How To Size and Design Ducts
How To Size and Design Ducts
How To Size and Design Ducts
Ducts
Course No: M06-032
Credit: 6 PDH
A. Bhatia
HVAC
HOW TO SIZE AND DESIGN DUCTS
CONTENTS
1.0.
2.0.
3.0.
4.0.
5.0.
6.0.
Basic Definitions
1.2
1.3
1.4
Duct Components
2.2
Duct Materials
DUCT CLASSIFICATION
3.1
Velocity Classification
3.2
Pressure classification
3.3
DUCT SHAPES
4.1
Round Ducts
4.2
Rectangular Ducts
4.3
Oval Ducts
4.4
Equivalent Diameter
DUCT SIZING
5.1
5.2
5.3
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.0.
8.0.
9.0.
10.0.
11.0.
FAN SIZING
7.1
7.2
Balancing Air
7.3
8.2
8.3
8.4
Spider System
8.5
Radial System
8.6
8.7
Distributed Return
9.2
Central Return
9.3
Pressure Balancing
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Duct Construction
11.2
12.0.
13.0.
14.0.
15.0.
16.0.
11.3
Aspect Ratio
11.4
11.5
11.6
Energy Conservation
12.2
Ductwork Insulation
13.2
13.3
13.4
Duct Sealing
14.2
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
DUCT CLEANING
16.1
16.2
1.1
Basic Definitions
The following basic terminology is extensively used in this course.
Air volume in cfm can be calculated by multiplying the air velocity by the cross-sectional
area of the duct in square feet.
Given any two of these three quantities, the third can be readily determined:
fpm = cfm/area
Area = cfm/fpm
Static pressure: It is the air pressure in the duct, which is used for fan selection.
Velocity pressure: It is the pressure generated by the velocity and weight of the
air, which is used for measuring the flow (cfm) in a system.
Total pressure: It is used to find velocity pressure. Static pressure plus velocity
pressure equals total pressure.
cfm is required to keep the mass flow rate the same. If air density is not considered,
many systems will have very low air flow.
Correction for the density is however not needed in air conditioning or cooling
applications, if the temperature is between 40F to 100F and up to 1000 ft. in
elevation.
Fan Capacity:
The volume of air will not be affected in a given system because a fan will move the
same amount of air regardless of the air density. In other words, if a fan will move 3,000
cfm at 70F, it will also move 3,000 cfm at 250F
Volumetric Air Flow Rate:
The volumetric flow rate of air that will be conveyed through the duct in an air
conditioning system is determined by the cooling/heat load and the desired supply air
temperature. Since we are not conditioning cfms of air but rather pounds of it, we need a
mass-balance equation:
It is important that the air conditioning ductwork system delivers and return the right
amount of air from each room and provide comfort year round. This implies room by
room heat loss and heat gain calculations.
1.2
1. Static pressure: Static Pressure is the pressure that causes air in the duct to
flow. Static pressure is the outward push of air against duct surfaces and is a
measure of resistance when air moves through an object like duct work.
Measured in inches of water column (in-wc), it acts equally in all directions and
is independent of velocity.
2. Velocity pressure: Velocity pressure is the pressure caused by air in motion.
It is equal to the product of air density and the square of the velocity divided by
2.
VP = 0.5 x x v2
Using standard air, the relationship between V and VP is given by:
VP will only be exerted in the direction of air flow and is always positive.
3. Total Pressure: Total pressure is the algebraic sum of velocity pressure and
static pressure.
TP = VP + SP
1.4
TP = Total Pressure
VP = Velocity Pressure
SP = Static Pressure
pressure is also pushing in the direction of air flow, you can never measure
just velocity pressure. Practically, velocity pressure is calculated by measuring
pressure perpendicular to the air flow (Static Pressure) and also measuring
pressure parallel to the air flow (Total Pressure).
Once you have these two values you can just subtract static pressure from the
total pressure and derive the velocity pressure. VP = TP - SP
4. The total pressure generally drops along the air flow because of frictional and
turbulence losses.
Confusion in the use of the terms Static Pressure, Velocity Pressure and Total
Pressure is widely prevalent among HVAC engineers and contractors. The term
Static Pressure is typically used for fan selection; Velocity Pressure is used for
10
measuring cfm in a system, and Total Pressure is used to find the velocity
pressure. Total Pressure determines the actual mechanical energy that must be
supplied to the system.
2.0.
The air distribution system will have a designation depending on the function
of the duct. Broadly, there are five designations of ducts:
1. Supply air ductwork supplies conditioned air from the air handling unit to
the conditioned area.
2. Return air ductwork removes air from the conditioned building spaces
and returns the air to the air handling unit, which reconditions the air. In
some cases, part of the return air in this ductwork is exhausted to the
building exterior.
3. Fresh air ductwork supplies outdoor air to the air handling unit. Outdoor
air is used for ventilating the occupied building space.
4. Exhaust (relief) air ductwork carries and discharges air to the outdoors.
Exhaust air is taken from toilets, kitchen, laboratories and other areas
requiring ventilation.
5. Mixed air ductwork mixes air from the outdoor air and the return air then
supplies this mixed air to the air handling unit.
2.1
Duct Components
The figure below shows a schematic and a 3-D representation of supply and return air
ductwork. The central air handling unit (AHU) is connected to the air plenum at the
starting point. AHU fans draw in air through grilles called returns and force air through
the plenum and into the conditioned space through supply registers.
11
12
Trunk Duct: A duct that is split into more than one duct is called a trunk, just
like a tree. Ducts that are on the end of a trunk and terminate in a register are
called branches.
Take Off: Branch ducts are fastened to the main trunk by a takeoff-fitting. The
takeoff encourages the air moving the duct to enter the takeoff to the branch duct.
Air Terminals Devices: Air terminals are the supply air outlets and return or
exhaust air inlets. For supply, diffusers are most common, but grilles and
registers are also used widely. A diffuser is an outlet device discharging supply
air in a direction radially to the axis of entry. A register is a grille equipped with
a volume control damper. A grille is without a damper.
2.2
Duct Materials
Ducting is generally formed by folding sheet metal into the desired shape.
Traditionally, air conditioning ductwork is made of galvanized steel, next in
popularity is aluminum. Other metals used under special circumstances are
copper and stainless steel. Metals that are used extensively depend on the
application of the duct and are listed below:
1. Galvanized Steel: It is a standard, most common material used in
fabricating ductwork for most comfort air conditioning systems. The
specifications for galvanized steel sheet are ASTM A653, coating G90.
2. Aluminium: It is widely used in clean room applications. These are also
preferred systems for moisture laden air, special exhaust systems and
ornamental duct systems. The specifications for Aluminium sheet are
ASTM B209, alloy 1100, 3003 or 5052.
3. Stainless Steel: It is used in duct systems for kitchen exhaust, moisture
laden air, and fume exhaust. The specifications for stainless steel sheet are
ASTM A167, Class 302 or 304, Condition A (annealed) Finish No. 4 for
exposed ducts and Finish No. 2B for concealed duct.
4. Carbon Steel (Black Iron): It is widely used in applications involving flues,
stacks, hoods, other high temperature and special coating requirements for
industrial use.
