19

B akeries

and

C o nfectioneries
CONCH A COLL A R A N D
C R I S T I N A M . RO S E L L
Contents

19.1 Introduction
560
19.2 By-Products and Wastes Generated during Processing
of Food Products in Bakeries and Confectioneries:
Qualitative and Quantitative Aspects
561
19.3 Potential of the By-Products from Bakeries and
Confectioneries for Prospective Production of Biological
of Commercial Significance
563
19.3.1 Use of Cereal By-Products as Animal Feed
564
19.3.1.1 Separation of Bakery Products
566
19.3.1.2 Processing of Bakery Waste for Feed
Preparation
566
19.3.1.3 Commercial Products for Feeding
Obtained from Bakery Waste
568
19.3.2 Production of Sourdough from Bakery

By-Products
568
19.3.3 Production of Sugars or Polysaccharides
570
19.3.4 Isolation of Phytosterols from Cereal By-Products 572
19.3.5 Production of Organic Acids from Cereal
By-Products and Bakery Wastes
573
19.3.6 Production of Dietary Fiber from Cereal
By-Products
574
19.3.7 Production of Proteins and Enzymes from
Cereal By-Products
575
19.3.8 Biofuel
576
19.3.9 Miscellaneous
577
19.4 Socioeconomic Aspects of the Identified Value-Added
Processes
578
559

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

19.5 Environmental Concerns and Regulatory Considerations

19.6 Specific Case Study: Valorization of Specific By-Product
19.7 Future Trends, Bottlenecks, and Research Gaps
References

580
581
583
584

19.1 Introduction

Currently, there is awareness about global pollution together with rising

production costs and sometimes decreasing availability of raw materials, leading to an emphasis on the importance of recovery, recycling,
and upgrading of food processing wastes. According to the European
Landfill Directive, the amount of biodegradable waste sent to landfills
in member countries by 2020 must reach 35% of the levels of 1995. The
European food processing industry operations are forced to comply
with increasingly more stringent EU environmental regulations related
to disposal or utilization of by-products and the large volumes of aqueous wastes generated (Kosseva 2009). These wastes represent considerable amounts of potentially reusable materials and energy in spite of
the fact that they pose serious environmental and economical challenges. Most of the materials generated as wastes by the food processing industries contain components that could be utilized as substrates
and nutrients in a variety of biotechnological and chemical processes
and could yield value-added products. Consequently, revalorization of
by-products or waste has become a priority/necessity in recent times.
Cereal grains are the most important crop that provides more food
and energy to the human race than any other crop (FAOSTAT 2010).
Among the cereal grains, wheat accounts for around 29% of the total
cereal production, and is considered as the most popular cereal since
72% of the total production is destined for human consumption.
Wheat is usually ground to flour and used to produce a wide range of
bakeries and confectionery products. The bakery industry is one of the
worlds major food industries and varies widely in terms of production
scale and process. Traditionally, bakery products may be categorized
as bread and bread roll products, pastry products (e.g., pies and pasties), and specialty products (e.g., cake, biscuits, donuts, and specialty
breads). The major equipments used in processing include the miller,
mixer/kneading machine, bun and bread former, fermenter, bake
ovens, cold stage, and boilers. The main processes employed in the

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5 61

production of bakery products include milling, mixing, fermentation,

baking, and storage. The general production process flowchart of the
bakery industry (Chen etal. 2006) indicates that almost every unit
operation generates organic wastes and wastewater. The production
processes also contribute to noise pollution and air pollution in addition to the solid wastes and waste water.
In this chapter, an in-depth update/state of the art of the revalorization of by-products and wastes from bakeries and confectioneries is
provided. A detailed description of by-products and wastes generated
during processing of food in bakeries and confectioneries is envisaged
from the qualitative and quantitative points of view. The potential of
the by-products from bakeries and confectioneries for the production
of biologicals of commercial significance is identified and discussed
with special reference to ingredients, enzymes, phytochemicals, biofuel, and biomaterials. Some challenges and opportunities of current
waste processing techniques are detailed (description, monitoring, and
auditing) and discussed in terms of technological suitability, socioeconomic impact, environmental concerns, and regulatory considerations.
The practical implementation represented by one application on the
valorization of a specific by-product is included as a case study. Future
trends, bottlenecks, and research gaps are retrieved and discussed.
19.2By-Products and Wastes Generated during Processing of Food
Products in Bakeries and Confectioneries: Qualitative and
Quantitative Aspects

By-products and wastes from the cereal industries, namely, wheat

processing industries, consist of a wide range of items which can be
classified into three major groups that correspond to the stages of production and utilization systems (Fallows and Wheelock 1982):
On the farm, where the major waste is the straw.
During primary processing or milling.
During secondary processing. This group is dominated by the
by-products generated in the bread baking industry.
During the distribution of cereal-based products. A considerable amount of waste is generated at this level due to the
perishability of the baked products.

