
Bii - 0i + OJ ~ Bii , the off-diagonal elements of J 1 becomes

Further simplification is obtained by assuming

IVjI

1
(6.72)

242

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Similarly, the diagonal elements of J4 described by (6.61) may be written as

- ~ IV;IITTIIYI
sin(B"t) alaQi
V; I = -/V;IIY.I
t
n sin Bn!----'
t
t)
Y)

(}.t

+ 5)
)

)=1

replacing the second term of the above equation with -Qi, as given by (6.53),
results in

~~I
Again, since B ii

= -IViIlViilsinBii + o,

= Vii sin Bii

Qi, Qi may be neglected and

(6.61) reduces to

aQi

alViI = -IViIBii
Likewise in (6.62), assuming Bi j

oo.

a/ltJl

5i
=

+ 5j

(6.73)

Bi j yields

-IViIBi j

(6.74)

With these assumptions, equations (6.69) and (6.70) take the following form
AP

IViI

= -B A<5

(6.75)

AQ = -B" AIVI

IViI

(6.76)

Here, B' and B" are the imaginary part of the bus admittance matrix Ybus. Since
the elements of this matrix are constant, they need to be triangularized and inverted only once at the beginning of the iteration. B' is of order of (n - 1). For
voltage-controlled buses where IViI and Pi are specified and Qi is not specified,
the corresponding row and column of Ybus are eliminated. Thus, B" is of order of
(n - 1 - m), where m is the number of voltage-regulated buses. Therefore, in the
fast decoupled power flow algorithm, the successive voltage magnitude and phase
angle changes are
AP
= _[B']-l_

(6.77)

A/VI = _[B"]-l AQ
IVI

(6.78)

A<5

IVI

The fast decoupled power flow solution requires more iterations than the NewtonRaphson method, but requires considerably less time per iteration, and a power
flow solution is obtained very rapidly. This technique is very useful in contingency
analysis where numerous outages are to be simulated or a power flow solution is
required for on-line control.

6.11.FAST DECOUPLEDPOWERFLOW SOLUTION

243

Example 6.12

Obtain the power flow solution by the fast decoupled method for the system of Example 6.8.
The bus admittance matrix of the system as obtained in Example 6.10 is
Ybus =

20-j50 -1O+j20 -1O+ j30]

-10 + j20
26 - j52 -16 + j32
[
-10 + j30 -16 + j32
26 - j62

In this system, bus 1 is the slack bus and the corresponding bus susceptance matrix
for evaluation of phase angles ~<52 and ~<53 is

B'

= [ -52

32 ]
32 -62

The inverse of the above matrix is

-0.014545]
[B' j- l = [-0.028182
-0.014545 -0.023636
From (6.52) and (6.53), the expressions for real power at bus 2 and 3 and the
reactive power at bus 2 are
P2 = 1V211VIlly21'1 COS(921 - <52 + 81) + 1V2211Y221 cos 922
+1V211V311Y231 COS(923 - 82 + 83)
P3 = 1lt3I IVI11Y31I COS(931 - 83 + 81) + 1V311V211Y321 COS(932
-<53 + 82) + 1V321 1Y33 Icos 933
211Y22I sin 922
Q2 = -1V211VI11Y21I sin(921 - 82 + 81) - 1V2
-1V211V311Y231 sin(9 23 - 82 + 83)
The load and generation expressed in per units are
S2sch = _ (400 + j250) = -4.0 - )'2.5
100
psch

pu

= 200 = 2.0 pu

100
The slack bus voltage is VI = 1.05LO pu, and the bus 3 voltage magnitude is
1V31 = 1.04 pu. Starting with an initial estimate of 1V2(O) I = 1.0, 8~O) = 0.0, and
8~O) = 0.0, the power residuals are computed from (6.63) and (6.64)
3

~pJO) = p~ch - pJO) = -4.0 - (-1.14) = -2.86

~pJO) = p;ch - pJO) = 2.0 - (0.5616) = 1.4384

~Q~O) = Q~ch _ Q~O) = -2.5 - (-2.28) = -0.22

244

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

The fast decoupled power flow algorithm given by (6.77) becomes

f16~O) ] __ [-0.028182 -0.014545] [ -2i~600 ] _ [ -0.060483 ]

f1o~O)

-0.014545

-0.023636

\~~~4

-0.008909

Since bus 3 is a regulated bus, the corresponding row and column of B' are eliminated and we get

