Diode

II.
Diodes
We start our study of nonlinear circuit elements. These elements (diodes and transistors) are
made of semiconductors. A brief description of how semiconductor devices work is first given
to understand their iv characteristics. You will see a rigorous analysis of semiconductors in
the breadth courses.
2.1
Energy Bands in Solids
In every atom, the nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by a cloud of electrons. It was
first envisioned that the atomic structure would be similar to that of the solar system: the
nucleus in the center (similar to the sun), electrons revolving on orbits around the nucleus
(planets), and the electric attraction force between the nucleus and electrons being similar
to the gravitational force between the sun and planets. However, according to Maxwells
equations, electrons that revolve around a nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation. As
such, electrons should lose their energy gradually and their orbit should decay (in a fraction
of a second!). This means that there is a mechanism that would not allow the electrons to
lose energy gradually and is one of reasons that the quantum theory was developed.
According to the quantum theory electrons revolving around an atom can only have discrete
levels of energy as is shown below. Electrons are not allowed to gradually lose or gain energy.
They can only jump from one energy level to another (by absorbing or emitting a quanta
of energy, a photon). Furthermore, there are only a finite number of electrons that are
allowed in each state (Paulis Principle). Therefore, both the energy levels for electrons and
the number of electrons at each energy level are specified. Because any system would tend
to be in a minimum energy state, electrons in an atom start by filling the lowest energy
level. Once all allowable slots is filled, electrons start filling the next energy level and so
on. Therefore, the electronic structure include filled energy levels (all slots are taken by
electrons), empty energy levels (positions are available but no electron is present), and
partially filled levels (there are some electrons but there is also room for more electrons).
Electrons at each energy level are confined to a region in space called the orbital. Higher
energy levels have larger orbital sizes (as is shown in the figure).
ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012
2-1
When atoms are arranged in a solid, the inter-spacing between atoms can become comparable
to the size of electron orbitals of each atom . In this case, the outer orbitals merge into energy
bands. Instead of discrete energy levels, electrons in these bands can have continuous values
of energy within a band of energy. As before, there are range of energies that no electron
can occupy. These range of energies are called Forbidden Gaps. (see the figure above). In
addition, electrons in these energy band are not necessarily attached to one atom. They can
be shared and/or be free to move around the solid.
The lowest energy band in which electrons can move freely in the material (and not tied
to any particular atom) is called the conduction band. The energy band directly below the
conduction band is called the valance band in semiconductors and insulators. The energy
difference between the top of the valance band and the bottom of the conduction band is
called the band-gap of the material.
The electric properties of metals, semiconductors, and insulators can be understood with
this picture. As these properties are tied to energy bands and forbidden gaps, we only focus
on these bands (see figure below).
Conduction Band
(Empty)
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
(Empty)
Conduction Band
(partially filled)
E gap
Valance Band
(Filled)
E gap
E gap
Valance Band
Valance Band
(Filled)
Metal
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
at 0 kelvin
at room temperature
Insulator
In metals, the conduction band is partially filled. As electrons in the partially filled conduction band can easily move around the material, metals can conduct electricity (and heat)
very well.
In a semiconductor at 0 kelvin (absolute zero), the valance band is completely filled while
the conduction band is completely empty. As such, a semiconductor does not conduct
electricity at 0 kelvin. However, the band-gap of a semiconductor is relatively small. At
room temperature, the thermal energy in the material is sufficient to move a number of
electrons from the valance band into the conduction band. These conduction band electrons
can carry electricity as they are free to move around the material.
2-2
In addition, promotion of some electrons to the conduction band leaves spaces (or holes)
in the valance band. While electrons in the valance band are tied to atoms, they can jump
from one hole in the valance band into the next hole and participate in the conduction of
electricity. As we are interested only on a small potion of electrons in the conduction band,
i.e., those are stepping from one hole to another, it is easier to keep track of the small
number of holes in the valance band. In this picture, when electrons move to the left of the
material to fill a hole, it would look like the hole is moving to the right. So, in describing
semiconductors we usually keep track of negatively charged electrons (those that are in the
conduction band) and positively charged holes (electrons in the valance band). Electrons
and holes are called the charge carriers in a semiconductor.
Since at room temperature the number of electrons that are promoted into the conduction
band of a semiconductor ( 1016 /m3 to 1019 /m3 ) is much smaller than number of electrons
in the partially-filled conduction band of a metal ( 1028 /m3 to 1029 /m3 ), semiconductors conduct electricity but have a much lower conductivity than metals (thus, the name
semiconductor). Overall, the properties of semiconductors are very sensitive to temperature
as the number of electron/hole pairs increases exponentially with temperature. This is an
important effect and should be taken into account in the design of electronic circuits.
Lastly, insulators energy band structure is similar to semiconductors (filled valance band,
empty conduction band at 0 kelvin). However, the band-gap of an insulator is several time
larger than that of a semiconductor. As such, the number of electrons that can be promoted
to the conduction is very small ( 107 /m3 at room temperature). So, these material are
very poor conductors.
2.2
Semiconductors
Semiconductor material are mainly made of elements from group IVB of the periodic table
like C (diamond), Si, Ge, SiC. These material have 4 electrons in their outer most electronic
shell. Each atom can form a covalent bond with four of its neighbors sharing one electron
with that atom. In this manner, each atom sees eight electrons in its outer most electronic
shell (4 of its own, and four from four neighbors), completely filling that shell. It is also
possible to form this type of covalent bond by combining elements from group IIIB (sharing
three electrons) with element from group VB (sharing five electrons). Examples of these
semiconductors are GaAs or AlGaAs. They are usually called 3-5 semiconductors. We
focus mostly on Si semiconductors in this class. Figure below shows this covalent bond
structure for Si. Note that Si form a tetrahedron structure with an atom in the center
of the tetrahedron sharing electrons with atoms on the each vertex. Figure below is a twodimensional representation of such a structure. The left figure is for a pure Si semiconductor.
A thermally-generated electron-hole pair is also shown.
2-3
If we add a small amount of an element from group VB, such as P, to the semiconductor, we
create a n-type semiconductor and the impurity dopant is called a n-type dopant or donor
atoms. A donor atoms also forms covalent bonds with four of its neighbors. However, as
a n-type dopant has 5 valance electron, the extra electron can be in the valance band and
will be promoted to the conduction band. As can be seen, there is no hole associated with
this electron. In addition to electrons from the n-type dopant, there are electron-hair pair
in the solid from the base semiconductor (Si in the above figure) which are generated due
to temperature effects. In a n-type semiconductor, the number of free electrons from the
dopant is much larger than the number of electrons or holes from electron-hole pairs. As
such, electrons are called majority carriers and holes are called the minority carriers.
Furthermore, a n-type semiconductor is considerably more conductive than the base semiconductor (in this respect, a n-type semiconductor is more like a resistive metal than a
semiconductor).
Hole
Electron
Hole
Electron
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Pure Semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor
Similarly, we can create a p-type semiconductor by adding an element from group IIIB, such
as B, to the semiconductor. In this case, the p-type dopants or the acceptor atoms, lead to a
large number of holes. For p-type semiconductors, holes are majority carriers and electrons
are minority carriers.
An electric current flows if charge carriers as a whole have an average velocity. Normally,
charge carriers move around the material through a random-walk process with a zero average
speed and thus no current.
If an electric field is applied to the material (i.e., a voltage), electrons move toward the
positive voltage and holes toward the negative one resulting a net motion and a drift
current:
Idrif t = Aqnn E + Aqpp E
2-4
where A is the cross-sectional area of the semiconductor, q is the electronic charge, is the
mobility of the charge carriers and E is the electric field. Density of electrons and holes are
denoted by n and p, respectively.
If the concentration of charge carriers is NOT uniform throughout the semiconductor, charge
carriers would move from regions of higher concentration to lower concentration in order to
achieve a uniform distribution throughout the semiconductor. This process is called diffusion, is characterized by the diffusion coefficient, D, and results in a diffusion current:
Idif f = AqDn
dp
dn
AqDp
dx
dx
The ratio of D and is independent of the dopant or the base semiconductor material and
is given by Einsteins Equation
D
kT
T
=
VT
q
11, 600
where k is the Boltzmanns constant and T is temperature in Kelvin. Parameter VT is called
the volt-equivalent of temperature or thermal voltage and appears in most semiconductor formulas. At room temperature, VT 26 mV.
2.3
The Junction Diode
The simplest semiconductor device is a pn-junction diode. Circuit symbol for the device is also shown with the inward arrow
depicting the p-type material side. The convention for the direction of the diode current and voltage are also shown.
vD
iD
Lets ignore minority carriers for the moment. In the n side,

