IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 13, No.

4, October 1998

1475

ult Location Using Wavelets

Fernando H. Magnago and Ali Abur

Department of Electrical Engineering

Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843, U.S.A.
Abstract - This paper describes the use of wavelet transform for
analyzing power system fault transients in order to determine the
fault location. Traveling wave theory is utilized in capturing the
travel time of the transients along the monitored lines between the
fault point and the relay. Time resolution for the high frequency
components of the fault transients, is provided by the wavelet
transform. This information is related to the travel time of the
signals which are already decomposed into their modal components. Aerial mode is used for all fault types, whereas the ground
mode is used to resolve problems associated with certain special
cases. Wavelet transform is found to be an excellent discriminant
for identifying the traveling wave reflections from the fault irrespective of the fault type and impedance. EMTP simulations are
used to test and validate the proposed fault location approach for
typical power system faults.
Keywords: Power System Faults, Electromagnetic Transients,
Wavelet Transform, Fault Location, Traveling Waves.

1 Introduction
Transmission line fault location has long been one of the primary
concerns of the power industry. Methods of locating power system faults introduced so far, can be broadly classified under two
categories: one based on the power frequency components, and
the other utilizing the higher frequency contents of the transient
fault signals. The latter is also referred to as traveling wave or
ultra high speed fault location method, due to its use of traveling
wave theory and shorter sampling windows.
The use of traveling wave theory for fault detection was
initially proposed by Dommel and Michels in [I], where a discriminant was defined based on the transient voltage and current
waveforms in order to detect a transmission line fault. McLaren
et al. have later developed a correlation based technique where
the cross correlation between stored sections of the forward and
backward traveling waves were used to estimate the travel times
of transient signals from the relays to the fault point [2,3,4]. An
overview of traveling wave based fault location methods can be
found in [ 5 , 6 ] .
PE-303-PWRD-0-12-1997 A paper recommended and approved by
the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power
Engineering Society for publication in the IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery. Manuscript submitted July 28, 1997; made available for
printing December 12, 1997.

Among the limitations of the traveling wave methods, the

requirement of high sampling rate is frequently stated. Other
stated problems include the uncertainty in the choice of sampling
window and problems of distinguishing between traveling waves
reflected from the fault and from the remote end of the line.
Recent developments in optical current transducers technology
enabled high sampling rate recording of transient signals during
faults [7]. Availability of such broad bandwidth sampling capability facilitates better and more efficient use of traveling wave
based methods for fault analysis.
The correlation based fault location method introduced in
[ 2 ] , is very effective as long as the width of the time window
to save the forward moving wave is properly selected. Since
this selection depends on the fault location which is unknown,
the window width selection remains an unresolved issue for the
practical implementation of this method. Combined use of a
short and a long window has been proposed as one solution for
this problem in [4].
In this paper, a different approach, based on the wavelet
transform of the fault transients, is presented. Wavelet transform
possesses some unique features that make it very suitable for this
particular application. It maps a given function from the time domain into time-scaling domain. The wavelet, the basis function
used in the wavelet transform, has bandpass characteristics which
makes this mapping similar to a mapping to the time-frequency
plane. Unlike the basis functions used in Fourier analysis, the
wavelets are not only localized in frequency but also in time.
This localization allows the detection of the time of occurence
of abrupt disturbances, such as fault transients. Fault generated
traveling waves appear a:; such disturbances superposed on the
power frequency signals recorded by the relays. Processing these
signals using the wavelet transform reveals their travel times
between the fault and the relay locations.
The potential benefits of applying wavelet transform for analysis of transient signals in power systems have been recognized
in the recent years. Robertson et al. present a comparative
overview of Fourier, short time Fourier and wavelet transforms,
give examples of applying wavelet transform to analyze power
system transients and extraction of their particular features in [8].
A similar overview along with application of wavelet transform
to detect and classify power quality disturbances, are given in [9].
Advantages of using wavelet transform for analyzing transients
and solution of linear time-invariant differential equations using
wavelet transform is demonstrated in [ 101. In this paper, another
useful application of the wavelet transform in solving the prob-

lem of fault location, will be presented. A brief introduction to

wavelet transform will be given before formulating the problem
and presenting the proposed solution method.
0885-8977/98/$10.00 0 1997 IEEE