5. Copper: It is mainly used for certain chemical exhaust and ornamental
ductwork.
13
Pressure in the air conditioning ducts is small, so materials with a great deal of
strength are not needed. The thickness of the material depends on the dimensions
of the duct, the length of the individual sections, and the cross-sectional area of
the duct.
Non-Metallic ducts
This category includes ducts made from plastic or foam boards, shaped by cutting
and folded to produce the required cross-sectional geometry. Boards are faced
usually with an aluminum coating, both internal and external.
The main drawback of this type of ducting is its fire classification. Even if it complies
with local standards, when exposed to fire, it often exhibits poor performance in terms
of the production of both smoke and flaming droplets.
1. Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP): It is used mainly for chemical
exhaust, scrubbers, and underground duct systems. Advantages are
resistance to corrosion, self-insulation, excellent sound attenuation and
high quality sealing. Limiting characteristics include cost, weight, range of
chemical and physical properties, and code acceptance.
2. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): It is used for exhaust systems for chemical
fumes and underground duct systems. Advantages include resistance to
corrosion, light weight, and ease of modification. Limiting characteristics
include cost, fabrication, code acceptance, thermal shock, and weight.
3. Fabric: Fabric ducting, also known as textile ducts, is usually made of
special permeable polyester material and is normally used where even air
distribution is essential. Due to the nature or the air distribution, textile
ducts are not usually concealed within false ceilings. Condensation is not a
concern with fabric ducts and therefore these can be used where air is to
be supplied below the dew point without insulation.
4. Flex Duct: Flex ducts consist of a duct inner liner supported on the inside
by a helix wire coil and covered by blanket insulation with a flexible vapor
barrier jacket on the outside. Flex ducts are often used for runouts, as well
as with metal collars used to connect the flexible ducts to supply plenums,
trunks and branches constructed from sheet metal or duct board. Flex
ducts provide convenience of installation as these can be easily adapted to
14
avoid clashes but has certain disadvantages. These have more friction loss
inside them than metal ducting. Flex duct runs should be as short as
possible (5 to 6 ft. max.) and should be stretched as tight as possible.
3.0.
DUCT CLASSIFICATION
Ducts are classified in terms of velocity and pressure.
3.1
Velocity Classification
Ducts are classified into 3 basic categories:
1. Low Velocity Systems: They are characterized by air velocities up to
2000 fpm.
2. Medium Velocity Systems: They are characterized by air velocities in the
range of 2,000 to 2,500 fpm.
3. High Velocity Systems: They are characterized by air velocities greater
than 2,500 fpm.
The low velocity system is used in most air conditioning installations because it is
quieter, has lower friction losses, lower fan power, and lower air leakage.
High duct velocities result in lower initial costs but require increased fan static
pressures; therefore, resulting in increased operating costs. Often these need
additional noise attenuation (use of noise silencers) and are not suitable for comfort
applications.
Generally, high-velocity systems are applicable to large multi-story buildings, primarily
because the advantage of savings in duct shafts and floor-to-floor heights is more
substantial. Small two- and three-story buildings are normally low velocity. A velocity
of 1,000 to 1,500 fpm for main ducts and a velocity of 700 to 1,000 fpm for the branch
take offs are recommended.
3.2
Pressure Classification
Duct systems are also divided into three pressure classifications, matching the way
supply fans are classified.
1. Low Pressure: The term low-pressure applies to systems with fan static
pressures less than 3 inches WC. Generally, duct velocities are less than
1,500 fpm.
15
2. Medium Pressure: The term medium pressure applies to systems with fan
static pressures between 3 to 6 inches WC. Generally, duct velocities are
less than or equal to 2,500 fpm.
3. High Pressure: The term high pressure applies to systems with fan static
pressures between 6 to 10 inches WC. Usually the static pressure is limited
to a maximum of 7 inches WC, and duct velocities are limited to 4,000 fpm.
Systems requiring pressures more than 7 inches WC are normally
unwarranted and could result in very high operating costs.
General good engineering practices are:
1. Use of medium pressure classification for primary air ductwork (fan
connections, risers, and main distribution ducts).
2. Use of low pressure classification for secondary air ductwork (runouts/branches from main to terminal boxes and distribution devices).
3.3
4.0.
DUCT SHAPES
Ducts commonly used for carrying air are of round, square, or rectangular shape. All
have advantages and disadvantages, and find applications where one is definitely
superior to the other.
16
4.1
Round Ducts
The duct shape that is the most efficient (offers the least resistance) in conveying
moving air is a round duct, because it has the greatest cross-sectional area and a
minimum contact surface. In other words, it uses less material compared to square or
rectangular ducts for the same volume of air handled.
An 18 inch diameter duct, for example, has the same air-carrying capacity as a 26 x
11 rectangular duct. The round duct has a cross-sectional area of 254.5 sq.-in and a
perimeter of 4.7 ft., while the rectangular duct has a 286 sq.-in area and a perimeter
of 6.2 ft. The rectangular duct thus has 32% more metal in it and would cost
proportionately more. Also the insulation, supports and labor are higher for
rectangular ducts of similar capacity.
Some of the advantages of round ductwork include:
Round shape results in lower pressure drops, thereby requiring less fan
horsepower to move the air and, consequently, smaller equipment.
Round shape also has less surface area and requires less insulation when
externally wrapped.
Round ducts are available in longer lengths than rectangular ducts, thereby
eliminating costly field joints. Spiral lock-seams add rigidity; therefore, spiral
ducts can be fabricated using lighter gauges than longitudinal seam ducts.
Spiral ducts leak less and can be more easily sealed compared to rectangular
ducts.
The acoustic performance of round and oval ducts is superior because their
curved surfaces allow less breakout noise. The low-frequency sound is well
contained in round ducts.
Round ducts can help promote healthier indoor environments. Less surface
area, no corners and better air flow reduce the chance of dirt and grime
accumulating inside the duct and, therefore, becoming a breeding ground for
bacterial growth.
While round air ducts have great advantages, there are some disadvantages to them.
One of the most notable drawbacks of round air ducts is that they need more clear
height for installation. If the net clear height of a furred space above a suspended
17
ceiling is 14 inches, an 18-in diameter duct cannot be installed therein; however, its
equivalent 26 x 11 rectangular duct will fit the space easily. A combination of a
rectangular plenum and round branches sometimes is a good compromise.
4.2
Rectangular Ducts
Square or rectangular ducts fit better to building construction. They fit above ceilings
and into walls, and they are much easier to install between joists and studs.
When rectangular ducts must be used due to space limitations, keep the width-toheight ratio (aspect ratio) low. A rectangular duct section with an aspect ratio close to
1 yields the most efficient rectangular duct shape in terms of conveying air. A duct
with an aspect ratio above 4 is much less efficient in use of material and experiences
great pressure losses. Aspect ratios of 2 to 3 are ideal in trading off added duct cost
of material and fan energy for headroom savings.
18
5. Those with high aspect ratio can transmit excessive noise if not properly
supported.