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

The by-product that is generated on the farm is the straw, which is

generally used for making beds for animals or storage of other crops,
and bulk feeding of ruminants. Other uses of straw include its utilization as building material, in papermaking, as a fuel, or as a raw material for the chemical industry, namely in the production of furfural.
Although the most economical method of disposal of straw practiced
until now is burning, this practice is not desirable since it causes environmental pollution and there is a risk of fire spreading. Recently, a
thorough revision of the treatment methods (incineration, combustion, composting) that have been applied to wheat straw to convert it
into useful materials such as biomass, biogas/biofuel, animal feeding,
and composting was reported (Arvanitoyannis and Tserkezou 2008).
In fact, there is great potential for conversion of wheat straw into biomass or biogas in view of the economic and environmental issues.
Nevertheless, considerable effort has been put into developing new
wheat varieties with shorter straw length (for increasing their resistance to lodging-bending under the weight of rain or grain), which
allows to increase the grain yield without increasing the straw yield.
The primary processing of wheat, milling, results in the production
of large quantities of by-products that include bran and germ. The primary product of this industry is the wheat flour derived from the starchy
endosperm. Generally, 28% of the grain is removed during the production of white flour which is relatively rich in fibers, vitamins, minerals,
and also fat and protein that come from the germ. It was estimated in
2007 that 434 million metric tons of wheat was ground to flour and
the process generated over 121 million metric tons of bran (FAOSTAT
2010). The milling by-products are primarily used as animal feedstuffs,
although alternatives such as the extraction of dietary fiber and protein
from the bran or the protein from the germ for inclusion in the human
food supply have been proposed.
The secondary processing of cereals refers to bakeries and confectioneries processing. A large variety of baked goods are produced
in bakeries and confectionery industries, although bread is the most
popular product. Bread is massively downgraded from high-quality
food to feed or waste. Surplus bread in retail, if not devaluated by
down-pricing at the end of shelf life, will end up as animal feed.
Also, the overages, production errors, and out-of-spec bread in the
bakeries are downgraded to animal feed. It is estimated that 1025%

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563

of high-value staple food is thus degraded to feed or worse. At best,

bakeries or retailers may get a small fee when they are able to sell it as
animal feed, and in the worst case, they have to pay for dumping it. In
addition to the by-products generated during the secondary processing, bakeries and confectioneries also generate enormous wastewater, which is mixed with major raw materials such as flour, fat, sugar,
or milk, through several unit operations such as machine cleaning,
utensil cleaning, washing, spillages, dusting, and so on.
Further, a large quantity of by-products is also generated after
distribution of baked goods due to their very short shelf life. The products that can be recycled include bread, dough, pasta, crackers, cereal
bagels, sweet goods, and snack chips. The major waste generator of
this sector is the factory-baked sliced loaves. It has been estimated that
2% of the bread production is wasted, although some others reported
that the amount of loss could be about 5%. Large bakery and snacks
food manufacturers produce large volumes of goods. Although these
manufacturing units generate small percentages of rejected product,
they amount to hundreds of tons of inedible product per week.
The first step for recycling of wastes must be the identification of the
waste or by-products and their further characterization. Knowledge
of their chemical composition, particle size, and physicochemical
properties will facilitate optimal recycling, as well as the besides identification of appropriate applications.
19.3Potential of the By-Products from Bakeries and Confectioneries for
Prospective Production of Biological of Commercial Significance

Numerous valuable substances formed during food production are

suitable for separation and recycling at the end of their life cycle,
even though present-day separation and recycling processes are not
absolutely cost efficient. Transformation of by-products and wastes
from milling, bakeries, and confectionery industries into value-added
biological products of commercial significance (enzymes, pigments,
flavors, functional ingredients, micronutrients, nutraceuticals, active
pharmaceutical ingredients, phytochemicals, biofuel, and biomaterials) can be achieved by using the by-products either as raw material
for secondary processes or as animal feed, as operating supplies, or
as ingredients of novel/innovative products. The waste processing