B"

= [-52J

From (6.78), we have

f11V21

=-

[~;] [~. ~2] = -0.0042308

The new bus voltages in the first iteration are

f1o~O) = -0.060483
f16~O) = -0.008989
f11V2(O) I = -0.0042308

0~1) = 0 + (-0.060483) = -0.060483

0~1) = 0 + (-0.008989) = -0.008989

IVP) I = 1 + (-0.0042308) = 0.995769

The voltage phase angles are in radians. The process is continued until power residuals are within a specified accuracy. The result is tabulated in the table below.
Iter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

12
13
14

02

03

1V21

f1P2

f1P3

f1Q2

-0.060482
-0.056496
-0.044194
-0.044802
-0.047665
-0.047614
-0.046936
-0.046928
-0.047087
-0.047094
-0.047057
-0.047054
-0.047063
-0.047064

-0.008909
-0.007952
-0.008690
-0.008986
-0.008713
-0.008645
-0.008702
-0.008720
-0.008707
-0.008702
-0.008705
-0.008706
-0.008706
-0.008706

0.995769
0.965274
0.965711
0.972985
0.973116
0.971414
0.971333
0.971732
0.971762
0.971669
0.971660
0.971681
0.971684
0.971680

-2.860000
0.175895
0.640309
-0.021395
-0.153368
0.000520
0.035980
0.000948
-0.008442
-0.000470
0.001971
0.000170
-0.000458
-0.000053

1.438400
-0.070951
-0.457039
0.001195
0.112899
0.002610
-0.026190
-0.001411
0.006133
0.000510
-0.001427
-0.000163
0.000330
0.000048

-0.220000
-1.579042
0.021948
0.365249
0.006657
-0.086136
-0.004067
0.020119
0.001558
-0.004688
-0.000500
0.001087
0.000151
-0.000250

Converting phase angles to degrees the final solution is V 2 = 0.97168L -2.696 0

and V3 = 1.04L -0.4988 0 Using (6.52) and (6.53) as in Example 6.10, the reactive

6.11. FAST DECOUPLED POWER FLOW SOLUTION

245

power at bus 3 and the slack bus real and reactive powers are
Q3 = 1.4617 pu

= 2.1842
Ql = 1.4085
PI

pu
pu

The fast decoupled power flow for this example has taken 14 iterations with the
maximum power mismatch of 2.5 x 10- 4 pu compared to the Newton-Raphson
method which took only three iterations. The highest XI R ratio of the transmission
lines in this example is 3. For systems with a higher XI R ratio, the fast decoupled
power flow method converges in relatively fewer iterations. However, the number
of iterations is a function of system size.
Finally, the line flows are calculated in the same manner as the line flow calculations in the Gauss-Seidel method described in Example 6.7, and the power flow
diagram is as shown in Figure 6.13.
A program named decouple is developed for power flow solution by the fast
decoupled method for practical power systems. This program must be preceded by
the Ifybus program. busout and Iineflow programs can be used to print the load
flow solution and the line flow results. The format is the same as the Gauss-Seidel
method. The following is a brief description of the decouple program:
decouple This program finds the power flow solution by the fast decouple method
and requires the busdata and the Iinedata files described in Section 6.9. It is
designed for the direct use of load and generation in MW and Mvar, bus voltages in per unit, and angle in degrees. Loads and generation are converted
to per unit quantities on the base MVA selected. A provision is made to
maintain the generator reactive power of the voltage-controlled buses within
their specified limits. The violation of reactive power limit may occur if the
specified voltage is either too high or too low. In the 10th iteration, the vars
calculated at the generator buses are examined. If a limit is reached, the voltage magnitude is adjusted in steps of 0.5 percent up to 5 percent to bring
the var demand within the specified limits.

Example 6.13
Obtain the power flow solution for the IEEE-30 bus test system by the fast decoupled method.
Data required is the same as in Example 6.9 with the following commands

246

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

clear
basemva

% clears all variables from the workspace.

