Effective Medium Theories PDF

Effective Medium Models
Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji
127
Are real rocks hopelessly complex?
128
Theoretical Models
During the last four decades, many theoretical models
have appeared which try to describe the elastic and
transport properties of rocks.
Some are mathematically elegant (complicated).
Most are extreme idealizations of the complexity of real
rocks
129
Models with Idealized Geometries

Contact Theories
Inclusion Models
?
130
Bounding Methods for Estimating Effective

Elastic Moduli
For many reasons we would like to be able to model or estimate the effective
elastic moduli of rocks in terms of the properties of the various constituent
minerals and pore fluids. To do it precisely one must incorporate
the individual elastic moduli of the constituents
the volume fractions of the constituents
geometric details of how the various constituents
are arranged
The geometric details are the most difficult to know or measure. If we ignore (or
dont know) the details of geometry, then the best we can do is estimate upper
and lower bounds on the moduli or velocities.
The bounds are powerful and robust tools. They give rigorous upper and lower
limits on the moduli, given the composition. If you find that your measurements
fall outside the bounds, then you have made a mistake - in velocity, volume
fractions, or composition!
131
Voigt and Reuss Bounds

On a strictly empirical basis one can imagine defining a power law average of
the constituents
M = f1 M1 + f 2 M 2 + f 3 M 3 + ...
where
= the effective modulus of the composite

M i = the modulus of the ith constituent
f i = the volume fraction of the ith constituent
= a constant, generally between -1 and +1
Special cases are the Voigt average (an upper bound):

K V = f Q K Q + f F K F + f C K C ... + f W K W + fO K O + f G K G
V = fQ Q + f F F + fC C ... + f W W + fO O + f G G
and the Reuss average (a lower bound):

1
K R = fQ KQ1 + f F K F1 + f CKC1 ...+ fW KW1 + fO KO1 + fG KG1

1
1
1
1
1
R = f QQ1 + f F 1
+
f
...+
f
+
f
+
f
F
C C
W W
O O
G G
Since these are upper and lower bounds, an estimate of the actual value is
sometimes taken as the average of the two, known as the Voigt-Reuss-Hill
average:
MV + MR
MVRH =
2Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji
132
The Voigt and Reuss averages are interpreted as the ratio of average stress
and average strain within the composite.
The stress and strain are generally unknown in the composite and are expected
to be nonuniform. The upper bound (Voigt) is found assuming that the strain is
everywhere uniform. The lower bound (Reuss) is found assuming that the
stress is everywhere uniform.
Geometric interpretations:
Voigt iso-strain model

f f (E )
=
E = =
i
E = f i E i
Reuss iso-stress model
E = =
f f ( )
E
1
fi
=
Ei
E
i i
Since the Reuss average describes an isostress situation,

it applies perfectly to suspensions and fluid mixtures.
133
Example: Representing a soft water-bottom sediment as a suspension.
A true suspension consists of particles suspended in a liquid. A

suspension will act like a fluid, having zero shear modulus, and a bulk
modulus given by the Reuss average. A suspension is isostress:
both liquid and particles feel the same pressure.
We often approximate a soft-water bottom as a suspension, since it is
composed of particles that are completely wet, with only slight grainto-grain contacts.
VP =
Wet sediment:
Gas-charged sediment:
4
K +
3
P-wave velocity
= (1 )solid + brine
1

