tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

X-bar theory: Sentences are not merely strings of words; the words that compose the
sentence are grouped into phrases. X-bar theory offers a uniform format for all types of
phrases in the sentence.
The syntactic structure of a phrase is endocentric; a syntactic constituent is built around a
head, which determines the properties of the constituent (constituents headed by a noun is
a noun phrases; they share a number of distributional characteristics)
1. The instructor will analize the problems after class.
VP = will analize the problems after class

NP
The instructor

VP
will analize

NP
the problems

PP
after class

VP

V
will analize

NP
the problems

PP
after class

2. the instructors analysis of the problems

NP
the instructors

N
analysis

PP
of the problems

PP
after class

How are these structures? Are the internal relations of the constituents captured?
VP
3.
V
V

PP
NP

after class

will analyze the problems

In these representations the trees are binary, i.e. syntactic units are built up by combining two
constituents, thus creating a new constituent (cf. MERGE)
A constituent is built around a head (N, V,X) of a lexical category; the head has one projection
and each projection has one head.

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

4.

NP
N

NP
The instructors N

NP

analysis

of the problems

- hierarchical structures
5.

NP
.

N
6. this book

NP
Det.

this

N
book

7. these students from Paris

these

PP

students

from Paris

8. The students [all drink Martini].

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

VP

Specifer

all
V

NP

drink

Martini

9.

VP
.

V
10. right after class
PP
right

P
11.

NP

XP
.

The category of the head determines the category of the constituent. The head combines with a
complement to form an intermediate projection X. The complement of a head is a phrase that is
also formed according to the X-bar format. The head determines the number of complements and
the particular form of the complements (e.g., analyze selects an NP, rely a PP, analysis (an NP)
and envious (an AP) select a PP (envious of John, *envious John). A singular NP head selects a
singular agreement of the NP (analysis of the problems takes a singular verb, e.g., is); the
grammatical feature of the head percolates to the projection.

12. The students smoked smoke Marlboro.

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

Subject

VP

students V

NP

smoked

Marlboro

The sentence is seen as the expansion of the projection of the verb: the lexical or thematic core of
the sentence is the VP. But is it so?
A sentence is more than a mere projection of a verb. It is associated with inflections
expressing time, aspect etc. VP is integrated into the sentence through the functional head
Inflection, which takes the VP as complement.

13.

InflP/IP

- IP is the inflection projection. It is a functional projection.

Infl

Infl

VP

Tense, Agr NP
[past, pl. III]
-ed students

V
V

NP

smoke Marlboro
14.

InflP

NP
Infl
The studentsi
Infl.

VP

Tense, Agr. NPi

V
V

NP

smoked Marlboro
Movement has PF motivation; it guarantees that the inflection has lexical support (a
proper host).

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

The specifier of the IP is the canonical subject position, which is the highest in the structure.
The IP is the complement of C (complementizer), another functional projection.

The Complementizer Phrase

Spec

IP
?

that
the students will have a drink after class
whether
for
The projection headed by C links the clause (IP) with the context / discourse. It encodes
the illocutionary force of the sentence, the way the speaker presents the information to
the hearer. In statements the inflection / the auxiliary is in I. In questions it moves to C.
4. Will the students have a drink after class?
C/CP
C

Spec

IP
?

C
NP

Will
the students I
ti

VP
have a drink after class

5. Mary watches television after dinner.

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

C/CP
C

Spec

IP
?

C
NP

Doesi
Mary

VP

ti

watch television after dinner?

6. When does Mary watch television?

Spec

IP
Whenj

C
NP

Doesi
Mary

Specifier-head agreement
7.

NP
Det

this/these
N

ZP

student/students

VP

ti

watch television tj?

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

8.

IP
I

NP
Mary
I

VP

-s
watch television after class
Structural relations
Dominance: Node A dominates node B iff (if and only if) A is higher in the tree than B
and if a line can be traced from A to B going downwards.
Immediate dominance: When there is no intervening node between the elements.
Precedence: Node A precedes node B iff A is to the left of B and A does not dominate B
or B does not dominate A.
Immediate precedence: if a node A precedes node B and there is no interveing node.
Sisterhood: e.g., in the case of VP: it immediately dominates V and NP, which are
sisters; VP is the mother.

9.

VP

V
watch

NP
television

C-command
10.

Ai

Bi

tefan Oltean, Generative linguistics (X-bar theory)

Government in terms of sisterhood

A
B
A is a governor; A and B are sisters; A is a lexical head the commonest case of
government.
If A is a V, does it govern the NP complement or the NP subject?
Extended definition of government
A governs B if 1) A is a governor; 2) A c-commands B; 3) Nor barrier intervenes
between A and B. Governors are lexical heads (N, V, P, A) and tensed I. Maximal
projections are barriers to government.