= 100; accuracy = 0.001; maxiter = 20;

busdata= [ same as in Example 6.9 ];

linedata = [ same as in Example 6.9 ];
lfybus
decouple
busout
lineflow

%Forms the bus admittance matrix

%Power flow solution by fast decoupled method
%Prints the power flow solution on the screen

%Computes and displays the line flow and losses

The output of decouple is

Power Flow Solution by Fast Decoupled Method
Maximum Power mismatch = 0.000919582
No. of iterations = 15
Bus Voltage
No. Mag.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

1.060
1.043
1.022
1.013
1.010
1.012
1.003
1.010
1.051
1.044
1.082
1.057
1.071
1.042
1.038
1.045
1.039
1.028
1.025
1.029
1.032
1.033
1.027
1.022
1.019
1.001

Angle
Degree
0.000
-5.497
-8.004
-9.662
-14.381
-11. 398
-13.149
-12.115
-14.434
-16.024
-14.434
-15.303
-15.303
-16.198
-16.276
-15.881
-16.188
-16.882
-17.051
-16.852
-16.468
-16.454
-16.661
-16.829
-16.423
-16.840

-----Load----MW
Mvar
0.000
21.700
2.400
7.600
94.200
0.000
22.800
30.000
0.000
5.800
0.000
11. 200
0.000
6.200
8.200
3.500
9.000
3.200
9.500
2.200
17.500
0.000
3.200
8.700
0.000
3.500

0.000
12.700
1.200
1.600
19.000
0.000
10.900
30.000
0.000
2.000
0.000
7.500
0.000
1.600
2.500
1.800
5.800
0.900
3.400
0.700
11. 200
0.000
1.600
6.700
0.000
2.300

--Generation-- Injected
MW
Mvar
Mvar
260.998
40.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

-17 .021
48.822
0.000
0.000
35.975
0.000
0.000
30.828
0.000
0.000
16.120
0.000
10.421
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
19.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.30
0.00
0.00

6.11.FASTDECOUPLED POWERFLOW SOLUTION

27
28
29
30

1.026
1.011
1.006
0.995

-15.912
-12.057
-17 .136
-18.014

Total

247

0.000
0.000
2.400
10.600

0.000
0.000
0.900
1.900

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

283.400

126.200

300.998

125.145

23.30

The output of the Iineflow is the same as the line flow output of Example 6.9 with
the power mismatch as dictated by the fast decoupled method.

PROBLEMS
6.1. A power system network is shown in Figure 6.17. The generators at buses
1 and 2 are represented by their equivalent current sources with their reactances in per unit on a 100-MVA base. The lines are represented by 7r model
where series reactances and shunt reactances are also expressed in per unit
on a 100 MVA base. The loads at buses 3 and 4 are expressed in MW and
Mvar.
(a) Assuming a voltage magnitude of 1.0 per unit at buses 3 and 4, convert
the loads to per unit impedances. Convert network impedances to admittances and obtain the bus admittance matrix by inspection.
(b) Use the function Y = ybus(zdata) to obtain the bus admittance matrix.
The function argument zdata is a matrix containing the line bus numbers,
resistance and reactance. (See Example 6.1.)
1
I

'I

jO.25
jO.2
-j4

.I.
jO.l

jO.2
-j4

.I.

100MW +j25 Mvar

FIGURE 6.17
One-line diagram for Problem 6.1.

-j4

.I.

200 MW +j50 Mvar

248 6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.2. A power system network is shown in Figure 6.18. The values marked are
impedances in per unit on a base of 100 MVA. The currents entering buses 1
and 2 are

II = 1.38 - j2.72 pu
h = 0.69 - j1.36 pu
(a) Determine the bus admittance matrix by inspection.
(b) Use the function Y ybus(zdata) to obtain the bus admittance matrix.
The function argument zdata is a matrix containing the line bus numbers,
resistance and reactance. (See Example 6.1.) Write the necessary MATlAR
commands to obtain the bus voltages.

.:.

0.02

+ jO.04

0.0125

+ jO.025

FIGURE 6.18
One-line diagram for Problem 6.2.

6.3. Use Gauss-Seidel method to find the solution of the following equations
Xl

+ xIX2 =
Xl

10

+ X2 = 6

with the following initial estimates

(a) xiO) = 1 and x~O) = 1
(b) xiO) = 1 and x~O) = 2
Continue the iterations until I~xik) I and I~x~k) I are less than 0.001.

