Vehicle

Driver

.
Vehicle
Dynamics

4 1

Brake
Hardware

Longitudinal
Dynamics

Accelerator
Command
Brake
Command
Vehicle Velocity
Controller

Brake
Command

Hydraulic
Brake System

Brake
Torque

InverteriMotor
Controller

InverteriMotor
Control

Motor
Torque
Delivered

Traction Motor

>ommand

-----+I

Braking Control
Motor Torque

Motor Nonlinearities

Load Forces
Forces

Driveline
Dynamics

Dynamic
Weight
Transfer

1q
-

Motorhverter
Efficiency

Tire/Road
Interface

Battery

Battery Dynamics

Energy Recovered
Battery Nonlinearities
Battery Efficiencies

Vehicle Velocity

Inverter Load
Current

Fig. I . Electric vehicle dynamic model.

The drivelineefficiency of the conventional powertrain portion

of the HEV system can be improved by the inclusion of an automatic manual transmissioddry clutch driveline combination. Automation of a manual transmission alleviates driver interaction
with the clutch and gear shift lever required in a standard manual
bansmissiodclutch combination, while providing near automatic
transmission performance. This type of driveline, combined with
the proper choice of shift points, and elimination of the torque
converter (prevalent in automatic transmissions) can enhance fuel
economy while mitigating emission effects.
Such combinations of components, with an array of energy
and power levels (as well as perhaps dissimilar dynamic properties), yields a potentially difficult ensemble dynamic control
problem. A powertrain dynamic model of such a complex process enables the development of a measure of performance and
allows insight into the dominant dynamic effects in control law
synthesis. Additionally, a powertrain model can be used to help
determine optimum powerplantldriveline combinations, eliminating unnecessary vehicle builds. This article contains a description of HEV dynamic models; many of the important
dynamic control related issues are highlighted. The primary
components presented include a vehicle driver, coordinated controller, a phenomenological model of a Spark Ignited (SI) Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), variable field altemator, dynamic
lead acid battery, dry clutch, automated manual layshaft transmission, brake system, complete vehicle longitudinal dynamics
with tire-road interface characterization, and an ac induction motor electric drive system.
Also discussed in this article are automated manual layshaft
conventional powertrain test results and simulations that demon-

18

strate dynamic interactive effects and aid in the formulation of

dynamic control laws for powertrain control. Presented also are
simulations of the PHEV dynamic model, which demonstrate the
added complexity of the electric powertrain dynamic interactive
effects, the understanding of which is a precursor to dynamic
control law synthesis.

EV Powertrain System
Vehicle Driver and Coordinated Control
Generally, for all the vehicle configurations discussed herein,
the driver model includes an implicit vehicle velocity controller,
with driver velocity error and Propohonal-Integral-Denvatrve
(PID)capability, and a collection of drive cycles to provide a vehicle input command. The vehicle driver model uses vehicle velocity feedback from the vehicle dynamics and a commanded
vehicle velocity to generate braking to the brakes, and for an EV,
a coordinated vehicle controller then provides motoring and regenerative commands to the motor controller for corresponding
positive and negative motor torque. Perhaps command information is also provided to a clutch and transmission system when a
manual or automatic manual transmssion is employed. A schematic representation of an EV dynamic powertrain without a
gear changing transmission is shown in Fig. 1.
Inverter/Motor Controller
The traction motor and controller [lo], [11] extract power
from the battery, or alternative energy storage device, and provide torque to the driveline [ 121, [131, which in turn provides the
EV motive power. Additionally, the traction motor and controller

IEEE Control Systems

may be operated as a starter/alternator combination [14] or as a

generator used to recover the vehicle kinetic energy dissipated
during braking [ 1.51, [ 161. The traction motor and controller then
provide power to the battery or altemative power source, and
negative torque to the driveline, which in turn brakes the vehicle.
The coordination of electric and hydraulic blending, during
braking, is performed by the traction motor controller to meet the
driver brake torque command. Compression braking torque,
electric braking torque used to emulate the feel of engine drag
present on an IC engine vehicle, is also determined by the traction motor controller. All negative motor torque is reduced linearly at low vehicle speeds where no energy can be recovered.
Clompression braking torque allows braking to occur while recovering the maximum energy, due to all braking being perfolrmed electrically.
Traction Motor Dynamics
The traction motor dynamic model [lo] represents the dynamics of a specific field oriented controlled ac induction motor
as described by the following equations:

The inverter load current is a function of traction motor speed,

torque delivered, and terminal voltage of the battery during motoring and during regeneration as:

where elb is battery terminal voltage, V; Tmposdel

is positive motor
torque delivered during motoring, Nm.; q is motor and inverter
combined efficiency.
Battery
The battery model is a lumped parameter dynamic characterization of a lead acid battery [8], [14]. The open circuit voltage is
a function of traction battery state of charge and empirical parameters for lead acid batteries. The dynamic relationships between battery voltage and current are modeled, including the
polarization capacitive effect, incipient capacitance of the battery, internal battery resistance, and terminal ohmic resistance.
For example,

V,, = 338.8.[0.94246 + 0.0.05754.( SOC)]

R~ .

h,, = L , .iqs+ L, .iqr

h,, = L,T.id + L, .id,
'

wlherei,,, iqr are d,q axis rotor current respectively, A; ids,iqs are
d , q axis primary current respectively, A; L, are mutual inductance, H ;Lr, LJ are resolved rotor, stator inductance respectively, H; P is poles; Rr, Rs are resolved rotor, stator resistance
reispectively, ohms; V,, Vqsare d, q axis primary voltage respectively, V; h,,,h qr are d, q axis rotor equivalent flux respectively,
V-sec; h,, h , are d,q axis stator equivalent flux respectively,
V-sec;
o,is synchronous frequency, rps;oris rotor frequency, rps; &,is
rotor acceleration, rps*; T,is electric motor torque, Nm.
The traction motor torque delivered is modeled as a function
of the motor dynamics, motor nonlinearities, and losses in both
the motor and inverter as a function of motor speed. The traction
motor torque limit is characterized by functions of the form:

a, <a,,

l
where 0,is motor base speed, T m ; 0 , is m ~ h a n i c a motor
rated motor power, hp; Trared rated motor
W e d $q m ;
torque, Nm.; T, is mechanical motor torque, Nm.

