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Chapter

MODES OF AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS

OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand the Two position controller.
Define the Proportional control systems.
Define the Reset (Integral)control systems.
Understand the Proportional plus Reset control
systems.
Know the Proportional plus Rate control systems.
Understand the Proportional Integral Derivative
control systems.

1. CONTROLLER
A controller is a device that generates an output signal
based on the input signal it receives. The input signal is
actually an error signal, which is the difference between the
measured variable and the desired value, or set-point.

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This input error signal represents the amount of deviation

between where the process system is actually operating and
where the process system is desired to be operating. The
controller provides an output signal to the final control
element, which adjusts the process system to reduce this
deviation.
The characteristic of this output signal is dependent on the
type, or mode, of the controller. This section describes the
simplest type of controller, which is the two position, or
ONOFF, mode controller.

Figure 1. Process Control System Operation

2. TWO POSITION CONTROLLER

A two position controller is a device that has two operating
conditions: completely on or completely off.

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Figure 2 shows the input to output, characteristic waveform

for a two position controller that switches from its "OFF"
state to its "ON" state when the measured variable
increases above the set-point. Conversely, it switches from
its "ON" state to its "OFF" state when the measured variable
decreases below the set-point. This device provides an
output determined by whether the error signal is above or
below the set-point. The magnitude of the error signal is
above or below the set-point. The magnitude of the error
signal past that point is of no concern to the controller.

Figure 2. Two Position Controller Input/Output

Relationship
Example of Two Position Control
A system using a two position controller is shown in Figure
3.

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Figure 3. Two Position Control System

The controlled process is the volume of water in the tank.
The controlled variable is the level in the tank. It is
measured by a level detector that sends information to the
controller. The output of the controller is sent to the final
control element, which is a solenoid valve, that controls the
flow of water into the tank.
As the water level decreases initially, a point is reached
where the measured variable drops below the set-point. This
creates a positive error signal. The controller opens the final
control element fully. Water is subsequently injected into the
tank, and the water level rises. As soon as the water level
rises above the set-point, a negative error signal is
developed. The negative error signal causes the controller
to shut the final control element. This opening and closing of
the final control element results in a cycling characteristic
of the measured variable.

3. MODES OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL

The mode of control is the manner in which a control system
makes corrections relative to an error that exists between
the desired value (set-point) of a controlled variable and its
actual value.
The mode of control used for a specific application depends
on the characteristics of the process being controlled. For

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example, some processes can be operated over a wide band,

while others must be maintained very close to the set-point.
Also, some processes change relatively slowly, while others
change almost immediately.
Deviation is the difference between the set-point of a
process variable and its actual value. This is a key term used
when discussing various modes of control.
Four modes of control commonly used for most applications
are:
proportional
proportional plus reset (PI)
proportional plus rate (PD)
proportional plus reset plus rate (PID)
Each mode of control has characteristic advantages and
limitations. The modes of control are discussed in this and
the next several sections of this module.
In the proportional (throttling) mode, there is a continuous
linear relation between value of the controlled variable and
position of the final control element. In other words, amount
of valve movement is proportional to amount of deviation.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between valve position and
controlled variable (temperature) characteristics of
proportional mode. Notice that valve position changes in
exact proportion to deviation. Also, the proportional mode
responds only to amount of deviation and is insensitive to
rate or duration of deviation. At the 2 minute and 4 minute
marks, when the temperature returns to its set-point value,
the valve returns to its initial position. There is no valve
correction without deviation.