6.11. FAST DECOU PLED POWER FLOW SOLUTION

249

6.4. A fourth-order polynomial equation is given by

x4

21x 3

+ 147x 2 -

379x

+ 252 = 0

(a) Use Newton-Raphson method and hand calculations to find one of the
roots of the polynomial equation. Start with the initial estimate of x(O) = 0
and continue until I~x(k) I < 0.00l.
(b) Write a MATLAB program to find the roots of the above polynomial by
Newton-Raphson method. The program should prompt the user to input the
initial estimate. Run using the initial estimates of 0, 3, 6, 10.
(c) Check your answers using the MATLAB function r = roots(A), where A
is a row vector containing the polynomial coefficients in descending powers.
6.5. Use Newton-Raphson method and hand calculation to find the solution of
the following equations:

xi - 2Xl - X2 = 3
xi + x~ = 41
(a) Start with the initial estimates of xlO) = 2, x~O) = 3. Perform three iterations.
(b) Write a MATLAB program to find one of the solutions of the above equations by Newton-Raphson method. The program should prompt the user to
input the initial estimates. Run the program with the above initial estimates.
6.6. In the power system network shown in Figure 6.19, bus 1 is a slack bus with
VI = l.OLO per unit and bus 2 is a load bus with 8 2 = 280 MW + j60
Mvar. The line impedance on a base of 100 MVA is Z = 0.02 + jO.04 per
unit.
(a) Using Gauss-Seidel method, determine V2 . Use an initial estimate of
V2(O) = l.0 + jO.O and perform four iterations.
(b) If after several iterations voltage at bus 2 converges to V2 = 0.90- jO.lO,
determine 8 1 and the real and reactive power loss in the line.

Z12

= 0.02 + jO.04
2-+-8 2 = 280 MW +j60 Mvar

FIGURE 6.19
One-line diagram for Problem 6.6.

250

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

. 1
)30

I-------------+-~

400 MW
320 Mvar

Slack

jO.0125

jO.05

300 MW

270 Mvar

FIGURE 6.20
One-line diagram for Problem 6.7.

6.7. Figure 6.20 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system
with generation at bus 1. The voltage at bus 1 is VI = 1.0LO per unit.
The scheduled loads on buses 2 and 3 are marked on the diagram. Line
impedances are marked in per unit on a 100-MVA base. For the purpose
of hand calculations, line resistances and line charging susceptances are neglected.
(a) Using Gauss-Seidel method and initial estimates of viO) = 1.0 + jO and
V3(0) = 1.0 + jO, determine V2 and V3. Perform two iterations.
(b) If after several iterations the bus voltages converge to

V2 = 0.90':'" jO.lO pu
V3 = 0.95 - jO.05 pu
determine the line flows and line losses and the slack bus real and reactive
power. Construct a power flow diagram and show the direction of the line
flows.
(c) Check the power flow solution using the Ifgauss and other required programs. (Refer to Example 6.9.) Use a power accuracy of 0.00001 and an
acceleration factor of 1.0.
6.8.

Figure 6.21 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system
with generation at buses 1 and 3. The voltage at bus 1 is VI = 1.025LO per
unit. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 is fixed at 1.03 pu with a real power generation of 300 MW. A load consisting of 400 MW and 200 Mvar is taken from
bus 2. Line impedances are marked in per unit on a 100-MVA base. For the

6.11. FASTDECOUPLED POWERFLOW SOLUTION

251

P3-<E--= 300MW

jO.05
3

I V3 1= 1.03
jO.025

jO.025

400 MW

200 Mvar

FIGURE 6.21
One-line diagram for Problem 6.8.

purpose of hand calculations, line resistances and line charging susceptances

are neglected.
(a) Using Gauss-Seidel method and initial estimates of V2(O) = 1.0 + jO and

V3(O) = 1.03 + jO and keeping 1V31 = 1.03 pu, determine the phasor values
of V2 and V3 . Perform two iterations.
(b) If after several iterations the bus voltages converge to

V2
V3

= 1.001243L-2.1 = 1.000571 - jO.0366898

= 1.03L1.36851 = 1.029706 + jO.0246 pu

pu

determine the line flows and line losses and the slack bus real and reactive
power. Construct a power flow diagram and show the direction of the line
flows.
(c) Check the power flow solution using the Ifgauss and other required programs. (Refer to Example 6.9.)

X,

jO.2

= jO.0125

H(>--1

jO.25

X; = jO.16

- -+-<)3 H

0.8:1

1.25:1

3
FIGURE 6.22
One-line diagram for Problem 6.9.

252

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

6.9.

The one-line diagram of a four-bus power system is as shown in Figure 6.22.

Reactances are given in per unit on a common MVA base. Transfortners T l
and T2 have tap settings of 0.8:1, and 1.25:1 respectively. Obtain the bus
admittance matrix.