there is a large concentration of free electrons. These electrons
would like to diffuse to the p side where there are few electrons.
Similarly there is a large concentration of holes in the p side and
they would like to diffuse to the n side. When these electrons
and holes meet in the vicinity of the junction, they combine
and are neutralized. This region is depleted of mobile carriers
and it is called the depletion region (also referred to as the
transition or space-charge region). The width of depletion
region is small, typically 0.5m. This diffusion of charge
carriers sets up a Idif f from the p side to the n side of the
junction.
2-5
Since the n side has lost electrons, it becomes positively charged. Similarly the p side becomes
negatively charged. As a result, an electric potential and an electric field appear across the
depletion region. This voltage barrier impedes the flow of electrons from the n side and flow
of holes from the p side, forcing Idif f to go to zero. The height of this voltage barrier is
called the junction built-in voltage.
Lets consider the minority carrier now. Electrons in the p side see an attractive potential
when they get close to the depletion region and are swept into the n side and combine with
holes. Similarly holes on the n side are swept into the p side. This sets up a drift current Is .
As the minority carriers at this stage are due to thermal excitation, Is is quite small ranging
from 109 to 1015 A. The drift current lowers the charge density on the p and n side. This
lowers the potential barrier very slightly such that a diffusion current, Idif f = Is will flow
to ensure a zero net current: iD = Idif f Is = 0.
Note that Idif f is a very sensitive function of barrier voltage as the number of electrons with
a given energy E scales as eE/... . Thus, a small reduction in the voltage barrier height can
cause a large Idif f while a small increase in the voltage barrier height can cause Idif f = 0.
On the other hand, the drift current Is is independent of barrier height, but is a sensitive
function of temperature: Is doubles for every increase of 7 C in temperature.
Let us attach a voltage source to this junction diode such that the positive terminal of the
voltage source is attached to the n side. This configuration is called reverse bias. In this
case, some of the free electrons from the n side will travel to the voltage sources making the
n side more positively charged. Similarly, some of the holes from the p side would go the
voltage source, making the p side more negatively charged. As a result, the depletion region
becomes wider and the height of the potential barrier increases. This leads to a reduction in
Idif f which rapidly tends to zero, leading to iD = Is (a very small value).
Now, let us attach the voltage source to the diode such that the positive terminal is attached
to the p-type material. This configuration is called forward bias. Electrons are injected into
the p side making that region less positively charged while electrons are taken from the n
side making it less negatively charged. As a result, the depletion region become thinner and
the height of the potential barrier decreases. In this case, Idif f increases rapidly, leading to
iD Idif f .
iv Characteristics
One can compute Idrif t and Is by considering the diffusion and drift of charge carriers in the
pn junction as a function of applied voltage, vD . This is left for electronic device courses.
The resultant iv characteristics equation of a junction diode is given by:

iD = Is evD /nVT 1
2-6
where the constant n is called the emission coefficient (For Si, 1 n 2 in ICs). Figure
below (left) shows the plot of iD versus vD for a typical Si diode. Note that because Is is
very small, vD should become large enough such that large value of exp(vD /VT ) compensate
for the small value of Is . As can be seen, the diode current sharply rises when vD is in the
range of 0.6 to 0.7 V.
8
iD (mA)
70
60
iD (nA)
50
40
4
30
3
20
2
10
vD (V)
vD (V)
0
-1
-0.5
0.5
-0.2
02
-0.15
0 15
-0.1
01
-0.05
0 05
0 05
0.05
01
0.1
0 15
0.15
-10
-1
-20
Diode Limitations: The power P = iD vD is dissipated in the diode in the form of heat.
The diode packaging provides for the conduction of this heat to the outside (e.g., air). As the
power dissipation increases, at some point the generated heat is more than capability of the
diode package to conduct it away and diode temperature rises dramatically and diode burns
out. In the forward bias region, as vD changes slowly, this point is usually characterized by
iD,max , maximum forward current, and is specified by the manufacturer.
Since iD = Is and is very small in reverse bias, at first glance it appears that heat generation
is not a problem as iD 0 (and, thus, P 0). However, if we increase the reverse bias
voltage, at some voltage, a large negative current can flow through the diode. This voltage is
called the Zener voltage. This large reverse current is produced through two processes. First,
in the reverse bias, minority carriers enter the depletion region. These minority carriers are
accelerated by the voltage across the depletion region. If the reverse bias voltage is high
enough, these minority carrier can accelerate to a sufficiently high energy, impact an atom,
and disrupt a covalent band, thereby generating new electron-hole pairs. The new electron
can accelerate, impact other atoms and generate new electron-hair pairs. In this manner,
the number of minority carriers increases exponentially (an avalanches process), leading to
a large reverse current. This is called the avalanche breakdown. Second, when the strength
of the electric field across the junction becomes too large, electrons can be pulled out of the
covalent bonds directly, generating a large number of electron-hole pairs and a large reverse
current. This is known as the Zener effect or Zener breakdown.
2-7
Regular diodes are usually destroyed when operated in the Zener or reverse breakdown
regions. These diode should be operated such that vD > VZ and/or special circuits provided
to keep the reverse current to a low level. A special type of diodes, Zener diodes, are
manufactured specifically to operate in the Zener region. We will discuss these diodes later.
2.4
Solving Diode Circuits

R
vi
iD
With diode iv characteristic in hand, we now attempt to solve

diode circuits. Lets consider the simple circuit shown. Because
the three elements are in series, current iD flows through all
elements. Writing KVL around the loop we have:
vD
v i = iD R + v D
This is an equation with two unknowns (iD and vD ) as vi and Ri are known. The second
needed equation (to get two equations in the two unknown) is the diode iv equation:

iD = Is evD /nVT 1
The above two equations are non-linear and cannot be solved analytically. PSpice solves
them numerically. There are are two other ways to solve these equations: 1) graphically
(load-line analysis below) or 2) by making approximations to the diode iv equation.
2.4.1
Load Line
iD
The iv characteristic of the diode is plotted

in the figure. The iD and vD values of any
point on the curve satisfies the diode equation
above. Also plotted is the line representing
vi = iD R + vD . This line is called the load
line. The iD and vD values of any point on
the load line satisfies vi = iD R + vD .
vT/RT
iDQ
3
Load Line
vD
0
-0.5
0
-1
0.5
vDQ
1.5
vT
2.5
Since the solution to the above two equations in two unknowns is a pair of iD and vD that
satisfies both equations, such a point should be both on the iv plot of the diode and on
the load line, i.e., at the intersection of the two. This point is called the Q-point for the
Quiescent point (or the operating point) of the diode.
The load line technique is not accurate in finding numerical values of iD and vD . However,
it is a powerful tool to get qualitative measures of the circuit behavior e.g., ensuring that
the diode operating point is safety away from the maximum forward current.
2-8
iD
2.4.2
Piecewise Linear Model
The problem in arriving at an analytical solution to the diode circuit is that the diode iv
equation is nonlinear. An approach would be
to try to approximate the diode iv equation by a linear equation (i.e., the diode iv
characteristics curve with a line).
vD
0
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
1
0.2
0.4
0.6
VDo
0.8
As can be seen from the figure, it is NOT possible to approximate the iv curve with ONE
line. However, it is possible to do so with TWO (or more) lines. This type of approximation
is called a piecewise linear model, i.e., pieces of the curve are replaced by lines. One such
model for diodes, called the constant voltage model, is shown in the figure with
Diode ON:
Diode OFF:
vD = VD0
iD = 0
and
and
iD 0
vD < VD0
Parameter VD0 is called the cut-in voltage and depends on the base semiconductor. For
Si, VD0 0.6 0.7 V. For GaAs, VD0 1.7 1.9 V. Note that each equation is valid for
a range of parameters (e.g., Diode ON equation is valid only if iD 0). Also, while the
point with vD = VD0 and iD = 0 is located on both Diode ON and Diode OFF lines, we have
assumed that diode is ON at the point (although iD = 0).
An issue that arises in solving circuits with diodes is that we do not know a priori the state
of the diode (ON or OFF) and so we do not know which equation to use. The following
recipe can be used to solve diode equations:
Recipe for solving diode circuits:
1. Write down all circuit equation with iD and vD as parameters and simplify as much as
possible.
2. Assume diode is in one state (either ON or OFF). Use the diode equation for that state
to solve the circuit equations and find iD and vD .
3. Check the inequality (range of validity of the equation for the diode state) with
the values of iD and vD that was found. If iD or vD values satisfy the inequality, the
assumption was correct. Otherwise, the assumed diode state is incorrect. Go to step
2 above and assume that the diode is in the other state.
2-9
Step 1: KCL tells that current iD flow in all elements and

by KVL:
v i = iD R + v D
R
vi
iD
Lets use this method for the Si diode (VD0 = 0.7 V)

circuit shown with vi = 5 V and R = 1 k.
vD
5 = 103 iD + vD
Step 2: Assume diode is OFF, iD = 0 and vD < VD0 . Substituting for iD = 0 in the circuit
equation, we get:
5 = 103 0 + vD
vD = 5 V
Step 3: Since vD = 5 > 0.7 = VD0 , diode vD does NOT satisfy range of validity and the
assumed diode state is incorrect.
Step 2: Assume diode is ON, vD = VD0 and iD 0. Substituting for vD = VD0 = 0.7 V in
the circuit equation, we get:
5 = 103 iD + 0.7
iD = 4.3 mA
Step 3: Although we know that since diode was not OFF, it should be ON, it is a good
practice to check the inequality in case we might have made a math mistake. For this case,
iD > 0 and satisfies the range of validity. So diode is ON and vD = 0.7 V and iD = 4.3 mA.
Diode circuit Model: The above method can become cumbersome if we have a complicated
circuit and/or several diodes. A better approach would be to use circuit models (instead of
equation) for the diode so that we can utilize circuit solution techniques such as node-voltage
method.
VD0
vD
iD 0
Diode ON:
iD
iD
Diode OFF:
vD < VD0 ,
vD
iD
If you use the above circuit models, we need to modify our recipe for solving diode circuits
accordingly:
2-10
Recipe for solving diode circuits with diode circuit models:

1. Draw a circuit for each state of the diode (If more than one diode, you should draw
circuits to all possible combinations of states of diodes).
2. Solve each diode circuit and find iD and vD .
3. Check the range of validity inequality with the values of iD and vD that were found. If
iD and vD values satisfy the range of validity, the assumption was correct. Otherwise,
the assumed diode state is incorrect. Go to step 2 above and start with another circuit.
As an example, lets solve the diode circuit of the previous page (vi = 5 V and R = 1 k)
with this method:
R
vi
Diode OFF: from the circuit by KVL, vD = vi = 5 V.