4.3
Oval Ducts
Flat oval ducts have smaller height requirements than round ducts and retain most of
the advantages of the round ducts. However, fittings for flat oval ducts are difficult to
fabricate or modify in the field. Other disadvantages include:
1. Difficulty of handling and shipping larger sizes;
2. Tendency of these ducts to become more round under pressure; and,
3. In large aspect ratios, difficulties of assembling oval slip joints.
4.4
Equivalent Diameter
Since both round and rectangular ducts are extensively used in air conditioning
systems, it is quite possible that a contractor may wish to substitute one for the other
while working on new construction or modifying an existing system. With this
likelihood, there is the general tendency to substitute cross-sectional areas of round
and rectangular ducts. This is improper and will affect air distribution system
performance. Therefore, it is necessary for the HVAC designer to fully understand
the conditions under which round and rectangular ducts can be interchanged. The
important thing is the duct pressure drop and thats where the concept of equivalent
diameter comes into picture.
By definition, equivalent diameter (Deq) is the diameter of a circular duct that will give
the same pressure drop at the same air flow as the rectangular duct.
From ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, the following equations may be used to
convert rectangular and flat oval ducts to and from round.
19
where,
20
Duct shape
Exact
Rounded
Cross
Velocity
Friction loss
converted
dimensions
sectional
(fpm)
(in.-WC/100ft)
dimensions
area (sq.-ft.)
(inches)
Round
Flat oval
16 x 52.5
Rectangular 16 x 51
30
4.91
1528
0.10
16 x 53
5.51
1361
0.10
16 x 51
5.67
1362
0.10
From the analysis above, all three ducts have the same friction loss factors because
they are equivalent (in terms of pressure drop per unit length). Note that the crosssectional areas of the rectangular and oval ducts will always be larger than that of the
round duct with the same equivalent diameter.
Equivalent Cross-sectional Area Approach
Lets see what happens when using an equivalent cross-sectional area approach.
Diameter of duct = 30 inches or 2.5 ft.
Cross-sectional area of the 30-inch diameter duct = 3.14* 2.5 * 2.5/4 = 4.91 sq.-ft.
Cross-section area of rectangular duct:
A=a*b
Fixing minor axis b as 16 inches;
Major axis a will be = 4.91* 144/16 = 44.2 inches.
Cross-sectional area of oval duct:
21
where,
Friction loss is estimated from the duct friction charts for a given air flow rate and
velocity (refer to the duct sizing section below for details).
The table below summarizes the equivalent cross-sectional area approach.
Duct shape
Air
Exact
Rounded
Cross
Velocity
Friction
flow,
converted
dimensions
sectional
(v) fpm
loss (in.-
(Q)
dimensions
area
cfm
(inches)
sq.-ft.
Round
7500
Flat oval
7500
Rectangular
7500
(A)
v = Q/A
WC/100ft)
30
4.91
1528
0.10
16 x 47.6
16 x 48
4.95
1514
0.12
16 x 44.2
16 x 44
4.89
1534
0.14
You can see the frictional loss increases with increasing velocity and lower crosssectional area.
In Conclusion
The equivalent diameter approach will retain the same pressure drop but will result in
higher cross-sections of rectangular and oval ducts compared to round ducts.
The equivalent area approach will increase the pressure drop of the duct run while
keeping the cross-sectional area the same.
5.0.
DUCT SIZING
The most widely used method to size ducting is the equal friction method. The other
methods are velocity reduction and static regain.
5.1
22
very common friction rate for a reasonably well designed system is 0.1 in.-wc per
100 ft. of duct length. Reduced friction rates of 0.05 in.-wc per 100 ft. increases the
duct size and costs by 15%, but cuts the portion of the total pressure drop in ductwork
by 50%, resulting in fan energy savings of 15% to 20%.
Procedure:
Equal friction method uses a duct slide rule, duct calculator, or friction rate chart to
determine the relationship between duct size and air flow, i.e. how much air will
come out of a given size duct. The methodology is as follows:
a. Select maximum air velocity in main duct after fan outlet.
b. Enter the friction chart knowing the cfm and velocity to determine the
friction rate per 100 feet of duct length and select the diameter (refer to
chart below).
c. From the friction rate obtained in the previous step, use the same value to
determine diameters for all other sections of the ductwork.
d. The total friction loss in the duct system is then calculated by multiplying
the friction loss per 100-foot of length to the equivalent length of the most
critical path of the ductwork having maximum resistance.
23
Example
Determine the diameter and the velocity of air through a duct carrying 1,000 cfm of
air. Assume a friction loss of 0.1 in.-wc per 100 ft. of duct length. Determine the
real pressure drop and velocity on the selected duct size.
Solution:
From the above monograph, the 0.1 in.-wc per 100 ft. friction line intersects the
1,000 cfm line at a round duct diameter of 13.5 inch. Select the next available
round duct size of 14. When this duct is used, the pressure loss will be 0.09 in.wc/100, and the velocity is ~800 fpm. (Note: the chart illustrated above is only for
educational purpose and may be out of scale.)
There are a variety of commercially available duct calculator tools (also known as
ductulators) that are easy and accurate to use for sizing ducts if you know the flow
rate and friction loss or velocity. Use the following friction loss guidelines for sizing
ducts with a duct calculator tool.
System Type
Supply run-outs
0.08
0.05
Return ducts
0.02
24
2. It is not recommended for VAV systems. If used for VAV supply duct
design, the terminal units require pressure independent (Pi) control
capability to avoid excessive flow rates when duct pressure is high.
3. It is not flexible and adaptable to future layout changes.
5.2
Comfort
Industrial
High Speed
Duct
Systems Velocity
Systems Velocity
Systems Velocity
(fpm)
(fpm)
(fpm)
Main duct
1000 - 1500
1500 - 2400
2000 - 3600
Main branch
700 - 1000
1000 - 1600
1200 - 2400
400 - 600
600 - 800
800 - 1000
duct
Runout duct
b. Find the diameters of the main and branch ducts from air flow rates and
velocities. The velocity in duct can be expressed as:
A=Q/v
Where,
c. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the
frictional pressure drop for the main and branch ducts using the friction chart
above.
25
5.3
26
supplied to the air by the fan. Oversized ducts can occur at the ends of long
branches.
6.0.
6.1
27
28
where,
P = Pressure drop, in. of water
f = Friction factor, dimensionless
L = Duct length, ft
D = Internal diameter of duct in inches (covert to equivalent diameter for noncircular duct)
V = Velocity, fpm
6.2
= Density, lbm/ft3
Methods of computing the energy losses from the various fitting types are based on
information found in ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals or can be calculated from
loss-coefficient charts developed by the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning National
Contractors' Association (SMACNA).
29
The total pressure loss from friction through the fittings, Ffitting, is proportional to the
velocity pressure (VP). The constant of proportionality depends on the fitting. Thus,
the total pressure loss from friction through a fitting is calculated as:
The dynamic loss coefficient (K) is measured empirically and reported by the fitting
manufacturers. Often for simplicity, an equivalent length method is used wherein a
type of fitting such as a T-wye or elbow is assigned a number that represents a
length of straight duct that has an equal pressure drop. For example a T-wye
might have an equivalent length of 10 feet. A ninety degree elbow might have an
equivalent length of 15 feet.
supply plenum can have equivalent lengths approaching 30 feet or more. This
additional length is then added to the straight length of the duct to get the overall
effective length.