October 1998

dt

+ elb = zCh- R~.ilh,

where C, is capacitive impedance, F; C, is polarization capacitance, F; Zlbisvoltage drop due to_polarization capacitance, V; ilb
is battery discharge current, A; R is battery intemal resistance,
ohms; Rb is battery terminal resistance, ohms; SOC is battery
state of charge, percent; V,, is battery open circuit voltage, V.

A,, =Lm.iqa+L;iq,
h , = L, .,i + L, ,i

T, = Tared

Brake Controller
The dissipation of kinetic energy during braking, by an electric
or hybrid vehicle, can be recovered advantageouslyby controlling
power electronics such that the electric traction motor behaves as a
generator [ 121. The energy recovered during this process can be
returned to the energy storage device for future use.
A parallel braking system applies regenerative braking torque
(to the driven wheels), in addition to hydraulic braking torque
provided by the foundation braking system. Hydraulic brake
torque is determined in the brake controller, based on HEV coordinated control commands [1.51, [161. Regenerative brake commands are predetermined as a function of master cylinder
pressure in the traction motor controller and are based on PHEV
coordinated control commands. In a series braking system, not
illustrated here, integrated control exists between the brake controller and the traction motor controller [16], [17].
Vehicle Dynamics
The vehicle dynamic model in this instance includes four
wheel longitudinal vehicle dynamics for a front wheel drive vehicle. The inputs to the vehicle drivetrain are the motor torque or
output from a gearbox (transmission) with motor torque as gear

19

box input. In addition, the vehicle drivetrain receives hydraulic

brakmg torque or other driveline loads, and vehicle velocity is
determined via integration of the longitudinal equations of motion. Rotational dynamics for each wheel, and halfshafts, and a
representation of the forces acting on the vehicle, are modeled.
Rotational wheel dynamics include wheel slip (skid), tireiroad
surface adhesion coefficient, wheel tractive force as a function of
dynamic weight transfer, road load torque for each wheel, and
rotational wheel speed.
Wheel slip (skid) is used to determine the tireiroad surface adhesion coefficientwith a nonlinear analytic tireiroad surface interface model [l], [ 3 ] , [17]. The tire model used for this study
assumed a high road surface adhesion coefficient for dry pavement, because these are conventional driving conditions. The
wheel tractive force as a function of dynamic weight transfer is
the product of the road surface adhesion coefficient and the normal force acting on the wheel:

The rolling resistance force is a function of vehicle weight, rolling resistance coefficient, and vehicle speed:
F,,

The torques acting on the wheels include the halfshaft torque, Ts,
road load torque, Tb, bearing friction torque, and the braking
torque. Rotational wheel acceleration is obtained by the sum of
the torque acting on the wheel divided by the wheel inertia.
Wheel speed is obtained by integrating rotational wheel acceleration:

+ k, . V)

The grade forces acting on the vehicle are a function of vehicle weight and grade angle:
FgrOd,= W, .1.3558 sin0 .

The total forces on the vehicle equal the vehicle mass multiplied by the vehicle acceleration.
In these equations, 4 is frontal area of vehicle,m2;Cdis aerodynamic drag coefficient; Fa,, is aerodynamic drag force on vehicle, N; Fgrad,is grade force on vehicle, N; Frr is rolling
resistance force on vehicle, N; f , is rolling resistance coefficient;
is tractive force on left front wheel, N;
is tractive force on
left rear wheel, N;
is total forces acting on vehicle, N; F,$ is
tractive force on right front wheel, N; Jdq is differential inertia,
kg.m2 ; Jfd-dg is final drive inertia on differential side, k g , m 2 ;
J , is wheel inertia, kg .m2K , is halfshaft stiffness, /rad; K , is
empirical constant; K2 is empirical constant; R,, is loss in shaft
bearings, k g . m 2 i sec.rad ; R, is wheel radius, ft; Tb is brake
torque, Nm; T is final drive output torque, Nm; TIoadis road
fd.
torque, Nm;Tsis halfshaft torque, Nm; V is vehicle velocity,
m i sec2 ; W,is vehicle weight, lbf; y is air density, kg i m ; 8 is
grade angle, rad; 0, is halfshaft displacement, rad; p ( 7 r , l r , r fis, y )
coefficient of friction on right rear, left rear, right front, and left
front wheels respectively; 03 is wheel speed, radfsec; cofd is final
is left wheel speed,
drive speed on differential side, radfsec; ol,
radisec; w, is right wheel speed, radisec.

ev

In calculating the normal forces acting on each wheel, the dynamic weight transfer is modeled for each of both front and rear
wheels in terms of the vehicle pitch and lever arms (wheel base)
to the vehicle center of mass. The road load torque for each wheel
is then determined from the wheel diameter and tractive force:

= f, . W, .1.3558(1+ k , . V

e,,

c,r

Series HEV Powertrain System

The halfshaft model accounts for the torsional compliance between the differential and wheel. The resulting halfshaft torque is
applied to the wheel. The relations for shaft torque, and shaft compliance in terms of physical parameters are shown below:

The four wheel tractive forces, aerodynamic drag, grade

forces, and rolling resistance, describe the forces acting on the
vehicle and are depicted below:
Ft,= Ft,, + Elr f Ft$+ Fdf

- Fa,, - Fry - Fgrada

The aerodynamic drag on the vehicle is a function of vehicle

velocity squared, air density, vehicle frontal area, and coefficient
of drag, where the vehicle velocity is determined by solving or
vehicle acceleration and integrating over time:

20

Vehicle Driver and Coordinated Control

A Series HEV (SHEV) powertrain may be achieved with the
addition of an auxiliary power plant to the electric vehicle in
power series connection with the traction battery and traction
motor. In a senes configuration, the power unit interacts with
the vehicle system controller and the rest of the vehicle electrical
system, which includes the vehicle traction motor and other ancillary loads such as power steering or air conditioning. The vehicle system controller provides a desired power command and a
desired engine speed command to the SHEV system. Two or
more control variables may be used to attempt to achieve the desired altemator power at a desired engine speed. In addition, the
coordinated vehicle controller provides motoring and regenerative commands to the motor controller. A schmatic representation of a series HEV is given in Fig. 2.
Engine Dynamic Model
The key exogenous control variable to the SI ICE engine system [9] is the throttle angle (or mechanical equivalent). For a diesel engine it might be the fuel control system command. Control
variables such as spark advance, Exhaust Gas Recirculation
and variable geometry
(EGR), and Air-to-Fuel ratio (AF),
turbocharger on a supercharged power plant, are for this current
representation considered to be precalibrated emission control

