CHAPTER 25

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1A

(E) A has a mass number of zero and an atomic number of 1 . Emission of this
241
0
electron has the effect of transforming a neutron into a proton. 241
94 Pu 95 Am + 1

1B

(E) 58 Ni has a mass number of 58 and an atomic number of 28. A positron has a mass
number of 0 and an effective atomic number of +1 . Emission of a positron has the
seeming effect of transforming a proton into a neutron. The parent nuclide must be
copper-58.
58
29

2A

2B

0
Cu 58
28 Ni + 1

(E) The sum of the mass numbers 139 +12 = ? +147 tells us that the other product
species has A = 4 . The atomic number of La is 57, that of C is 6, and that of Eu is 63. The
atomic number sum 57 + 6 = ? + 63 indicates that the atomic number of this product
species is zero. Therefore, four neutrons must have been emitted.
139
12
147
0
57 La + 6 C 63 Eu + 41 n
(E) An alpha particle is 42 He and a positron is 01 . We note that the total mass number in
the first equation is 125; the mass number of the additional product is 1.
The total atomic number is 53; the atomic number of the additional product is 0; it is a
4
124
1
121
neutron.
51 Sb + 2 He 53 I + 0 n
In the second equation, the positron has a mass number of 0, meaning that the mass
number of the product is 124. Because the atomic number of the positron is +1 , that of the
product is 52; it is 124
52 Te .
124

53

3A

I 0+1 + 124
52 Te

(M) (a)

=
(b)

The decay constant is found from the 8.040-day half-life.

0.693
1d
1h
1min
= 0.0862 d 1
= 9.98 107 s 1

8.040 d
24 h 60 min 60 s

The number of

131

I atoms is used to find the activity.

no.131 I atoms 2.05 mg

1g
1 mol 131 I 6.022 1023 atoms

1000 mg 131 g 131 I

1 mol 131 I

9.42 1018 atoms 131I

activity N 9.98 107 s 1 9.42 1018 atoms 9.40 1012 disintegrations / second

1196

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

We now determine the number of atoms remaining after 16 days. Because two halflives elapse in 16 days, the number of atoms has been halved twice, to one-fourth
(25%) the original number of atoms.

(c)

N t = 0.25 N 0 = 0.25 9.42 1018 atoms = 2.36 1018 atoms

The rate after 14 days is determined by the number of atoms present on day 14.

(d)

rate = N t = 9.98 107 s 1 2.36 1018 atoms = 2.36 1012 dis/s

3B

0.693 0.693
=
= 0.0608 d 1
t1/2
11.4 d
Then we set N t = 1 % N 0 = 0.010 N 0 in equation (25.12).

(M) First we determine the value of :

ln

Nt
0.010 N 0
= t = ln
= ln 0.010 = 4.61 = 0.0608 d 1 t
N0
N0

t=
4A

4.61
= 75.8 d
0.0608 d 1

(M) The half-life of 14 C is 5730 y and = 1.21 104 y 1 . The activity of 14 C when the
object supposedly stopped growing was 15 dis/min per g C. We use equation (25.12) with
activities N in place of numbers of atoms (N).

ln
4B

At
8.5 dis/min
0.57
= t = ln
= 1.21104 y 1 t = 0.568 ; t =
= 4.7 103 y
15 dis/min
1.21104 y 1
A0

(M) The half-life of 14 C is 5730 y and = 1.21 104 y 1 . The activity of 14 C when the
object supposedly stopped growing was 15 dis/min per g C. We use equation (25.12) with
activities N in place of numbers of atoms (N).

ln

At
At
= t = ln
= 1.21 104 y 1 1100 y = 0.13
15 dis/min
A0

At
= e 0.13 = 0.88 , At = 0.88 15 dis/min = 13 dis/min (per gram of C)
15 dis/min
5A

(M)
mass defect. 145.913053 u

146

Sm 141.907719 u

142

Nd 4.002603 u

Then, from the text, we have 931.5 MeV = 1 u E = 0.002731 u

5B

He 0.002731 u
4

931.5 MeV
= 2.544 MeV
1u

(M) Unfortunately, we cannot use the result of Example 255 ( 0.0045 u = 4.2 MeV ) because it
is expressed to only two significant figures, and here we begin with four significant figures.
But, we essentially work backwards through that calculation. The last conversion factor is from
Table 2-1.

1197

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

E = 5.590 MeV
m=

2
1.602 1013 J
= 8.955 1013 J = mc 2 = m 2.9979 108 m/s
1 MeV

8.955 1013 J

2.9979 10

m/s

1000 g
1.0073 u
= 0.005999 u

1 kg 1.673 1024 g

Or we could use m = 5.590 MeV

6A

6B

1u
= 0.006001 u
931.5 MeV

88
(E) (a)
Sr has an even atomic number (38) and an even neutron number (50); its
mass number (88) is not too far from the average mass (87.6) of Sr. It should be
stable.
118

(b)

Cs has an odd atomic number (55) and a mass number (118) that is pretty far
from the average mass of Cs (132.9). It should be radioactive.

(c)

30

S has an even atomic number (16) and an even neutron number (14); but its mass
number (30) is too far from the average mass of S (32.1). It should be radioactive.

(M) We know that 19 F is stable, with approximately the same number of neutrons and
protons: 9 protons, and 10 neutrons. Thus, nuclides of light elements with approximately
the same number of neutrons and protons should be stable. In Practice Example 251 we
saw that positron emission has the effect of transforming a proton into a neutron.
emission has the opposite effect, namely, the transformation of a neutron into a proton. The
mass number does not change in either case. Now let us analyze our two nuclides.
17
F has 9 protons and 8 neutrons. Replacing a proton with a neutron would produce a more
stable nuclide. Thus, we predict positron emission by 17 F to produce 17 O .
22
F has 9 protons and 13 neutrons. Replacing a neutron with a proton would produce a
more stable nuclide. Thus, we predict emission by 22 F to produce 22 Ne .

INTEGRATIVE EXAMPLE
A. (M)

0.693
5.54 10 10 y -1 Calculate the fraction of
1.25 10 9 y

40

K that remains after 1.5

109 y.
ln

Nt
t 5.54 10 10 y -1 1.5 10 9 y 0.83
N0

Nt
0.44
N0

Thus, the fraction of 40K that has decayed is 1.000 0.44 = 0.56.
The fraction of the 40K that has decayed into 40Ar is 0.110 0.56 = 0.062.