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Figure 4. Relation Between Valve Position and

Controlled Variable Under Proportional Mode
Three terms commonly used to describe the proportional
mode of control are proportional band ,gain, and offset.
Proportional band, (also called throttling range), is the
change in value of the controlled variable that causes full
travel of the final control element. Figure 14 shows the
relationship between valve position and temperature band
for two different proportional bands.
The proportional band of a particular instrument is
expressed as a percent of full range. For example, if full
range of an instrument is 200oF and it takes a 50oF change
in temperature to cause full valve travel, the percent
proportional band is 50oF in 200oF, or 25%. Proportional
bands may range from less than 1% to well over 200%.
However, proportional bands over 100% cannot cause full
valve travel even for full range change of the controlled
variable.
Gain, also called sensitivity, compares the ratio of amount of
change in the final control element to amount of change in

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the controlled variable. Mathematically, gain and sensitivity

are reciprocal to proportional band.
Offset, also called droop, is deviation that remains after a
process has stabilized. Offset is an inherent characteristic of
the proportional mode of control. In other words, the
proportional mode of control will not necessarily return a
controlled variable to its set-point.

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4. PROPORTIONAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

In the proportional control mode, the final control element is
throttled to various positions that are dependent on the
process system conditions. For example, a proportional
controller provides a linear step-less output that can
position a valve at intermediate positions, as well as "full
open" or "full shut." The controller operates within a band
that is between the 0% output point and the 100% output
point and where the output of the controller is proportional
to the input signal.
Proportional Band
With proportional control, the final control element has a
definite position for each value of the measured variable. In
other words, the output has a linear relationship with the
input.
Proportional band is the change in input required to
produce a full range of change in the output due to the
proportional control action. Or simply, it is the percent
change of the input signal required to change the output
signal from 0% to 100%.
The proportional band determines the range of output
values from the controller that operate the final control
element. The final control element acts on the manipulated
variable to determine the value of the controlled variable.
The controlled variable is maintained within a specified
band of control points around a set point.
To demonstrate, lets look at Figure 5.
In this example of a proportional level control system, the
flow of supply water into the tank is controlled to maintain
the tank water level within prescribed limits. The demand
that disturbances placed on the process system are such
that the actual flow rates cannot be predicted. Therefore,
the system is designed to control tank level within a narrow
band in order to minimize the chance of a large demand

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disturbance causing overflow or run out. A fulcrum and

lever assembly is used as the proportional controller.

Figure 5. Proportional System Controller

A float chamber is the level measuring element, and a 4-in
stroke valve is the final control element. The fulcrum point
is set such that a level change of 4-in causes a full 4-in
stroke of the valve. Therefore, a 100% change in the
controller output equals 4-in.
The proportional band is the input band over which the
controller provides a proportional output and is defined as
follows:

For this example, the fulcrum point is such that a full 4-in
change in float height causes a full 4-in stroke of the valve.

Therefore:

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P.B. = 100%
The controller has a proportional band of 100%, which
means the input must change 100% to cause a 100% change
in the output of the controller.
If the fulcrum setting was changed so that a level change of
2 in, or 50% of the input, causes the full 3-in stroke, or
100% of the output, the proportional band would become
50%. The proportional band of a proportional controller is
important because it determines the range of outputs for
given inputs.
Example of a Proportional Process Control System
Figure 6 illustrates a process system using a proportional
temperature controller for providing hot water.

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Figure 6. Proportional Temperature Control System

Steam is admitted to the heat exchanger to raise the
temperature of the cold water supply. The temperature
detector monitors the hot water outlet and produces a 3 to
15 psi output signal that represents a controlled variable
range of 100o to 300oF. The controller compares the
measured variable signal with the set-point and sends a 3 to
15 psi output to the final control element, which is a 3-in
control valve.
The controller has been set for a proportional band of 50%.
Therefore, a 50% change in the 200oF span, or a change of
100oF, causes a 100% controller output change.
The proportional controller is reverse-acting so that the
control valve throttles down to reduce steam flow as the hot
water outlet temperature increases; the control valve will
open further to increase steam flow as the water
temperature decreases.
The combined action of the controller and control valve for
different changes in the measured variable is shown in
Figure 7.