IEEE Control Systems

ATR Brake System

Vehicle Dynamics
Brake Torque

High Fidelity Model of

Brake Components

Rotational Dynamics
*Tire/Road lntetface

IMC and Motor

High Fidelity Induction Motor Provides

MotoringTorque
Regen BrakingTorque
No Pedal Torque

Accel and Brake

ICommands
Follow Specified
13rive Cycle

Inverter Load

Longitudinal Dynamics
Driveline Dynamics

Energy Storage
Device
Batteries

Strateav &
Maximum Power
Utilization
Meet Emission
Constraints

Powerplant
Command

SI Engines
Turbine
Diesel

Speed

Fixed Field
*Variable
Variable Field
10 to 60 kW

Fig. 2. Series HEV dynamic model.

variables. The throttle control law includes a variable gain PI

(proportional plus integral) controller to provide a limited throttle command to the engine, based on commands from the vehicle
driver controller. Included also in the throttle command control
law are the Wide Open Throttle (WOT) operating logic and an
engine Idle Speed Control (ISC) law.
The throttle body is considered as a variable nozzle for air
flow modeling. By considering one dimensional, steady, compressible, isentropic flow of an ideal gas, the equation representing mass flow across a valve opening or orifice results in a
quasi-steady relation. In terms of the throttle valve or cross sectional area, Ae, and pressure ratio, the mass flow rate through the
valve is given by

where

temperature, KO;y is ratio of constant pressure to constant volume specific heats.

The changing flow area, Ae, is a function of the obstructing
geometry presented to the flow field. For example, employing
experimentally obtained engine pumping flow rate data for a circular bore of approximately 34 mm the flow rate (kghr) may be
given in terms of throttle angle (theta) in degrees as

F ( e ) = c,(e)A(e) = 3.765 - 0.1058 e + 0.05479e*.

The manifold dynamic equations that result from using energy balance and thermodynamic principles [8] are

-Tho)+ -Qm
y-1
P. = -(Th,,,
RY
V
V

where C,, C , is constant pressure, volume specific heats; m,, is

sum of manifold intake mass flow rates, kghr; riz, is sum of all
outflow mass rates, kghr; Q, is rate of heat flow into the manifold, Jouleslsec; Tt is temperature of intake masses, deg; V is
manifold volume, cm3.
Mass and momentum balance are achieved by assuming uniform temperature, pressure and density in each open thermodynamic volume as well as assuming a conservation of mass
constituents where no chemicalreactions take place. In some in-

where
P, is downstream pressure, kPa; P, is upstream pressure, kPa; R is
specific gas constant, atm .liter I gm .mole. K ; Tu is upstream

October 1998

stances, a further simplified model is justified by assuming invariant manifold temperature without loss of the dominant
manifold filling effect. However, temperature effects should not
be neglected when cold engine conditions, cold dense air

21

charge, or evaporating and condensing fuel are important dynamic issues.

An estimation of mass flow rates out of the manifold is given
approximately by a product of the engine speed, engine displacement, and volumetric efficiency, which in turn is resolved in
terms of engine speed, intake temperature, manifold pressure,
and exhaust gas pressure. Manifold mass flow rate egress is
given in terms of manifold pressure and engine speed by an approximate polynomial functional form
.

N
+ O.OS553(-))(0.17P+

M = ---(OS22
1000

1000

0.00098P2),

where M is speed density mass flow rate, kg/hr and N is engine

speed, rpm.
The engine torque developed at any time is a function of the
mass rates (mass charge) or ratios of rates (mass constituents)
that were sampled one engine induction event earlier. This
breathing event is a crank angle synchronized relationship that is
primarily dependent 011engine speed. For a zero order extrapolation, the minimum delay in torque generation that results from
ingestion of the manifold constituents is 180crankangle degrees.
For a four cylinder engine with a speed of N RPM, this is represented by a propagation lag relationship with idealized delay T is
30/N seconds.
A similar lag exists for the mixed A/F from the end of combustion to exhaust valve closure. In addition, a nonspeed dependent propagation lag, and some gaseous diffusion, is assumed to
persist in the exhaust pipe before the A/F sensor location [18].
Representation of the A/F delays in an SI ICE is extremely important as the torque response is highly sensitive to A/F transients, including throttle input and fuel control system transients.
The nonlinear structure for the A/F (Air/Fuel) system consists of an EGO (exhaust gas oxygen) A/F sensor in the exhaust
pipe, with a time constant of the order of 70 ms, followed by a
nonlinear (Nernst) rich/lean Signum function and a PI fuel command control law [18]. An intake runner port fuel injector is assumed with a fuel rate output, and with fuel condensation and
evaporation dynamics [ 191. The resulting system equations are

tion efficiency. Assuming a spark advance, EGR (exhaust gas

recirculation), and fuel emission calibrated 1.8 liter engine, an
approximate brake torque relationship is of the form

= q ( A l F , ( A / F ) 2 , M ,M 2 , N,...,N 4 , E G R ) .

The rotational motion of the engine crankshaft is given in

terms of the engine polar moment of inertia, angular acceleration, and the difference between the net torque generated by the
engine and the load torque on the driveshaft. Thus,
J,N = (30 / E)( T, -

where the load torque may be the starter-alternator (S/A) load,

clutch torque, air conditioning, power steering, or any driveshaft
load and J , is engine flywheel inertia, kg .m

StartedAlternator
The alternator model is empirically derived from data taken at
several voltage, field current, and speed operating points. Using
voltage, field current, and speed as inputs, the alternator current
output is determined by functional relationships. This model represents a three phase synchronous machine generating full wave
rectified DC current [ 161. The starter portion of the StartedAlternator (S/A) is also empirically derived from data and dynamic
simulation results [7].It is depicted by a 1.4 kW ac motor directly
connected to the voltage bus and geared to the ICE crank. The
S/A system is controlled via on/off logic and field current commands to control the S/A torque input (or output) of the device.
For an HEV application, the alternator may be assumet to output 70 amps over a voltage operating range from 200 to 380
Volts. The alternator output current can be represented as a function of field current, speed, voltage and temperature where the alternator field current is a separate dynamic control component.
The alternator output current approximation at a certain speed
and varying output voltage is