6.3
30
With 250 cfm flowing through the system, we would find that the pressure loss of the
elbow, or the difference between gauge readings P1 and P2 would be about 0.054
inches WG. Now to obtain the same pressure loss through the run of straight pipe
between gauges P2 and P3, we would find that gauge P3 must be placed 25 feet away
from gauge P2 before the losses were the same. Thus, for the condition stated, the
pressure loss of the 7-inch round elbow is equivalent to the loss of 25 ft. of 7-inch
round duct.
If we increase the air flow rate through the system we would find that to keep the
readings between gauges equal, we would have to move gauge P3 further away from
gauge P2. In other words, if we increase the flow rate to say 350 cfm, gauge P3 might
have to be placed 26 or 27 ft. away from P2 to obtain the same loss reading as
experienced by the elbow. Conversely, if we lower the flow rate, the distance between
P2 and P3 could be narrowed.
A fittings pressure loss thus can be conveniently expressed in terms of equivalent
length of straight duct of any size. Equivalent lengths are numbers that can be
looked up in an appendix of ACCA Manual D, ASHRAE or SMACNA guides.
Note that the equivalent length of a fitting is different from the effective length, which
is the sum of the actual measured length of a duct plus all the equivalent lengths of
the various fittings.
6.4
7.0.
FAN SIZING
In a duct system, a fan is used to supply the necessary forces to bring the fluid from
rest to the system velocity, and overcome friction forces. The force exerted by the fan
31
is the fan total pressure. The total pressure is divided into two vector components.
The first component, velocity pressure, is in the direction of the flow and whose
magnitude is positive and proportional to the velocity. The second component, static
pressure, is normal to the direction of the flow. Static pressure may be positive,
exerting outward from the frame of reference, or negative, exerting inward. Velocity
pressure is always positive, and the sum of the static and velocity pressures is the
total pressure.
7.1
ESP is the static pressure created downstream of the AHU and it includes all
the duct losses from the fan until it reaches the discharge point. This could
include a negative static pressure on the pull side of the fan and a positive
pressure on the push side, or any combination of pressures the fan must
overcome. It is estimated by the HVAC design engineer as he lays out the
ductwork, diffusers, and terminal devices.
ISP, as it pertains to the HVAC AHU, is the static pressure loss across the filters,
coils, louvers, dampers, and twists and turns inside the AHU casing. ISP is
usually provided by the supplier, but for custom designs, the HVAC design
engineer estimates the pressure loss across the various components of the AHU.
Below is a simple model to calculate the total pressure loss (using the equal friction
method) and the selection of fan.
Example
An air conditioning layout below depicts an air handling unit (AHU) supplying cool air to
an office space. The supply air fan discharges to supply air diffusers SAD -1 & SAD - 2
through the supply duct and draws air through the return duct via the return air grille
(RAG -1). It also draws fresh air through a louver (OAL -1). Estimate the total pressure
loss for sizing the fan.
32
Solution:
The layout shows four (4) paths of air flow and six (6) duct sections.
Path #1: Air supply through duct sections AB and BC
Path #2: Air supply through duct sections AB, BD and DE
Path #3: Air return through duct section FG
Path #4: Outdoor air intake through duct section HG
The section occurs at:
Now using the friction charts, lets find out the duct pressure losses per 100-ft. length of
duct.
Path #1:
a. Duct run AB; (12 diameter, 1000 cfm) = 0.2 in.- wc/100 ft. duct length
b. Duct run BC ; (8 diameter, 500 cfm) = 0.37 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
c. SAD-1 = 0.12 in.-wc (from manufacturers catalog)
d. Total Pressure Loss = [0.2 + 0.37 + 0.12] = 0.69 in.-wc/100 ft. of duct length
33
Path #2:
a. Duct run AB; (12 diameter, 1000 cfm) = 0.2 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
b. Duct run BD ; ( 10 diameter, 500 cfm) = 0.14 in.- wc/100 ft. duct length
c. Duct run DE; ( 8 diameter, 500 cfm) = 0.37 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
d. SAD-2 = 0.12 in. -wc (from manufacturers catalog)
e. Total Pressure Loss = [0.2 + 0.14 + 0.37 + 0.12] = 0.83 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
Path #3:
a. RAG -1 = 0.08 in.- wc (from manufacturers catalog)
b. Duct runs FG; ( 12 diameter, 900 cfm) = 0.16 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
c. Total Pressure Loss = [0.08 + 0.16] = 0.24 in. wc/100 ft. duct length
Path #4:
a. OAL-1 = 0.08 in. - wc (from manufacturers catalog)
b. Duct runs HG; ( 6 diameter, 100 cfm) = 0.08 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
c. Total Pressure Loss = [0.08 + 0.08] = 0.16 in.-wc/100 ft. duct length
Pressure Loss due to Fittings
All the pressure losses computed above are for 100-ft. length of duct. Pressure drops in
duct fittings have equivalent lengths. All duct lengths and equivalent lengths are added
together to achieve the maximum ESP. Say, for this example, the effective length
(straight length of duct + equivalent length of fittings) for various duct sections is:
a. AB = 25 ft.
b. BC = 35 ft.
c. BD = 75 ft.
d. DE = 35 ft.
e. FG = 50 ft.
f.
HG = 10 ft.
34
Path #1:
a. Duct run AB = 0.2 x 25/100 = 0.05 in. - wc
b. Duct run BC = 0.37 x 35/100 = 0.13 in.- wc
c. SAD-1 = 0.12 in.- wc
d. Total Pressure Loss = [0.05 + 0.13 + 0.12] = 0.30 in.- wc
Path #2:
a. Duct run AB= 0.2 x 25/100 = 0.05 in.- wc
b. Duct run BD = 0.14 x 75/100 = 0.10 in.- wc
c. Duct run DE = 0.37 x 35/100 = 0.13 in.- wc
d. SAD-2 = 0.12 in. - wc
e. Total Pressure Loss = [0.05 + 0.10 + 0.13 + 0.12] = 0.40 in.- wc
Path #3:
a. RAG -1 = 0.08 in.- wc
b. Duct runs FG= 0.16 x 50/100 = 0.08 in.- wc
c. Total Pressure Loss = [0.08 + 0.08] = 0.16 in. - wc
Path #4:
a. OAL-1 = 0.08 in. - wc
b. Duct runs HG = 0.08 x 10/100 = 0.008 in.- wc
c. Total Pressure Loss = [0.08 + 0.008] = 0.09 in.- wc
Maximum ESP:
Sum the pressure losses calculated for each branch from the fan to an air discharge
point. The branch with the largest pressure loss sets the system pressure drop. In our
example, Path #2 + Path #4 give the maximum pressure loss.
ESP max = 0.40 + 0.09 = 0.49 in.-wc
Equipment Loss (ISP):
a. Filters = 0.15 in.- wc (from manufacturers catalog)
b. Cooling Coil = 0.50 in.- wc (from manufacturers catalog)
35
36
7.2
Balancing Air
An important ductwork design consideration is the pressure balance of the duct layout.
Actual air flow can exceed design flow if the fan pressure is higher than the pressure loss.