K =
+
K
K
solid
brine
= (1 )solid + Sw brine + (1 Sw )gas

K = (1 )K solid + SwK brine + (1 Sw )K gas
K = 5.05GPa
= 1.99 g /cc
V = 1.59 km /s
K = 0.74 GPa
= 1.88 g /cc
V = 0.63 km /s
= 0.4; Sw = 0.7; Kqtz = 37; Kw = 2.2; Kgas = 0.1 GPa; qtz = 2.65; w = 1.0; gas = 0.1 g /cc
134
Voigt
Reuss
water
Velocity-porosity relationship in clastic sediments compared with the Voigt and Reuss
bounds. Virtually all of the points indeed fall between the bounds. Furthermore, the
suspensions, which are isostress materials (points with porosity > 40%) fall very close
to the Reuss bound.
Data from Hamilton (1956), Yin et al. (1988), Han et al. (1986). Compiled by Marion, D., 1990, Ph.D.
dissertation, Stanford
Univ.
135
Reuss
water
5% gas
Velocity-porosity relationship in clastic sediments compared with the Voigt and Reuss
bounds. Virtually all of the points indeed fall between the bounds. Furthermore, the
suspensions, which are isostress materials (points with porosity > 40%) fall very close
to the Reuss bound.
Data from Hamilton (1956), Yin et al. (1988), Han et al. (1986). Compiled by Marion, D., 1990, Ph.D.
dissertation, Stanford
Univ.
136
Hashin-Shtrikman Bounds
The narrowest possible bounds on moduli that we can estimate for an isotropic
material, knowing only the volume fractions of the constituents, are the HashinShtrikman bounds. (The Voigt-Reuss bounds are wider.) For a mixture of 2
materials:
f2
K HS = K 1 +
(K 2 K1 )
HS = 1 +
+ f1 K 1 + 1
3
f2
2 f1 (K1 + 2 1 )
+
4
5 1 K 1 + 1
( 2 1 ) 1
where subscript 1 = shell, 2 = sphere. f1 and f2 are volume fractions.

These give upper bounds when stiff material is K1, 1 (shell) and lower bounds
when soft material is K1, 1.
Interpretation of bulk modulus:
137
Hashin-Shtrikman Bounds
A more general form that applies when more than two phases are
being mixed (Berryman, 1993):
K HS + = ( max ), K HS = ( min )
HS+ = ( (Kmax,, max )), HS = ( (K min , min ))
where
(z) =
K( r) +
( z) =
1
(r) + z
(K , ) =
4
z
3
4
z
3
9K + 8
6 K + 2
indicates volume average over the spatially varying K(r), (r) of the
constituents.
138
Distance between bounds depends on similarity/difference of end-member

constituents.
Here we see that a mixture of calcite and water gives widely spaced
bounds, but a mixture of calcite and dolomite gives very narrow bounds.
G13
139
Wyllie Time Average

Wyllie et al. (1956, 1958, 1962) found that travel time through water saturated
consolidated rocks could be approximately described as the volume weighted
average of the travel time through the constituents:
d1
d2
d3
t=
D
V
t = t1 + t2 + t 3
D d1 d2 d3
= +
+
V V1 V2 V3
1 d1 / D d2 / D d3 / D
=
+
+
V
V1
V2
V3
1 f1 f 2 f 3
= + +
V V1 V2 V3
140
Wyllies generally works best for

water-saturated rocks
consolidated rocks
high effective pressures
Limitations:
rock is isotropic
rock must be fluid-saturated
rock should be at high effective pressure
works best with primary porosity
works best at intermediate porosity
must be careful of mixed mineralogy (clay)
The time-average equation is heuristic and cannot be justified

theoretically. It is based on ray theory which requires that (1)
the wavelength is smaller than the grain and pore size, and (2)
the minerals and pores are arranged in flat layers.
Note the problem for shear waves where one of the phases is a
fluid, Vs-fluid 0!
141
Modification of Wyllie's proposed by Raymer
V = (1 )2Vmineral + Vfluid
< 37%
1
2 =
2 +
2
V fluidVfluid mineralVmineral
1 0.47 1 0.37 1
=
+
V
0.10 V37
0.10 V47
> 47%
37% < < 47%
Still a strictly empirical relation.