The field current can be represented as follows:

dm

-=rp~~-m~,

dt

m,

= (1 - Tl)rifi

+ mi,

m is manifold fuel flow rate, kglhr; m t~ is injector fuel rate command, kg/hr;nifLis injected fuel flow rate, kglhr;m is fuel evaporation rate, kghr; q is fuel accumulation parameter, = 0.25 sec; T~
is injector time constant, = 50 ms; 7, is condensation and evaporation time, = 0.5 sec.
The fuel mass flow rate is combined with the throttle mass air
flow rate to form the manifold A/F. This A/F is delayed by the induction breathing lag, preparatory to combustion torque generation, followed by a combustion torque delay, a power-stroke to
exhaust delay, and a plug stroke exhaust system delay that is dependent on the location of the EGO sensor.
Torque generated from the combustion process is dependent
on the ignition of a cylinder charge o f air, fuel, and residual gas,
as well as other variables and parameters that influence combus-

22

The inductance and resistance vary with speed, load and interior
alternator temperature.
Here, I,,l is alternator output current, A; I , is alternator field
current, A; Lfldis alternator field inductance, H; R, is alternator
filed resistance, ohms; V, is alternator field voltage, V; V,,, is alternator output voltage,V mailis alternatorrotational speed, krpm.
Series HEV Control
A large ICE powerplant (approximately 60kW or more),
could be employed to directly supply the demand power while
using a scaled down battery for partial load leveling or as a direct
power source during high power demand. In such a power source
tradeoff the nature of the performance requirements, limitations
on sensor and control mechanisms, and dynamic control law
structure will likely change. The control objectives with a more
powerful ICE/alternator and reduced traction battery system

IEEE Control Systems

340
338
336
334
332
330
328
326
324
1000 \

500

10

15

Fig. 3. Series power unit control.

might yield a load leveling or load following strategy [20]. In this

instance, the combined powerplanthattery system would be the
prime vehicle power source used to follow the desired vehicle profile while the battery power supply would be used to mitigate the
traction motor transient demands to the ICE/altemator system.
Simulation results for such a combination are shown in Fig. 3.
In this simulation, the vehicle driver would like to follow the
the first few active (non-idle) seconds of the Federal Urban
Driving Cycle (FUDS). In the transient behavior depicted in
Fig. 3 , the drivers input goes directly to the Induction Motor
Control (IMC) of the traction motor and simultaneously to the
thirottle command of the ICE. Until the ICE/alternator can
achieve alternator cut-in (i.e., that speed at which there is a
power output from the alternator), the traction motor draws
power from the energy storage device which in this case is a low

Olctober 1998

storage (small) battery pack. The combination of components

thus illustrated would require a smaller battery pack and reduced ICE by proper sizing and proration of power between the
ICE and energy storage device.
Simulations that include engine, alternator, battery, and traction motor/driveline sizing and dynamic interactions, could be
used to examine energy tradeoffs and transient tradeoffs by varying control and sizing (kW output) between an alternator and battery system as series power sources. For instance, for a small
ICE-alternator-battery power source (about 25 kW), a system
operating strategy could be such that the Range Extender (RE)
is to be activated during estimated low battery State-of-Charge
(SOC) and simply operates until a desired SOC [8], [20] has been
achieved. There exists dynamic interaction among the ICE, alternator, battery and vehicle traction motor (drivetrain)such that en-

23

ified operating strategy.

A desireable control objective for a RE HEV is to control to a
commanded engine speed (RPM)-alternator kW trajectory with
minimum speed and A/F transients, to provide idle stability at the
lowest possible engine idle speed, to yield a smooth transition to
and from idle speed set point, and to yield a speed profile that is
impervious to exogenous disturbances such as changes in electric
vehicle driver demand. This objective may be accomplished with
feedback control on the engine throttle and alternatorfield current.

24

speed and alternator kW errors must be simultaneously controlled by the throttle and alternator field current, with an interactive control law [21].
Engine speed is the pnmaq variable to be controlled by the throttle using a modified Proportional-Integral-Differentd(PID) type
control. As mentioned earlier,conditions for wide open throttle (control variable saturation)and throttle damping (throttle dashpot) must
be accommodated. Controlinteractionof the kW set point is provided
by a modulation of the throttle voltage command.

IEEE Control Systems

Starter/
Alternator
Control

Starter/
Alternator

Energy
Storage
Device

t
Vehicle
Driver
and
Coordinated
Control

Clutch
Control

Clutch
Mechanism
Vehicle
Dynamics
and
Tire Road
Interface
Layshaft
Transmission

Transmission
Control

Hydraulic
Brake System

Differentiall
Driveline

Fig. 5. Automated layshaji transmission vehicle dynamic model.

When altemator field current is a control variable, kW error

may be the primary variable to be controlled using perhaps a
modulated PID control. The use of altemator field current allows
a rapid variation in alternator kW output at a given altemator
speed with, of course, corresponding rapid loading and unloading of the power source (the ICE). Modulation of the kW control
can eliminate engine speed transients during altemator loading
and unloading from bus load variations resulting from rapid
changes in vehicle driver demand.
A simulation result for assumed RPM and kW command profiles (RPMcomand kWcom) with engine speed (RPM) and alternator kW as feedback variables,is shown in Fig. 4. Throttle command
to Ihe engine is relatively well behaved resulting in a minimization
of A/F transients, where the extemal RE input disturmance is the
traction motor kW demand. In the simulation the battery is initially
at 40 percent State-of-Charge(SOC). Any increase in battery voltage: is due to alternator activation and is especially evident during
motor inactivity (vehicle idle). In this instance, the simulation did
not include a regenerative braking system.

An Automatic Manual Transmission

Powertrain System
Vehicle Driver and Coordinated Control
The automated manual layshaft transmission and dry clutch
combination dynamic model, depicted in Fig. 5, consists of a
driver, ICE engine and controller, starter-alternator and control-

October 1998

ler, dry clutch and controller, automated manual layshaft transmission and controller, hydraulic brakes, vehicle dynamics, and
tirehoad surface interfaces. In the case of an automatic transmission powertrain system, the vehicle controller provides the engine throttle commands to the engine controller, and to the
clutch, transmission, and brake system. In particular, the controller provides engine, clutch and transmission control during shifting, or braking. Throttle blade commands from the controller to
the engine may be based on transmission gear, driver accelerator
pedal position, engine speed, shift status, and clutch status.
Engine Controller
The key exogenous control variable to the SI ICE engine system is the throttle angle (or mechanical equivalent). Control variables such as spark advance, Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR),
and Air-to-Fuel ratio ( A / F ) ,are for this current representationconsidered to be precalibrated emission control variables. However,
the engine dynamic model does have provision for independent
control of these variables if desired. The throttle control law includes a variable gain PI (proportional plus integral) controller to
provide a limited throttle command to the engine, based on commands from the vehicle driver controller. Included also in the
throttle command control law are the Wide Open Throttle ( W m )
operating logic and an engine Idle Speed Control (ISC) law. The
throttle command is received by a throttle dynamic control mechanism which may contain representations for throttle springs, linkages, deadband, and throttle motor characteristics if desired.