In this case, it takes partial closure of the balancing dampers, which control the air flow, to
get the air flow rate down to what the duct equipment was designed to handle.
Air balancing is an act of adjusting the volume control dampers to equalize the friction
losses. One of the major drawbacks of the equal friction duct sizing method is that there
is no equalization of pressure drops in duct branches, unless the system has a
symmetrical layout.
In the example above, because air will flow to the path of least resistance, it will be
necessary to adjust the balancing damper in line BC in order to divide the supply air
equally (i.e. 500 cfm per outlet). The ductwork has been installed so that the air path from
the fan discharge to SAD-2 has a total resistance of 0.40 in.-wc; whereas, the resistance
to air flow from the fan to SAD -1 is only 0.30 in .wc.
This means that SAD-1 will tend to get more air than is required and SAD-2 will receive
less than the design cfm. To balance the air in each duct line, damper BC will be adjusted
so that it will impose a resistance in line BC equal to 0.10 in.wc, which is the calculated
difference in pressure loss between the two duct runs (0.4 -0.3).
As with the supply runs, the return and outside duct runs have different pressure losses.
Therefore, in order to balance the return and outside duct lines, the outside air damper
HG will be adjusted so that it imposes a resistance of 0.07 in.-wc (the difference between
the return run and the outside air (0.09 -0.16).
7.3
37
At point A in the figure, the velocity pressure is high and the available static
pressure is low. As the air moves down the duct, the velocity of the air becomes
more uniform across the duct, and the static pressure increases as the velocity
pressure decreases. At point B in the figure, the air velocity is uniform across the
duct, and low compared to the outlet velocity (point A).
38
39
is required, there should be a length of straight duct between the fan inlet and
the elbow at least two times the diameter of the fan inlet.
6. If a free inlet is required, the inlet duct can be replaced with an inlet bell
which provides a smooth transition to the fan velocity with no loss in total
pressure.
7. A straight duct for a distance of three to six duct diameters from the fan
discharge should be used in order to develop a full dynamic head.
Branching and turning sooner causes system effect losses.
8.0.
8.1
The principal design limitation of the extended plenum is the maximum length of the
main supply trunk (of single size), which is usually limited to about 24 feet. When this
length is exceeded, pressure tends to build up toward the end of the duct, resulting in
too much air flow near the ends and insufficient air flow in branches closer to the air
handler.
40
However, the extended plenum system can be modified to provide a double span, up
to 48 feet long, when the equipment is centrally located. See the figure below.
General rules:
The following general rules apply for the extended plenum system:
8.2
Keep branch run starting collars 24 in. from the end caps.
41
Another variation of this system is the reduced trunk system described below.
8.3
42
Obviously, this type of system generally takes more sheet metal to build and
requires more labor to fabricate and install.
8.4
Spider System
A spider system is a more distinct variation of the trunk and branch system. Large
supply trunks (usually large-diameter flexible ducts) connect remote mixing boxes
to a small, central supply plenum. Smaller branch ducts or run-outs take air from
the remote mixing boxes to the individual supply outlets. The figure below
illustrates this concept.
8.5
Radial System
In a radial system, there is no trunk duct, branch ducts or run-outs; rather
individual supply outlets are essentially connected directly to the air handler,
usually using a small supply plenum. The short, direct duct runs maximize air flow.
The radial system commonly is applied in attics, crawl spaces, and in slab on
grade installations (with the ducts embedded in the slab). It can be used with upflow, down-flow, or horizontal air handlers and furnaces.
Traditionally, this system is associated with an air handler that is centrally located
so that ducts are arranged in a radial pattern. However, symmetry is not
mandatory, and designs using parallel run-outs can be designed so that duct runs
remain in the conditioned space (e.g., installed above a dropped ceiling).
43
The radial system is most economical and easiest to install, but is not practical if
the air handling unit cannot be centrally located.
8.6
8.7
44
Neither branch off any closer than 12" to the end nor off the end of a trunk
No take-off 4' after a reduction or 1.5 times the greater dimension of the duct
Never take-off a reduction or increase the mains any closer than the diameter
of the branch duct
On supply and return, when the trunk is wider than the plenum, a transition
fitting must be used
9.0.
9.1
Distributed Return
In a distributed return, each room has a return duct that provides a pathway for air to
flow back to the air handler. The scheme ensures that the air flow is returned from all
rooms, avoids too much positive pressurization, minimizes pressure imbalances,
improves privacy, and is quiet. However, design and installation costs are generally
higher than for a central return system, and higher friction losses can increase blower
requirements.
9.2
Central Return
In a central return duct system, return grilles are located in central locations on the
common plenum, usually close to the air handler. To ensure proper air flow from all
45
rooms, especially when doors are closed, transfer grilles or jumper ducts must be
installed in each room.
Central return ducts should have at least one 90 degree bend between the air handler
unit and the central return grille, and the air speed at the face of the return grille
should be designed at 350 fpm. This keeps noise in check while allowing enough
negative pressure in the return box to draw in outside air with the central-fanintegrated supply ventilation system. To size the return grille, use the equation below
and divide the result by 0.65 to account for about 65% free area, which is normal for
stamped return grilles.
A=q/v
where,
They lower energy loss, since larger plenum space provides a more direct
path for air flow.
9.3
Pressure Balancing
The return openings will need to be 2 to 3 times the size of the supply duct depending
on system design velocities. This can take the form of transfer grille and jump ducts.
1. Transfer Grilles: They allow air to move from one space to another to
alleviate pressure differences. For example, a transfer grille installed above a
bedroom door enables air to move between the bedroom and the hallway,
regardless of whether the door is open or closed. Door undercutting can help
as well (for example inch undercut of a 32 door will create 24 sq. in. open
area) but isn't normally sufficient on its own. A transfer grille and/or jump ducts
are often required to equalize pressure and prevent over pressurization of
46
spaces. A Rule of Thumb considers 1 square inch of wall opening per cfm
delivered to the room.
2. Jump ducts: They are short ducts that connect adjacent rooms and help
balance air flow between rooms in cases where theres one shared return
grille serving the whole floor. As a general rule, no room will have less than a
6 diameter jump duct and, if more than 250 cfm needs to be transferred back
to the main return area, it may be advisable to run a dedicated return duct to
that area instead.
10.0.
10.1
Unless a reduction of two inches can be made, the original duct size should be
maintained.
47
Use radius elbows rather than square elbows whenever space allows.
Where a full radius elbow cannot fit, a part-radius elbow or square elbow
with one or more splitters should be used.
Turning vanes should only be used on low velocity systems where radius
elbows will not fit.
10.2
48
Pressure loss across the damper and leakage through a closed damper are two
performance criteria affecting the selection of dampers. Parallel blade dampers are
best suited for full-open or closed requirements or for fine control between 80% to
100% full flow. Opposed blade dampers are best for systems where air volume is
changed over a wide range. AMCA recommends using an opposed-blade damper
when volume control is needed.
Balancing/volume adjusting dampers should be installed close to the main supply, as
far away as possible from the outlets. Terminal dampers such as those used in
registers and diffusers should not be considered in branch balancing as they are
meant to be used for fine adjustment only and would normally be in an almost fully
open position to prevent unnecessary noise.