6.10. In the two-bus system shown in Figure 6.23, bus 1 is a slack bus with VI =
1.0LO pu. A load of 150 MW and 50 Mvar is taken from bus 2. The line
admittance is Y12 = 10L-73.74 pu on a base of 100 MVA. The expression
for real and reactive power at bus 2 is given by

P2 = 101V211V1Icos(106.26 - 02 + 01) + 101V212cos(-73.74)

2sin(-73.74)
Q2 = -101V211V1Isin(106.26 - 02 + 01) -101V21
Using Newton-Raphson method, obtain the voltage magnitude and phase
angle of bus 2. Start with an initial estimate of 1V21 (0) = 1.0 pu and 02 (0) =
0. Perform two iterations.

Y12

= 2.8 -

150MW

j9.6

50 Mvar
FIGURE 6.23
One-line diagram for Problem 6.10.

6.11. In the two-bus system shown in Figure 6.24, bus 1 is a slack bus with VI =
1.0LO pu. A load of 100 MW and 50 Mvar is taken from bus 2. The line
impedance is Z12 = 0.12 + jO.16 pu on a base of 100 MVA. Using NewtonRaphson method, obtain the voltage magnitude and phase angle of bus 2.
Start with an initial estimate of 1V21 (0) = 1.0 pu and 02(0) = 0. Perform
two iterations.

1
Z12

= 0.12 + jO.16

100MW
50 Mvar

FIGURE 6.24
One-line diagram for Problem 6.11.

6.11. FASTDECOUPLED POWERFLOW SOLUTION

253

6.12. Figure 6.25 shows the one-line diagram of a simple three-bus power system
with generation at buses 1 and 2. The voltage at bus 1 is V = 1.0LO per unit.
Voltage magnitude at bus 2 is fixed at 1.05 pu with a real power generation
of 400 MW. A load consisting of 500 MW and 400 Mvar is taken from bus
3. Line admittances are marked in per unit on a 100 MVA base. For the
purpose of hand calculations, line resistances and line charging susceptances
are neglected.

Y12

= -j40

P2 = 400MW

Y13

= -j20

Slack Bus
VI = 1.0LO

Y23

3 ..,-'--......
500
MW

= -j20
I V2 1= 1.05

400
Mvar

FIGURE 6.25
One-line diagram for Problem 6.12

(a) Show that the expression for the real power at bus 2 and real and reactive
power at bus 3 are

P2 = 401V211V11 cos(90 - 82 + 01) + 201V2 I1V3 Icos(90 -:- 82 + 83)

P3 = 201V3I IVII cos(90 - 83 + 81) + 201V3 I1V2 Icos(90 - 83 + 82)
Q3

= -201V311V11 sin(90 -03+81)-20IV311V21 sin(90 -03+ 82)+401V312

(b) Using Newton-Raphson method, start with the initial estimates of V2 (0) =
1.0 + jO and V3 (0) = 1.0 + jO, and keeping 1V21 = 1.05 pu, determine the
phasor values of V2 and V3. Perform two iterations.
(c) Check the power flow solution for Problem 6.12 using Ifnewton and other
required programs. Assume the regulated bus (bus # 2) reactive power limits
are between 0 and 600 Mvar.
6.13. For Problem 6.12:
(a) Obtain the power flow solution using the fast decoupled algorithm. Perform two iterations.
(b) Check the power flow solution for Problem 6.12 using decouple and
other required programs. Assume the regulated bus (bus # 2) reactive power
limits are between 0 and 600 Mvar.
6.14. The 26-bus power system network of an electric utility company is shown
in Figure 6.26 (page 256). Obtain the power flow solution by the following

254

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

methods:
(a) Gauss-Seidel power flow (see Example 6.9).
(b) Newton-Raphson power flow (see Example 6.11).
(c) Fast decoupled power flow (see Example 6.13).
The load data is as follows.

Bus
No.
1
2

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

LOAD DATA
Load
Bus
MW Mvar
No.
51.0
41.0
14
22.0
15.0
15
64.0
50.0
16
25.0
10.0
17
50.0
30.0
18
76.0
29.0
19
0.0
0.0
20
0.0
0.0
21
89.0
50.0
22
0.0
0.0
23
25.0
15.0
24
89.0
48.0
25
31.0
15.0
26

Load
MW Mvar
24.0
12.0
70.0
31.0
55.0
27.0
78.0
38.0
153.0
67.0
75.0
15.0
48.0
27.0
46.0
23.0
45.0
22.0
25.0
12.0
54.0
27.0
28.0
13.0
40.0 _ 20.0

Voltage magnitude, generation schedule, and the reactive power limits for
the regulated buses are tabulated below. Bus 1, whose voltage is specified as
VI = 1.025LO, is taken as the slack bus.