This relation recognizes that at large porosities ( > 47%) the sediment behaves
as a suspension, with the Reuss average of the P-wave modulus, M = Vp2.
142
Comparison of Wyllie's time average equationand the Raymer equations with

Marion's compilation of shaly-sand velocities from Hamilton (1956), Yin et al. (1988),
Han et al. 1986).
143
Backus Average for Thinly Layered Media

Backus (1962) showed that in the long wavelength limit a stratified medium
made up of thin layers is effectively anisotropic. It becomes transversely
isotropic, with symmetry axis normal to the strata. The elastic constants (see
next page) are given by:
A B F
B A F
F F C
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
where
0
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
4 ( + )
1
A=
+
+ 2
+ 2
2
1
B=
+
+ 2
+ 2
C=
1
+ 2
F=
1
+ 2
D=
1
M = (A B)
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ 2
M=
, are the isotropic elastic constants of the individual layers. The brackets
indicate averages of the enclosed properties, weighted by their volumetric
proportions. This is often called the Backus average.
144
Hookes law relating stress and strain in a linear elastic

medium can be written as
ij = S ijkl kl
ij = c ijkl kl
kl
kl
elastic stiffnesses (moduli)
elastic compliances
A standard shorthand is to write the stress and strain as

vectors:
1= 11
e 1= 11
2= 22
e 2= 22
Note the factor of 2 in the
3= 33
e 3= 33
definition of strains.
T= =
E=
4
23
e 4=2 23
5= 13
e 5=2 13
6= 12
e 6=2 12
The elastic constants are similarly written in
abreviated form, and the Backus average constants shown on the previous
page now have the meaning:
1
A B F
2
B A F
3
F F C
4 = 0 0 0
5
0 0 0
6
0 0 0
0
0
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
0
D
0
0
0
0
0
0
M
e1
e2
e3
e4
e5
e6
145
Seismic Fluid Substitution

Pore fluids, pore stiffness,
and their interaction
146
Typical Problem: Analyze how rock properties, logs, and seismic

change, when pore fluids change.
Example: We observe Vp, Vs, and density at a well and compute a synthetic seismic
trace, as usual. Predict how the seismic will change if the fluid changes -- either over
time at the same position, or if we move laterally away from the well and encounter
different fluids in roughly the same rocks.
147
Gassmann to predict 4D changes

Can we predict signature of
saturation changes?
Initial
??
After
production
Gassmann to predict lateral variations

Well penetrates wet
sand
Can we predict
signature of oil?
??
148
Effective moduli for specific pore and grain geometries

Imagine a single linear elastic body. We do two separate experiments--apply
stresses 1 and observe displacements u1, then apply stresses 2 and observe
displacements u2.
The Betti-Rayleigh reciprocity theorem states that the work done by the first set
of forces acting through the second set of displacements is equal to the work
done by the second set of forces acting through the first set of displacements.
ij(2), u(2)
ij(1), u(1)
149
Estimate of Dry Compressibility
Applying the reciprocity theorem we can write:

Vbulk
Vbulk
Vpore =
K dry
K mineral
limit as
1
1 Vpore
1
=
+
K dry K mineral Vbulk
Assumptions
minerals behave elastically
friction and viscosity not important
assumes a single average mineral
150
Relation of Rock Moduli to Pore Space

Compressibility -- Dry Rock
A fairly general and rigorous relation between dry rock
bulk modulus and porosity is
1
1 =
+
K dry K mineral K
where
1
1 v pore
=
K v pore
K is the pore space stiffness. This is a new concept

that quantifies the stiffness of a pore shape.
Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory

- Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji
G.4
151
What is a Dry Rock?

Many rock models incorporate the concept of a dry rock or the dry rock frame.
This includes the work by Biot, Gassmann, Kuster and Toksoz, etc, etc.
Caution: Dry rock is not the same as gas-saturated rock. The dry frame
modulus in these models refers to the incremental bulk deformation resulting from
an increment of applied confining pressure, with pore pressure held constant.
This corresponds to a drained experiment in which pore fluids can flow freely in
or out of the sample to insure constant pore pressure. Alternatively, it can
correspond to an undrained experiment in which the pore fluid has zero bulk
modulus, so that pore compressions do not induce changes in pore pressure
this is approximately the case for an air-filled sample at standard temperature and
pressure. However, at reservoir conditions (high pore pressure), gas takes on a
non-negligible bulk modulus, and should be treated as a saturating fluid.
152
Relation of Rock Moduli to Pore Space