10.3
10.4
49
Grilles are defined as air devices that are typically used to return air back to the fan or
to exhaust air from a space. Grilles are generally not used in supply distribution due to
their inability to control the air.
Registers look like grilles but are comprised of one-way or two-way adjustable air
stream deflectors and dampers to restrict the amount of air flow required to be
returned, supplied or exhausted.
Steps for Selecting Air Terminals:
a. Determine the air flow requirement and room size.
b. Select the appropriate diffuser.
c. Determine the velocity, throw, noise and pressure drop across the diffuser.
Lets check the characteristics of diffuser (item c) with a help of an example. Table
below provides performance conditions of typical diffusers:
Air flow (cfm)
50
60
70
85
95
110
120
Velocity (fpm)
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Pressure drop
0.056
0.090
0.131
0.175
0.225
0.290
0.355
Noise (NC)
14
20
24
28
32
35
38
Throw (ft)
5-8-13
7-9-12
8-12-19
9-13-18
10-15-21
12-17-24
13-19-31
(in.-wc)
Air velocity: It is the normal air velocity used for comfortable air distribution is 50 fpm
while the acceptable range is from 25 to 75 fpm.
Pressure drop: It is the pressure drop across the diffuser increases at higher
velocities.
Noise Criteria (NC): NC increases at higher velocities. If a typical space requires a
NC rating of 28-32, the corresponding maximum air flow is somewhere between 85
and 95 cfm.
Throw: Throw is defined as the horizontal distance from a diffuser at a specified
velocity. For example, T50 = 15, indicates that at a distance of 15 from the diffuser,
the velocity of the air will be 50 feet per minute. T100 = 10, indicates the distance at
50
which the air velocity is 100 feet per minute, and T150 = 5, indicates the distance for
150 feet per minute. Often times throw is shown simply in the following format: [T150 T100 - T50]. For example, in the table above, air flow of 60 cfm results in a velocity of
150 fpm at 7 from the diffuser, a velocity of 100 fpm at 9 from the diffuser, and a
velocity of 50 fpm at 12 from the diffuser.
10.5
51
c. A return air inlet that is located directly in the primary air stream of the supply
outlet will short circuit the supply air back into the return without mixing with
room air. Place the returns high when cooling is the dominant factor, and low
when heating is the dominant factor.
d. Special situations that require careful attention by the designer are the location
of return and exhaust inlets in bars, kitchens, lavatories, dining rooms, club
rooms, etc. These normally should be located near or at the ceiling level to
collect the warm air "build-up," odors, smoke, and fumes.
11.0.
11.1
Duct Construction
Duct walls, transverse joints, longitudinal seams and reinforcements at or between
joints make up the basic elements of duct construction. Each size in a pressure class
has a minimum duct wall thickness and a minimum specification for joints and
reinforcements. The details are available in SMACNA 3rd edition 2005 guides.
52
11.2
Round Duct
Greater
G. Steel
Al
Dimension
(gauge)
(gauge)
Up to 30 inch
24
22
31 60 inches
22
61 90 inches
> 91 inches
Diameter
G. Steel
Al
(gauge)
(gauge)
Up to 8 inch
24
22
20
9 24 inches
22
20
20
18
25 48 inches
20
18
18
16
49 72 inches
18
16
Note that the lower the gauge, the thicker is the sheet metal.
The galvanized sheet metal recommended for ductwork should have a zinc coating at
least 1.25 ounces (35.4 g) per sq.-ft. on both sides of the sheet and should be of lockforming quality. The weight of galvanized steel is as follows:
24 gauge = 1.156 lbs./sq.-ft.
22 gauge = 1.406 lbs./sq.-ft.
20 gauge = 1.656 lbs./sq.-ft.
18 gauge = 2.156 lbs./sq.-ft.
Cost of galvanized steel = $16 per lb.
11.3
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is an important factor to classify cost and air flow effectiveness of a
rectangular duct. The aspect ratio is the relationship between the width (w) and height
(h) of a duct, expressed as a ratio of w/h.
Increasing the aspect ratio, increases both the installed cost and the operating cost of
the system. A rectangular duct with an aspect ratio closer to 1 will use the lowest
53
sheet metal. Other benefits include low friction drop, low weight of metal, and lower
insulation and installation costs.
Example:
A duct with a cross-sectional area of 4 sq.-ft. and 100-ft. length can be fabricated as
2 x 2 or 1 x 4 dimensions.
In the 1st case, 2 x 2, the perimeter = 8 ft, total sheet metal required is 8 x 100 = 800
sq.-ft.
In the 2nd case, 1 x 4, the perimeter = 10 ft, total sheet metal required is 10 x 100 =
1000 sq.-ft.
As the aspect ratio increases from 1:1 to 1:4, the surface area and insulation
requirements increase 40% percent.
11.4
Duct Diameter
Tonnage
100 cfm
6 round
5 x 6
4 x 8
200 cfm
8 round
6 x 8
4 x 12
ton
300 cfm
9 round
10 x 7
5 x 14
ton
400 cfm
10 round
8 x 10
6 x 14
1 ton
600 cfm
12 round
10 x 12
8 x 14
1 tons
800 cfm
13 round
10 x 14
8 x 18
2 tons
1000 cfm
14 round
10 x 16
12 x 14
2 tons
1200 cfm
16 round
10 x 20
12 x 16
3 tons
1400 cfm
16 round
12 x 18
10 x 20
3 tons
54
1600 cfm
18 round
14 x 16
12 x 20
4 tons
2000 cfm
18 round
12 x 25
16 x 17
5 tons
Make sure that the return ducts are larger than, or at least the same size as, the
supply ducts.
11.5
55
11.6
8 ft.
6 ft.
4 ft.
12.0.
12.1
Energy Conservation
Typical duct systems lose 25 to 40 percent of the heating or cooling energy. Buildings
with ducts in a protected area (such as a basement) may lose somewhat less than
this, while some other types of systems (such as attic ducts in hot, humid climates)
often lose more. Duct systems lose energy in two ways:
1. The first way is via heat transfer through the duct walls. Ducts in a
conditioned space are the most energy-efficient ducts. Ducts running
through unconditioned spaces, like an attic or crawlspace, should be
insulated. Heat gains and losses are minimized and go directly to the
conditioned space.
56
2. The second is via air leakages through accidental holes or through open
spaces between poorly connected sections of ductwork. Leaky supply
ducts cause depressurization of the structure, and outside air is forced in
through cracks in the envelope. Leaky return ducts cause pressurization,
which forces conditioned inside air out of the structure. Sealing both supply
and return ducts minimizes energy loss by infiltration.
12.2
57
for example, 20 x 20 grille equals 400 sq.-in. gross area of grille, which
means 800 cfm of recommended air flow.
5. Be careful where you install ducts: Ducts placed in conditioned spaces
are more efficient than those placed in unconditioned spaces. If located
within conditioned space, conductive and radiative losses, leakage losses,
and equipment cabinet losses are reduced or regained into the building
space. If it is not feasible to locate ductwork within conditioned spaces, the
ducts should be properly sealed and insulated. The trunk ducts are usually
located above corridors in the cavity above the ceiling to minimize noise
transmission to the conditioned zones and allow easy access without
disturbing the building occupants.