1476

Wavelet transform has been introduced rather recently in mathematics, even though the essential ideas that lead to this development have been around for a longer period C P time.
~
It is a
linear transformation much like the Fourier transform, however with one important difference: it allows time localization of
different frequency components of a given signal. Windowed
Fourier transform also partially achieves this same goal, but with
a limitation of using a fixed width windowing function. As a
result, both frequency and time resolution of the resulting transform will be apriori fixed. In the case of the wavelet transform,
the analyzing functions, which are called wavelets, will adjust
their time-widths to their frequency in such a way that, higher
frequency wavelets will be very narrow and lower frequency
ones will be broader. This property of multi resolution is particularly useful for analyzing fault transients which contain localized high frequency components superposed on power frequency
signals. Thus, wavelet transform is better suited for analysis of
signals containing short lived high frequency disturbances superposed on lower frequency continuous waveforms by virtue of this
zoom-in capability.
Given a function f ( t ) , its continuous wavelet transform
(WT) will be calculated as follows:

where, a and b are the scaling (dilation) and translation (time

shift) constants respectively, andQ,I is the wavelet function which
may not be real as assumed in the above equation for simplicity.
The choice of the wavelet function (mother wavelet) is flexible
provided that it satisfies the so called admissibility conditions
P11.
Wavelet transform of sampled waveforms can be obtained by
implementing the discrete wavelet transform which is given by:

where, the parameters a and b in Eq.( 1) are replaced by a; and

ka?, k and m being integer variables. In a standard discrete
wavelet transform, the coefficients are sampled from the continuous WT on a dyadic grid, a0 = 2 and bo = 1, yielding a: = 1,
U;'
= etc. b = k x 2-',i being an integer variable.
Actual implementation of the discrete wavelet transform, involves successive pairs of high-pass and low-pass filters at each
scaling stage of the wavelet transform. This can be thought of
as successive approximations of the same function, each approximation providing the incremental information related to a particular scale (frequency range), the first scale covering a broad
frequency range at the high frequency end of the spectrum and the
higher scales covering the lower end of the frequency spectrum
however with progressively shorter bandwidths. Conversely, the
first scale will have the highest time resolution, higher scales will
cover increasingly longer time intervals. While, in principle any
admissible wavelet can be used in the wavelet analysis, we have
chosen to use the Daubechies4 [9],[12] wavelet as the mother
wavelet in all the transformations.

i,

lem
Consider a single phase lossless transmission line of length
connected between buses A and B, with a characteristic
impedance 2, and traveling wave velocity of U . If a fault occurs

e,

at a distance x from bus A, this will appear as an abrupt injection

at the fault point. This injection will travei like a surge along the
line in both directions and will continue to bounce back and forth
between the fault point, and the two terminal buses until the post
fault steady state is reached. Hence, the recorded fault transients
at the terminals of the line will contain abrupt changes at intervals
commensurate with the travel times of signals between the fault
to the terminals. Using the knowledge of the velocity oftraveling
waves along the given line, the distance to the fault point can
be deduced easily. This is the essential idea behind traveling
wave methods. Unlike the correlation based methods where the
forward and backward traveling wave components are computed
and used for the cross correlation, in the wavelet based approach,
the composite signal (voltage or current) at the relay location is
directly analyzed.
In three phase transmission lines, the traveling waves are
mutually coupled and therefore a single traveling wave velocity
does not exist. In order to implement the traveling wave method
in three phase systems, the phase domain signals are first decomposed into their modal components by means of the modal transformation matrices. In this study, all transmission line models
are assumed to be fully transposed, and therefore the well known
Clarke's constant and real transformation matrix given by:

is used. The phase signals are transformed into their modal components by using this transformation matrix as follows:
Sinode