GENERATION DATA
Bus
No.
1
2
3
4
5
26

Voltage
Mag.
1.025
1.020
1.025
1.050
1.045
1.015

Generation
MW
79.0
20.0
100.0
300.0
60.0

MvarLimits
Min. Max.
40.0
40.0
40.0
40.0
15.0

250.0
150.0
80.0
160.0
50.0

The Mvar of the shunt capacitors installed at substations and the transformer
tap settings are given below.

6.11. FASTDECOUPLED POWER FLOW SOLUTION

SHUNT CAPACITORS
Bus No.
Mvar
1
4.0
4
2.0
5
5.0
2.0
6
11
1.5
12
2.0
15
0.5
19
5.0

255

TRANSFORMER TAP
Designation Tap Setting
2- 3
0.960
2-13
0.960
3-13
1.017
4- 8
1.050
4-12
1.050
6-19
0.950
0.950
7- 9

The line and transformer data containing the series resistance and reactance
in per unit and one-half the total capacitance in per unit susceptance on a
100-MVA base are tabulated below.

LINE AND TRANSFORMER DATA

Bus Bus
R,
pu
No. No.
2 0.0005
1
18 0.0013
1
2
3 0.0014
2
7 0.0103
2
8 0.0074
13 0.0035
2
2
26 0.0323
13 0.0007
3
4
8 0.0008
4
12 0.0016
5
6 0.0069
6
7 0.0053
11 0.0097
6
6
18 0.0037
6
19 0.0035
6
21 0.0050
7
8 0.0012
7
9 0.0009
8
12 0.0020
9
10 0.0010
10
12 0.0024
10
19 0.0547
10
20 0.0066

X,

!B,

pu
0.0048
0.0110
0.0513
0.0586
0.0321
0.0967
0.1967
0.0054
0.0240
0.0207
0.0300
0.0306
0.0570
0.0222
0.0660
0.0900
0.0069
0.0429
0.0180
0.0493
0.0132
0.2360
0.0160

pu
0.0300
0.0600
0.0500
0.0180
0.0390
0.0250
0.0000
0.0005
0.0001
0.0150
0.0990
0.0010
0.0001
0.0012
0.0450
0.0226
0.0001
0.0250
0.0200
0.0010
0.0100
0.0000
0.0010

Bus Bus
No. No.
22
10
11
25
11
26
14
12
12
15
13
14
13
15
13
16
14
15
15
16
17
16
16
20
17
18
17
21
19
23
19
24
25
19
21
20
20
22
24
21
22
23
22
24
25
23

R,
pu
0.0069
0.0960
0.0165
0.0327
0.0180
0.0046
0.0116
0.0179
0.0069
0.0209
0.0990
0.0239
0.0032
0.2290
0.0300
0.0300
0.1190
0.0657
0.0150
0.0476
0.0290
0.0310
0.0987

X,

!B,

pu
0.0298
0.2700
0.0970
0.0802
0.0598
0.0271
0.0610
0.0888
0.0382
0.0512
0.0600
0.0585
0.0600
0.4450
0.1310
0.1250
0.2249
0.1570
0.0366
0.1510
0.0990
0.0880
0.1168

pu
0.005
0.010
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.038
0.000
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

256

6. POWER FLOW ANALYSIS

Slack

-'-t-

26-L..-t-+--+--.--.- 13
18

.,.--+--+---+-, 6

7 -+---1-

9 -'--.-

12 -+-""'---14

11

23

-+--+-- 24

20
21 -+--.--.-

FIGURE 6.26
One-line diagram for Problem 6.14.

-+----r-r-16

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

681

(c) 653.33 kV, 1748.78L-43.556 A, 1920 MW +j479.33 Mvar, 33.88%

(d) 735.13 kV, 1604.07 L28.98 A, 2042.44 MW +j1.32 Mvar, 14.358%
5.9.