Compressibility -- Saturated Rock
A similar general relation between saturated rock bulk modulus and porosity is
1 =
1
+
K sat K mineral K
where
K = K +
K mineral K fluid
K mineral K fluid
K + K fluid
Pore space
compressibility
modified by fluids.
So we see that changing the pore fluid has the effect of changing the pore space
compressibility of the rock. The fluid modulus term is always just added to K
When we have a stiff rock with high velocity, then its value of K is large, and
changes in K fluid do not have much effect. But a soft rock with small velocity will
have a small K and changes in K fluid will have a much larger effect.
153
Gassmann's Relations
Ksat
K mineral K sat
Kdry
K fluid
=
+
Kmineral Kdry (Kmineral Kfluid )
1
sat
dry
These are Transformations! Pore space geometry and stiffness are

incorporated automatically by measurements of Vp, Vs. Gassmann
(1951) derived this general relation between the dry rock moduli and
the saturated rock moduli. It is quite general and valid for all pore
geometries, but there are several important assumptions:
the rock is isotropic
the mineral moduli are homogeneous
gas
the frequency is low
Dry rock is not the same as gas saturated rock.
Be careful of high frequencies, high viscosity, clay.
Useful for Fluid Substitution problem:
water
oil
154
Some Other Forms of Gassmann

K dry 2
1
K min
K sat = K dry +
1 K dry
+
2
K fluid K min K min
1
K min
1
K
fluid
1
K min
1
K dry
K sat =
1 1
1 1
+ 1
K dry K min K fluid K min K min K dry
1 = 1 +
K sat K min
K minK fluid
K +
K min K fluid
K min
+ 1 K min
K fluid
K min K sat
+
1
K fluid K min
K sat
K dry =
155
Fluid Substitution Recipe

1. Begin with measured velocities and density
VP1, VS1, 1
4 2
K1 = 1VP21 VS1
2. Extract Moduli from Velocities measured with fluid 1:
2
1 = 1VS1
3. Transform the bulk modulus using Gassmann
K2
K fl 2
K1
K fl 1
K min K2 (K min K fl 2 ) K min K1 (Kmin Kfl 1 )

where K1, K2 are dynamic rock moduli with fluids 1, 2
K fl 1,K fl 2 bulk moduli of fluids 1, 2
1, 2
density of rock with fluids 1, 2
mineral modulus and porosity
K min,
density of fluids 1, 2
,
fl 1
fl 2
4. 2 = 1 shear modulus stays the same

5. Transform density
2 = (1 ) min + fl 2 = 1 + (fl 2 fl 1 )
6. Reassemble the velocities
K2 +
VP =
3 2
VS =
2
2
156
Vp (km/s)
2.45
sandstone
porosity = 30%
2.4
2.35
2.3
patchy
homogeneous
2.25
2.2
2.15
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Oil Saturation
157
Summary of Mixing Rules
KVoigt = SwKw + SoK o + Sg Kg
K
e
K Brie = (K liquid Kg )(1 Sg ) + Kg
1 / KReuss = Sw / Kw + So / Ko + Sg / Kg
Brie, et al.SPE 30595
158
Why is the shear modulus unaffected by fluids in

Gassmanns relations?
Imagine first an isotropic sample of rock with a hypothetical spherical

pore. Under pure shear loading there is no volume change of the
rock sample or the pore -- only shape changes. Since it is easy to
change the shape of a fluid, the rock stiffness is not affected by the
type of fluid in the pore.
159
Why do the Gassmann relations

only work at low frequencies?
This crack decreases in
volume. Its pore pressure
locally increases if the fluid
cannot flow out of the crack.
+Pp
-Pp
This crack increases in

volume. Its pore pressure
locally decreases if the fluid
cannot flow into the crack.
Imagine an isotropic sample of rock with cracks at all orientations. Under pure shear
loading there is no volume change of the rock sample or the pore space, because
some cracks open while others close. If the frequency is too high, there is a tendency
for local pore pressures to increase in some pores and decrease in others: hence the
rock stiffness depends on the fluid compressibility.
However, if the frequency is low enough, the fluid has time to flow and adjust: there is
no net pore volume change and therefore the rock stiffness is independent of the
fluids.
160
Graphical Interpretation of Gassmann's Relations