1198

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

This fraction is proportional to the mass of 40Ar. Then the ratio of masses is determined.
mass
mass
B.

40
40

Ar
K

0.062
0.14
0.44

(M) (a) Zr(s) + 6H2O(l) ZrO2(s) + 4 H3O+(aq) + 4 e

1.43 V

4 H2O(l) + 4 e 2 H2(g) + 4 OH(aq)

0.828 V

Zr(s) + 2 H2O(l) ZrO2(s) +2 H2(g)

0.602 V (spont)

______________________________________

Yes, Zr can reduce water under standard conditions.

0.0592
log K eq
n

0.602 V =

0.0592
log K eq
4

Keq = 4.67 1040

(b)

E =

(c)

pH = 7

(d)

Zr may be the culprit responsible for the H2(g) formation. In the Chernobyl accident,
the reaction of carbon with superheated steam played a major role.
Reaction: H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2(g)

Therefore, [OH] = [H3O+] = 1.0 107

0.0592
0.0592
Eox = Eox
log Q = 1.43 V
log(1.0 10 7 ) 4 =1.84 V
n
4
0.0592
0.0592
Ered = Ered
log Q = 0.828 V
log(1 107 ) 4 0.414 V
n
4
Ecell = Eox + Ered = 1.84 + (0.414) = 1.43 V (spontaneous)

EXERCISES
Radioactive Processes
1.

2.

234
94

(E) (a)

230
Pu 92
U + 24 He

(b)

248
97

248
Bk 98
Cf + 01e

(c)

196
82

Pb + 01e
214
82

(E) (a)
(b)

226
88

(c)

69
33

196
81

Tl ;

196
81

214
Pb 83
Bi + 01e ;

222
Ra 86
Rn + 24 He ;

222
86

Tl + 01e 196
80 Hg
214
83

214
Bi 84
Po + 01e

Rn

218
84

69
As 32
Ge + 01e

1199

Po + 42 He

218
84

Po

214
82

Pb + 42 He

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

3.

(E) We would expect a neutron:proton ratio that is closer to 1:1 than that of 14 C . This
would be achieved if the product were 14 N , which is the result of decay:
14
14
0
6 C 7 N + 1e .

4.

(E) A nuclide with a closer to 1:1 neutron:proton ratio (than that of tritium) is helium-3,
arrived at by beta emission: 13 H 32 He + 01e . Another possible product is deuterium, which
is arrived at by neutron emission: 13 H 12 H + 10 n

Radioactive Decay Series

(M) We first write conventional nuclear reactions for each step in the decay series.
232
90

228
Th 88
Ra + 24 He

228
88

Ra

228
89

Ac + 01e

228
89

Ac

228
90

228
90

Th

224
88

Ra

220
86

Rn + 42 He

220
86

Rn

216
84

224
88

Ra + 24 He

Th + 01e
Po + 42 He

Now for a branch in the series:

these two

216
84

Po

212
82

Pb + 24 He

212
82

Pb

212
83

or these two

216
84

Po

216
85

At + 01e

216
85

At

212
83

these two

212
83

Bi

208
81

Tl + 42 He

208
81

Tl

or these two

212
83

Bi

212
84

Po + 01e

212
84

Po

Bi + 01e

Bi + 42 He

And now a second branch:

Both branches end at the isotope

235

208
82

208
82

Pb + 01e

208
82

Pb + 42 He

Pb . The graph, similar to Figure 25-2, is drawn below.

Plot of Atomic Mass versus Atomic Number

230
Atomic Mass (u)

5.

225
220
215
210
205
80

82

84

86
88
Atomic Number (Z)

1200

90

92

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

6.

(M) The series begins with uranium-235, and ends with lead-207.
235
92

231
90

Th + 24 He

231
90

Th

231
91

Pa + 01e

231
91

Pa

227
89

Ac + 24 He

Now the series branches:

227
89

or these two
then

223
88

Ac

223
87

Fr + 42 He

223
87

Fr

223
88

Ac

227
90

Th + 01e

227
90

Th

223
88

227
89

these two

Ra

219
86

Rn + 42 He

219
86

211
82

Ra + 01e

215
Rn 84
Po + 42 He

Pb

211
83

Ra + 42 He
215
84

Po

211
82

Pb + 24 He

Bi + 01e

The series branches again:

these two

211
83

Bi

or these two

211
83

211
Bi 84
Po + 01e

207
81

Tl + 42 He

207
81

Tl

207
82

211
84

Po

207
82

Pb + 01e
Pb + 42 He

The plot of atomic mass versus atomic number for these decay series is shown below.
Plot of Atomic Mass versus Atomic Number

Mass Number(u)

233
228
223
218
213
208
203
80

82

84
86
88
Atomic Number (Z)

90

92

7.

(E) In Figure 252, only the following mass numbers are represented: 206, 210, 214, 218,
222, 226, 230, 234, and 238. We see that these mass numbers are separated from each
other by 4 units. The first of them, 206, equals 4 51 + 2 , that is 4n + 2 , where n = 51.

8.

(M) The series to which each nuclide belongs is determined by dividing its mass number
by 4 and obtaining the remainder.
(a)

214
The mass number of 83
Bi is 214, and the remainder following its division by 4 is 2.
This nuclide is a member of the 4n + 2 series.

1201

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

216
(b) The mass number of 84
Po is 216, and the remainder following its division by 4 is 0.
This nuclide is a member of the 4n series.
215
(c) The mass number of 85
At is 215, and the remainder following its division by 4 is 3.
This nuclide is a member of the 4n + 3 series.
235
(d) The mass number of 92
U is 235, and the remainder following its division by 4 is 3.
This nuclide is a member of the 4n + 3 series.

Nuclear Reactions
9.

(c)
10.

160
74

(E) (a)
214
83

(E) (a)

(b)

214
Bi 84
Po + 01

23
11

(c)
(e)
11.

4
W 156
72 Hf + 2 He

24
Na + 12 H 11
Na + 11H

238
92

240
U + 12 H 94
Pu + 01

238
92

Li + 11H 84 Be +

14
7

(c)
238
92

32
17

38
Cl 18
Ar + 01

32
Cl 16
S + 0+1
4
Co + 10 n 56
25 Mn + 2 He

(b)

59
27

(d)

246
96

254
1
Cm + 13
6 C 102 No + 5 0 n

246
1
U + 14
7 N 99 Es + 6 0 n

7
3

(E) (a)

(a)

(d)

38
17

(b)

9
4

1
Be + 12 H 10
5 B + 0n

1
N + 10 n 14
6 C + 1H

239
U + 42 He 94
Pu + 310 n (b)

12.