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Figure 7. Combined Controller and Final Control

Element Action
Initially, the measured variable value is equal to 100 oF. The
controller has been set so that this value of measured
variable corresponds to a 100% output, or 15 psi, which in
turn, corresponds to a "full open" control valve position.
At time t1, the measured variable increases by 100 oF, or
50%, of the measured variable span.
This 50% controller input change causes a 100% controller
output change due to the controllers proportional band of
50%. The direction of the controller output change is
decreasing because the controller is reverse-acting. The
100% decrease corresponds to a decrease in output for 15
psi to 3 psi, which causes the control valve to go from fully
open to fully shut.
At time t2, the measured variable decreases by 50oF, or 25%,
of the measured variable span. The 25% controller input
decrease causes a 50% controller output increase. This
results in a controller output increase from 3 psi to 9 psi,
and the control valve goes from fully shut to 50% open.
The purpose of this system is to provide hot water at a setpoint of 150oF. The system must be capable of handling
demand disturbances that can result in the outlet
temperature increasing or decreasing from the set-point.
For that reason, the controller is set up such that the system
functions as shown in Figure 8.

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Figure 8. Controller Characteristic Curve

If the measured variable drops below the set-point, a
positive error is developed, and the control valve opens
further. If the measured variable goes above the set-point, a
negative error is developed, and the control valve throttles
down (opening is reduced). The 50% proportional band
causes full stroke of the valve between a +50oF error and a
-50oF error. When the error equals zero, the controller
provides a 50%, or 9 psi, signal to the control valve.
As the error goes above and below this point, the controller
produces an output that is proportional to the magnitude of
the error, determined by the value of the proportional band.
The control valve is then capable of being positioned to
compensate for the demand disturbances that can cause the
process to deviate from the set-point in either direction.

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5. RESET (INTEGRAL) CONTROL SYSTEMS

The output rate of change of an integral controller is
dependent on the magnitude of the input.
Integral control describes a controller in which the output
rate of change is dependent on the magnitude of the input.
Specifically, a smaller amplitude input causes a slower rate
of change of the output. This controller is called an integral
controller because it approximates the mathematical
function of integration. The integral control method is also
known as reset control.
5.1. Definition of Integral Control
A device that performs the mathematical function of
integration is called an integrator. The mathematical result
of integration is called the integral. The integrator provides
a linear output with a rate of change that is directly related
to the amplitude of the step change input and a constant
that specifies the function of integration.
For the example shown in Figure 9, the step change has an
amplitude of 10%, and the constant of the integrator causes
the output to change 0.2% per second for each 1% of the
input.
The integrator acts to transform the step change into a
gradually changing signal. As you can see, the input
amplitude is repeated in the output every 5 seconds. As long
as the input remains constant at 10%, the output will
continue to ramp up every 5 seconds until the integrator
saturates.

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Figure 9 Integral Output for a Fixed Input

Example of an Integral Flow Control System
With integral control, the final control elements position
changes at a rate determined by the amplitude of the input
error signal. Recall that:
Error = Set-point - Measured Variable
If a large difference exists between the set-point and the
measured variable, a large error results.
This causes the final control element to change position
rapidly. If, however, only a small difference exists, the small
error signal causes the final control element to change
position slowly.
Figure 10 illustrates a process using an integral controller
to maintain a constant flow rate. Also included is the
equivalent block diagram of the controller.

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Figure 10 Integral Flow Rate Controller

Initially, the system is set up on an anticipated flow demand
of 50 gpm, which corresponds to a control valve opening of
50%. With the set-point equal to 50 gpm and the actual flow
measured at 50 gpm, a zero error signal is sent to the input
of the integral controller. The controller output is initially
set for a 50%, or 9 psi, output to position the 6-in control
valve to a position of 3 in open. The output rate of change of
this integral controller is given by:
Output rate of change = Integral constant x % Error
If the measured variable decreases from its initial value of
50 gpm to a new value of 45 gpm, as seen in Figure 11, a
positive error of 5% is produced and applied to the input of
the integral controller. The controller has a constant of 0.1

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seconds-1, so the controller output rate of change is 0.5%

per second.
The positive 0.5% per second indicates that the controller
output increases from its initial point of 50% at 0.5% per
second. This causes the control valve to open further at a
rate of 0.5% per second, increasing flow.