6. Thermal Zoning: Zoning is a practice of dividing a building into distinct
thermal zones, which have similar heating and cooling requirements. In
practice the corner rooms and the perimetric spaces of the building have
variations in load as compared to the interior core areas. The buildings are
usually divided into two major zones.
Exterior Zone: This is the area inward from the outside wall (usually
12 to 18 feet, if rooms do not line the outside wall). The exterior zone is
directly affected by outdoor conditions during summer and winter and
has variable thermal loads.
Interior Zone: This is the area contained by the external zone. The
interior zone is only slightly affected by outdoor conditions and usually
has a uniform and steady cooling load throughout.
Few areas, for example, conference and meeting rooms are influenced by
variable occupancy loads. The concept of thermal zone is important to size
HVAC equipment and plan the way ducting is routed. If zones have special
temperature and/or humidity requirements, they should be served by
independent air distribution systems separate from variable zones. The
idea is to permit independent control of temperature and humidity in similar
zones. Where it is not possible, consider use of VAV systems and/or
supplementary controls.
58
7. Seal and insulate: Make sure all ductwork sections fit together tightly.
Connections can be mechanically sealed with sheet metal screws or other
fasteners to improve connection strength. Seal connections with mastic or
metal tape. Cover the ductwork with insulation, such as rigid fiber board or
standard blanket-type insulation.
8. Rules of Thumb:
10% Rule: For supply ducts longer than 10 feet, the air is reduced
in that run by 10% for every 5 feet over 10 feet. For example, a 30
foot run yields a reduction of 40% (30-10=20, 205=4, 410=40%).
Minimize length and restrictions. Keep the supply duct length as
close to 10 feet as possible but never less than 6 feet. Use the
fewest number of bends as possible.
60/40 Rule: When using a tee, split the flow as close to 50/50 as
possible, no more than 60/40. Always use a turning vane.
70/30 Rule: Turn the tee 90 to make a side branch with no more
than 30 percent of the air. Do not use a turning vane.
13.0.
13.1
Ductwork Insulation
Insulation is applied to ductwork to minimize the rate of thermal loss through the
skinny sheet metal. Ducts may also sweat when their surface temperature is below
59
the dew point of the surrounding air. This can lead to water damage and microbial
growth within the building.
A 15F temperature difference from the inside of the duct to the outside of the duct
is considered the maximum difference allowed before insulation is necessary.
One-inch-thick fiberglass blanket (R value of 16) is almost always sufficient for
thermal protection. Return air ducts only need to be insulated if they pass through
environments that adversely affect the return air temperature.
The insulation is joined by lapping it, stapling it, and taping it. A protective cover with a
vapor barrier such as an aluminum foil should be included in the insulation
specifications.
13.2
13.3
60
CL = duct leakage class, cfm/100 square feet of duct surface area at 1 inch
Water Column. SMACNA has defined duct leakage rates as Leakage Class
24, 12 or 6. These numbers simply mean that at 1 inch of test pressure,
ducts can be expected to leak 24, 12 or 6 cfm per a square foot of duct
surface.
P = test pressure, which is equal to the design duct pressure class rating,
in inch Water Column, based on ASHRAE 90.1:6.4.4.2.2
Ductwork that is designed to operate at static pressures less than 3 in.-WC and
located outdoors or within unconditioned space, shall be leak-tested according to
the testing procedures contained in SMACNA HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test
Manual.
13.4
Duct Sealing
Duct sealing is a process of applying approved materials or sealants on the duct
joints prone to air leakages. Locations where sealing is typically performed include
the supply and return plenums, starting collars where ducts are connected to the
plenums, fittings in the duct runs, splices within the duct run, and terminations
where the ducts connect to the supply registers.
Approved Sealants:
Sealants should be UL 181 listed, water based, non-toxic, and water resistant with
high solids content. Approved sealants are flexible gaskets, fibre-reinforced mastic,
or mastic used with mesh tape. Duct systems sealed with mastics generally exhibit
lower leakage. Mastic sealant utilized should be water-based, non-toxic, consist of
at least 50% solids, and be UL 181 approved.
Materials not recommended:
Foil tapes, cloth-backed duct tapes, or pressure sensitive tapes are not suitable.
Oil base caulking and glazing compounds should not be used.
Both ASHRAE and SMACNA standards specify the duct sealing requirements in
terms of seal classes A, B and C.
61
Sealing Requirements
Seal Class A
Seal Class B
Seal Class C
14.0.
14.1
62
The major source of noise in air conditioning systems is due to air velocity as well as
the noise from fan. The 5 distinct paths of noise are:
1. Duct borne noise: It is caused by the flow of air and directly dependent on
the velocity of air.
2. Radiated equipment noise: It is caused by vibration of equipment and
inherent sound pressure of the equipment.
3. Break-in noise: It is radiated equipment noise that enters the ductwork and
propagates down the duct system.
4. Break-out noise: It transmits through the wall of the duct.
5. Terminal end noise: It is caused by the air flows at the terminal devices such
as diffuser or register.
14.2
63
64
6. Use internal duct lining for at least 10 to 15 feet from fan discharge. A oneinch-thick fiber glass duct insulation has an NRC of 0.7; this means it
effectively absorbs 70 percent of the sound at the most common frequencies.
A two-inch-thick duct liner has an NRC of 0.90, absorbing 90 percent of the
sound. Caution: A two-inch lining will reduce the cross-sectional area of the
duct causing an increase in velocity. This needs to be evaluated.
7. Add acoustic silencers on the fan discharge. Caution: Check the static
pressure of the fan to overcome the resistance. Check space.
8. Use flexible ducts only at the terminal ends of diffusers. The flexible ducts
should be completely stretched and restricted to a 6-foot length.
Terminal Noise:
1. Install at least 3 diameters straight flex at the diffuser inlet or use a minimum
of 6 feet of acoustical flex between the low pressure duct and the diffuser.
2. Select diffusers, grilles and registers for noise criteria rating of NC-30 or
lower for the designed air flow rate.
Refer to the HVAC Applications chapter, "Sound and Vibration Control" of the
ASHRAE Handbook, Chapter 43, and 2003 edition for further reading.
Regenerated Noise: HVAC Designer Enemy #1
Medium and high velocity air flow impinging on any obstruction will cause disturbance
of the air flow. The resultant turbulence produces regenerated noise.
HVAC duct design components such as elbows, turning vanes, dampers, transitions,
offsets, take-offs, tees, etc. are examples of such obstructions. The turbulence in
most air flow systems is characterized by sharp changes in the air flow path, sharp
bends, abrupt cross-sectional area changes, etc. in contrast to aerodynamic fan noise
which manifests itself in a more tonal frequency spectrum at the fan blade passage
frequency. Turbulence and regenerated noise are generally characterized by a broad
band frequency spectrum. Turbulence increases the noise levels and system
65
operating costs. Regenerated noise can be minimized by ensuring smooth air flow
conditions. SMACNA duct design and construction guidelines should be incorporated
in all job specifications and drawings. The SMACNA guidelines also outline optimal
duct silencer locations and guidelines for centrifugal fan installations (distances for
placement of duct fittings).