(E)

13.

(E)

209
83

Bi + 64
28 Ni

272
111

Rg + 10 n ;

14.

(E)

208
82

Pb + 86
36 Kr

293
118

E+ 10 n ;

15.

(M)

48
20

16.

(M)

293
118

17.

(M)

58
26

18.

(M)

238
92

Ca 249
98 Cf
Unk

289
116

249
118

293
118

272
111

3
1

H + 12 H 24 He + 10 n

(c)

33
16

33
S + 10 n 15
P + 11H

Rg 5 42 He + 252
101 Md

E 6 42 He + 269
106 Sg

Unk 01n 01n 01n

Unk 42 He

302
Fe 244
94 Pu 120 Unk
302
U 64
28 Ni 120 Unk

Rate of Radioactive Decay

19.

(M) (a)
Since the decay constant is inversely related to the half-life, the nuclide with
the smallest half-life also has the largest value of its decay constant. This is the
214
nuclide 84
Po ,with a half-life of 1.64 104 s .

1202

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

(b)

The nuclide that displays a 75% reduction in its radioactivity has passed through two
half-lives in a period of one month. Thus, this is the nuclide with a half-life of
32
P , with a half-life of 14.3 days.
approximately two weeks. This is the nuclide 15

(c)

If more than 99% of the radioactivity is lost, less than 1% remains. Thus ( 12 ) n 0.010 .
Now, when n = 7 , ( 12 ) n = 0.0078 . Thus, seven half-lives have elapsed in one month, and
each half-life approximates 4.3 days. The longest lived nuclide that fits this description
222
is 86
Rn , which has a half-life of 3.823 days. Of course, all other nuclides with shorter
half-lives also meet this criterion, specifically the following nuclides:
28
12

20.

21.

Br 17.6 min , and

214
84

Po 1.64 104 s .

0.693
1y
1d

= 1.52 105 h 1
5.2 y 365.25 d 24 h

N=

rate of decay

6740 atoms/h
= 4.4 108
5
1
1.52 10 h

60
27

Co atoms

(M) This follows first-order kinetics (as do all radioactive decay processes) with a rate of
decay directly proportional to the number of atoms. We therefore use equation (25.12),
with rates substituted for numbers of atoms.

6740
ln

dis
1h
dis

= 112
h 60 min
min

Rt
101 dis/min
= t = ln
= 1.5 105 h 1t = 0.103
112 dis/min
Ro

t=
23.

80
35

O 8.7 103 s ,

(M) Since 16 = 2 4 , four half-lives have elapsed in 18.0 h, and each half-life equals 4.50 h.
The half-life of isotope B thus is 2.5 4.50 h = 11.25 h . Now, since 32 = 25 , five half-lives
must elapse before the decay rate of isotope B falls to 321 of its original value. Thus, the
time elapsed for this amount of decay is:
11.25
timeelapsed 5half -lives
56.3h
1 half- life
(M) We use equation (25.13) to determine and then equation (25.11) to determine the
number of atoms.

22.

Mg 21 h ,

13
8

1d
1y
0.103
= 6.9 103 h

= 0.79 y
5
1
24 h 365.25 d
1.5 10 h

(M) Let us use the first and the last values to determine the decay constant.

ln

Rt
138 cpm
= t = ln
= 250 h = 1.981
Ro
1000 cpm

1.981
= 0.00792 h 1
250 h

0.693
= 87.5 h
0.00792 h 1

A slightly different value of t1/2 may result from other combinations of Ro and Rt .
t1/2 =

0.693

1203

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

24.

(M) First we calculate the decay constant.

0.693
1y
1d
1h
= 1.3 1015 s1

7
1.7 10 y 365.25 d 24 h 3600 s

N = 1.00 mg

25.

129

1g
1 mol 129 I 6.022 1023 atoms

= 4.67 1018 129 I atoms

1000 mg
129 g
1 mol 129 I

decay rate = N = 1.3 1015 s 1 4.67 1018 atoms = 6.1 103 dis/s
(M) 32
15 P half-life = 14.3 d. We need to determine the time necessary to get to the detectable
limit,

1
0.693 0.693
of the initial value. Use

0.0485 d 1
t1/ 2
14.3 d
1000

1
1
ln
= 0.0485 d (t)
1000

26.

t = 142 days

(M) 1.00 mCi = 1.00 103 (3.70 1010 dis s1) = 3.70 107 dis s1

0.693
0.693
=
= 1.21 104 y1 ( 1 y = 365.25 d = 3.156 107 s)
t1/2
5730 y

1.21 104
1y

= 3.83 1012 s1
7
y
3.156 10 s

1.00 mCi = 3.70 107 dis s1 = N = 3.83 1012 s1(N)

N = 9.66 1018 atoms of

14

C or 1.604 105 mol 14C

14.00 g 14 C
mass of C = 1.604 10 mol C
= 2.25 104 g 14C
14
1 mol C
14

14

Age Determinations with Radioisotopes

27.

(E) Again we use equations (25.12) and (25.13) to determine the time elapsed. The initial
rate of decay is about 15 dis/min. First we compute the decay constant.

=
ln

0.693
= 1.21 104 y 1
5730 y

10 dis/min
0.405 t ;
15 dis/min

0.405
3.4 103 y
1.21 104 y 1

The object is a bit more than 3000 years old, and thus is probably not from the pyramid
era, which occurred about 3000 B.C.

1204

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

28.

(E) We use the value of from the previous exercise.

ln

Rt
0.03 dis min 1 g 1
= t = 1.21104 y 1 t = ln
= 6.2
Ro
15 dis min 1 g 1

t=
29.

6.2
= 5.1 104 y
1.21 104 y 1

(M) First we determine the decay constant. =

0.693
= 4.99 1011 y 1
10
1.39 10 y

Then we can determine the ratio of (Nt),the number of thorium atoms after 2.7 109 y, to
N 0 , the initial number of thorium atoms:
ln

Nt
= kt = 4.99 1011 y 1 2.7 109 y = 0.13
N0

Thus, for every mole of

232

Nt
= 0.88
N0

Th present initially, after 2.7 109 y there are

0.88 mol 232 Th and 0.12 mol 208 Pb . From this information, we can compute the mass ratio.
0.12 mol 208 Pb 1 mol 232 Th 208 g 208 Pb 0.12 g 208 Pb

=
0.88 mol 232 Th 232 g 232 Th 1 mol 208 Pb
1 g 232 Th
30.

