Zumdahl Chemical Kinetics Notes

Chapter 12 - Chemical Kinetics
12.1 Reaction Rates

A. Chemical kinetics
1. Study of the speed with which reactants are converted to products
B. Reaction Rate
1. The change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit of time
A at time t 2 concentrat ion of A at time t1 [ A]
=
t 2 t1
t
a. Rates decrease with time
b. It is customary to express reaction rates as positive values
c. Instantaneous rate can be determined by finding the slope of a line
tangent to a point representing a particular time
C. Decomposition of NO2
2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)
Rate =
concentration of
Rate of consumption of NO2 = rate of production of NO = 2(rate of production of O2)
[NO2 ]
t
[ NO]
t
1
[O2 ]
2
12.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction

A. Reversibility of reactions
1. For the reaction 2NO2 (g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)
The reverse reaction 2NO(g) + O2 (g) 2NO2(g) may also take place
2. The reverse reaction effects the rate of change in concentrations
a. [A] depends on the difference in the rates of the forward and reverse
reactions
B. Rate Law (Ignoring reverse reaction)
1. Rate = k[NO2]n
a. k is a proportionality constant called the rate constant
n is the order of the reactant (an integer, including zero, or a fraction)
(1) k and n must be determined experimentally
2. Concentrations of products do not appear in the rate law
C. Types of Rate Laws
1. Differential Rate Law (Rate Law)
a. Expresses how the rate of a reaction depends upon concentration
Rate = k[NO2]n
2. Integrated Rate Law
a. Expresses how the concentration of a species (reactant or product) in
a reaction depend on time
[NO2 ]
[ NO]
[O2 ]
=
=
2
t
t
t
3. Choice of rate law depends on what data is easiest to collect
***Why study rate law? Re-read the paragraph at the bottom of page 556.
12.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law
A. Determining the value of n (Order of the reactant)
1. Example
[A]
Rate (mol/L s)
1.00 M
8.4 x 10-3
0.50 M
2.1 x 10-3
a. Doubling the concentration of species A quadruples the rate of the
reaction. Therefore, the reaction is of second order with respect to A
Rate = k[A]2
B. Method of Initial Rates
1. Initial rate
a. Instantaneous rate just after t = 0
2. Experimental method
a. Vary initial concentration of reactant(s)
b. Determine initial rate for each concentration
c. Examine relationship between rate and initial concentration
3. Example:
Table 12-4
Experiment
1
2
3
Intial Rates from Three Experiments for the Reaction:

NH4 +(aq) + NO2-(aq) N2(g) + 2H2 O(l)
Initial
Initial
Concentration
Concentration
Initial rate
+
Of NH4
Of NO2
(mol/Ls)
0.100 M
0.0050 M
1.35 x 10-7
0.100 M
0.010 M
2.70 x 10-7
0.200 M
0.010 M
5.40 x 10-7
a. In experiment 1 and 2, the concentration of NH4+ is held constant

b. In experiment 2 and 3, the concentration of NO2- is held constant
c. Basic rate law for the reaction:
Rate = k[NH4+]n [NO2-]m
4. Calculations
a. Experiment 1 and 2
(1) Rate doubles when concentration of NO2- doubles
(2) m = 1 (first order)
b. Experiment 2 and 3
(1) Rate doubles when concentration of NH4+ doubles
(2) n = 1 (first order)
5. Overall reaction order
a. Overall reaction order is the sum of m and n
(1) m +n = 2 so overall the reaction is second order
Rate = k[NH4+][NO2-]
6. Calculate k, the rate constant
a. Rate is known
b. Both concentrations are known
c. Exponents are known
1.35 x 10-7 mol/Ls = k(0.100 M)(0.0050 M)
k = 1.35 x 10-7 mol/L s
(0.100 M)(0.0050 M)
12.4 The Integrated Rate Law
A. Integrated First-Order Rate Law (single reactant)
[A]
1. ln[A] = -kt + ln[A]0 or
ln 0 = kt
[A]
a. [A] is concentration of reactant A at time = t
b. [A]0 is concentration of reactant A at t = 0
c. Equation is linear (y = mx + b)
2. Half-life of a First-Order Reaction
a. Half life of a reaction is the time required for a reactant to reach half
its original concentration
[ A]0 ln [ A]0 = kt ln (2 ) = kt
[A]
ln( 2)
ln 0 = kt [A] =
t1 / 2 =
1/ 2
1/ 2
2
k
[A]
[A]0 / 2
3
B. Integrated Second-Order Rate Law (single reactant)