1. Plot known effective modulus K, with initial fluid.
K
K
mineral fluid Kfluid
K mineral K fluid
2. Compute change in fluid term:
3. Jump vertically up or down that number of contours.

Example: for quartz and water
Kfluid
= 0.6
K mineral
~ 3 contours.
C
C
Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory

- Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji
G.6
161
Approximate Gassmann Relation

when Shear Velocity is Unknown
Normally, to apply Gassmann's relations, we need to know both Vp and Vs
so that we can extract the bulk and shear moduli:
4
K1 = VP2 VS2
3
1 = VS2
and then compute the change of bulk modulus with fluids using the usual
expression:
Kdry
Ksat
K fluid
=
+
K mineral K sat Kmineral Kdry (Kmineral Kfluid )
The problem is that we usually don't know Vs.
One approach is to guess Vs, and then proceed.
We have also found that a reasonably good approximation to Gassmann
is
Mdry
Msat
Mfluid
+
Mmineral M sat Mmineral Mdry (Mmineral Mfluid)
where M is the P-wave modulus:
M = V p2
162
Vp-saturated,
saturated, From Approximate Gassmann
Approximate Gassmann Relation

When Shear Velocity is Unknown
Vp-saturated, From Gassmann
Predictions of saturated rock Vp from dry rock Vp are virtually the same
for the approximate and exact forms of Gassmanns relations.
163
Gassmann's is a Low Frequency Relation
It is important to remember that Gassmanns relations assume low frequencies.

Measured ultrasonic Vp in saturated rocks is almost always faster than
saturated Vp predicted from dry rock Vp using Gassmann. Data here are for
shaly sandstones (Han, 1986).
164
Water Flood Example: Pore Pressure

Increase and Change From Oil to Brine
Brine Flood into Oil
1250
(laboratory)
Pressure
depth (m)
One typical depth point
oil to water
1300
G.12
brine at
increased Pp
oil at
increased Pp
original
oil
1350
effect of pressure on frame

effect of pressure on fluids
frame+fluid: fluid substitution
2.5
Vp (km/s)
Calculated using Gassmann via dry lab data from Troll (Blangy, 1992). Virgin condition taken as low frequency,
oil saturated at Peff=30 Mpa Pressure drop to Peff=10 MPa, then fluid substitution to brine.
165
Koil = 1., Kbrine = 2.2
Gas Flood Example: Pore Pressure

Increase and Change From Oil to Gas
Brine Flood into Oil
1250
depth (m)
Pressure
oil to water
1300
G.12
brine at
increased Pp
oil at
increased Pp
original
oil
1350
effect of pressure on frame

effect of pressure on fluids
frame+fluid: fluid substitution
2.5
Vp (km/s)
Calculated using Gassmann from dry lab data from Troll (Blangy, 1992). Virgin condition taken as low
frequency, oil saturated at Peff=30 MPa. Pressure drop to Peff=10 MPa, then fluid substitution to gas.
Koil = 1., Kbrine = 2.2
166
Brine Flood Example: Pore Pressure

Decrease and Change From Oil to Brine
Brine Flood with Pressure Decline
depth (m)
1250
1300
brine at
decreased Pp
original
oil
frame effect
decreased Peff
oil at
decreased Pp
1350
1.8
2.4
Vp (km/s)
Calculated using Gassmann from dry lab data from Troll (Blangy, 1992). Virgin condition taken as low
frequency, oil saturated at Peff=25 MPa. Pore pressure drop to Peff=30 MPa, then fluid substitution to
brine. Koil = 1., Kbrine = 2.2
167
Stiff, Turbidite Sand, Heavy Oil, Water Flood with Pp Increase
Stiff,deepwater sand, heavy oil (API20,GOR=15, T=75,Pp=18->25,