(M) First we determine the decay constant. =

0.693
= 4.99 1011 y 1
10
1.39 10 y

The rock currently contains 1.00 g 232 Th and 0.25 g 208 Pb . We can calculate the mass of
232
Th that must have been present to produce this 0.25 g 208 Pb , and from that find the
original mass of 232 Th .

original mass

ln

232

Th = 1.00 g Th now + 0.25 g

= 1.00 + 0.28 g = 1.28 g

232

208

232 g 232 Th
Pb

208 g 208 Pb

Nt
1.00 g 232 Th now
= t = ln
= 0.247 = 4.99 1011 y 1t ;
N0
1.28 g originally

t=

0.247
= 4.95 109 y
11
1
4.99 10 y

31.

(M) First convert argon-40 to the number of atoms/g in the sample. Next, convert %
potassium to atoms/g in the sample. Finally, use equation (25.21) to determine the
final answer 3.03109 y.

32.

(M) Apply equation (25.22) to obtain t=1.5109 y.

1205

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

33.

34.

(M) The principal equation that we shall employ is E = mc 2 , along with conversion
factors.
(a)

E = 6.02 1023 g

(b)

E = 4.0015 u

2
1 kg
3.00 108 m/s = 5.42 109 kg m 2 s 2 = 5.42 109 J
1000 g

931.5 MeV
= 3727 MeV
1u

1.0073 u
1.0087 u

60
n

(M) mass of individual particles = 47 p

1 p
1 n

= 47.3431 u + 60.5220 u = 107.8651 u

binding energy 107.8651 u 106.879289 u 931.5 MeV

=

= 8.58 MeV / nucleon

107 nucleons
1u
nucleon
35.

(E) The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nuclide and the sum of the
masses of its constituent particles. The binding energy is this mass defect expressed as an
energy.
particle mass
= 9 p +10 n + 9 e = 9 p + n + e + n

= 9 1.0073 +1.0087 + 0.0005486 u +1.0087 u = 19.1576 u

mass defect = 19.1576 u 18.998403 u = 0.1592 u

931.5MeV
1u
7.805 MeV/nucleon
19 nucleons

0.1592 u
binding energy per nucleon =
36.

(E) The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the nuclide and the sum of the
masses of its constituent particles. The binding energy is this mass defect expressed as an
energy.

particle mass

= 26 p + 30 n + 26 e = 26 p + n + e + 4n
= 26 1.0073 +1.0087 + 0.0005486 u + 4 1.0087 u = 56.4651 u

mass defect = 56.4651 u 55.934939 u = 0.5302 u

931.5MeV
1u
8.819 MeV/nucleon
56 nucleons

0.5302 u
binding energy per nucleon =

1206

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

37.

(E) mass defect = 10.01294 u + 4.00260 u 13.00335 u +1.00783 u = 0.00436 u

energy = 0.00436 u
38.

(E) mass defect = 6.01513 u +1.008665 u 4.00260 u + 3.01604 u = 0.00516 u

energy = 0.00516 u
39.

931.5 MeV
= 4.06 MeV
1u

931.5 MeV
= 4.81 MeV
1u

(E) 1 neutron 1 amu = 1.66 1027 kg

E = mc2 = 1.66 1027 kg(2.998 108 m s1)2 = 1.49 1010 J (1 neutron)

1 eV = 1.602 1019 J,
Hence, 1 neutron = 1.49 1010 J
6.75 106 MeV
40.

1 eV
= 9.30 108 eV or 930. MeV
1.602 1019 J

1 neutron
= 7.26 103 neutrons
930 MeV

(M) + + collide produce two -rays.

Basically the mass of + = = mass of an electron (9.11 1031 kg)

Each -ray has the same energy as the complete conversion of one electron into pure
energy.
E = mc2 = (9.11 1031 kg) (2.998 108 m s1)2 = 8.19 1014 J
1 eV
In electron volts: 8.19 1014 J
= 5.11 105 eV or 0.511 MeV
19
1.602 10 J
Each -ray has an energy of 0.511 MeV

Nuclear Stability
41.

42.

(E) (a)
We expect 20 Ne to be more stable than 22 Ne . A neutron-to-proton ratio of 1to-1 is associated with stability for elements of low atomic number (with Z 20 ).
(b)

We expect 18 O to be more stable than 17 O . An even number of protons and an even

number of neutrons are associated with a stable isotope.

(c)

We expect 7 Li to be more stable than 6 Li . Both isotopes have an odd number of

protons, but only 7 Li has an even number of neutrons.

(E) (a)
We expect 40 Ca to be more stable than 42 Ca . A neutron-to-proton ratio of 1to-1 is associated with stability for elements of low atomic number (with Z 20 ).
(b)

We expect 31 P to be more stable than 32 P . Both isotopes have an odd number of

protons, but only 31 P has an even number of neutrons.

1207

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

(c)

43.

We expect 64 Zn to be more stable than 63 Zn . An even number of protons and an

even number of neutrons are associated with a stable isotope.

(M) emission has the effect of converting a neutron to a proton. + emission, on the
other hand, has the effect of converting a proton to a neutron.
(a)

The most stable isotope of phosphorus is 31 P , with a neutron-to-proton ratio of close

to 1-to-1 and an even number of neutrons. Thus, 29 P has too few neutrons, or too
many protons. It should decay by + emission. In contrast, 33 P has too many
neutrons, or too few protons. Therefore, 33 P should decay by emission.

(b) Based on the atomic mass of I (126.90447), we expect the isotopes of iodine to have
mass numbers close to 127. This means that 120 I has too few neutrons and
therefore should decay by + emission, whereas 134 I has too many neutrons (or

too few protons) and therefore should decay by emission.

44.

(M) emission has the effect of converting a neutron to a proton, while + emission has
the effect of converting a proton to a neutron.
(a)

Based on the fact that elements of low atomic number have about the same number
28
of protons as neutrons, 15
P with 15 protons and 13 neutronshas too few neutrons.
Therefore, it should decay by + emission.

(b)

Once again, elements of low atomic number have about the same number of protons
45
as neutrons. 19
K with 19 protons and 26 neutronshas too many neutrons.
Therefore, it should decay by emission.

(c)

45.

Based on the atomic mass of zinc (65.39) we expect most of its isotopes to have
about 36 neutrons. There are 42 neutrons in 72
30 Zn , more than we expect. Thus we

expect this nuclide to decay by emission.