25

Clutch Controller
The description of the clutch dynamic model is contained in
the Driveline Dynamics section. The clutch will be commanded
to disengage if upshifting or downshifting is requested, braking
is commanded, engine speed falls below idle, or no engage clutch
command is present and the clutch is not presently engaged.
Clutch engagement will be commanded when engine speed is
sufficient, the brakes are not commanded, no upshift and no
downshift requests exist, the transmission is in gear, and no disengage clutch command is present.
The clutch uses friction to transmit torque to the manual
transmission. The clutch plate friction allows the plates to slide
before becoming fully engaged preventing jerking. The conditions for slipping are a function of engine speed, transmission
speed, clutch pressure, clutch wear, clutch temperature, and
drive shaft resonance. When the engine speed is much greater
than the transmission input speed, then slipping is necessary to
allow the clutch friction to load the engine, thus reducing the engine speed to the transmission input speed level so that smooth
engagement can take place. When the engine speed is much
slower than the transmission input speed, clutch slippage allows
engine speed to be increased, via the throttle, while exposing the
engine to a very small load, thus avoiding engine stall. During
engagement, essential negative damping causing clutch shudder as well as halfshaft resonance may be present in a magnitude that can be felt by the driver, in which case the modulation of
the clutch pressure in a variable slipping state is desirable in order to damp such oscillations. Furthermore, it is possible to modulate clutch pressure to affect torque transmission during
engagement, as well.
Transmission Controller
The dynamic model of the transmission is described in the
Driveline Dynamics section. The transmission controller determines when a shift event shall occur and selects the appropriate
transmission gear based on transmission output speed, throttle
angle, current gear and clutch state. The occurrence of a shift
event depends on piecewise linear functions, called shift schedules. Separate shift schedules exist for upshifting and downskifting. During braking the clutch is disengaged, the engine is
ramped to idle speed, and the transmission continues to shift allowing the transmission to be in the proper gear when an engagement is requested. A shift command and gear change are not
initiated until the clutch controller initiates a clutch disengage
command and the clutch fully disengages. The transmission gear
shift is emulated by modeling a delay, which represents fork
movement and gear engagement time, based on experimental
data. Forces are not transmitted to the drivetrain when the clutch
is disengaged, thus a delay is a sufficient representation. Once
the shift is complete, the clutch is engaged. The transmission will
then remain in gear as long as the shift schedule dictates and the
clutch remains engaged.
Brakes
Hydraulic brake pressure commands are received directly
from the vehicle driver. These brake pressure commands are applied to the brake hardware and then the resultant braking torque
is applied to the vehicle wheels.

26

Transmisslor

Engine

Fig. 6.Automated Layshaft Transmission Powertrain.

Driveline Dynamics
The driveline dynamic model includes the rotational dynamics
for an automated manual layshaft transmission and dry clutch combination, which accepts engine torque, and deliverstorque to the vehicle wheels through the differential and halfshafts. The engine is
connected directly to the differential through the clutch, transmission, and a final drive, as a conventionalpowertrain. Rotational dynamics and nonlinearities for the engine, clutch, transmission, final
drive and differentialare modeled. A simplifieddiagram, representing this nonlinear dynamic powertrain, is given in Fig. 6.
When engine torque is transmitted, the engine inertia coupled
to the clutch inertia on the engine side is accelerated. The altemator is an additional engine load, and torque from the starter aids
the engine during starting.Three states of the clutch are modeled:
fully engaged, slipping, and disengaged. Constitutive relationships allow seamless transition between differential equations
that represent each of the three clutch states. If the speeds of both
clutch plates are not equivalent, then the clutch plate may be slipping or disengaged. The acceleration equation for the engine
crankshaft is:

In this constitutive relationship for slipping during clutch engagement, the fist multiplicativerelation characterizes the driveshaft stiffness and is a function of the integral of the speed

IEEE Control Systems

difference between the two clutch plates. The second bracketed

term characterizes the percentage of torque transmitted through
the clutch due to the speed difference between the plates. The negative damping imposed by this term can be felt by the driver, when
sufficient slip is not present and the clutch is nearing lockup. The
driveline stiffness and the percentage of torque transmitted
through the clutch are also a function of the clutch friction material
temperature and the clutch wear. The third multiplicative term
f$o, - oce,)l)
is the normalized clutch capacity and shows that
the clutch can be modulated as a function of the halfshaft resonaince to enhance stability and driver feel. When the clutch is engaged, the fully engaged conditions are o,= oca:

The constitutive relationship characterization of the clutch in the

fully engaged state includes the driveshaft stiffness and damping
due to the speed difference between the two clutch plates.
Included in the driveline is a layshaft transmission which lies
between the clutch and the differential. The synchromesh prevents gears inside the transmission from engaging at different
speeds. Before any forward gear is selected, gear wheels driven
by the engine free-wheel on the transmission shaft. Before gear
engagement the gear and the shaft must be brought to the same
speed and locked together. The synchromesh uses friction to accomplish this. The selector fork pushes a collar along the transmission shaft, the collar rotating with the shaft. The collar fits
over a cone on the gear wheel, allowing the gear wheel to speed
up or slow down until both gear wheel and shaft are moving at the
sarne speed. An outer toothed ring on the collar engages dog
teeth on the cone, locking the collar to the gear wheel. When the
synchromesh is disengaged, the collar and gear wheel are not
connected. The gear wheel rotates with the transmission shaft.
When the synchromesh is engaged the collar makes contact with
the cone and friction between them brings them to the same
speed. The teeth mesh together to lock the gear to the transmission shaft and allow torque through from the engine.
When the transmission is in gear, assuming 100%mechanical efficiency, rigid gears, and no gearlash or dead band, then
ace,
= a,g,. Engine torque is transmitted through the transmission:

When the transmission is not in gear

Assuming 100% mechanical efficiency, rigid gears, and no

,,
= 0 , Then
.
torque is transgearlash or dead band, then ag
mitted to the differential:
m

When gearlash and or dead band is present in the final drive

Assuming 100% mechanical efficiency, rigid gears, and no

gearlash and or dead band, then torque is transmitted to the
halfshafts:

When the transmission is in gear, but gearlash and or dead band is

present in the transmission:

When the transmission is in gear and no gear lash or dead band is

present:

where

October 1998

27

1000~

140 7
120:
1

100:
L

801

>

60 T

700

600
500
400

300

200

o~'"'"''"'""'"'''"'"'
0

10

20

30

1004

40

50

60

"

"

"

"

10

'

'

"

"

20

'

"

'

"

30
Time (sec)

40

"

" " "

50

60

,000'l
0

10

30
Time (sec)

20

40

50

60

04
0

"

'

" " " " " " " " " " " " "

10

20

30
Time (sec)

40

50

60

Fig. 7. Wide open throttle data.

Test Data and Simulation

Fig. 8. Wide-open throttle simulation.

28

Results
An automatic manual layshaft
transmission/dry clutch vehicle
was built. Test data was taken for
model validation for an array of vehicle operating conditions, including medium acceleration and Wide
Open Throttle (WOT) on various
grades and road surfaces. For example, Figs. 7 and 8 show WOT
test data and simulation results on
flat terrain. In this context, WOT
implies maximum driver demand
on the powertrain system. The test
data plotted is vehicle velocity in
kph, throttle position in counts,
gear, and engine speed in rpm.
Comparing the test data versus
the simulation, six seconds after
the vehicle begins acceleration it
has attained a speed of 45 kph with
the test data and 40 kph with the
simulation. Shifting takes place at
about six seconds, 10 seconds, 20
seconds, etc., in both the simulation and the vehicle. The vehicle
speed and gear shifting relationships show close correlation. Generally, the automatic layshaft

IEEE Control Systems

--c

Diesel
Fuel
Control

Clutch
Control

Vehicle
Driver
and

Coordinated

-*
+

Inverter
Motorl
Generator
Control

Turbocharged
Diesel

Clutch
Mechanism

Induction
Motorl
Generator

Transmission
Control

7
Parallel
Regenerative
Brake System

Rotational
Dynamics
I

-+

Transmission + Differential
Driveline -+

'3-

Tire/Road
Interface
Driveline
Dynamics

Energy Storage
Battery
Ultracap
Flywheel

Fig 9. Pre-transmission (motor ahead of transmission) coupled PHEV dynamic model.

transmission vehicle test data and simulation results correlate

quite closely. When comparing the test data and simulation,
model parameters are adjusted for one operating condition until
very close correlation exists. The resulting parameter set is fixed
and remains the same for all other simulation and test vehicle operating conditions. The tests were conducted over several different road conditions and grades for all comparison studies. The
primary objective of the comparison was to establish a reasonable dynamic powertrain model upon which hybridization of the
vehicle could take place.

PHEV Component Models and Controllers

The model for a PHEV powertrain contains many of the components of a conventional thermomechanical system. It also includes electric vehicle components such as a traction motor and
traction motor controller, as well as a traction energy storage
source suitable for electric only or hybrid vehicle operation. The
PHEV dynamic model, depicted in Figs. 9 and 10, consists of a
drker, startedalternator, startedaltemator controller, engine, engine controller, a traction motor controller, a traction motor, hydraulic and regenerative braking system, a battery, engine clutch
cointroller,engine clutch, motor clutch controller, motor clutch,
transmission controller, transmission, vehicle dynamics, PHEV
coordinated controller, and tire/road surface interfaces. The
coimponents of such a hybrid are discussed subsequently.
Vehicle Driver and Coordinated Control
Power, energy, or torque partitioning between two power
sources is dependent on vehicle objectives and may be based on
bal.tery State Of Charge (SOC), motor speed versus torque limits,
transmission gear, driver accelerator pedal position, engine
speed, average drive wheel power, shift status, engine clutch sta-

0,ctober1998

tus, estimated engine torque, and estimated engine torque available. Torque may be partitioned to operate in an engine only
mode, a motor only mode, or a two traction device mode. Additionally, the motor provides torque during shifting so that torque
disruption to the powertrain is eliminated [ 171. The powertrain
will provide negative torque via the motor during braking for energy recovery. During periods of low battery SOC, the engine
may be loaded with the alternator to charge the battery.
StartedAlternator Controller
The starter portion of the Starter/Alternator(S/A) is empirically
derived from data and dynamic simulation results [ 141. An ac motor
is directly connected to the voltage bus and geared to the SI ICE
crank. The S/A system is controlled via on/off logic and field current
commands to control the S/A torque input (output) of the device.
Engine, Clutch and Transmission Controllers
The throttle control law includes a variable gain Proportional
plus Integral (PI) controller to provide a limited throttle command to the engine, based on commands from the PHEV coordinated controller. Included in the throttle command control law
are many of the functions discussed earlier such as the Wide
Open Throttle (WOT) operating logic and an engine idle speed
control law.
The coordinated control of the engine, engine clutch, and
transmission for an HEV could be conducted in a manner similar
to the Automatic Layshaft Powertrain (ALP), especially for the
post transmission configuration shown in Fig. 10. However, the
added complexity of regenerative brake capability could greatly
increase control complexity [ 161, [ 221. For the post transmission
configuration, one relatively simple addition to the autolayshaft

29

Started
Alternator

Alternator
Control

Vehicle
Driver
and
Coordinated
Control

Engine
Control

IC Engine

Engine
Clutch
Control

Engine
Clutch

Transmission
Control

1
+

Inverter

Motor1
Generator
Control

Layshaft
Transmission

Induction
Motor/
Generator

I
Regenerative
Brake System

Differential/
Driveline

Motor

t) Clutch
Control

-4---F

t
,

Vehicle
Dynamil
and
Tire Ro;
lnterfac

Motor
Clutch

i.
Storage

Fig. 10. Post-transmission coupled PHEV dynamic model.