Since vD > VD0 = 0.7 V, our assumption is not correct.
iD
vD
Diode ON: from the circuit by Ohms Law, iD =

(vi VD0 )/R = 4.3 mA. Since iD > 0, our assumption is
correct.
vi
iD
V D0
Therefore, the diode is ON with vD = 0.7 V and iD = 4.3 mA.

2.5
Diode Logic Gates
You have seen binary mathematics and logic gates in ECE25. We will explore some electronic
logic gates in this course. Binary mathematics is built upon two states: 0, and 1. We need to
relate the binary states to currents or voltages as these are parameters that we can manipulate
in electronic circuits. It is advantageous (from power consumption point of view) to relate
these the binary states to voltages. As such, we choose two voltages to represent the
binary states: VL for state 0 or Low state and VH for state 1 or High state (for example, 0 V
to represent state 0 and 5 V to represent state 1). These voltages are quite arbitrary and
can be chosen to have any value. We have to be careful as it is extremely difficult, if not
impossible, to design an electronic circuit to give exactly a voltage like 5 V (what if the input
voltage was 4.99 V?). So, we need to define a range of voltages (instead of one value) to
represent high and low states. We will discuss logic gates more thoroughly in the transistor
section. Here, we consider a simpler diode logic gate.
2-11
Diode AND Gate: To study the behavior of the gate we

will consider the state of the circuit with VCC = 5 V and
RA = 1 k for different values of v1 and v2 (either 0 or 5 V
corresponding to low and high states). We also assume that
in the output any voltage < 1 V would be considered a low
state and any voltage > 4 V is considered a high state. We
note that by KCL, iA = iD1 + iD2 (assuming that there is no
current drawn from the circuit).
CC
iA
v1
D1
i D1
v2
D2
i D2
RA
vo
Case 1, v1 = v2 = 0:
Since the 5-V supply (Vcc ) will tend to forward bias both D1 and D2 , lets assume that both
diodes are forward biased. Thus, vD1 = vD2 = VD0 = 0.7 V and iD1 0, iD2 0. Then,
vo = v1 + vD1 = v2 + vD2 = 0.7 V
5 0.7
VCC vo
= 4.3 mA
=
iA =
RA
1, 000
Current iA will be divided between two diodes by KCL, each carrying one half of iA (because
of symmetry). Thus, iD1 = iD2 = 2.1 mA. Since diode currents are positive, our assumption
of both diode being forward biased is justified and, therefore, vo = 0.7 V.
So, when v1 and v2 are low, D1 and D2 are ON and vo is low.
Case 2, v1 = 0, v2 = 5 V:
Again, we note that the 5-V supply (Vcc ) will tend to forward bias D1 . Assume D1 is ON:
vD1 = VD0 = 0.7 V and iD1 0. Then:
vo = v1 + vD1 = 0.7 V
vo = v2 + vD2
vD2 = 4.3 V < VD0
and D2 will be OFF (iD2 = 0). Then:

VCC vo
5 0.7
=
= 4.3 mA
RA
1, 000
= iA iD2 = 4.3 0 = 4.3 mA
iA =
iD1
Since iD1 > 0, our assumption of D1 forward biased is justified and, therefore, vo = 0.7 V.
So, when v1 is low and v2 is high, D1 is ON and D2 is OFF and vo is low.
2-12
Case 3, v1 = 5 V, v2 = 0 V:
Because of the symmetry in the circuit, this is exactly the same as case 2 with roles of D1
and D2 reversed.
So, when v1 is high and v2 is low, D1 is OFF and D2 is ON and vo is low.
Case 4, v1 = v2 = 5 V:
Examining the circuit, it appears that the 5-V supply (Vcc ) will NOT be able to forward bias
D1 and D2 . Assume D1 and D2 are OFF: iD1 = iD2 = 0, vD1 < VD0 and vD2 < VD0 . Then:
iA = iD1 + iD2 = 0
vo = VCC iD1 RA = 5 0 = 5 V
vD1 = vo v1 = 5 5 = 0 < VD0
and
vD2 = vo v2 = 5 5 = 0 < VD0
Thus, our assumption of both diodes being OFF are justified.

So, when v1 and v2 are high, D1 and D2 are OFF and vo is high.
Overall, the output of this circuit is high only if both inputs are high (Case 4) and the output
is low in all other cases (Cases 1 to 3). Thus, this is an AND gate. This analysis can be
easily extended to cases with three or more diode inputs.
This circuit is not a good gate as for input we used low states of 0 V and the output low
state was 0.7 V. We need to make sure that the input low state voltage is similar to the
output low state voltage so that we can put these gates back to back. (You can easily show
that if we had assumed low states of 0.7 V for input, the output low state would have been
1.4 V.) This gate is not usually used by itself but as part of diode-transistor logic gates that
we will discuss in the BJT section.
Exercise: Show that this is an OR gate.
v1
D1
v2
D2
vo
RA
2.6
Parametric solution of diode circuits
In the diode circuits above, we need to know the value of all of the elements in order to
find the state of the diode and currents and voltages in the circuit. This is cumbersome as
for example, the input voltage vi to the circuit changes in time, we need to solve the diode
circuit for ALL values of vi .
2-13
It is very useful if we can derive the circuit solution parametrically, i.e., with values of various
circuit elements, in particular, the input voltage as parameters. This approach would allows
us to solve the circuit ONCE. The problem is that diode can be either of its two states which,
in principle, depend on the values of circuit parameters (vi and R in the example above).
The approach to do this is to assume that the diode is one specific state and find the range
of circuit parameters (e.g., range of vi ) that would result in the diode being in that state.
In this manner, we will have multiple solutions for vo , each valid for range of vi .
Recipe for solving diode circuits parametrically:
1. Draw circuits covering all possible diode states (2n states, where n is the number of
diodes)
2. Solve each circuit and find currents and voltages.
3. For each circuit, use the range of validity inequality of the diode states to find the
range of circuit parameters which leads to that state.
For example, consider the diode circuit discussed before with vi as a parameter. Following
our recipe we get:
R
+
vi
Diode OFF: from the circuit by KVL, vD = vi .

For diode OFF, we need vD < VD0 or vi < VD0 . Therefore,
when vi < VD0 , diode will be OFF and vD = vi .
iD
vD
Diode ON: from the circuit by Ohms Law, iD = (vi VD0 )/R.
For diode ON, we need iD 0 (vi VD0 )/R 0 or as R is
positive, vi VD0 0.
vi
iD
V D0
Therefore, the parametric solution of the circuit can be summarized as:

When
vi VD0
Diode is ON
vD = VD0
When
vi < VD0
Diode is OFF
vD = vi
and iD =
vi VD0
R
and iD = 0
Note that if we had solved the circuit parametrically first, we could get the answer for the
case vi = 5 V and R = 1 k immediately: vi = 5 V > VD0 = 0.7 V, therefore, diode is ON,
vD = VD0 = 0.7 V and iD = (5 0.7)/103 = 4.3 mA.
We will use the above method to explore some diode circuits later.
2-14
2.7
Other Types of Diodes
Three other types of diodes are in wide use. They include:

Schottky Barrier Diode: Schottky barrier diodes are formed by
putting a metallic surface in contact with n-type semiconductors. This
type of diode has a much larger Is and, therefore, will go into forwardbias at VD0 0.3 V. Because majority carriers do not have to diffuse
toward the contact point, Schottky diodes have a much faster switching speed and are used in digital circuits like transistor-transistor logic
(TTL). The circuit symbol for a Schottky diode is similar to a junction
diode but with the cathode vertical line modified to resembled an S.
Schottky Diode
Light-Emitting Diode (LED): This type of diode emits light when

it is forward biased. In order to have a visible light output, the band
gap of the semiconductor should be larger than that of Si. Thus, these
diodes are typically made of types III-V semiconductors (e.g., GaAs).
As such, they have a much larger VD0 between 1.7 to 1.9 V.
LED
Both Schottky diodes and LEDs are similar to regular junction diodes (with the exception
of VD0 value).
Zener Diodes: Zener diodes are specially manufactured to operate in
the Zener region. In these diode, heavily doped regions are manufactured near the metal contacts to the semiconductor. The high density
of charge carriers allows a substantial reverse breakdown current to be
sustained. These diodes are useful in applications where a constant
value of voltage is necessary, for example, in voltage regulators.
Zener Diode
The iv characteristics of a Zener diode and the corresponding constant-voltage model are
shown below:
iD
VZ
vD
VD0
2-15
The constant-voltage model equations are:

vD = VD0
and
ON:
VD0
iD 0
iD
vD
OFF:
Vz < vD < VD0
and
iD = 0
iD
Zener Region:
vD = VZ
and
VZ
iD 0
iD
Diode circuit solution techniques discussed above can also be applied to Zener diodes. The
only change is that a Zener diode has three states (instead of two for a regular diode).
2.7.1
A simple Power Supply
Electronic circuit are designed to be powered by a constant voltage. In most cases, the
voltage of the power source may change (e.g. battery voltages changes as battery ages. As
such, all electronic devices have a power supply circuit to ensure constant voltage to circuits.
This circuit is a simple power supply. Its output voltage vo ,
is constant for a range of io s (even if vs changes). Below we
compute the iv characteristics of this circuit for vo 0.
i
vs
io
vD
vo
Case 1: Diode is in the Zener region. The equivalent circuit