(M) A doubly magic nuclide is one in which the atomic number is a magic number (2, 8,
20, 28, 50, 82, 114) and the number of neutrons also is a magic number (2, 8, 20, 28, 50,
82, 126, 184). Nuclides that fit this description are given below.
4
Nuclide
He
No. of protons 2
No. of neutrons 2

46.

16

O
8
8

40

Ca
20
20

56

Ni
28
28

208

Pb
82
126

(M) For isotopes of high atomic number, stable nuclides are characterized by a neutron-toproton ratio greater than 1, which increases with increasing atomic number. Naturally
occurring isotopes of high atomic number decrease their atomic number by losing an alpha
particle, which has a neutron-to-proton ratio of 1. This leaves the neutron-to-proton ratio
for the daughter that is higher than that of the parent, when it should be slightly lower. In
order to redress this, the number of neutrons needs to be decreased and the number of

1208

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

protons increased. Beta emission accomplishes this. In contrast, artificially produced

isotopes have no definite neutron-to-proton ratio. Thus, sometimes, the number of neutrons
needs to be decreased, which is accomplished by beta emission, while at other times the
number of protons needs to be decreased, which is accomplished by positron emission.

Fission and Fusion

47.

(E) We use the conversion factor between number of curies and mass of
developed in the Integrative Example.

no. g 131 I = 170 curies

48.

131

I which was

18.8 g 131 I
= 1.37 103 g = 1.37 mg
2.33 106 curie

(M) Nuclear fission is the process by which a heavy nucleus disintegrates into neutrons
and stable nuclei with smaller mass numbers. For instance, uranium-238 undergoes fission
according to the equation
238
92

234
U 90
Th + 24 He

The nuclear binding energy for uranium-238 is less than the sum of the binding energies
for thorium-234 and helium-4. Consequently, when a uranium-238 nucleus splits apart,
energy is released. Nuclear fusion, by contrast, involves the amalgamation of light nuclei
into heavier, more stable nuclei. For instance, part of the energy released by our Sun is
believed to come from the fusion of hydrogen to form deuterium:
1
1

H + 11H 12 H + 0-1e

Although both fusion and fission release vast amounts of energy, fusion releases far more
energy on a per nucleon basis. To understand why this is so, we need to refer to Figure 25-6,
which is a plot of average binding energy per nucleon as a function of atomic number. The
graph clearly shows that the increase in binding energy observed for the formation of the
lightest nuclides (e.g., deuterium, tritium, helium-3) is much more dramatic than the decrease
in binding energy that is seen for the fragmentation of heavier nuclei such as uranium-235.
Thus, the plot indicates that more energy should be released by the combination of light
nuclei (nuclear fusion) than by the disintegration of heavy nuclei (nuclear fission).

Effect of Radiation on Matter

49.

(E) The term rem is an acronym for radiation equivalent-man, and takes into account
the quantity of biological damage done by a given dosage of radiation. On the other hand,
the rad is the dosage that places 0.010 J of energy into each kilogram of irradiated matter.
Thus, for living tissue, the rem provides a good idea of how much tissue damage a certain
kind and quantity of radiation damage will do. But for nonliving materials, the rad is
usually preferred, and indeed is often the only unit of utility.

50.

(M) Low-level radiation is very close in its dosage to background radiation and one
problem is to separate out the effects of the two sources (low-level and background). The
other problem is that low-level radiation does not produce severe damage in a short

1209

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

period of time. Thus the effects of low-level radiation will only be observed over a long
time period. Of course other effects, such as chemical and biological toxins, will also be
observed over these time periods, and we have to try to separate these two types of
effects. (There also is the genetic heritage of the organism to consider, of course.)
51.

(M) One reason why 90 Sr is hazardous is because strontium is in the same family of the
periodic table as calcium, and hence often reacts in a similar fashion to calcium. The most
likely place for calcium to be incorporated into the body is in bones, where it resides for a long
time. Strontium is expected to behave in a similar fashion. Thus, it will be retained in the body
for a long time. Bone is an especially dangerous place for a radioisotope to be presenteven if
it has low penetrating power, as do raysbecause blood cells are produced in bone
marrow.

52.

(M) It is not particularly hazardous to be near a flask of 222 Rn , because it is unlikely that
the alpha particles can get through the walls of the flask. (Note that since radon is a gas, the
flask must be sealed.) The decay products of 222 Rn may produce other forms of radiation
that are more penetrating, such as particles and rays, so being near the flask may
still pose a risk. 222 Rn can be potentially hazardous if one breathes the gas.

Applications of Radioisotopes
53.

(M) Mix a small amount of tritium with the H2(g) and detect where the radioactivity
appears with a Geiger counter.

54.

(M) In neutron activation analysis, the sample is bombarded with neutrons. Radioisotopes
are produced by this process. These radioisotopes can be easily detected even in very small
quantities, much smaller, in fact, than the quantities that can be detected by conventional
means of quantitative analysis. These radioisotopes are produced in quantities that are
proportional to the quantity of each element originally present in the sample. And each
radioisotope is characteristic of the element from which it was produced by neutron
bombardment. Even microscopic samples can be analyzed by this technique. Finally,
neutron activation analysis is a nondestructive technique, while the conventional techniques
of precipitation or titration require that all of the sample, or at least part of it, be destroyed.

55.

(M) The recovered sample will be radioactive. When NaCl(s) and NaNO 3 s are

dissolved in solution, the ions ( Na + , Cl , and NO 3 ) are free to move throughout the
solution. A given anion does not remain associated with a particular cation. Thus, all the
anions and cations are shuffled and some of the radioactive 24 Na will end up in the
crystallized NaNO 3 .
56.

(M) We would expect the tritium label to appear in both the NH 3 g and H 2 O(l) . When

NH 4 aq is formed, one of the four chemically and spatially equivalent H atoms is

+

occasionally a tritium atom. In the subsequent reaction between the marked NH4Cl and
NaOH to form NH 3 g and H 2 O(l) , there are three chances in four that a tritium atom

1210

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

will remain attached to N in NH 3 , and one chance in four that a tritium ion will react with
a hydroxide ion to form H 2 O(l) .