Sw=.3->.8)
Stanford Rock Physics
Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji
168
Fluid Substitution in Anisotropic Rocks: Brown and

Korringas Relations
(sat )
S(dry)
ijkl Sijkl
S
(
=
(S
)
)+ (
(dry)
ij
0
Sij0 (Skl(dry)
Skl )
(dry)
0
S
fl
0 )
where
)
S(dry
ijkl effective elastic compliance tensor of dry rock
)
S(sat
ijkl effective elastic compliance tensor of rock saturated with pore fluid
0
effective elastic compliance tensor of mineral
Sijkl
fl
compressibility of pore fluid
compressibility of mineral material =
porosity
This is analogous to Gassmanns relations. To apply it, one must measure

enough velocities to extract the full tensor of elastic constants. Then invert these
for the compliances, and apply the relation as shown.
169
Challenge of Reactive Fluid Substitution

Images show changes in the rock frame after CO2 injection. Gassmanns
equations assume that the frame remains unchanged.
Noiriel, 2005
170
Laboratory Data vs. Gassmanns Predicted Moduli

Pure Elastic Systems, Low Frequency, no rock-fluid reactions
171
Factors Influencing Reactions in Carbonates

a) The properties of the sediment itself
- Mineralogy
- Grain size
- Texture
- Permeability
2CaCO3 + Mg2+
- Surface area
CaMg(CO3)2 + Ca2+
[Mg2+] [CaCO3]2
Kcd=
[Ca2+] [CaMg(CO3)2]
b) The properties of the pore-fluid

- salinity
- Mg/Ca ratio
- SO4-2
- HCO3-
Kcd=
[Mg2+]
[Ca2+]
172

a) The properties of the sediment itself
- Mineralogy
- Grain size
- Texture
- Permeability
- Surface area
b) The properties of the pore-fluid
- salinity
- Mg/Ca ratio
- SO4-2
- HCO3Kcd= 0.67 - SPT conditions
173

The properties of the pore-fluid
- Mg/Ca ratio
- SO4-2
- HCO3Case A
CO2 injection
Calcite dissolution
Case B
Transformation Anhydrite Gypsum
Tucker et al., 1990
Case C
Gypsum dissolution
dolomite dissolution
de-dolomitation driven by Gypsum dissolution

174
Dissolution and mineral transformation affect the elastic moduli in a way that opposes the
high-frequency dispersion mechanisms. Thus, Gassmann fluid substitution may either
overestimate or fit high-frequency, saturated velocities, depending on the balancing of
chemical processes against dispersion mechanisms.
175
Bounding Average Method (BAM)
Marion (1990) discovered a simple, semi-empirical way to solve the fluid substitution problem. The
Hashin-Shtrikman bounds define the range of velocities possible for a given volume mix of two
phases, either liquid or solid. The vertical position within the bounds, d/D, is a measure of the
relative geometry of the two phases. For a given rock, the bounds can be computed for any two
pore phases, 0 and 1. If we assume that d/D remains constant with a change of fluids, then a
measured velocity with one fluid will determine d/D, which can be used to predict the velocity relative
to the bounds for any other pore phase.
176
An Example of the Bam Method. The wax saturated

velocities are predicted from the dry rock velocities.
Massillon Light Sandstone
4200
4000
measured parowax
P-Velocity (m/s)
3800
3600
BAM
calculated
parowax
3400
3200
3000
measured dry
2800
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
G.8
Temperature ( C)
Velocity in Massilon sandstone saturated with parowax. Data from Wang (1988). Wax saturated
velocities were predicted using BAM, from Wang's measured velocities in the dry rock and in wax (from
Marion, 1990)
177
G.9
Velocity in dry and saturated Westerly granite. Data from Nur and Simmons (1969).
Saturated velocities were predicted using BAM, from measured velocities in the dry rock
(from Marion, 1990)
178
Ellipsoidal Models for Pore Deformation