is shown and we need to have iD 0. KVL in the right loop
gives:
KVL:
vo = VZ = const
i
vs
iD
io
+
+
VZ
vo
iD
So as long as the diode is in the Zener region, the output voltage will be constant regardless
of the value of io .
To find the range of parameters for which the diode remains in the Zener region (iD 0),
we note:
KCL:
KVL :
iD = io i
vs = Ri + VZ
vs VZ
iD = i0
0
R
io
vs VZ
R
2-16
vo
The iv response of the circuit for this range of currents is
shown. The circuit resembles an independent voltage source
with a strength of VZ as long as io < (vs VZ )/R = io,max ).
In practice, because VZ changes slightly when the diode current changes, the output voltage of circuit (vo = VZ ) changes
slightly. Much better power supply circuits can be build by
addition of a transistor or OpAmps to the circuit
VZ
Diode in
Zener Region
io
i o,max
Case 2: Diode is in the reverse bias region. Let consider

what happens if we exceed the io,max . The equivalent
circuit is shown and we need to have VZ < vD < VD0 .
Because iD = 0, KCL gives i = io . Then, KVL in the
outer loop gives:
KVL:
vs = Rio + vo
i
vs
io
R
_
vo
iD
vo = vs Rio
i.e., the output voltage drops as more current is drawn from the circuit.
To find the range of parameters for which the diode remains in the reverse bias region
(VZ < vD < VD0 ), we note: vo = vD . Recall also that we are interested only in vo 0
(problem definition):
VZ < vo < VD0
VZ > vo > VD0
0 vs Rio < VZ
and
vo 0
0 vo < VZ
vs
vs VZ
< io
R
R
We do not need to consider the forward bias case as vo 0 means vD 0.
vo
The complete iv characteristics of the circuit is
shown in the figure.
VZ
Diode in
Reverse Bias
Diode in
Zener Region
io
i o,max
vS /R
2-17
2.8
Other Diode Models
In this section, we introduced the piecewise linear model for the diode. Many choices for these
model lines are possible. The constant voltage model utilized in this section approximated
the ON state of the diode with a vertical line (i.e., vD = VD0 ).
Figure shows another model in which the ON state is approximated with a sloped line. In this case, two parameters, VD0 and RD , are necessary with vD = VD0 + iD RD .
The corresponding circuit model for the ON state is a
voltage source VD0 in series with a resistor RD . This
model is not often used as A) a large set of VD0 and
RD can be chosen and the best choice actually depends
on the operating point of the diode (which is not known
a priori), and B) the increase in the amount of work for
analyzing the circuit does not usually justify the improvement in the accuracy.
This type of model is useful only if resistances in the circuit are of the same order as RD
(typically 10s ).
Similarly for a Zener diode, the Zener region can be modeled
with a combination of a voltage source (VZ0 ) and a resistor
(RZ ). We analyze the simple the Zener-diode power supply
circuit of page 2-16 to show how such a model is utilized.
We consider the Zener state only.
Diode is in the Zener region: The equivalent circuit is shown
and we need to have iD 0. We assume that io is known
and compute vo (to get the response of the circuit) and iD
(to check for the diode state). KCL and KVL in the left
loop give:
KCL:
KVL :
iD + i = io
iD
VZ0
vD
VD0
Slope of R Z
i
vs
io
+
+
VZ
RZ
vo
iD
vs = Ri + VZ0 RZ iD
We first find iD by eliminating i between above equations:

iD =
iD 0
vs VZ0 Rio
R + RZ
io
vs VZ0
= io,max
R
2-18
which is exactly the same as before (except VZ is replaced with VZ0 ).

The response of the circuit (vo in terms of io ) can be found by a KVL in the right loop:
vo = VZ0 RZ iD = VZ0 + RZ
RVZ0 + RZ vs
RRZ
vs VZ0 Rio
=
io
R + RZ
R + RZ
R + RZ
vo = VZ (R k RZ ) io
with VZ = (RVZ0 + RZ vs )/(R + RZ ). This expression for vo indicates that the output
voltage is slowly decreasing with increasing io . The circuit resembles a combination of an
independent voltage source VZ and a resistor R k RZ .
The expression above can be simplified greatly by assuming RZ R to get:
vo VZ0 RZ io
As can be seen, the more complicated model for the Zener diode and longer analysis has
illuminated some slight changes in the circuit behavior.
2.9
Wave-form Shaping Circuits
In this section, we will examine several popular diode circuits. These circuit are generally
called wave-form shaping circuits as a diode is utilized to modify the input voltage waveform. Circuits like these are two-port networks. As discussed in Sec. 1, we only need to
solve the circuit below (left) for two-port networks. We are interested to compute vo as a
function of vi (the transfer function of the circuit). Knowing the transfer function, we can
compute vo for any value of vi without analyzing the circuit again.
As the transfer function is computed as a function of vi , we usually ignore vsig and Rsig in
our analysis (circuit below, right). We will see in the transistor amplifier section that we
can find vi in terms of vsig and Rsig by utilizing the concept of the input resistance for a
two-port network.
Lastly, in some circuits analysis is greatly simplified if RL (or io = 0). This case is
called the open-loop transfer function. As such, we may solve this case first in order to
understand the circuit behavior before adding RL to the circuit.
R sig
vsig
ii
io
+
vi
2port
Network
+
vo
ii
io
+
RL
vi
2port
Network
+
vo
RL
2-19
2.9.1
Rectifier Circuits
io
This is the simplest diode wave-form shaping circuit.

Since io = iD
KVL
vi = vD + vo
vi
vo
RL
v o = RL iD
Diode OFF: iD = 0, vD < VD0
From above, vo = RL iD = 0. Furthermore, Diode is in the OFF state when vD = vi < VD0 .
Diode ON: vD = VD0 , iD 0,
vi = vD + vo
vi VD0
iD =
0
RL
vo = vi vD = vi VD0
vi VD0
vo
Thus, when vi VD0 , diode will be ON and vo = vi VD0 .
ON
Transfer function of the circuit is:

vi < VD0
Diode is OFF: and vo = 0
vi VD0
Diode is ON:
and vo = vi VD0
vi
OFF
VD0
The figure below (left) shows how vo can be found for a time dependent vi (triangular wave
in this case). We first find time intervals in which diode is OFF (vi < VD0 ) and time
intervals in which diode is ON ( vi VD0 ): separated by vertical dashed lines in the figure.
We can then construct the output wave-form by plotting vo = 0 when diode is OFF and
vo = vi VD0 when diode is ON as is shown below.
vi
vo
VD0
OFF
t
ON
OFF
ON
Exercise: Figure above right is the scope trace for a sinusoidal input waveform (dashed line)
and the rectified output (solid line). Explain why the output trace does NOT EXACTLY
follow vo = vi VD0 at every point.
2-20
Exercise: What happens if the diode terminals are reversed

(Answer: circuit work as a rectifier but the output voltage
will be negative)
io
+
vi
+
vo
RL
The above circuit is a simple method to convert AC input voltages to a DC output voltage
and is used in AC to DC converter part of power supplies. Such circuits are called rectifier
circuits. Because the output of the circuit above is only one half of the input waveform
(figure below left), this circuit is called a half-wave rectifier circuit.
A better circuit is a full-wave rectifier in which both portions of the AC input waveform
is turned into a DC output so that we do not throw away half of the input (figure above
right). An example of such a full-wave rectifier is the bridge rectifier shown below (left) with
four diodes. We can see that in the portion of the input period in which vi > 2VD0 , diodes
D1 and D3 are ON and a positive voltage appear across RL (center circuit). Diodes D2 and
D4 are OFF. In the portion of the waveform in which vi < 2VD0 , Diode D2 and D4 are ON
and diodes D1 and D3 are OFF and again a positive voltage appears on RL (left circuit).
Thus, for both positive and negative vi , vo would be positive.
+
+
D1
D2
+
vi
vo
+
D1
+
vi > 0
RL
D4
io
D2
D1
+
vi < 0
RL
D3
D4
io
D2
RL
D3
D4
D3
2-21
2.9.2
Clipper Circuit
i o= 0
We will consider the open-loop transfer function first. Using the diode circuit model, we will arrive at the circuits
below. Note that vo = vD .
vi
vo
Diode OFF: iD = 0, vD < VD0 :
i o= 0
R
+
For iD = io = 0, no current flows in R and vo = vi .