874.68 kV, (b) 772.13 n, 699.658 Mvar

5.10. 3441.47L-90 A, 3009.92L-90 A

5.11. 802.95 Mvar, 3.943 J.tF, 1209.46L24.653 A, 1600 MW -j90.38 Mvar, 19%
5.12. 822.677 kV, 1164.59L-3.625 A, 1600 MW +j440.16 Mvar, 21.035%
5.13. 81.464 Mvar, 51.65 J.tF, 563.25 Mvar, 2.765 J.tF, 765 kV, 1209.72L16.1 A,
1600 MW - j96.32 Mvar, 12.55%
5.14. Use lineperfto obtain the transmission line performance. Present a summary
of the calculations along with your recommendations.
5.15. (a) 622.153 kV, 794.649L-1.33 A, 800 MW +j305.408 Mvar, 44.687%
(b) 0.96, j39.2, jO.002
(c) 530.759 kV, 891.142L-5.65 A, 800 MW +j176.448 Mvar, 10.575%
5.16. (a) 0.002 Radlkm, 500 n, (b) 1000 n, 176.4 Mvar
5.17. 400 kV

Chapter 6

bus

0.0 - j20.25 0.0 + j4.00 0.0 + jlO.00 0.0 + j2.50 ]

0.0 + j4.00 0.0 - j15.00 0.0+ jO.OO 0.0 + j6.25
0.0
+ j10.00 0.0 + jO.O
1.0 - j15.00 0.0 + j5.00
[
0.0 + j2.50 0.0 + j6.25 0.0 + j5.00 2.0 - j14.00

6.2. Vbus

1.0293L 1.46
]
1.0217 LO.99
[
1.0001 L-0.015

6.1.

}Ii

6.3.

(a)

6.4.

(a) 1, (b) 1,4,7,9

6.5.

Xl

X(1)

= 5.0000

= [ 4.3929
4.9286

6.6. (a)

vJ1) =

X2

= 1.0000,

X(2)

Xl

= 2.0006

= [ 4.0222
4.9964

vJ2)

X2

= 3.9994

X(3)

= [ 4.0001

0.9200 - jO.1000
= 0.9024 - jO.0981
4
) = 0.9001 - jO.1000
V?) = 0.9005 - jO.1000
(b) 812 = 300 MW + j100 Mvar
821 = -280 MW - j60 Mvar
8L = 20 MW + j40 Mvar

vi

5.0000

682

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

6.7.

(a) VP)

= 0.9360 -

jO.0800 VP) = 0.9602 - jO.0460

VP) = 0.9089 - jO.0974 VP) = 0.9522 - jO.0493
(b) 8 12 = 300 MW + j300 Mvar
8 21 = -300 MW - j240 Mvar
8L12 = 0 MW + j60 Mvar
8 13 = 400 MW + j400 Mvar
8 31 = -400 MW - j360 Mvar
8L13 = 0 MW + j40 Mvar
8 23 = -100 MW - j80 Mvar
8 32 = 100 MW + j90 Mvar .
8L23 = 0 MW + jlO Mvar
8 1 = 700 MW + j700 Mvar

6.8.

(a) VP)

= 1.0025 - jO.0500 Q~l) = 1.2360

= 1.0299 + jO.0152
= 1.0001 - jO.0409 Q~2) = 1.3671
= 1.0298 + jO.0216

VP)
VP)
VP)
(b) 8 12
8 21
8L 1 2

= 150.428 MW + j100.159 Mvar

= -150.428 MW - j92.387 Mvar
=0

MW

+ j7.772

Mvar

= -50.428 MW - j9.648 Mvar

= 50.428 MW + jlO.902 Mvar
8L13 = 0 MW + j1.255 Mvar
8 23 = -249.572 MW - j107.613 Mvar
8 32 = 249.572 MW + j126.034 Mvar
8L23 = 0 MW + j18.421 Mvar
8 1 = 100 MW + j90.51 Mvar

8 13
8 31

-j125
6.9.

Ybus

j100

0
-j6.25
0
j5

j100
0 ]
0
j5
-j89
j9
j9
-j13

6.10.

IV?) I = 0.9100 <5~1) = -0.1300

IVP) I = 0.8886 <5~2) = -0.1464

rad
rad

6.11.

IV?) I = 0.8000 <5~1) = -0.1000

IVP)I = 0.7227 <5~2) = -0.1350

rad
rad

6.12. The bus admittance matrix in polar form is

60L-~ 40L~
20L~ ]
Ybus =
40L~
60L-~ 20L~
[
20L~

20L~

40L-~