15.0. DUCTWORK TESTING & SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Air testing and balancing is a process that measures and adjusts the supply air
distribution of a given HVAC system. The purpose of testing and balancing an
HVAC system is to supply each conditioned zone with the precise amount of
supply air required to offset a given heat gain (or loss).This process is typically
performed after an HVAC system has been installed. The amount of air flow into
each zone is determined from the mechanical design plans. However, air testing
and balancing is also performed in response to certain cases of occupant thermal
discomfort. If occupant thermal discomfort exists in a building with a properly sized
and balanced HVAC system, fine tuning adjustments to supply registers may be
necessary to satisfy all occupants. The following testing requirements are
recommended:
1. Room-by-room air flows are correct;
2. Total supply is as designed;
3. Total return + exhaust = total supply;
4. Ducts, plenum, and air handler are tight; and
5. Static pressure is correct.
15.1
66
67
condition. This method of testing is preferred because it measures low air flow
accurately, and simulates what takes place under normal operating conditions.
15.3
68
The Pitot-Tube: The pitot-tube is a device that is usually used together with an
inclined manometer to measure the static pressure, total pressure and velocity
pressure within a ducted system. The pitot tube assembly includes a static
pressure probe and a total pressure probe. A total pressure probe, aligned into the
air flow, senses the duct velocity pressure and the static pressure, which equals
the total pressure. A static pressure probe aligned at a right angle to the air flow
senses only the static pressure. The difference between the total pressure reading
and the static pressure reading is the velocity pressure.
15.4
69
15.5
After obtaining the flow velocity from the equation above, the value is now
multiplied by the duct cross-sectional area to determine the air flow in cfm.
There are two different equations for determining the duct cross-sectional area,
one for round ducts and one for square or rectangular ducts.
70
= 3.14159
Example:
A pitot tube measures a velocity pressure of .75 W.C. through an 18 diameter
duct. Determine the air flow through the duct.
Calculate air flow velocity:
Velocity (V) = 4005 x (0.75)
V = 4005 x 0.866 = 3,468 fpm
Calculate cross-sectional area of an 18 diameter round duct:
Diameter = 18 = 1.5 ft.
Radius = 1.5/2 = 0.752 ft.
A = x r2
A = 3.14158 x 0.752 x 0.752 = 1.77 ft2
Determining air flow in cfm:
Air Flow (Q) = Flow Velocity in fpm (V) x Duct Cross-Sectional Area (A)
Q = 3,468 fpm x 1.77 ft2 = 6,138 cfm
71
15.6
and
affecting
the
performance
of
other
branch
outlets
72
16.0.
DUCT CLEANING
There is also the question of when duct cleaning should be done, and how the job
could be validated. Duct cleaning may be warranted in any of the following situations:
There is substantial evidence of visible mold growth inside the hard surface of
ducts or on other components of the heating and cooling system. Get
laboratory analysis carried out for the sample before taking the decision.
If you have insulated air ducts and the insulation gets wet or moldy, it cannot
be effectively cleaned and should be removed and replaced.
Ducts are clogged with excessive amounts of dust or debris, whereby particles
are actually released into the home from the supply registers.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), duct cleaning has never
been shown to actually prevent health problems. Moreover, studies do not
conclusively demonstrate that particle levels in homes increase because of dirty air
ducts. This is because much of the dirt in the air ducts adheres to duct surfaces and
does not necessarily enter the living space. It is important to keep in mind that dirty
air ducts are only one of many possible sources of particles that are present in
homes. Pollutants that enter the home both from the outdoors, as well as from indoor
activities such as cooking, cleaning, smoking, or just moving around, can cause
greater exposure to contaminants than dirty air ducts. Moreover, there is no evidence
that a light amount of household dust or other particulate matter in air ducts poses
any risk to your health.
In 1989, the National Air Duct Cleaners Association (NADCA) was formed by
members of the duct cleaning industry. This organization adopted a standard in 1992
entitled: NADCA Standard 1992-01, Mechanical Cleaning of Non-Porous Air
Conveyance System Components. This standard provides performance requirements
and evaluation criteria for the mechanical cleaning of non-porous ductwork, fans,
coils, and other non-porous components of commercial and residential air
conveyance systems.
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16.1
Contact vacuuming usually requires larger access windows than other methods, in
order to allow the cleaning equipment to reach into the last corner of the duct. The
distance between access hatches depends on the hovering equipment and the target
distance from the opening. The head of the vacuum cleaner is introduced into the
duct using the nearest opening at the beginning of the duct network. Hovering then
starts, following the direction of air flow, and slowly enough to capture and gather up
all the dirt.
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Compressed air is then introduced into the duct through a hose equipped with a
skipper nozzle. This nozzle is propelled by the compressed air along the inside of the
duct. For the air washing method to be effective, the compressed air source should be
able to produce between 160 and 200 psi air pressure and should have a 20-gallon
receiver tank. This method is most effective in cleaning ductwork no larger than 24"
24" inside dimensions. Inspection of each duct section and related components is
performed to determine whether the duct is clean.
Power (Mechanical) Brushing Method:
In the power brushing method, a vacuum collection unit is connected to the duct in the
same way as with the air sweep method. Pneumatic or electric rotary brushes are
used to dislodge dirt and dust particles, which become airborne and are then drawn
into the vacuum unit. Brushing operations will usually require larger access openings
than the previous method. Nevertheless, fewer openings are needed. Certain types of
mechanical brushes can reach up to 24 ft. in both directions.
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the
motor
horsepower
requirements
changed
since
design
development?
12. Has the type of starter that will be used for large machinery been
coordinated with the electrical designer? Often, changing the type of starter
or the voltage that is used to serve a large motor can improve electrical
system performance and reduce first costs.
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These coordination issues have ripple effects with significant implications for
energy and resource conservation. For example, if a coordination problem
between a mechanical system and a structural element is not resolved at the
design stage, the field solution may require additional fittings. These fittings will
introduce pressure drops that will persist for the life of the system or possibly the
life of the building. As another example, consider an equipment room with a poor
access route. The lack of suitable access may delay the replacement of an
existing, outdated piece of equipment with a more efficient machine, simply
because the cost to bring the new equipment into the building is too high.
Summary
General rules for duct design:
1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save space, power and material.
2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not possible to avoid sudden
changes, turning vanes should be used to reduce pressure loss.
3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence should be 20.
4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible. Normally, it should not exceed 4.
5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce noise and vibration.
6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce frictional losses.
7. Round ducts require 27% less metal per unit of air-handling capacity than rectangular
ducts and have lower installation costs, which may result in substantial capital cost
savings.
8. Rectangular metal ducts are the most flexible when it comes to fitting them within
limited spaces and are used in many duct systems with pressures under 2.0 in-WC,
particularly when the installing contractor has a sheet metal shop.
9. Leaks with medium- and high-pressure systems can create considerable noise.
Sealing materials include gaskets, pressure-sensitive tapes, embedded fabrics,
mastics, and liquids.
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Annexure
TYPICAL DUCT LAYOUTS
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