= TSphase

(4)

where, Smo& and Spha.ve are themodal and phase signals (voltages
or currents) vectors respectively.
Clarke's transformation is real and can be used with any
transposed line. If the studied line is untransposed, then an eigenvector based transformation matrix, which is frequency dependent, will have to be used. This matrix should be computed at
a frequency equal or close to the frequency of the initial fault
transients.
Recorded phase signals are first transformed into their modal
components. The first mode (mode l), is usually referred to as the
ground mode, and its magnitude is significant only during faults
having a path to ground. Hence, this component can not be used
for all types of faults. The second mode (mode 2), also known as
the aerial mode, however is present for any kind of fault. Accordingly, the fault location problem is formulated based essentially
on the aerial mode, making occasional use of the ground mode
signal for purposes of distinguishing between certain peculiar situations, which will be discussed in the next section. Depending
on the existing communication scheme between the two ends of
the line, fault location problem can be solved in two different
ways described below.

Two ended sync ronized recording

Fault signals are recorded simultaneously at both ends of the
line by two separate channels both of which are using the same
time reference synchronized using Global Positioning Satellite
(GPS) receivers. The recorded waveforms will be transformed
into modal signals, after which the modal signals will be analyzed
using their wavelet transforms. Let t~ and t g correspond to the
times at which the modal signal wavelet coefficients in scale 1,
show their initial peaks for the signals recorded at bus A and
B respectively. Assuming that the recorded signals at the two
ends of the line are fully synchronized, the delay between the
fault detection times at the two ends, i.e. t d = t g - t A , can be

1477

determined [13]. The distance between the fault point to bus A

will then be given by:
X =

e - v,

td

where,

e is the length of the line, x is the distance to fault from bus A,

Insignificant coefficients will imply that the fault is in the remote

half of the line, and vice versa.
If the fault is determined to be in the near half ofthe line, then
td in Eq.(6) will simply be the time interval between the first two
peaks of the scale 1 WTCs for the aerial mode.
If the fault is suspected to be in the second half of the line,
then td in Eq.(6) will be replaced by:
td

and U, is the speed of the traveling waves for mode m.

3.2 Single ended recording

A more robust configuration that does not require remote end
synchronization is when the fault location is determined based
solely on the recorded signals at one end of the line. However, in
such a case, due to the lack of any other time reference, all time
measurements will be with respect to the instant when the fault
is first detected. Therefore, fault location calculations will be
based on the reflection times of the traveling waves from the fault
point. Unfortunately, for faults involving a ground connection,
not only those reflections from the fault point, but also from the
remote end bus will be observed at the sending end of the line.
Proper algorithms should therefore be devised in order to distinguish between close-in and remote faults which may produce
similar reflection patterns for the grounded faults. The following
sections describe our proposed approach to accomplish this task.
3.2.1

Approach I: Ungrounded faults

It has long been observed that ungrounded faults such as line-toline or ungrounded three-phase, do not cause significant reflections from the remote end bus during the fault transients. Thus,
by measuring the time delay between the two consecutive peaks
in the wavelet transform coefficients of the recorded fault signal
at scale 1, and taking the product of the wave velocity and half of
this time delay, the distance to the fault can easily be calculated
for these kinds of faults. The fault distance will be given by the
equation:

= 2t - tx

(7)

where:
t is the travel time for the entire line length, and e, is the time
interval between the first two peaks of aerial mode WTCs in
scale 1.
Figure 1 shows the flowchart for the proposed fault location
algorithm based on the wavelet transform coefficients. Next
section contains results of simulations used to test this proposed
algorithm for various fault types and line configurations.
Transducer
output

Transformation

Wavelet

L-r
Transformation

YE

Ungrounded Fault

where,
x is the distance to the fault, v is the wave velocity (for the mode
used), and td is the time difference between two consecutive
peaks of the wavelet transform coefficients.
3.2.2