Furthermore, Diode is OFF when vD = vo = vi < VD0 .
vi
Diode ON: vD = VD0 , iD 0:
vi VD0
0
R
vo
iD
R
+
In this case vo = vD = VD0 . Diode is ON when

iD =
+
vD
vi
VD0
vi VD0
i o= 0
+
vo
vo
Transfer function of this circuit is shown with

vi < VD0
Diode is OFF: and vo = vi
vi VD0
Diode is ON:
ON
VD0
and vo = VD0
vi
VD0
OFF
The figure shows vo for a time dependent vi

(triangular wave in this case). Similar to the
rectifier case, we first identify the time slices
when the diode is ON and those when the
diode is OFF and then plot vo accordingly. As
can be seen, vo = vi when vi < VD0 . But when
vi VD0 , the output voltage has remained
fixed at VD0 , as if values larger than VD0 were
clipped from the wave-form . As such, this
is called a clipper or a limiter circuit.
vi
vo
VD0
OFF
t
ON
OFF
ON
It is of interest to compare the clipper circuit with the half-wave rectifier. As can be seen
circuits are the same with the exception of vo being taken across the resistor for the halfwave rectifier (i.e., vo = vR ) while vo is taken across the diode for the clipper circuit (i.e.,
vo = vD ). Since vi = vD + vR , this circuit (combination of a diode and a resistor) divides the
input signal into two parts, the rectified part which appears across the resistor and the
clipped part which appears across the diode.
2-22
Exercise: A) Show that the transfer function does not

change if a load RL is attached to the circuit as long as
RL R. B) What happens if RL is not large?
io
R
+
vi
+
vo
RL
It is of interest to build circuits which can clip the input signal at values different than
VD0 . These circuits can be realized by inspecting the clipper circuit above. We see that
the signal is clipped when the diode is ON. At these time intervals, the diode appears as
an independent voltage source in the circuit with vo = vD = VD0 . As such, Addition of a
voltage source in series with the diode will change the clipping as is shown below. Note
vo = vD + VDC .
R

+
vo = vD + VDC = VD0 + VDC . Diode is ON when

vi vo
0
iD =
R
vi
vi vo = VD0 + VDC
VDC
vo

For iD = io = 0, no current flows in R and vo = vi . Furthermore, Diode is OFF when
vD = vo VDC = vi VDC < VD0 or vi < VD0 + VDC
Therefore, this circuit clips input voltages that are larger than vDC + VD0 as is shown below
(left). Note that we can choose vDC to be negative and make the clipping voltage to be
negative. (However, always the top part of the wave form is clipped.)
R
vi
vo
vD0 + vDC
+
D1
vi
vo
D2
As power supplies are bulky and expensive, a Zener diode can be used instead of vDC as is
shown above (right). The draw back of a clipper circuit with Zener diodes is that VZ is always
positive. Therefore, we can only clip voltages above the positive value of VD0 + VZ . The
circuit containing the voltage source vDC would allow clipping voltages above a negative
value by choosing a negative vDC .
Exercise: Show that the clipper circuit above with the Zener diode clips voltages larger than
VZ + VD0 .
2-23
We can clip voltages that are smaller than a certain value by switching the diode terminals
as is shown in the circuit below. (Note that vDC terminals are also switched). Here vo =
vD VDC
R
vo = vD VDC = (VD0 + VDC ). Diode is ON when

iD =
vo vi
0
R
vi
VDC
vi vo = (VD0 + VDC )
vo

For iD = io = 0, no current flows in R and vo = vi . Furthermore, Diode is OFF when
vD = vo VDC = vi VDC < VD0 or vi > (VD0 + VDC ).
As can be seen, when vi > (VD0 + VDC ), vo = vi and signals goes through. While when
vi (VD0 + VDC ), vo = (VD0 + VDC ). Therefore, this circuit clips input voltages that are
smaller than (VDC + VD0 ) as is shown below (left). Note that we can choose vDC to be
negative and make the clipping voltage to be positive. However, always the bottom part
of the wave form is clipped. One can replace vDC with a Zener voltage is shown below (right
circuit).
R
+
+
D1
vi
vo
D2
The above two circuits above can be combined to clip both voltages larger than vDC1 + VD0
and voltages smaller than vDC2 VD0 .
+
D1
vi
VDC1
VDC2
vo
vi
vo
D2
Exercise: Find the limiting voltages of the circuit above with Zener diodes.
2-24
2.9.3
Peak Detector
Another simple but useful diode circuit includes a diode and a

capacitor. We will consider the open-loop transfer function first.
Because the voltage across the capacitor, vc , cannot change suddenly, state of the diode in this circuit depends not only on the
instantaneous value of vi but also on the history of the circuit
(e.g. dvi /dt, vc at certain times).
vi
vc
+
C
vo
Using diode circuit models, we will arrive at circuits below. Note that vo = vc .
vi
In this case vo = vc = vi VD0 .

Since iD = iC = Cdvc /dt = Cd(vi VD0 )/dt = dvi /dt,
condition of iD 0 requires vi to be increasing.
+
vc
+
C
vo
v
+ D
+
In this case vo = vc = vc0 where vc0 is the capacitor

voltage when the diode turned OFF. Diode remains OFF
as long as vD = vi vc VD0 or vi < vc + VD0 .
dvi
0 & vi = vc + VD0
dt
vi < vc + VD0
iD
VD0
vi
Diode ON:
vo = vc = vi VD0
Diode OFF:
vo = vc0
vc
+
C
vo
As can be seen, the state of diode depends not only on vi but also on dvi /dt and vc .
Assume the input signal is a triangular wave
with a peak (positive) value of V + . The source
vi is attached to the circuit at t = 0. At this
time, vc = vc0 = 0. While initially vi is increasing, diode remains OFF because vc = vc0 = 0
and vi < vc + VD0 = VD0 . When vi reaches VD0 ,
the diode turns ON and the capacitor starts to
charge with vo = vc = vi VD0 .
V+
+
V VD0
VD0
OFF
vo
t
ON
OFF
vi
When vi reaches its peak value, vc = vi VD0 = V + VD0 . After this point, the diode turns
OFF because vi is decreasing. Capacitor voltage remains at vc = V + VD0 . vi eventually
reaches its lowest value and start to increase again. Although vi is increasing, the diode
remains OFF because vi < vc + VD0 = V + . Only when vi reaches its peak value again, the
diode turns ON. But it turns OFF immediately as vi starts to decrease.
2-25
In summary, the capacitor charges up to a value of V + VD0 in the first cycle and its voltage
remains constant from then on. Note that V + is the peak value of the input signal and
the shape of the input signal is not important. This circuit is called a peak detector as the
output voltage is the the peak of the input voltage (minus VD0 ).
If an input signal with a varying amplitude
is applied to an ideal peak detector, the
capacitor charges up until it reaches the
peak value for the complete waveform as is
shown in the figure.
vo
vi

In this case vo = vc = vi VD0 .
Since iD = iC = Cdvc /dt = Cd(vi VD0 )/dt = dvi /dt, condition of iD 0 requires vi to be increasing.
As can be seen these conditions are similar to those for an ideal
peak detector.
Diode OFF: iD = 0, vD < VD0 : In this case we have an RC
circuit with the capacitor discharging in the resistor with a time
constant = RC according to vo (t) = vc (t) = vc0 exp[(t
t0 )/ ]. vc0 denotes the capacitor voltage when diode turned
OFF (at t0 ). Diode remains OFF as long as vD = vi vc VD0
or vi vc + VD0 .
+
vc
vi
vo
+
vc
vi
vi
iD
VD0
+
C
A practical peak-detector circuit includes a resistor in parallel

with the capacitor. This resistor is either the load for the ideal
peak detector or is placed in the circuit on purpose as is seen
later.
vD
vo
+
vc
+
C
vo
The diode OFF case is different from that of an ideal peak detector, as the voltage across
the capacitor changes. The transfer function of the circuit is:
dvi
0 & vi = vc + VD0
dt
vi < vc + VD0
Diode ON:
vo = vc = vi VD0
Diode OFF:
vo (t) = vc (t) = vc0 exp[(t t0 )/ ]
2-26
Behavior of this circuit during the first half cycle is identical to that of the ideal peak
detector (see figure below, left). When vi reaches its peak value, vc = V + VD0 . After this
point, the diode turns OFF because vi is decreasing. As opposed to the ideal peak detector,
the capacitor voltage starts to decrease. vi eventually reaches its lowest value and start to
increase again. Diode remains OFF until vi reaches vi = vc + VD0 . Because capacitor has
discharged, vc is lower than V + and the diode turns ON before vi reaches its peak value.
Diode remain ON until vi reaches V + and and the capacitor is charged back to vc = V + VD0 .
Then, vi starts to decrease, diode turns OFF, and the cycle repeats itself.
Decreasing
vo
t
ON
vi
ON
vi
The shape of output waveform depends on how much the capacitor discharges in each cycle
(see figure above right). For = RC = , capacitor does NOT discharge and we recover
the ideal peak detector response (R = ). Denoting the period of the input by T , if T ,
the capacitor would discharge very little in each cycle and vo would be very close to that of
an ideal peak detector.
When becomes comparable to T , the capacitor discharges considerably in each period and
vo departs from that of an ideal peak detector. It should be noted that the capacitor voltage
cannot become negative. As such, vo is always positive as is shown above (right figure). In
the limit of T , capacitor discharges so rapidly that the circuit effectively becomes a
rectifier circuit!
Peak detectors have many applications. One is
in a AC to DC power supply. While a rectifier
circuit converts AC input into DC, the output
waveform is still half sinusoidal and not useful for powering electronic circuits. Addition
of a capacitor (and effectively turning the rectifier into a peak detector) results in a relatively
constant DC voltage as is shown.
VR
vo
t
t0
t1
vi
Obviously capacitor value should be chosen such that = RC T . For this application, R
is the load (i.e. equal to vo divided by the current drawn by the electronic circuit).
2-27
The changes in the output voltage, VR , is called the ripple. To find VR , we denote the time
that capacitor starts to discharge as t0 with vc (t0 ) = V + VD0 . The capacitor discharges
until diode turns ON at t1 . Since T , the length of the diode OFF interval (when
capacitor is discharging) is very close to the period of the input wave, t1 t0 + T .
vc (t) = vc0 e(t t0 )/
VR = vc (t = t0 ) vc (t = t1 ) = vc0 vc0 e(t1 t0 )/
VR = vc0 [1 e(t1 t0 )/ ] = (V + VD0 )vc0 [1 eT / ]
T
1 e(t1 t0 )/ 1 1
VR
T
=
+
V VD0
Thus, the relative magnitude of the ripple only depends on T / .