Gassmanns relation is a transformation, allowing us to predict how
measured velocities are perturbed by changing the pore fluid. Now we
discuss a different approach in which we try to model the moduli from
scratch.
Recall the general expression for the dry rock
modulus:
1
1
K dry
K mineral
Most deterministic models for effective moduli assume a specific

idealized pore geometry in order to estimate the pore space
compressibility:
1
1 v pore
=
K v pore
The usual one is a 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional ellipsoidal

inclusion or pore.
b
The quantity = b/c is called the aspect ratio.

179
Estimating the Dry Rock Modulus

An externally applied compression tends to narrow the crack, with the
faces displacing toward each other.
Mathematicians have worked out in great detail the 3-D deformation field
U, of an oblate spheroid (penny-shaped crack) under applied stress. For
example, the displacement of the crack face is:
U(r) =
c
K mineral
4 1 2
3 1 2
1 cr
We can easily integrate to get the pore volume change and the dry
modulus:
16 1 2
Nc 3
1
1 =
1
+
K dry K mineral
K mineral V bulk
9 1 2
180
Dry Rock Bulk Modulus

16(1 v 2 ) 1 Nc 3
1
1
=
+
K dry K mineral 9(1 2v ) K mineral Vbulk

2
1
1 16(1 v ) Nc 3
1 +
=
K dry K mineral 9(1 2v ) Vbulk
2
1
1 16(1 v )
1 +
=
K dry K mineral 9(1 2v )
"Crack density parameter"

=
N 3
c
Vbulk
3
4
Modulus depends directly on crack density. Crack geometry or stiffness

must be specified to get a dependence on porosity.
181
Crack Density Parameter

In these and other theories we often encounter the quantity:
Nc 3
=
Vbulk
This is called the Crack Density Parameter, and has the interpretation of the
number of cracks per unit volume.
Example: 2 cracks per small cell. Each crack about 2/3 the length of a cell.
c
= 0.07
L
v = L3
2c
L
182
Distribution of Aspect Ratios

Modulus depends on the number of cracks and their average lengths
16(1 v 2 ) Nc 3
1
1
=
+
K dry K mineral 9Kmineral (1 2v ) Vbulk
An idealized ellipsoidal crack will close when the amount of
deformation equals the original crack width:
solving gives:
U =b
close Kmineral
3 (1 2v )
4 (1 v 2 )
Kmineral
We generally model rocks as having a distribution of cracks with
different aspect ratios. As the pressure is increased, more and more
of them close, causing the rock to become stiffer.
183
Kuster and Toksz (1974)

fmorulation based on longwavelength, first order scattering
theory (non self-consistent)
(K
*
KT
*
KT
Km + m
N
3
Km)
= x i (Ki K m )P mi
4 i =1
*
K KT + m
3
m )
(m + m ) =
*
KT
+ m
x (
)
i
m )Qmi
i=1
(9K + 8 )
6 (K + 2 )
184
Self-Consistent Embedding Approximation
Walsh's expression for the moduli in terms of the pore compressibility is

fairly general. However attempts to estimate the actual pore
compressibility are often based on single, isolated pores.
16(1 v 2 ) Nc 3
1
1
=
+
K dry K mineral 9Kmineral (1 2v ) Vbulk
The self-consistent approach uses a single pore

in a medium with the effective modulus.
16(1 v 2 ) Nc 3
1
1
=
+
K dry K mineral 9Kdry (1 2v ) Vbulk
Solving for Kdry gives:

K dry
16(1 v 2 ) Nc 3
= K mineral 1
9
(
1
2v
)
V
bulk
185
Self-Consistent Approximations
OConnell and Budiansky (1974) model for medium with randomly
oriented thin dry cracks
16 1 v *2
SC
= 1
*
K
9 1 2v SC
K *SC
*
*
*
SC
32 (1 v SC )(5 v SC )
= 1
45
(2 v *SC )
v v *SC )(2 v *SC )

45
(
=
*
*
16 (1 v *2
SC )(10v 3vv SC v SC )
K and are the bulk and shear moduli of the uncracked medium, is
the Poissons ratio, and is the crack density parameter. The
calculations are simplified by the approximation:
16
*
v SC v 1
Assumes small aspect ratios ( 0).