Figure 11 Reset Controller Response

The controller acts to return the process to the set-points.
This is accomplished by the repositioning of the control
valve. As the controller causes the control valve to
reposition, the measured variable moves closer to the setpoint, and a new error signal is produced. The cycle repeats
itself until no error exists.
The integral controller responds to both the amplitude and
the time duration of the error signal. Some error signals

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that are large or exist for a long period of time can cause
the final control element to reach its "fully open" or "fully
shut" position before the error is reduced to zero. If this
occurs, the final control element remains at the extreme
position, and the error must be reduced by other means in
the actual operation of the process system.
5.2. Properties of Integral Control
The major advantage of integral controllers is that they have
the unique ability to return the controlled variable back to
the exact set-point following a disturbance.
Disadvantages of the integral control mode are that it
responds relatively slowly to an error signal and that it can
initially allow a large deviation at the instant the error is
produced. This can lead to system instability and cyclic
operation. For this reason, the integral control mode is not
normally used alone, but is combined with another control
mode.

6. PROPORTIONAL PLUS RESET CONTROL SYSTEMS

Proportional plus reset control is a combination of the proportional and integral control
modes.

Proportional Plus Reset

This type control is actually a combination of two previously
discussed control modes, proportional and integral.
Combining the two modes results in gaining the advantages
and compensating for the disadvantages of the two
individual modes.
The main advantage of the proportional control mode is that
an immediate proportional output is produced as soon as an
error signal exists at the controller as shown in Figure 12.
The proportional controller is considered a fast-acting
device. This immediate output change enables the
proportional controller to reposition the final control
element within a relatively short period of time in response
to the error.

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Figure 12. Response of Proportional Plus Reset

Control
The main disadvantage of the proportional control mode is
that a residual offset error exists between the measured
variable and the set-point for all but one set of system
conditions.
The main advantage of the integral control mode is that the
controller output continues to reposition the final control
element until the error is reduced to zero. This results in the

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elimination of the residual offset error allowed by the

proportional mode.
The main disadvantage of the integral mode is that the
controller output does not immediately direct the final
control element to a new position in response to an error
signal. The controller output changes at a defined rate of
change, and time is needed for the final control element to
be repositioned.
The combination of the two control modes is called the
proportional plus reset (PI) control mode. It combines the
immediate output characteristics of a proportional control
mode with the zero residual offset characteristics of the
integral mode.
Example of Proportional Plus Reset Control
Lets once more refer to our heat exchanger example (see
Figure 13). This time we will apply a proportional plus reset
controller to the process system.

Figure 13. Heat Exchanger Process System

The response curves shown in Figure 14 illustrate only the
demand and the measured variable which represents the
hot water outlet temperature.

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Assume the process undergoes a demand disturbance which

reduces the flow of the hot water out of the heat exchanger.
The temperature and flow rate of the steam into the heat
exchanger remain the same. As a result, the temperature of
the hot water out will begin to rise.
The proportional action of the proportional plus reset
controller, if acting alone, would respond to the disturbance
and reposition the control valve to a position that would
return the hot water out to a new control point, as
illustrated by the response curves. Youll note that a residual
error would still exist.

Figure 14. Effects of Disturbance on Reverse Acting

Controller
By adding the reset action to the proportional action the
controller produces a larger output for the given error

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signal and causes a greater adjustment of the control valve.