Approach 11: Grounded faults

When the fault involves a connection to ground, then sending end

signals may contain significant reflections from the remote end
bus in addition to the ones from the fault point. Also, depending
on the location of the fault, the reflections from the remote end
may arrive before or after those reflected from the fault point.
It can be easily verified by using the Lattice diagram method,
that the remote end reflections will arrive later than the fault
reflections if the fault occurs within half the length of the line,
close to the relay location. The opposite will be true if the fault
is situated in the second half of the line. It is observed that, in
the former case the ground mode wavelet transform coefficient
(WTC) for scale 1, shows significant peaks, while the latter case
ground mode WTC for scale 1 remains insignificant below the
chosen detection threshold.
Therefore, first a decision is made on whether or not the

fault is grounded, based on scale 2 WTCs of the ground mode

signals. If these coefficients are found significant, then the fault
will be assumed to be a ground fault. Next decision will be made
on which half of the line the fault is actually located. This is
done by observing scale 1 WTCs of the ground mode signals.

calculate the fault loc.

as in Section 3.2.1

I
I

r
Grounded Faull
Remote half of the line.
Based on Scale 1 Mode 2
calculate td as in Eq. (7)
then calculate the fault

Grounded Fault
Near half of the line.
Based OD Scale 1 Mode 2
calculate the fault loc.
as in Section 3.2.1
I

Figure 1: Flowchart of the proposed fault location algorithm

4 Simulation results
The ATFEMTP program [ 141 is used to calculate the transient
signals in the power system. Figure 2 shows the system configuration used in the simulations. The frequency dependent model
is used to model the line [ 151. The relays are located at hushar A
and B for the double ended configuration and at busbar A for the
single ended configuration.
For this tower configuration, mode 2 (aerial mode) has a
propagation velocity of 1.8 182 x lo5 miles/sec. A sampling time
of l o p s is used. The system is simulated using double and single

1478
1 = 200 miles
345 KV

Scale 1, mode 2 (aerial mode)

1-x

345 Kv

D-c------h

I
(

:t

2t

II

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of the simulated system

ended configurations under various kind of faults. Different type

of balanced and unbalanced faults at different locations along
the line and at different inception angles are simulated. Results
of single phase to ground, phase to phase and three phase to
ground faults for an inception angle of 108 degrees are reported
to illustrate the method. The modal signals are decomposed using
the Daubechies4 wavelet where number 4 represents the number
ofwavelet coefficients. Only the first two scales, scale 1 and scale
2 of the WTC are used in the proposed fault location method.
In order to minimize the noise effect, we squared the wavelet
coefficients at each scale as also done in [9].
A lattice diagram illustrating the reflection and refraction of
traveling waves initiated by the fault transients, is shown in Figure 3. On the left side of the figure, a line connecting buses A and
B is drawn vertically. The line is 200 miles long. A single phase
to ground fault is assumed to occur at point F,120 miles from bus
A. The horizontal axis starting from point F,represents the time.
A set of arrows are shown below the lattice diagram, indicating
the arrival times of various waves reflected from the fault as well
as bus B. Mode 2 (aerial mode) is considered only. The travel
times from the fault to bus A, and from the fault to bus B are
designated by TI and T2 respectively. Given the traveling wave
velocity v 2 for mode 2, TI and T2 will be given by 120 mi I v 2 and
80 mi 1 U:! respectively.
Figure 4 shows the WTC at scale 1 calculated for the example
of Figure 3. Comparing the WTC peak times with the arrival
times of waveform reflections at bus A, it can be observed that
there is a one to one correlation between them. Simulation results
for both the two ended and single ended fault location approaches
will now be given.
T2

3T2

20

20 5

21

.**

T1

225

23

5(a) and (b) show the WTC for scale 1, of the voltage transients
recorded at bus A and B respectively.
In this example, the first WTC peak at bus A occurs at tA =
20.15 ms, and at bus B at t B = 21 ms, yielding f d = 0.85 ms and
using Eq.(5):
200- 1.81 x io5 x 0.85 x 1 0 - ~
= 22.99 miles.
2

x=

Bus A: Scale 1, mode 2

21

0
7-

B u s B: Scale 1, mode 2

2Tl+T2 5T2
3

I I

22

Figure 4: Single phase to ground fault at 120 miles from A. Peaks

correspond to the predicted ones in Fig. 3.

21 5

time (ms)

. .

T1+2TZ

time (ms)
3T1

T1+4T2

Figure 5: Three phase fault at 20 miles from A.