INTEGRATIVE AND ADVANCED EXERCISES

57. (M) In the cases where rounding off the atomic mass produces the mass number of the most
stable isotope, there often is but one stable isotope. This frequently is the case when the
atomic number of the element is an odd number. For instance, think of situation with 39K (Z
= 19) and 85Rb (Z = 37), but not 88Sr (Z = 38). In the cases where this technique of rounding
does not work, there are two or more stable isotopes of significant abundance. Note that the
rounding off does not work in situations where it predicts a nuclide with an odd number of
neutrons and an odd number of protons (such as 64Cu with 29 protons and 35 neutrons),
whereas the rounding off technique works when the predicted nuclide has an even number
of protons, an even number of neutrons, or both.
58. (M) Each particle contains two protons and has a mass number of 4. Thus each particle
emission reduces the mass number by 4 and the atomic number by 2. The emission of 8
particles would reduce the mass number by 32 and the atomic number by 16. Thus the overall
reaction would be as follows: 238
8 42 He 206
92 U
76 Os (76 protons and 130 neutrons).
In Figure 25-7, a nuclide with 76 protons and 130 neutrons lies above, to the left of the belt of
stability; it is radioactive.
59. (M) We use H of [CO 2 (g)] 393.51 kJ/mol as the heat of combustion of 1 mole of carbon.

In the text, the energy produced by the fission of 1.00 g 235U is determined as 8.20 107 kJ.

metric tons of coal required 1.00 kg

235

1000 g 8.20 107 kJ 1mol C 12.01 g C

1 kg
1.00 g 235 U 393.5 kJ 1mol C

1.00 g coal 1 kg 1 metric ton

2.9 103 metric tons

0.85 gC 1000g
1000 kg

60. (M) Since the two nuclides have the same mass number, the ratio of their masses is the same
as the ratio of the number of atoms of each type. We use equation (25.12) to determine the
time required for the Rb to decrease from 1.004 to 1.00. First we compute the decay
0.693
constant.
1. 4 10 12 y 1
11
5 10

1.00
ln
4.0 10 3 t 1. 4 10 12 y 1 t
1.004

1211

4.0 10 3
t
3 10 9 y
12 1
1. 4 10 y

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

61. (M)

1y
0.693
1d
1h

2.99 10 12 s 1
7340 y 365.25 d 24 h 3600 s

1g
1 mol 229 Th 6.022 1023
N 5.10 mg

1000 mg 229 g 229 Th

1 mol
decay rate in disintegrations/s N 2.99 1012

229

Th atoms
229
1.34 1019
Th atoms
Th
1 Ci
s 1 1.34 1019 atoms
3.7 1010 dis/s
229

1000 mCi
1.1 mCi
1 Ci

62. (D) First we find the decay constant. The activity (N ) is the product of the decay constant
and the number of atoms.

1y
1d
1h
0.693

7.93 10 10 s 1
27.7 y 365.25 d 24 h 3600 s

1 Ci
3.7 1010 dis/s
radioactivity 1.00 mCi

3.7 10 7 dis/s
1000 mCi
1 Ci
7
activity 3.7 10 dis/s
90 g 90 Sr
1 mol 90 Sr
16 90

4
.
7

10
Sr
atoms

7.93 10 10 s 1
6.022 10 23 atoms 1 mol 90 Sr
7.0 10 6 g 90 Sr 7.0 g 90 Sr

63. (D) decay rate 89.8 mCi

N 1.00 mg

1 Ci
3.7 1010 dis/s

3.3 2 10 9 dis/s
1000 mCi
1 Ci

1g
1 mol 137 Cs 6.022 10 23 atoms

4.40 1018
137
1000 mg 137 g Cs
1 mol

137

Cs atoms

3.3 2 10 9 dis/s
decay rate
decay rate N

7.5 5 10 10 s 1
18
N
4.40 10 atoms
1y
0.693
0.693
1h
1d
t1 / 2

29 y
10 1

3600 s 24 h 365.25 d
7.5 5 10 s

64. (D)

1y
1d
1h
0.693

1.76 10 17 s 1
9
1.25 10 y 365.25 d 24 h 3600 s

1 mol KAlSi 3 O 8
1 mol K
0.000117 mol
N 1.00 g KAlSi 3 O 8

278.3 g KAlSi 3 O 8 1 mol KAlSi 3 O 8

1 mol K
6.022 10 23

1 mol

40
40

K atoms
2.53 1017
K

40

K atoms

rate 0.89 N 0.89 1.76 10 17 s 1 2.53 1017 atoms 4.0 dis/s

1212

40

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

65. (D) 14C is produced from 14N by neutron bombardment. Since 14N is a common element,
constituting 78% of the atmosphere, any activity that increases the emission of neutrons will
increase the production of 14C. A major source used to be thermonuclear explosions,
particularly atmospheric detonations. But most tests now take place underground.
Nonetheless, the extensive thermonuclear testing that took place during the 1950s and 1960s
could have produced sufficient 14C to invalidate the radiocarbon dating of materials that
were alive during that period. Nuclear power plants are a very minor source of 14C, as is
bringing to the surface neutron-emitting isotopes by mining activities.

Although we might suspect ozone depletion of playing a role in increasing the quantity of
C, such is not the case. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, not neutrons. And, in any case,
there is about the same proportion of 14N in the upper atmosphere as there is further down,
in layers that recently have become exposed to ultraviolet radiation because of the depletion
of ozone.
14

66. (D) product masses = 17O + 1H = 16.99913 u + 1.00783 u = 18.00696 u

reactant masses = 4He + 14N = 4.00260 u + 14.00307 u = 18.00567 u

The products have more mass than the reactants. The difference must be supplied as energy from
the reactants. This difference in energy ends up entirely to the Ekinetic of the particle. Compute
this energy in MeV.
energy ( 18.00696 u 18.00567 u)

67.

931.5 MeV
1.20 MeV
1 u

(D) Assume we have in our possession 100 g of the hydrogen/tritium mixture. This sample
95.00gH
mol hydrogen
94.246mol hydrogen
1.008g/mol

5.00gH
1.656mol tritium
3.02g/mol
1.656mol tritium
mole fraction tritium
1.72 7 102
1.656mol tritium 94.246mol hydrogen
PV
(1.05atm)(4.65L)
total moles of gas in mixture

0.199 5 mol
L atm
RT
0.0821
(298.15K)
mol K
will afford us 95 g hydrogen and 5 g tritium.
mol tritium

1213

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

mols of tritium (0.1995mol)(1.727 10 2 mol tritium / mol mixture) 3.445 10 3mol tritium
# of tritium atoms (N) (2 3.445 10 3mol tritium)(6.022 10 23 tritium atoms/mol) 4.15 10 21tritium atoms
rate

0.693
t 1/2

0.693
4.15 10 21 7.42 1012disintegrations/s
365 d 24 h 60 min 60 s
12.3 y

1y
1d
1h
1 min
7

activity in curies

7.42 1012disintegrations/s
2.0 10 2 Ci
disintegrations/s
3.7 1010
Ci

68.(D) energy 1.00 10 3 cm 3

69.(D)

2.5 g
0.006 g U
1 mol U

3
100.000 g shale
238 g U
1 cm

1 kJ
6.022 1023 U atoms 3.20 1011 J

1 mol U
1 U atom
1000 J
O

1.2 107 kJ

O
18

R C O H H O

18

versus

R C O H H O

R'
18

H O H
+
O
18

R C O

R'

It is evident that theO R'

bond does not break like an OH
bond (Na+ = R' ). From
this labeling experiment, we see
that it must be the C-O bond
in the organic acid that breaks.