This causes the process to come back to the set-point more
quickly. Additionally, the reset action acts to eliminate the
offset error after a period of time.
Reset Windup
Proportional plus reset controllers act to eliminate the offset
error found in proportional control by continuing to change
the output after the proportional action is completed and by
returning the controlled variable to the set-point.
An inherent disadvantage to proportional plus reset
controllers is the possible adverse effects caused by large
error signals. The large error can be caused by a large
demand deviation or when initially starting up the system.
This is a problem because a large sustained error signal will
eventually cause the controller to drive to its limit, and the
result is called "reset windup."
Because of reset windup, this control mode is not wellsuited for processes that are frequently shut down and
started up.

7. PROPORTIONAL PLUS RATE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Proportional plus rate control is a control mode in which a
derivative section is added to the proportional controller.
7.1. Proportional-Derivative
Proportional plus rate describes a control mode in which a
derivative section is added to a proportional controller. This
derivative section responds to the rate of change of the
error signal, not the amplitude; this derivative action
responds to the rate of change the instant it starts. This
causes the controller output to be initially larger in direct
relation with the error signal rate of change. The higher the
error signal rate of change, the sooner the final control
element is positioned to the desired value. The added
derivative action reduces initial overshoot of the measured

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variable, and therefore aids in stabilizing the process

sooner.
This control mode is called proportional plus rate (PD)
control because the derivative section responds to the rate
of change of the error signal.
7.2. Definition of Derivative Control
A device that produces a derivative signal is called a
differentiator. Figure 15 shows the input versus output
relationship of a differentiator. The differentiator provides
an output that is directly related to the rate of change of the
input and a constant that specifies the function of
differentiation. The derivative constant is expressed in units
of seconds and defines the differential controller output.
The differentiator acts to transform a changing signal to a
constant magnitude signal as shown in Figure 16. As long as
the input rate of change is constant, the magnitude of the
output is constant. A new input rate of change would give a
new output magnitude.

Figure 15 Derivative Output for a Constant Rate of

Change Input

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Figure 16 Rate Control Output

Derivative cannot be used alone as a control mode. This is
because a steady-state input produces a zero output in a
differentiator. If the differentiator were used as a controller,
the input signal it would receive is the error signal. As just
described, a steady-state error signal corresponds to any
number of necessary output signals for the positioning of
the final control element.
Therefore, derivative action is combined with proportional
action in a manner such that the proportional section output
serves as the derivative section input.
Proportional plus rate controllers take advantage of both
proportional and rate control modes.
As seen in Figure 17, proportional action provides an output
proportional to the error. If the error is not a step change,
but is slowly changing, the proportional action is slow. Rate
action, when added, provides quick response to the error.

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Figure 17 Response of Proportional Plus Rate Control

Example of Proportional Plus Rate Control
To illustrate proportional plus rate control, we will use the
same heat exchanger process that has been analyzed in
previous chapters (see Figure 18). For this example,
however, the temperature controller used is a proportional
plus rate controller.

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Figure 18 Heat Exchanger Process

As illustrated in Figure 19, the proportional only control
mode responds to the decrease in demand, but because of
the inherent characteristics of proportional control, a
residual offset error remains. Adding the derivative action
affects the response by allowing only one small overshoot
and a rapid stabilization to the new control point. Thus,
derivative action provides increased stability to the system,
but does not eliminate offset error.

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Figure 29 Effect of Disturbance on Proportional Plus

Rate Reverse Acting Controller
7.3 Applications
Proportional plus rate control is normally used with large
capacity or slow-responding processes such as temperature
control. The leading action of the controller output
compensates for the lagging characteristics of large
capacity, slow processes.
Rate action is not usually employed with fast responding
processes such as flow control or noisy processes because
derivative action responds to any rate of change in the error
signal, including the noise.
Proportional plus rate controllers are useful with processes
which are frequently started up and shut down because it is
not susceptible to reset windup.