*
I
l
j
Figure 3: Lattice diagram for a single phase to ground fault at 120
miles from A.

The arrival time of the first transient peak depends on the

velocity of the line and the fault distance, it is independent of
the type of fault, hence the method applies to all type of faults
provided the two terminal recordings are synchronized in time.

4.2 Single ended recording

4.

ronized recording

Assuming synchronized recording of fault transients at both ends

of the line, a three phase fault is simulated at 20 miles away from
bus A. Mode 2 (aerial mode) voltage signals are used only. Figure

4.2-1 Ungrounded faults:

Figure 6 shows the WTCs for an example of a phase to phase
fault at 30 miles from A. It can be seen from the figure that mode
1 (ground mode) signals are zero, therefore mode 1 WTCs can
be used to identify this as an ungrounded fault.

1479

In this case, td will be directly obtained by measuring the time

difference between the first two peaks in Figure 6(a) and using
Eq.(6) of Approach I described in section 3.2.1.

c)Scale 1, mode 1

a)Scale 1, mode 2
1.5r

c)Scale 1, mode 1

a)Scale 1, mode 2

21

22

23

time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1
5
Q)

A4

30

21

22

time (ms)
b)Scale 2, mode 2
2,

23

time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1
I

x 3

cu

< 2

z1
0

20

21

time (ms)

22

23

time (ms)

Figure 7: Phase to ground fault at 30 miles from A.

20

21

22

23

time (ms)

time (ms)

Figure 6: Phase to phase fault at 30 miles from A.

on the td measurement of Eq.(7) per the flowchart of Figure 1.

Calculations for the fault location are as follows:
td

4.2.2

= 2 x 5.5 x

Grounded faults:

In the case of ground faults, it is observed that WTC contains

the signatures of not only the reflections from the fault point, but
also those from the remote end bus. The former and the latter
reflections can not be distinguished and identified only based on
the aerial mode WTCs. In this case, a fault at distance x and a
fault at distance I - x will yield similar WTCs for the aerial mode
signals. However, the true fault location can be determined based
on the information provided by the ground mode WTCs. This
can be illustrated by the following example.
Consider a single phase to ground fault at 30 miles from bus
A. The WTCs obtained for this case are shown in Figure 7. The
same type of fault occuring at 170 miles from bus A yields the
WTCs shown in Figure 8. In these figures, subplots (a) and (b)
show the aerial mode WTCs at scales 1 and 2, while (c) and (d)
are the ground mode WTCs at scales 1 and 2, respectively.
Following the steps of the fault location algorithm given in
Figure 1, the following results will be obtained:
Case 1: Fault at 30 miles from bus A.

Figure 7(c) shows that mode 1 (ground mode) scale 1 WTCs

are not zero. Hence, according to the flowchart in Figure 1 , fault
distance should be calculated using Eq.(6) where td is simply
the difference between the first two peaks in Figure 7(c). The
calculated fault distance for this example is:
X =

1.8182 x lo5 x 0.32 x

2

= 29.09 miles.

Case 2: Fault at 170 miles from bus A.

In this case mode 1 scale 1 WTCs are zero as shown in
Figure 8(c). Figure 8(d) however shows that scale 2 WTCs for
the same mode are not zero, indicating that the fault is a ground
fault but it occured at a point closer to the remote end than the
sending end. Hence, the fault distance will be calculated based

1.9 x
X =

x 200 - 0.32 x 1 0 - ~= 0.0019 ms.

x 1.8182 x lo5

= 172.72 miles.

4.3 Mutually coupled lines

Mutual coupling between lines mostly affect the ground mode
signals, the effect on the aerial mode is not significant. In order
to investigate the effect of mutual coupling on the fault location
calculation, the test system shown in Figure 9 is considered.
It is noted that, since the ground mode WTCs are used only to discriminate between different types of faults (ungrounded, grounded near-end, grounded far-end) and not to obtain any
time measurements, their strong mutual coupling to the parallel
lines will not hinder the fault location calculations. Aerial mode
WTCs are not significantly affected by the presence of mutually
coupled lines, therefore the distance calculation based on the
proposed algorithm of Figure 1 remains valid for these cases.
Simulation results support this claim. Comparing the aerial mode
WTCs obtained for the mutually coupled lines and those where
mutual coupling is ignored, it is seen that they remain rather
insensitive to the existence of mutual coupling between lines.