Another application of a peak detector is in Amplitude-Modulation (AM) receivers. The
AM station transmits a carrier wave (corresponding to the radio station frequency). The
amplitude of the carrier wave is modulated according the broadcast sound signal. An example
of such a signal is shown below left for a triangular sound wave. We denote the period
of carrier wave as Tcarrier and the period of the sound wave as Tso . In the receiver, this
modulated voltage is applied to a peak-detector circuit. The circuit RC is chosen such that
Tso = RC Tcarrier . The output of the peak detector is an approximation of the initial
sound wave as is shown below (which is the envelope of the peak amplitudes of the input
signal).
Exercise: What happens if diode terminals in a peak detector are reversed?

(Answer: vo = (V VD0 ) where V is the smallest value of the input voltage.)
2-28
2.9.4
Clamp Circuit
We saw that in the ideal peak detector (shown on the right),

the diode is ON in the first cycle and the capacitor charges to a
voltage of vc = V + VD0 . Capacitor voltage remains constant
after-wards (and diode remains OFF). In this circuit vo = vc .
vi
vc
+
vo
v
+ c
A clamp circuit (shown on the right) is identical to the ideal peak

detector, except that the output voltage is taken across the diode,
vo = vD .
vD
vi
vo
Since the two circuits are identical, we do not need to solve the clamp circuit. We use the
analysis of the ideal peak detector and note that ignoring the first cycle, vc = V + VD0 .
Thus,
vi = vc + vD
vo = vD = vi vc
vo = vi (V + VD0 )
Thus, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage

shifted downward by a DC value of (V + VD0 )
as is shown in the figure. Although the shape of the
input signal is not important, its amplitude (or its
peak value, V + ) should be constant. Otherwise the
output voltage would be distorted as it would have
different value of shifts at different times.
Lets consider the impact of a load, RL . During the first
cycle when the diode is ON, the capacitor charges to a
voltage of vc = V + VD0 (similar to open-loop case).
However, when the diode turns OFF, the capacitor discharges in RL and its voltage drops. Similar to a peak
detector with a load, the diode turns ON in the following
cycle and charge the capacitor back to vc = V + VD0 .
vc
V+
vi
V + VD0
t
vo
v
+ c
+
vi
vD
+
vo
RL
In a clamp circuit vo = vi vc and we need vc to remain fairly constant in order for vo to be

a shifted vi (and not distorted). Therefore, capacitor should discharge very little in each
cycle. This constraint requires that = RL C T . With this constraint, vo of a clamp
circuit with a RL would be similar to that of the open-loop case.
2-29
Since the capacitor is charged when the diode is ON, different values of downward shift
(corresponding to different capacitor charged-up voltages) can be produced by adding a DC
voltage source in series with the diode (circuit below, left):
+
vi
VDC
vo
vi
vo
vo = vi (V + VD0 vDC )
vo = vi (V + VD0 vZ )
Since capacitor charges up when the diode is ON (and charges until vi reaches V + ):
vi = +vc + VD0 + vDC
vc = V + VD0 vDC
From then on, capacitor voltage remains constant, diode remains OFF, and
vo = vi vc = vi (V + VD0 vDC )
If needed, vDC can be replaced with a Zener diodes (similar to clipper circuits) as is shown
in the circuit above (right).
v
+ c
If we switch terminals of the diode, the capacitor charges to a

voltage of vc = (V VD0 ). Therefore, vo = vi vc = vi +
(V VD0 ), and the circuit adds a positive voltage to the input
(upward shift in scope traces).
vD
+
vi
+
vo
Similarly, we can produce different values of upward shift by the addition of a DC voltage
source in series with the diode or using Zener diodes.
+
vi
VDC
vo
vi
vo
vo = vi + (V VD0 vDC )
vo = vi + (V VD0 vZ )
2-30
2.10
Exercise Problems
In circuit design, use commercial resistor values (1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7,
3., 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1) and commercial capacitor values (1,
1.5, 1.8, 2. or 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, and 6.8) values. You can also use Zener diodes with any Zener
voltage.
Problems 1 to 9. In circuits below with Si diodes (VD0 = 0.7 V) and VZ = 5 V for Zener
diodes, A) Find v and/or i for vs = 10 V, B) Find v and/or i for vs ranging from 20 to
+20 V.
+
VS
5k
5k
i
+
VS
5k
VS
Problem 1
5k
Problem 2
5V
Problem 3
+
VS
V
5k
10k
VS
1k
i
VS
2k
1k
5k
10k
i
2k
Problem 4
VS
Problem 5
Problem 6
5k
10k
5k
vS
10k
Problem 7
vS
1k
1k
+
v
1k
1k
Problem 8
Problem 9
2-31
Problems 10 to 12. Find transfer functions of circuits below (Si diodes with VD0 =0.7 V
and VZ = 5 V for Zener diodes).
+
vi
vo
vi
Problem 10
vo
vi
vo
Problem 11
Problem 12
Problem 13. Design a clipper circuit that clips voltages above 5 V using a) DC power
supplies only, b) Zener diodes only.
Problem 14. Design a clipper circuit that clips voltages above 5 V and below 3 V using
a) DC power supplies only, b) Zener diodes only.
Problem 15. Design a clipper circuit that clips voltages above 5 V and below +3 V using
Problem 16. Consider a sinusoidal source with vi = 15 sin(t) V. Design a clamp circuit
that adds a DC offset of +5 to the input voltage using a) DC power supplies only, b) Zener
diodes only.
that adds a DC offset of 5 to the input voltage using a) DC power supplies only, b) Zener
diodes only.
Problem 18. Circuit below is a voltage doubler. Show that if vi = Vp sin(t), vo = 2Vp
(Assume that capacitor C is large such that it discharge very little per cycle and Vp VD0 .)
Problem 19. Circuit below is a simplified version of an electronic flash for cameras. Switch
S2 is controlled by the shutter and is closed to operate the flash bulb. Normally switch S2
is open. The circuit to the left of switch S2 charges the capacitor to about 100 V using a
1.5 V battery. Switch S1 is an electronic switch that is opened and closed at about 10 kHz.
As a result, the capacitor is charged to about 100 V using a 1.5 V battery. Explain how the
charge-up circuit works.
A
+
vi
D2
C1
S2
D1
C2
RL
vL
1.5 V
S1
Problem 18
Problem 19
2-32
2.11
Solution to Selected Exercise Problems
Problem 2. In circuit below with Si diodes (VD0 = 0.7 V) and VZ = 5 V for Zener diodes,
A) Find v and/or i for vs = 10 V, B) Find v and/or i for vs ranging from 20 to +20 V.
5k
Circuit equations:
VS
KCL:
is = iD + i
KVL:
vs = 5 103 is + vD
KVL:
v = vD = 5 103 i
iS
i
+
5k
Part A: vs = 10 V.
Assume diode is ON: vD = VD0 = 0.7 V, iD 0. Substituting in the above equations we get:
vs = 5 103 is + vD
10 = 5 103 is + 0.7
is = 1.86 mA
v = vD = 0.7 V
v = vD = 5 103 i
is = iD + i
0.7 = 5 103 i
i = 0.14 mA
1.86 103 = iD + 0.14 103
iD = 1.72 mA
Since iD = 1.72 mA > 0, our assumption of diode being ON is correct and i = 0.14 mA and
v = 0.7 V.
Part B: Parametric Solution:
For diode being ON: vD = VD0 = 0.7 V, iD 0. Substituting in the circuit equations we
get:
vs = 5 103 is + vD
vs = 5 103 is + 0.7
is = 2 104 (vs 0.7) A
v = vD = 0.7 V
v = vD = 5 103 i
is = iD + i
iD 0
0.7 = 5 103 i
i = 0.14 mA
iD = is 0.14 103 = 2 104 (vs 0.7) 1.4 104
2 104 (vs 0.7) 1.4 104 0
vs 1.4 V
For diode being OFF: iD = 0 and vD < VD0 = 0.7 V. From circuit equations, we get:
is = iD + i
is = i
2-33
vs = 5 103 is + vD = 5 103 is + 5 103 i = 1 104 i

v = vD = 5 103 i
vD < VD0 = 0.7
i = 104 vs
v = vD = 0.5vs
0.5vs < 0.7
vs < 1.4 V
Therefore, for vs < 1.4 V, diode is OFF v = 0.5vs and i = 104 vs .