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8. PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Proportional plus reset plus rate controllers combine
proportional control actions with integral and derivative
actions.
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
For processes that can operate with continuous cycling, the
relatively inexpensive two position controller is adequate.
For processes that cannot tolerate continuous cycling, a
proportional controller is often employed. For processes
that can tolerate neither continuous cycling nor offset error,
a proportional plus reset controller can be used. For
processes that need improved stability and can tolerate an
offset error, a proportional plus rate controller is employed.
However, there are some processes that cannot tolerate
offset error, yet need good stability. The logical solution is to
use a control mode that combines the advantages of
proportional, reset, and rate action. This chapter describes
the mode identified as proportional plus reset plus rate,
commonly called Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID).
8.1. Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate Controller
Actions
When an error is introduced to a PID controller, the
controllers response is a combination of the proportional,
integral, and derivative actions, as shown in Figure 20.
Assume the error is due to a slowly increasing measured
variable. As the error increases, the proportional action of
the PID controller produces an output that is proportional to
the error signal. The reset action of the controller produces
an output whose rate of change is determined by the
magnitude of the error. In this case, as the error continues
to increase at a steady rate, the reset output continues to
increase its rate of change. The rate action of the controller
produces an output whose magnitude is determined by the

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rate of change. When combined, these actions produce an

output as shown in Figure 20.

Figure 20. PID Control Action Responses

As you can see from the combined action curve, the output
produced responds immediately to the error with a signal
that is proportional to the magnitude of the error and that

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will continue to increase as long as the error remains

increasing.
You must remember that these response curves are drawn
assuming no corrective action is taken by the control
system. In actuality, as soon as the output of the controller
begins to reposition the final control element, the magnitude
of the error should begin to decrease. Eventually, the
controller will bring the error to zero and the controlled
variable back to the set-point.
Figure 21 demonstrates the combined controller response to
a demand disturbance. The proportional action of the
controller stabilizes the process. The reset action combined
with the proportional action causes the measured variable
to return to the set-point. The rate action combined with the
proportional action reduces the initial overshoot and cyclic
period.

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Figure 21. PID Controller Response Curves

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Summary
Two Position Controller Summary
It is a device that has two operating conditions:
completely on or completely off.
This device provides an output determined by whether
the error signal is above or below the set-point.
Deviation is the difference between the set-point of a
process variable and its actual value.
In the proportional mode, the amount of valve
movement is proportional to the amount of deviation.
Gain compares the ratio of amount of change in the
final control element to change in the controlled
variable, and offset is the deviation that remains after a
process has been stabilized.
Proportional Control Summary
In the proportional control mode, the final control
element is throttled to various positions that are
dependent on the process system conditions.
With proportional control, the output has a linear
relationship with the input.
The proportional band is the change in input required
to produce a full range of change in the output due to
the proportional control action.
The controlled variable is maintained within a specified
band of control points around a set-point.
Integral Control Summary
An integral controller provides an output rate of
change that is determined by the magnitude of the
error and the integral constant.

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M O D E S

O F

A U T O M ATI C

C O N T R O L L E R S

The controller has the unique ability to return the

process back to the exact set-point.
The integral control mode is not normally used by itself
because of its slow response to an error signal.
Proportional Plus Reset Control Summary
Proportional plus reset control eliminates any offset
error that would occur with proportional control only.
Reset windup is an inherent disadvantage of
proportional plus reset controllers that are subject to
large error signals.
Proportional Plus Rate Control Summary
Derivative action is added to a controller to make it
respond to the rate of change of the error signal.
Derivative action cannot be used as a control mode
alone.
Proportional plus rate control does not eliminate offset
error.
Proportional
stability.

plus

rate

control

increases

system

Proportional Plus Reset Plus Rate Control Summary

The PID controller combines the three individual
modes to achieve the advantages of each.
The proportional
amplitude.

action

responds

to

the

error

The integral action eliminates the offset error.

The derivative action provides additional stability to
the process.

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M O D E S

O F

A U T O M ATI C

C O N T R O L L E R S

PID controllers can be used to control most processes,

even those that are difficult to control.

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