control might be to simply open the engine clutch and idle or shut
down the ICE during electric regenerative braking.
InvertedMotor Controller
The traction motor and controller extract power from the battery, or alternative power source, and provide torque to the
driveline, which in turn provides the EV motive power. Additionally, the traction motor and controller may be operated as a
generator and recover kinetic energy dissipated during braking.
The traction motor and controller then provide power to the energy storage device, and negative torque to the driveline, which
in turn brakes the vehicle. The coordination of electric and hydraulic blending, during braking, is performed by the traction
motor controller to meet the driver brake torque command. The
motor torque command is input to a torque loop compensator
that controls drivetrain stability.
Brake System Dynamic Model and Control
Dissipation of kinetic energy during braking, by an EV or
HEV, can be recovered by controlling power electronics such
that the electric traction motor behaves as a generator, and returned to the energy storage device for future use [13], [14]. A
parallel braking system applies regenerative braking torque to
the driven wheels, in addition to hydraulic braking torque provided by the foundation braking system. The amount of electric

30

brake torque that can be added to the hydraulic brake torque is

derived from static brake force relationships, motor torque characteristics, driver feel, and the tire/road surface interface.
The brake hardware model includes dynamics of the hydraulic brake system. Brake pressure commands are received directly
from the PHEV coordinated controller and applied to brake hardware. The resultant brake torque is applied to the wheels.
Driveline Dynamics
The driveline dynamic model includes rotational dynamics
for a PHEV, which accepts engine and motor torque (in a regenerative or motoring mode), and delivers torque to the wheels
through a differential and halfshafts. Motor torque is delivered,
via a transaxle, to the differential through a 4 x 4 coupler connected to a halfshaft, and summed with engine torque at the differential. The engine is connected directly to the differential
through the clutch, transmission and final drive, as in a conventional powertrain. Rotational dynamics and nonlinearities for the
engine, engine clutch, transmission, final drive, differential,
4 x 4 coupler, motor clutch, motor transaxle, and motor are modeled in a manner similar to that discussed earlier. See Fig. 11for a
simplified diagram representing this nonlinear dynamic PHEV
powertrain.
When motor torque is transmitted, the motor inertia, coupled
to the transaxle inertia, is accelerated. Assuming 100%mechani-

IEEE Control Systems

Simulation Results
Typical PHEV simulation results (see Fig.
12) show vehicle velocity (mph), throttle angle
(degrees), engine speed (rpm), gear, drive wheel
average power (kWatts), halfshaft torque (Nm),
engine and motor torque (Nm). The PHEV simulation shows the vehicle accelerating and decelerating, highlighting regenerative braking.
When the vehicle accelerates from rest in first
gear, the motor provides the necessary torque. As
the vehicle begins to accelerate the throttle angle
Motor Transaxle
and engine speed are at idle. The vehicle operates
Assembly
in motor only mode until third gear. The motor
also provides torque to the drive wheels during
shifting. During third gear the vehicle runs in engine only mode. Application of motor torque can
be seen, in third ge&, just after 5 seconds, in orFig. 11. Parallel hybrid powertrain.
der to meet the driver acceleration command,
when the engine is already delivering full torque.
cal efficiency, rigid gears, and no gearlash or dead band, then This occurs again in fourth gear just before 10 seconds. As the
toirque is transmitted to the motor clutch and om= wale .gale:
vehicle decelerates there is a downshift, while the clutch is disengaged, and the engine is ramped to idle. The motor provides negative brake torque to the drive wheels slowing the vehicle, while
( J m + Ju/e m %m
= T, -Ta/egaie .
recovering energy.
When gearlash and or dead band exist in the transaxle then:

Conclusions
Three states of the motor clutch are modeled: disengaged, fully
engaged, and slipping. The motor will be commanded to engage
when the PHEV coordinated controller initiates motor operation. When the motor clutch is disengaged:
(Jaieccm

+ Jcm)Ci)aie = Tale.

When torque is applied to the transaxle, torque is transmitted to

the motor clutch during engagement or slipping:
(Jar1e-m

+J c m N a i e

=Lie

-Tml.

When the motor clutch is slipping or engaged:

f(wa, -wcml)jk(wale-wcm1)dt= L

I .

When torque is transmitted through the motor clutch to the 4x4

coupler, assuming 100%mechanical efficiency, rigid gears, and
no gearlash and or dead band:

When gearlash and or dead band is present in the 4x4 coupler:

Assuming 100% mechanical efficiency, rigid gears, and no

gearlash and or dead band, then torque is transmitted to the
hailfshafts and wfd = o,,,:

October 1998

This paper describes the mathematical modeling, analysis,

and simulation of a dynamic automatic manual layshaft transmission and dry clutch combination powertrain model, and corresponding coordinated control laws synthesized using a
conventional SI ICE powerplant-alternator combination, a dry
clutch and manual transmissioddifferential,variable field alternator, brakes, and complete vehicle longitudinal dynamics with
tire-road interface characterization. The conventional powertrain model is validated using experimental test data confirming
accurate emulation of dynamic components of the pre-hybridized vehicle. In addition, the development of dynamic series and
parallel HEV powertrain models and corresponding coordinated
control laws are described. The HEV models are developed by
modeling the additional traction motor transaxle and gearing. A
discussion of the key issues associated with coordinated control
law development is provided
Simulations of the dynamic behavior of two types of series
HEV's vehicle are shown. Also, simulations depicting the dynamic behavior of vehicle test data for an automatic manual
transmission vehicle and simulations of a PHEV are shown. The
simulation environment consists of the modular code of Xmath/
Systembuild (ISI) and Matlab/Simulink (Mathworks) with modifications to the code in order to implant real time stiff integration
methods into the ICE, battery system, traction motor system, and
driveline dynamics. The nominal integration time step (frametime) for simulation is on the order of two to ten msec, depending
on the model version and custom developed real time integration
method employed.
The dynamic model is currently being used to provide the
framework for hybrid vehicle control law development, and for
the DI dieseVautomatic manual layshaft transmission vehicles already being developed in the U.S. and Europe. Versions of the
model, including on board computer emulation and communication network latencies and delays, are being employed for control

31

100

80

60
40

20

ouu

tiear3

400
200
0

-200
-400

120

~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

---------,

60

- r - - - - - - - - -

10

15

20

25

30

Fig. 12. Parallel hybrid vehicle simulation and control.

algorithm code processor implementation and as a foundation for

Hardware-in-the-Loop simulation.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge technical contributions to the automated manual layshaft transmission dynamic
model of D. B. Bell, W. J. Weber, Miroslava Jankovic, and N.
Sureshbabu, as well as the technical discussions with our European collegues R. Busch and C. Krauss. The authors also acknowledge the efforts of D. B. Bell, J. R. Blankenship, and R. D.
Gilland in test data collection as well as hybrid vehicle consulting from M.A. Tamor, W. Buschhaus, L. R. Brandenburg, R.I.
Sims. and B. Bates.