70. (D) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O18(l) light C6H12O6(s) + 6 O182 (g)

6 CO182 (g) + 6 H2O(l) light C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)

Basically, the results shows that the O2 arises from the oxidation of H2O and that the CO2
involved in this reaction remains intact. Simplistically, this can be explained by using two
half-reactions:
12 H2O18(l)

6 O182(g) + 24 H+ + 24 e-

24 e- + 24 H+ + 6 CO2(g) C6H12O6(s) + 6 H2O

6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O18(l) C6H12O6(s) + 6 O182 (g)
In reality, the reaction is not this simple, however. What this labeling study shows is that the
O2 is evolved from the oxidation of water (the only time O182(g) forms is when H2O18 is used).

1214

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

U 238
1
U 238 t1/2 = 4.5 109 years
U 235 t1/2 = 7.1 108 years
U 235
U 238 0.9928
Currently 235
138
0.0072
U
0.693
0.693
Remember t1/2 =
Hence =
U 238 = 1.54 10-10 U 235 = 9.76 10-10

t1/2

71. (D) Initially

For any radioactive isotope, the amount remaining is e- t .

-10

-10
e-1.5410 t (U 238 )
e - t (U 238 )
Currently, - t 235 138 - 9.7610-10 t 235 e8.22 10 t 138 (take ln of both sides)
e (U )
(U )
e

8.22 10-10 t = ln138 = 4.927 t =

4.927
= 6.0 109 years
-10
8.22 10

FEATURE PROBLEMS
72.

(D) First tabulate the isotope symbols, the mass of the isotope and its associated packing
fraction.

Mass of
Isotope (u)

Packing
Fraction

1215

0.0085

Plot of Packing Fraction

versus Mass Number

0.0065

Packing Fraction

Isotope
Symbol

He
9
Be
12
C
16
O
20
Ne
24
Mg
32
S
40
Ar
40
Ca
48
Ti
52
Cr
56
Fe
58
Ni
64
Zn
80
Se
84
Kr
90
Zr
102
Ru
114
Cd
130
Te

0.0045

0.0025

0.0005
0

-0.0015

50

100

Mass Num ber (u)

150

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

138

Ba
Nd
158
Gd
166
Er
142

This graph and Fig. 25-6 are almost exactly the inverse of one another, with the maxima of
one being the minima of the other. Actual nuclidic mass is often a number slightly less
than the number of nucleons (mass number). This difference divided by the number of
nucleons (packing fraction) is proportional to the negative of the mass defect per nucleon.
73.

(D) (a)
The rate of decay depends on both the half-life and the number of radioactive
atoms present. In the early stages of the decay chain, the larger number of radium-226,
atoms multiplied by the very small decay constant is still larger than the product of the
very small number of radon-222 atoms and its much larger decay constant. Only after
some time has elapsed, does the rate of decay of radon-222 approach the rate at which it is
formed from radium-226 and the amount of radon-222 reaches a maximum. Beyond this
point, the rate of decay of radon-222 exceeds its rate of formation.
(b)
(c)

74.

dD
- t
=p P - d D = p Po e p -d D
dt

The number of radon-222 atoms at the proposed times are: 2.90 1015 atoms after 1
day; 1.26 1016 after 1 week; 1.75 1016 after 1 year; 1.68 1016 after one century;
and 1.13 1016 after 1 millennium. The actual maximum comes after about 2
months, but the amount after 1 year is only slightly smaller.

(D) (a)
87

Average atomic mass of Sr in the rock

Sr
= 2.25
86
Sr

86

Sr
= 0.119
88
Sr

84
88

Sr
= 0.007
Sr

Given: 15.5 ppm Sr

Let x = 86Sr, y = 88Sr, z = 87Sr, w = 84Sr x + y + z + w = 15.5 ppm

z
x
w
=2.25 ,
=0.119 , = 0.007
x
y
y
86
Set x = Sr = 1 and find the relative atom ratio of the other
z = 2.25x = 2.251 = 2.25
Hence,
x
1
y=
=
= 8.403
0.119 0.119
w = 0.007y = 0.0078.403 = 0.0588
x + y + z + w=1+2.25+8.403 +0.0588 = 11.712
As a percent abundance, we find the following for the Sr in the sample.
%86Sr = 1/11.712 100 % = 8.538 %
%88Sr = 8.403/11.712 100 % = 71.75 %
%87Sr = 2.25/11.712 100 % = 19.21 %
%84Sr = 0.0588/11.712 100 % = 0.5 %

1216

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

av. mass Sr = mass86Sr (% 86Sr) + mass88Sr (% 88Sr) + mass87Sr (% 87Sr) + mass84Sr (% 84Sr)
av. mass Sr = 8.538 % (85.909 u ) + 71.75 % (87.906 u)+ 19.21 % (86.909 u) + 0.5%(83.913 u)
average atomic mass Sr = 7.335 u + 63.07 u + 16.695 u + 0.42 u = 87.5 u
87

Rb
= 0.330
Rb
Set 1000 atoms for 85Rb and 330 atoms 87Rb or a total of 1330 atoms of Rb
Percent abundance of each isotope: 85Rb = (1000/1330)100% = 75.2 % 85Rb
87
Rb = (1000/1330)100% = 24.8 % 87Rb
current atom ratio is

85

av. mass Rb = mass85Rb (% 85Rb) + mass87Rb (% 87Rb)

av. mass Rb = 75.2 % (84.912 u ) + 24.8 % (86.909 u)
average atomic mass Rb = 63.85 u + 21.55 u = 85.4 u
(b)