For vs 1.4 V, diode is ON, v = 0.7 V, and i = 0.14 mA.
Circuit equations:
VS
3
KVL:
vs = vD1 + 2 10 iD1
KVL:
vs = 103 iD2 + vD2

v = 103 iD2
D1
1k
D2
2k
and i = iD1
Part A: vs = 10 V.
Assume both diodes are ON: vD1 = vD2 = VD0 = 0.7 V, iD1 0, and iD2 0. Substituting
in the above equations we get:
KVL:
vs = vD1 + 2 103 iD1 10 = 0.7 + 2 103 iD1 iD1 = 4.65 103 = 4.65 mA
KVL:
vs = 103 iD2 + vD2

v = 103 iD2
10 = 0.7 + 103 iD2
iD2 = 9.3 103 = 9.3 mA
v = 9.3 V
Since both iD1 and iD1 are positive, our assumption of both diodes being ON is correct and
v = 9.3 V and i = iD1 = 4.65 mA.
Part B: Parametric Solution: Here, we have to consider four cases.
Case 1: D1 and D2 are both ON: vD1 = vD2 = VD0 = 0.7 V, iD1 0, and iD2 0.
KVL:
vs = vD1 + 2 103 iD1 vs = 0.7 + 2 103 iD1 iD1 = 5 104 (vs 0.7)
KVL:
vs = 103 iD2 + vD2

v = 103 iD2
vs = 0.7 + 103 iD2
iD2 = 103 (vs 0.7)
v = vs 0.7
iD1 0
5 104 (vs 0.7) 0
iD2 0
103 (vs 0.7) 0
vs 0.7 V
vs 0.7 V
2-34
So, for vs > 0.7 V, both diodes will be ON with v = vs 0.7 V and i = iD1 = 5 104 (vs
0.7) = 0.5(vs 0.7) mA.
Case 2: D1 and D2 are both OFF: iD1 = iD2 = 0, vD1 < VD0 = 0.7 V, and vD2 < VD0 = 0.7 V.
KVL:
vs = vD1 + 2 103 iD1
KVL:
vs = 103 iD2 + vD2

v = 103 iD2
vD1 = vs
vD2 = vs
v=0
vD1 < VD0 = 0.7
vs < 0.7 V
vD2 < VD0 = 0.7
vs < 0.7 V
So, for vs < 0.7 V, both diodes will be OFF with v = 0 and i = iD1 = 0
Note that since for vs > 0.7 V, both diodes will be ON and for vs < 0.7 V, both diodes will
be OFF, one would expect that it would not be possible for one diode to be ON and one to
be OFF. We will demonstrate this below.
Case 3: D1 is ON: vD1 = VD0 = 0.7 V, and iD1 0 while D2 is OFF: iD2 = 0 and
vD2 < VD0 = 0.7 V.
KVL:
vs = vD1 + 2 103 iD1 vs = 0.7 + 2 103 iD1 iD1 = 5 104 (vs 0.7)
KVL:
vs = 103 iD2 + vD2

v = 103 iD2
iD1 0
vD2 = vs
v = vs 0.7
5 104 (vs 0.7) 0
vD2 < VD0 = 0.7
vs 0.7 V
vs < 0.7 V
We see that for D1 to be ON (iD1 0), we need vs 0.7 V and for D2 to be OFF (vD2 < VD0 )
we need vs < 0.7 V. These cases are mutually exclusive so we cannot have simultaneously
D1 ON and D2 OFF.
Similarly, we can find D1 is OFF and D2 ON case is not possible.
2-35
Part A: vs = 10 V.
V3
iD2
+
VS
5k
iD1
5k
iD2
VS
V2
V1
5k
iD1
10k
5k
V3
5k
D2
D1
10k
iD2
+
VS
10k
V3
5k
10k
iD2
0.7 V
0.7 V
10k
D1 ON
D2 ON
V3
10k
0.7 V
V1
5k
10k
VS
V
5k
With the exception of simple circuits, it is usually more useful

to redraw the circuit based on the state of the diodes as this can
simplify the circuit considerably. Note that when a diode is ON,
vD = VD0 for iD > 0 and the diode resembles an ideal voltage
source with the strength of VD0 . When the diode is OFF, iD = 0
and the diode resembles an open circuit. This can be seen in
circuits below:
+
VS
V2
V1
5k
iD1
V2
V1
5k
V2
iD1
10k
10k
10k
D1 ON
D2 OFF
D1 OFF
D2 ON
D1 OFF
D2 OFF
Case 1: Assume D1 is ON and D2 is ON. The above circuit can be solved by node voltage
method. This circuit has four nodes, v1 , v2 , v3 , and vs = 10 V. All nodes are supernodes as
they are attached to a voltage source. So we have only we KCL containing nodes v1 , v2 , and
v3 :
Supernode:
v1 v2 = 0.7
Supernode:
v3 v2 = 0.7
v3 vs
v1 0
v2 0
v1 vs
+
+
+
=0
3
3
3
10 10
5 10
5 10
10 103
v1 vs + 2(v3 vs ) + 2v1 + v2 = 0
KCL at v1 , v2 , v3 :
3v1 + v2 + 2v3 = 3vs = 30 V

We substitute for v1 and v3 from the first two equations in the last equation to get:
3(v2 + 0.7) + v2 + 2(v2 + 0.7) = 30
v2 = 4.42 V and v1 = v3 = 5.12 V

2-36
To check the validity of our assumption of D1 and D2 ON, we need to compute iD1 and iD2 .
iD2 is the same as the current in the 5 k resistor on the top of the circuit and iD2 can be
found by KCL at node v1 :
0 v1
10 5.12
5.12
vs v1
+
=
+
= 0.54 mA < 0
3
3
3
10 10
5 10
10 10
5 103
vs v3
10 5.12
=
=
= 0.98 mA > 0
3
5 10
5 103
iD1 =
iD2
Since iD1 < 0, our assumption is incorrect and we should consider other cases.
Case 2: Assume D1 is ON and D2 is OFF. The above circuit can be solved by node voltage
method. This circuit has three nodes, v1 , v2 , and vs = 10 V (v3 = vs = 10 V as iD2 = 0).
All nodes are supernodes as they are attached to a voltage source. So:
Supernode:
KCL at v1 , v2 :
v1 v2 = 0.7
v1 0
v2 0
v1 vs
+
+
=0
3
3
10 10
5 10
10 103
v1 vs + 2v1 + v2 = 0 3v1 + v2 = vs = 10 V
We substitute for v1 from the first equation in the second equation to get:
3(v2 + 0.7) + v2 = 10
v2 = 1.98 V and v1 = 2.68 V
To check the validity of our assumption of D1 ON and D2 OFF, we need to compute iD1
(KCL at node v1 ) and vD2 .
vs v1
0 v1
10 1.98
1.98
+
=
= 4.06 mA > 0
3
3
3
10 10
5 10
10 10
5 103
= v3 v2 = 10 1.98 = 8.02 > 0.7 V
iD1 =
vD2
Since vD2 > 0.7, our assumption is incorrect and we should consider other cases.
Case 3: Assume D1 is OFF and D2 is ON. The above circuit can be solved by node voltage
method. This circuit has four nodes, v1 , v2 , v3 , and vs = 10 V. All nodes except v1 are
supernodes as they are attached to a voltage source. So:
Supernode:
KCL at v2 , v3 :
KCL at v1 :
v3 v2 = 0.7
v2 0
v3 vs
+
=0
5 103 10 103
v1 vs
v1 0
+
=0
10 103 5 103
2v3 20 + v2 = 0
v1 10 + 2v1 = 0
v1 = 3.33 V
2-37
The first two equations can be solved to find v2 and v3 :

2(v2 + 0.7) + v2 = 20
v2 = 6.2 V
v3 = 6.9 V
To check the validity of our assumption of D1 OFF and D2 ON, we need to compute vD1
and iD2 .
vD1 = v1 v2 = 3.33 6.2 = 2.87 < 0.7 V
vs v3
10 6.9
iD2 =
=
= 0.62 mA > 0
3
5 10
5 103
Since vD1 < 0.7 and iD2 > 0, our assumption is correct. So D1 is OFF, D2 is ON and
i = iD2 = 0.62mA and v = vs v3 = 10 6.9 = 3.1 V.
This case could have been solved more simply by noting that when D1 is OFF, the two
branches of the circuit become independent (we have two separate circuits) and v1 and v2
can be directly calculated:
5 103
10 = 3.33 V
10 103 + 5 103
vs 0.7
= 0.62 mA
i = iD2 =
10 103 + 5 103
v1 =
and proceed to compute vD1 < 0.7 to show that our assumption was valid.
Case 4: Assume D1 is OFF and D2 is OFF.
While we proved that D1 is OFF and D2 is ON, lets proceed to solve this case. Again, we
see that two branches of the circuit are independent. In addition, since i = 0, v2 = 0 and
v3 = vs = 10 V. From voltage divider, we have v1 = 3.33 V (similar to case 3).
To check our assumption, we note vD1 = v1 v2 = 3.33 0 = 3.33 > 0.7 V so D1 cannot be
OFF and assumption was incorrect.
As can be seen, the simplest circuit is when diodes are OFF as the circuit usually divides
into several simpler circuits. As such, if one cannot make an educated guess regarding the
state of the diodes, it is usually best to start the analysis with diodes being OFF.
2-38
Part B: Parametric Solution: Here, we have to consider four cases. As discussed above, we
will start with simplest cases (diodes OFF).
Case 1: D1 and D2 are both OFF: we see that two branches of the circuit are independent.
In addition, since i = 0, v2 = 0 and v3 = vs . From voltage divider, we have v1 = vs /3.
To find the range of validity of this solution,
vD1 = vs /3 < VD0
vD2 = v3 v2 < VD0
vs < 2.1 V
vs < 0.7 V
For both diodes to be OFF, we need vs < 0.7 V (the most restrictive of both conditions).
So, for vs < 0.7 V, both diodes will be OFF, i = 0 and v = 0
Case 2: D1 OFF and D2 ON: we see that two branches of the circuit are independent. From
voltage divider, we have v1 = vs /3 V.
i = iD2 =
vs 0.7
= 6.67 105 (vs 0.7)
10 103 + 5 103
v = 5 103 i = 0.33(vs 0.7)

To find the range of validity of this solution,
iD2 = 6.67 105 (vs 0.7) 0 vs 0.7 V
vs
vD1 = v1 v2 < VD0
10 103 i < 0.7
3
0.33vs 0.67(vs 0.7) < 0.7
vs > 0.7 V
For D1 OFF and D2 ON, we need vs 0.7 V (the most restrictive of both conditions).
So, for vs 0.7 V, D1 OFF and D2 ON, i = 6.67 105 (vs 0.7) and v = 0.33(vs 0.7).
Since for vs < 0.7 V, both diodes will be OFF and for vs > 0.7 V, D1 is OFF and D2 is ON,
there is no range of values for vs when other cases (D1 ON and D2 OFF or both ON) are
possible.
Exercise: Solve circuit equations directly to show that D1 ON and D2 OFF Case or both
diodes ON Cases are not physically possible.
2-39
iD
Part A: vs = 10 V.
To check the our assumption, we note vD = 10 i1 = 5 >

0.7 V, so the assumption is incorrect.
i1
Assume diode is OFF: iD = 0 and vD < VD0 = 0.7 V.

Then i1 = i = vs /(103 +103 ) = 5 mA and v = 103 i = 5 V.
vs
1 k
1 k
+
v
Assume diode is ON: vD = VD0 = 0.7 V and iD 0 Then

by KVL: v = vs vD = 9.3 V and i = v/103 = 9.3 mA.
To check the our assumption, we note i1 = vD /103 = 0.7 mA and by KCL iD = i i1 =
8.6 mA. Since iD > 0, our assumption is correct.
Therefore, diode is ON and i = 9.3 mA and v = 9.3 V.
Part B: Parametric Solution:
Case 1: Assume diode is ON: vD = VD0 = 0.7 V and iD 0.
KVL:
v = vs vD = vs 0.7
To check the region of validity of our assumption we need to calculate iD :

v
vD
= 0.7 103 A = 0.7 mA and i = 3 = 103 (vi 0.7)
3
10
10
3
iD = i i1 0 10 (vs 0.7) 0.7 103 0 vs 1.4 V
i1 =
So, if vs 1.4 V, the diode will be ON and v = vs 0.7 V.