[Z] R.G. Delosh, et al, Dynamic Computer Simulation of a Vehicle with

Electronic Engine Control, SAE Paper 8 10447, Detroit, Michigan, February 1981.

[3] T.D. Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE Publcatious,

1992.
[4] B. Bates ed., Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology, SAE Piihlication
SP-915, February 1992.

[5] B. Bates, Getting a Ford HEV on the Road, IEEE Spectrum, p.22-25,
July 1995.

[6] A.F. Burke, HybridElectric Vehicle Design Options and Evaluations,

Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technology, B. Bates ed., SAE Publication
SP-915, February 1992.

References
[ 11 K.E. Bailey, and B.K. Powell, A Hybrid Electric Vehicle Powertrain Dy-

namic Model, Proc. American ContuoZ Conference, Seattle, Washington,

June 1995.

32

[7] A. Kalberlah, Electric Hybrid Drive Systems for Passenger Cars and
Taxis, EZectric VehicleDesign and Development, SAE Publication SP-862,
February 1991.

IEEE Control Systems

[SI B.K. Powell, andT.E. Pilutti, A Range Extender Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Dynamic Model, Proc. 33rd IEEE Con$ Decision and Control, Lake Buena
Vista, Fla., December 1994.
[9] B.K. Powell and J.A. Cook, Nonlinear Low Frequency Phenomenological Engine Modeling and Analysis, Proc. 1987 American Control
Conf, vol. I..
[ 101T. Matsuo, and T.A. Lipo, Hybrid Computer Simulation of a Field Ori-

ented Induction Motor Drive, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, July

15,1993;Lipo, T. A., A Cartisian Vector Approach to Reference Frame Theory of AC Machines, Int. Con$ Electric Machines, Lausanne, Switzerland,
Sept. 18, 1984.
[ 1I] P. Kachroo, and M. Tomizuka, Vehicle Traction Control, ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Dec. 1992.
[ 121 K. Asano, S. Okada, and N.Iwama, Vibration Suppression of Induction
Motor Driven Hybrid Vehicle Using Wheel Torque Observer, IEEE Trans.
Ind. Applic., vol. 28, no. 2, March-April 1992.

[13] S.R. Cikanek, A. Sereshteh, and J.M. Slicker, Driveline Torsional Vibrations Control method in an Electric Propulsion System, Electric Vehicle
Association of Canada, Paper EVS88-045, November 14, 1988.
[ 141 M.C. Sultan, D. Tang, and M. Chang, An Engine and Starting System
Computer Simulation, SAE Publication 900779, February 1990.

[I51 D.M. Kuzak, P.B. Patil, and B. Bates, Regeneration Potential of Electric Vehicles, Int. J. VehicleDesign, Technological Advances in Vehicle Design Series, SP2, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, pp. 96-1 15.
[ 161 K.E. Bailey, and S.R. Cikanek, Comparison of Energy Recovery Capability of Electric Vehicle Braking Systems, Proc. AVEC Int. Symp. Advanced Vehicle Control, Aachen, Germany, June 1996.

[ 171 K.E. Bailey, S.R. Cikanek, and B.K. Powell, Dynamic Model and Coordinated Control System for a Hybrid Electric Vehicle, Proc. 14th Int.
Electric Vehicle Symp. (EVS-14), Orlando, Fla., December 16, 1997.

[I81 J.A. Cook, J.W. Grizzle, and K.C. Dobbins, An Individual Cylinder
A/F Controller: Design, Simulation and Initial Testing, Ford Scientific Research Technical Report SR-90-131, August 20,1990.
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[20] M.L. Kuang, and B.K. Powell, Method for Controlling the Operation of
a Range Extender for a Hybrid Electric Vehicle, ASME International Congress and Exposition, San Francisco, November 1995.

October 1998

[21] B.K. Powell, Hybrid Electric Vehicle Dynamic Control Implications,

Proc. I996 American Control Con$, San Francisco, CA, June 1966.

[22] S.R. Cikanek and K.E. Bailey, Electric Vehicle Braking Systems,
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16, 1997.

Barry Powell received degrees from the University of Michigan in Applied

Mathematics, Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering, Instrumentation
Engineering, and Information and Control Theory. He has been a Research
Engineer at Ford Research Laboratory, since October, 1976. Prior to that time
he worked in Ford Automotive Safety Research, Bendix Research Laboratories, and Excello Corporation Research. His responsibilities have included
mathematical modeling, analysis, simulation and control development of
high performance aircraft, space vehicles, and automotive powerplant and
powertrain systems. He has had responsibility for the technical direction of
real-time simulation and hardware-in-the-loopdevelopment of advanced engine control systems. Mr. Powell is currently involved in the analysis, development and implementation of hybrid electric vehicle dynamic systems.

Kathleen Bailey received a BS degree in Mathematics from Lawrence Technological University in 1978 and a MSE in Computer, Information and Control Engineering from the University of Michigan in 1979. She joined the
Ford Motor Company Research Laboratory in 1993 and is currently participating in the development of hybrid vehicle subsystem mathematical models, synthesis of system dynamic models for various hybrid vehicle
configurations, and dynamic analysis and control system development for
selected hybrid power source vehicles. Prior to that time she worked at
Hughes Missile Systems Group, and General Dynamics Land Systems Division. Her responsibilities have included electronic control system optimization for missile seeker systems, senior project engineer on arobotic machine
vision testbed program, and analysis and development of a model reference
adaptive electronic fuel metering system for automobiles.
Susan Cikanek is employed with Ford Motor Company on the Hybrid Electric Vehicle program, as a Research Engineer. Her current responsibilities include dynamic system modeling, control law development, simulation and
testing of conventional, hybrid, and electric vehicles, as well as establishment of system and subsystem design requirements and architectures. After
receiving a B.S. and M.S. in Electrical Engineering from Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, she worked at Eaton Corporation. She modeled, designed, implemented, and tested real-time closed loop control algorithms for
automotive, truck and motor applications applying robust, optimal, adaptive,
digital, classical, and modern control techniques. In addition, she worked on
electric vehicle induction motor and driveline control applications. She holds
patents on regenerative braking control, and induction motor control for electric and hybrid vehicle applications.

33