Original Rb in rock?
Need to convert atom ratio isotope concentration in ppm.
85

Rb concentration in ppm
1000 atoms 85 Rb 1 atom Rb 84.912 u 85 Rb

265.4 ppm Rb = 198.4 ppm 85 Rb

=
85
1330 atoms Rb 85.4 u Rb 1 atom Rb
87
Rb concentration in ppm
330 atoms 87 Rb 1 atom Rb 86.909 u 87 Rb

265.4 ppm Rb = 67.0 ppm 87 Rb

=
87
1330 atoms Rb 85.4 u Rb 1 atom Rb
Currently 265.4 ppm (198.4 ppm 85Rb + 67.0 ppm 87 Rb)
Recall earlier calculations showed: %86Sr = 8.538 %;
%87Sr = 19.21 %;

%88Sr = 71.75 %;
%84Sr = 0.5 %

Consider 100,000 atoms of Sr. Calculate the concentration (in ppm) of 86Sr and 87Sr.
86
Sr concentration in ppm
8538 atoms 86Sr 1 atom Sr 85.909 u 86Sr
=

15.5 ppm Sr = 1.299 ppm 86Sr

86
100,000 atoms Sr 87.5 u Sr
1 atom Sr
87
Sr concentration in ppm
19,210 atoms 87Sr 1 atom Sr 86.909 u 87Sr
=

15.5 ppm Sr = 2.957 ppm 87Sr

87
100,000 atoms Sr 87.5 u Sr
1 atom Sr
87

19,210 atoms 87Sr

Sr
Currently: 86 = 2.25 =
Sr
8,538 atoms 86Sr
87

Sr
= 0.700 or 87Sr = 86Sr 0.700 = 8,538 0.700 = 5,977 atoms 87Sr
Sr
87
Change in Sr = 19210 5977 = 13233 atoms 87Sr (per 100,000 Sr atoms)

Originally:

86

1217

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

Currently, 19210 per 100,000 atoms is 87Sr which represents 2.957 ppm.
A change of 13233 atoms represents (13233/19210)2.957 ppm = 2.037 ppm 87Sr
The source of 87Sr is radioactive decay from 87Rb (a 1:1 relation).
Change in the 87Rb (through radioactive decay) = change in 87Sr = 2.037 ppm
87
Rb
Isotope:
Current concentration 67.0 ppm
Change concentration +2.037 ppm
Original concentration 69.04 ppm

85

Rb
198.4 ppm

198.4 ppm

Total Rb
265.4 ppm
+2.037 ppm
267.44 ppm

(c)

2.037 ppm
% 87Rb decayed =
100% = 2.95 % (% 87Rb remaining = 97.05%)

69.04 ppm

(d)

ln(0.9705) = t

( =

0.693
0.693

= 1.444 1011 y1)

10
4.8 10 y
t1/ 2

ln(0.9705) = 1.444 1011 y1t;

t = 2.07 109 years

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
75.

(E) (a) Alpha particles are the nuclei of helium-4 atoms, 42 He 2+ , ejected spontaneously
from the nuclei of certain radioactive atoms.
(b) - particles are electrons, but they are electrons that originate from the nuclei of atoms
in nuclear decay processes.
(c) + particle, also called a positron, has properties similar to the - particle, except that it
carries a positive charge.
(d) Gamma () rays are highly penetrating form of radiation that are undeflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
(e) t1/2 is the half-life of a reaction, i.e. a time required for the reaction to go to 50%
completion.

76.

(E) (a) All naturally occurring radioactive nuclides of high atomic number are members of
a radioactive decay series that originates with a long-lived isotope of high atomic number
and terminates with a stable isotope.
(b) A charged particle accelerator is a device that uses electric fields to propel charged
particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams.
(c) The stable nuclides of low atomic numbers have a neutron-to-proton ratio of one, or
nearly so. At higher atomic numbers, the neutron-to-proton ratios increase to about 1.5.
(d) The energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction can be described by using the
massenergy relationship derived by Albert Einstein: E=mc2.

1218

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

(e) All life exists against a background of naturally occurring ionizing radiation-cosmic
rays, ultraviolet light, and emanations from radioactive elements, such as uranium in rocks.
The level of this radiation varies from point to point on Earth, being greater, for instance,
at higher elevations.
77.

(E) (a) Electrons are negatively charged species, whereas positrons are positive.
(b) Half-life is the time taken for the activity of a given amount of a radioactive substance
to decay to half of its initial value. Decay constant () is the inverse of the mean lifetime.
(c) The difference between the unbound system calculated mass and experimentally
measured mass of nucleus is called mass defect. It is denoted by m. The amount of
energy required to break the nucleus of an atom into its isolated nucleons is called nuclear
binding energy.
(d) In nuclear chemistry, nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which the nucleus of an
atom splits into smaller parts, often producing free neutrons and lighter nuclei. Nuclear
fusion, on the other hand, is the process by which multiple atomic nuclei join together to
form a single heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy.
(e) The ionized electrons produced directly by the collisions of particles of radiation with
atoms are called primary electrons. These electrons may themselves possess sufficient
energies to cause secondary ionizations.

78.

(E)

(c)

79.

(E)

(b)

80.

(E)

(d)

81.

(E)

(c)

82.

(E)

(c)

83.

(E)

(d)

84.

(E)

(d)

85.

210
4
(M) (a) 214
88 Ra 86 Rn+ 2 He
205
0
(b) 205
85 At 84 Po+ +1 b
212
(c) 212
87 Fr+e 86 Rn
(d) 21 H+ 21 H 23 He+ 01 n
4
243
1
(e) 241
95 Am+ 2 He 97 Bk+2 0 n
1
(f) 23290Th+ 42 He 232
92 U+4 0 n

1219

Chapter 25: Nuclear Chemistry

86.

(M) First use the equation t1/ 2

0.693

to determine from t1/2 :

0.693 0.693

0.0608d -1
11.4d
t1/2

N
N
Then use the equation ln t t with t 0.01and solve for t:
N0
N0
4.605
76days
ln 0.01 0.0608t t
0.0608

87.

(M) First use the equation t1/ 2

0.693

to determine from t1/2 :

0.693 0.693

7.88 10 3 d -1
t1/2
87.9d

N
N
253 104
52
Then use the equation ln t t with t
,
, and
and solve for t:
N 0 1000 1000
1000
N0

253
1000 174days
ta
7.88 10 3
104
ln
1000 287days
tb
7.88 10 3
52
ln
1000 375days
tc
7.88 10 3
ln

88.

(M) (b)

89.

(M) (d)

90.

(M) (c)

91.

(M) (a)

92.

(M) (b)

1220