4.4 Series capacitor compensated lines

Series compensation capacitors are known to affect the fault location methods that are based on effective impedance seen from the
sending end of the line. The proposed method, which is based on
wavelet transform coefficients at low scales (scales 1and 2), will
reman unaffected by the presence of series capacitors since the
impedance modification at high frequencies (low scales) due to
the series capacitor will be negligible. Simulation results confirm
this observation. The wavelet transform coefficients obtained for
compensated and uncompensated line faults look almost identical for all the simulated test cases.

1480
c)Scale 1, mode 1

d)Scale 1, mode 2
101

[2] S. Wajendra and P.G. McLaren, Traveling-Wave Techniques Applied to the protection of Teed Circuits: Principle of Traveling Wave Techniques, IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-104, no. 12,
pp.3544-3550, Dec. 1985.

1,

time (ms)
b)Scale 2. mode 2

[3] S. Rajendra, and P. G. McLaren, Traveling Wave Techniques Applied to the Protection of Teed Circuits: - Multi Phase I Multi Circuit System, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS- 104, no. 12, pp.355 13557, Dec, 1985.

time (ms)
d)Scale 2, mode 1

151

4,

? I

aJ

[4] E. H. Shehab-Eldin, and P. G. McLaren, Traveling Wave

Distance Protection - Problem Areas and Solutions, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 894-902,
July 1988.

[5] Microprocessor Relays and Protection Systems, IEEE

Tutorial Course, 88EH0269-1-PWR.

Figure 8: Phase to ground fault at 170 miles from A.

345 KV

[7] J. Blake, P. Tantaswadi, and R.T. de Carvalho, In-Line

Sagnac Interferometer Current Sensor, IEEE Trans. on
PowerDelivery, Vol.11, No.1, January 1996, pp.116-121.

345 Kv

345 KV

345 Kv

I
c

100 miles

161 G.B. Ancell, and N.C. Pahalawaththa, Effects of Frequency Dependence and Line Parameters on Single Ended Traveling Wave Based Fault Location Schemes, ZEE
Proceedings-C, Vo1.139, No.4, July 1992, pp.332-342.

100 miles

Figure 9: Circuit diagram of the simulated system with mutually

coupled lines.

5
This paper presents a new, wavelet transform based fault location method. Using the traveling wave theory of transmission
lines, the transient signals are first decoupled into their modal
components. Modal signals are then transformed from the time
domain into the time-frequency domain by applying the wavelet
transform. The wavelet transform coefficients at the two lowest
scales are then used to determine the fault location for various
types of faults and line configurations. The proposed fault location method is independent of the fault impedance and is shown
to be suitable for mutually coupled tower geometries as well as
series capacitor compensated lines. The method can be used both
with single ended and synchronized two ended recording of fault
transients. The fault location estimation error is related to the
sampling time used in recording the fault transient. Furthermore,
for grounded faults near the middle of the line, mode 1 signals
from the fault and from the far end become comparable increasing the error of the fault location algorithm. Simulation results
are given to demonstrate the performance of the method.

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[9] S. Santoso, E. Powers, W. Grady, and P. Hoffmann, Power Quality Assessment via Wavelet Transform Analysis,
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[12] MATLAB Users Guide, The Math Works Inc., Natick,
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[ 151 J. R. Marti, Accurate Modeling of Frequency Dependent

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Fernando N. Magnago obtained the B.S. degree from UNRC,
Argentinain 1990 and his M.S. degree from Texas A&M University, College Station, TX in 1997. He is currently a Ph.D. student
at Texas A&M University.
Ali Abur (SM90) received the B.S. degree from M E W , Turkey
in 1979, the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, in 1981 and 1985 respectively. Since
late 1985, he has been with the Dept. of Elect. Eng. at Texas
A&M University, College Station, TX, where he is currently an
Associate Professor.