1
1
1.
= kt +
[ A]
[ A]0
a. Graph of 1/[A] versus t is a straight line with slope k
2. Half-life of a Second-Order Reaction (derivation on page 567)
1
a. t1 / 2 =
k [A]0
b. For a second-order reaction each successive half-life is double the
preceding one
C. Zero Order reactions
1. Rate is constant; it does not change with changing concentration
2. Zero order sometimes happens with catalysis
3. Integrated rate law for zero-order reactions
a. [A] = kt + [ A]0
4. Half-life of a zero-order reaction
[ A]0
a. t1 / 2 =
2k
D. Integrated Rate Laws for Reactions with More than One Reactant
1. Examine rate with one reactant in very low concentration and the others
much higher
Rate = k[A]n[B]m[C]p
a. If [B]> >[A] and [C] > >[A] then [B] and [C] do not change as greatly
relative to [A] so
Rate = k'[A]n
2. Pseudo-first-order rate law (or zero-order , or second-order)
a. Simplification yields a rate law of a particular order
12.5 Rate Laws: A Summary
No Notes - This is review. Rate law problems are a virtual certainty on the AP test.
Bookmark this section and review it thoroughly prior to the exam!
12.6 Reaction Mechanisms
A. Reaction Mechanism
1. A series of elementary steps that must satisfy two requirements
a. The sum of the elementary steps must give the overall balanced
equation for the reaction
b. The mechanism must agree with the experimentally determined rate
law
B. Intermediates
1. A species that is neither a reactant nor a product, but that is formed and
consumed during a chemical reaction
C. Elementary steps
1. Reactions whose rate law can be written from their molecularity (balanced
eqn for the step)
4
D. Molecularity
1. The number of species that must collide to produce the reaction indicated by
that step
a. Unimolecular step - a reaction involving one molecule
b. Bimolecular step - reaction involving the collisions of two species
c. Termolecular step - reaction involving the collisions of three species
Table 12.7 Examples of Elementary Steps
Elementary Step
Molecularity
A products
Unimolecular
A + A products
Bimolecular
(2A products)
A + B products
Bimolecular
A + A + B products
Termolecular
(2A + B products)
A + B + C products
Termolecular
Rate Law
Rate = k[A]
Rate = k[A]2
Rate = k[A][B]
Rate = k[A]2[B]
Rate = k[A][B][C]
E. Rate-Determining Step
1. The slowest step in a reaction determines the rate of the reaction
F. Example
1. Overall rxn:
NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2 (g)
2. Rate law determined experimentally:
Rate = k[NO2]2
3. Elementary Steps
k1
NO2(g) + NO2(g)
NO3(g) + NO(g)
k2
NO3(g) + CO(g)
NO2 (g) + CO2(g)
4. Which step is rate determining?
a. IF step 1 ,
Rate = k[NO2]2
(1) this agrees with experimental results
b. IF step 2 ,
Rate = k[NO3][CO]
(1) this does not agree with experimental results
12.7 A Model for Chemical Kinetics
A. Collision Model
1. Molecules must collide in order to react
a. They must collide with sufficient energy
b. They must collide with correct orientation
B. Activation Energy (Ea)
1. The energy required to convert atoms or molecules into the activated
complex (transition state)
2. The minimum energy required for an effective collision
C. The Arrhenius Equation
1. Form #1:
k = zpe E a / RT
a. z is collision frequency
b. p is the stearic factor representing the fraction of collisions with
correct orientation
5
2. Form #2:
k = Ae E a / RT
a. z and p are combined to make A, the frequency factor (frequency of
effective collisions)
3. Taking the natural log of both sides:
ln( k ) = ln( Ae E a / RT )
ln( k ) = ln( A) + ln( e E a / RT )
ln( k ) =
Ea
R
1 + ln( A)

T
a. Linear equation
y = ln(k)
slope = -Ea/R
x = 1/T
intercept = ln(A)
12.8 Catalysis
A. Catalysts
1. A substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed itself
B. Effects of Catalysis
1. Catalysts lower activation energy but do not change E for the reaction
2. Catalysts provide alternate reaction pathways
3. Catalysis results in a higher percentage of effective collisions
C. Heterogeneous Catalysis (usually gaseous reactants on a solid surface)
1. Four steps
a. Adsorption and activation of the reactants
(1) Adsorption refers to the collection of one substance on the
surface of another substance
b. Migration of the adsorbed reactants on the surface
c. Reaction of the adsorbed substances
d. Escape, or desorption, of the products
2. Uses
a. Conversion of alkenes to alkanes
b. Conversion of CO and NO in auto exhaust to CO2 and N2
D. Homogeneous Catalysis
1. Reactants and catalysts are in the same phase
2. Example - The decomposition of ozone
a. Freon, CCl2F2(g) light
CClF 2(g) + Cl(g)

b. Chlorine catalyzes the decomposition of ozone
Cl(g) + O3 (g) ClO(g) + O2(g)
O(g) + ClO(g) Cl(g) + O2 (g)
O(g) + O3(g) 2O2(g)
c. Notice that the Cl(g) is not used up, a qualification for it to be
catalytic. This is also why small amounts of chlorofluorocarbons such
as freon can do immense damage to the ozone layer

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What are the different types of rate laws?

What factors affect the rate of a reaction?

Chapter 12 - Chemical Kinetics

12.1 Reaction Rates

Rate of consumption of NO2 = rate of production of NO = 2(rate of production of O2)

12.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction

Intial Rates from Three Experiments for the Reaction:

a. In experiment 1 and 2, the concentration of NH4+ is held constant

B. Integrated Second-Order Rate Law (single reactant)

CClF 2(g) + Cl(g)

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