Case 2: Assume diode is OFF: iD = 0 and vD < VD0 = 0.7 V.
KCL:
i = i1 + iD = i1
KVL:
vs = 103 i1 + 103 i = 2 103 i
i = i1 = 0.5 103 vs
v = 103 i = 0.5vs
To check the region of validity of our assumption we need to calculate vD :
vD = vs v = vs 0.5vs = 0.5vs
vD < VD0
0.5vs < 0.7
vs < 1.4 V
So, if vs < 1.4 V, the diode will be OFF and v = 0.5vs .

2-40
Problem 10. Find transfer function of the circuit below (Si diodes with VD0 =0.7 V and
VZ = 5 V for Zener diodes).
The regular diode can have two states (ON and OFF) and
the Zener diode has three states (ON, OFF, and Zener).
So, it appears that we need to consider 2 3 = 6 possible
cases. However, an examination of the circuit shows that
only two of these six combinations are possible by nothing
iD1 = iD2 .
R
D1
vi
D2
vo
If D1 is ON, iD1 0. This means that iD2 < 0 and D2 diode has to be in Zener state.
If D2 is OFF, iD1 = 0. This means that iD2 = 0 and D2 diode has to be OFF.
Case 1: D1 is ON (vD1 = VD0 = 0.7 V, iD1 0) and D2 is in Zener state (vD2 = VZ = 5 V
and iD2 0). By KVL:
vi vD1 + vD2
2R
= vi 0.5(vi vD1 + vD2 ) = 0.5(vi + vD1 vD2 ) = 0.5(vi + 5.7)
vi = RiD1 + vD1 vD2 + RiD1

vo = vi RiD1
iD1 =
The range of validity of this solution can be found by setting iD1 0 (iD2 0 will be
automatically satisfied).
iD1 =
vi vD1 + vD2
0
2R
vi vD1 vD2 = 0.7 + 5.0 = 5.7 V
Case 2: D1 and D2 are OFF (iD1 = iD2 = 0, vD1 < VD0 = 0.7 V, VZ < vD2 < VD0 = 0.7 V).
In this case, vo = vi RiD1 = vi .
The range of validity of this solution can be found by noting:
vD1 vD2 = vo = vi
vD1 < VD0
and
VD0 < vD2 < VZ
vD1 vD2 < VD0 + VZ
vi < VD0 + VZ = 5.7 V
Transfer function:
vi < 5.7 V vo = vi
vi 5.7 V vo = 0.5(vi + 5.7) V
2-41
Problem 12. Find vo for vs = Vs sin(t).

Diodes D3, D4, and D5 all have the same state (all
are ON or all OFF). So, they act like ONE diode
with a cut-in voltage of 3VD0 = 2.1 V. Therefore, examination of the circuit shows that this is
a clipper circuit. It clips the input voltage above
VD0 + VZ = 5.7 V and clips the voltage below
3VD0 = 2.1 V
R
D1
D3
vo
D4
vi
D2
D5
Problem 14. Design a clipper circuit that clips voltages above 5 V and below 3 V using
R
Part A: Set vDC1 + VD0,1 = 5 or vDC1 = 4.3 V

Set vDC2 VD0,2 = 3 or vDC2 = 2.3 V
vi
VDC1
VDC2
vo
R
+
Part B: Set VZ,1 + VD0,2 = 5 or VZ,1 = 4.3 V

Set VZ,2 VD0,1 = 3 or VZ,2 = 2.3 V
+
D1
vi
vo
D2
that adds a DC offset of +5 to the input voltage using a) DC power supplies only, b) Zener
diodes only.
Part A: Prototype of circuit is shown with vo = vi + (V
VD0 vDC ). Since V + = V = 15 V:
+
vi
V VD0 vDC = 5
vDC = 15 0.7 5 = 9.3 V
Part B: Prototype of circuit is shown with vo = vi + (V

VD0 VZ ).
V VD0 VZ = 5
VZ = 15 0.7 5 = 9.3 V
VDC
vo
vi
vo
Capacitor values (or the load) should be chosen such that RL C = T .

2-42
Problem 18. Circuit below is a voltage doubler. Show that if vi = Vp sin(t), vo = 2Vp
(Assume that capacitor C is large such that it discharge very little per cycle and Vp VD0 .)
A
+
D2
C1
vi
RL
C2
D1
vL
Capacitor C1 and diode D1 form a clamp circuit. As a result the voltage at point A is a
sinusoidal voltage with a DC offset of Vp (ignoring VD0 ). Diode D2 and capacitor C2 form
a peak-detector circuit. They will generate a DC signal with a value which is equal to the
peak of AC signal or 2Vp
Problem 19. Circuit below is a simplified version of an electronic flash for cameras. Switch
S2 is controlled by the shutter and is closed to operate the flash bulb. Normally switch S2
is open. The circuit to the left of switch S2 charges the capacitor to about 100 V using a
1.5 V battery. Switch S1 is an electronic switch that is opened and closed at about 10 kHz.
As a result, the capacitor is charged to about 100 V using a 1.5 V battery. Explain how the
charge-up circuit works.
R
S2
1.5 V
S1
When the electronic switch is closed, the battery increases the inductor current, i.e., inductor
charges up as its magnetic stored energy increases. When the electronic switch opens, the
inductor current cannot change suddenly. The inductor current has to flow through the
diode and the capacitor which charges up the capacitor and increases its voltage (Note
iL = iC = Cdvc /dt > 0 leads to an increase in vc ). So each time, the electronic switch
closes and opens, the capacitor voltage is increased. When the capacitor reaches its desired
voltage, the electronic switch stays at open position. Diode D1 prevents the capacitor to
discharge back into the power supply and resistor R.
Note that The inductor can charge the capacitor voltage to a high value without violating
KVL as during the capacitor charge up cycle, a negative voltage appears across the inductor
vL = Ldi/dt which means that capacitor voltage would become much larger than the battery
voltage.
2-43

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II.

Energy Bands in Solids

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

The Junction Diode

Lets ignore minority carriers for the moment. In the n side,

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

Solving Diode Circuits

With diode iv characteristic in hand, we now attempt to solve

The iv characteristic of the diode is plotted

Piecewise Linear Model

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

Step 1: KCL tells that current iD flow in all elements and

Lets use this method for the Si diode (VD0 = 0.7 V)

Recipe for solving diode circuits with diode circuit models:

Diode OFF: from the circuit by KVL, vD = vi = 5 V.

Diode ON: from the circuit by Ohms Law, iD =

Therefore, the diode is ON with vD = 0.7 V and iD = 4.3 mA.

Diode Logic Gates

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

Diode AND Gate: To study the behavior of the gate we

vD2 = 4.3 V < VD0

and D2 will be OFF (iD2 = 0). Then:

vD2 = vo v2 = 5 5 = 0 < VD0

Thus, our assumption of both diodes being OFF are justified.

Parametric solution of diode circuits

Diode OFF: from the circuit by KVL, vD = vi .

Therefore, the parametric solution of the circuit can be summarized as:

Other Types of Diodes

Three other types of diodes are in wide use. They include:

Light-Emitting Diode (LED): This type of diode emits light when

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

The constant-voltage model equations are:

Vz < vD < VD0

A simple Power Supply

Case 1: Diode is in the Zener region. The equivalent circuit

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

Case 2: Diode is in the reverse bias region. Let consider

We do not need to consider the forward bias case as vo 0 means vD 0.

Other Diode Models

We first find iD by eliminating i between above equations:

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

which is exactly the same as before (except VZ is replaced with VZ0 ).

Wave-form Shaping Circuits

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

This is the simplest diode wave-form shaping circuit.

Thus, when vi VD0 , diode will be ON and vo = vi VD0 .

Transfer function of the circuit is:

Diode is OFF: and vo = 0

Exercise: What happens if the diode terminals are reversed

ECE65 Lecture Notes (F. Najmabadi), Winter 2012

Diode OFF: iD = 0, vD < VD0 :

For iD = io = 0, no current flows in R and vo = vi .

Diode ON: vD = VD0 , iD 0:

In this case vo = vD = VD0 . Diode is ON when

Transfer function of this circuit is shown with

Diode is OFF: and vo = vi