186
Self-Consistent Approximations
Berrymans (1980) model for N-phase composites
N
x (K
i
K * )P *i = 0
* )Q*i = 0
i=1
N
x (
i
i=1
coupled equations solved by simultaneous iteration
187
Comparison of Han's (1986) sandstone data with models of idealized pore

shapes. At high pressure (40-50 MPa), there seems to be some equivalent pore
shape that is more compliant than any of the convex circular or spherical models.
188
Comparison of self-consistent elliptical crack models with carbonate

data. The rocks with stiffer pore shapes are fit best by spherical pore
models, while the rocks with thinner, more crack-like pores are fit
best by lower aspect ratio ellipsoids.
Data from Anselmetti and Eberli., 1997, in Carbonate Seismology, SEG.
189
Differential Effective Medium

Model
The differential effective medium (DEM) theory models
two-phase composites by incrementally adding inclusions of one phase
(phase 2) to the matrix phase
d
[ K * ( y )] = ( K 2 K *) P (*2) ( y )
dy
d
(1 y ) [ * ( y )] = ( 2 *)Q (*2) ( y )
dy
(1 y )
Coupled differential equations with initial conditions K*(0) = K1 and *(0) = 1, where
K1, 1 = bulk and shear moduli of the initial host material (phase 1)
K2, 2 = bulk and shear moduli of the incrementally added inclusions (phase 2)
y = concentration of phase 2
190

Model
The differential effective medium (DEM) theory models

two-phase composites by incrementally adding inclusions of one phase
(phase 2) to the matrix phase
191

Model
40
K (Bulk modulus, GPa)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
porosity
192

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Effective Medium Models

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Are real rocks hopelessly complex?

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Models with Idealized Geometries

Bounding Methods for Estimating Effective

Voigt and Reuss Bounds

= the effective modulus of the composite

Special cases are the Voigt average (an upper bound):

and the Reuss average (a lower bound):

K R = fQ KQ1 + f F K F1 + f CKC1 ...+ fW KW1 + fO KO1 + fG KG1

2Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Voigt iso-strain model

Reuss iso-stress model

Since the Reuss average describes an isostress situation,

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Example: Representing a soft water-bottom sediment as a suspension.

A true suspension consists of particles suspended in a liquid. A

= (1 )solid + Sw brine + (1 Sw )gas

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

where subscript 1 = shell, 2 = sphere. f1 and f2 are volume fractions.

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

HS+ = ( (Kmax,, max )), HS = ( (K min , min ))

Distance between bounds depends on similarity/difference of end-member

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Wyllie Time Average

Wyllies generally works best for

The time-average equation is heuristic and cannot be justified

Modification of Wyllie's proposed by Raymer

37% < < 47%

Still a strictly empirical relation.

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Comparison of Wyllie's time average equationand the Raymer equations with

Backus Average for Thinly Layered Media

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Hookes law relating stress and strain in a linear elastic

elastic stiffnesses (moduli)

A standard shorthand is to write the stress and strain as

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Seismic Fluid Substitution

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Typical Problem: Analyze how rock properties, logs, and seismic

Gassmann to predict 4D changes

Gassmann to predict lateral variations

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Effective moduli for specific pore and grain geometries

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Estimate of Dry Compressibility

Applying the reciprocity theorem we can write:

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Relation of Rock Moduli to Pore Space

K is the pore space stiffness. This is a new concept

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory

What is a Dry Rock?

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji

Relation of Rock Moduli to Pore Space

These are Transformations! Pore space geometry and stiffness are

Stanford Rock Physics Laboratory - Gary Mavko & Tapan Mukerji