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

techniques used to convert the residues into commercial products

should meet the clean production requirements considered so far as a
strategic element in manufacturing technology for current and future
products in several industries. The waste management hierarchy is one
of the guiding principles of the zero waste practice (Kosseva 2009). By
analogy with this principle, the development of green production processes can be achieved following the short-, medium-, and long-term
goals (Laufenberg etal. 2003). Demand is focused on the development of cost-effective technology, optimization of processes including separation steps, alternative processes for the reduction of wastes,
optimization of the use of resources, and improvement in production
efficiency (Laufenberg etal. 2003).
19.3.1 Use of Cereal By-Products as Animal Feed

Many by-products have substantial potential value as animal

feedstuffs. Waste cereal products have been a rich source of nutritious and cost-effective animal feed. Wastes from bakeries and
confectioneries include damaged and returned bread, baked and
unbaked waste dough, slicer crumbs, and so on that are past their
expiration date. The bread lost from human consumption is usually downgraded to animal feed use. All those products are considered to be highly energetic due to their high carbohydrate content
(Arosemena etal. 1995). Hence, it is frequently suggested that the
name dried bakery waste should be preceded by the source of the
waste. This waste is considered palatable and rich in carbohydrates,
although its protein and vitamin contents are low and greatly vary
between products (Table 19.1). Variability in approximate composition of wastes is considered a major hurdle for the feed manufacturing industries, which require raw materials with a constant
composition and regular supply.
To assess the possible use of the bakery waste as feed, analytical
data on the nutritive value of residue are necessary in addition to
animal trials that are indispensable to assess feedstuff palatability,
animal efficiency, and potential hazards (Boucqu and Fiems 1988).
Early in 1965, it was noted that inclusion of dried bakery products in
the broiler diet did not have any adverse effect on their performance
(Damron et al. 1965). From that time on, different studies have

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565

Table 19.1 Proximate Composition of Dried Bakery By-Products Reported by Different Authors

NUTRIENT

AL-TULAIHAN
ETAL. (2004)

Moisture (%)
Crude protein (%)
Ether extract (%)
Crude fiber (%)
Ash (%)
Calcium (%)
Phosphorus (%)
Sodium (%)
Potassium (%)
Magnesium (%)
Chloride (%)
Energy (kcal/kg)

8.43
12.22
1.32
0.108
1.38
0.18
0.15
3.2
0.45
0.08
0.12
3895

DALE ETAL.
(1990)
10.2
10.6
11.1
2.5
4.8

3630

SALEH ETAL.
(1996)
8.11
12.53
11.04
2.25
4.48
0.28
0.52
0.93

1.37
3670

PASSINI
ETAL. (2001)

KWAK
ETAL.
(2006)

6.86
8.75
15.94
0.00
1.78
0.07
0.16

11.00
8.46
8.28
1.16
1.78

corroborated the use of dried bakery wastes for partial replacement

of cereals in the animal fattening diet. In fact, bakery waste has
been used to replace up to 30% of the corn in the diet of beef cattle
(Passini et al. 2001). Replacement of corn with bakery waste did
not result in a modification of the quality of the meat, confirming
the use of bakery waste as a source for feeding cattle. The inclusion of bakery waste up to 25% in the fattening diets of lambs does
not affect the performance of the lambs and even an improvement
was observed in the quality of the tail fat and internal fat probably
due to the increase in fatty acid synthesis by rumen microorganisms
induced by the higher soluble sugars present in the bakery waste
(Afzalzadeh etal. 2007). A study conducted to evaluate the effects of
feeding aerobically processed and vacuum-dried food waste-broiler
litter and bakery by-product mixtures to finishing pigs indicated that
a cornsoy diet could be replaced with a food waste mixture up to
50% without causing any significant effect on pig production, carcass
characteristics, meat quality, and taste panel test with the exception
of reduced feed efficiency and lower meat color score (paler color)
(Kwak and Kang 2006). Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that
the extent of bakery waste use as a feed ingredient depends on the
costs of the conventional feedstuffs, the safety of animal health, and
the attractiveness of alternative uses for that waste.

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

19.3.1.1 Separation of Bakery Products Package materials in packed

bakery foods pose a major difficulty during the separation of the

cereal from its packaging. Shredding or crushing is not an efficient
solution due to the contamination of the recovered cereal with packaging materials. The resulting product requires further sifting before
being subjected to subsequent production processes. An alternative
step was to empty the packaging by hand, which is slow, costly, and
has potential health and safety implications. A method for processing
unsorted, partly packaged bakery products delivered with added foreign bodies includes comminuting the delivered stale bakery products
without any preceding sorting, and then sieving the bakery products
(Bscheider 1990). The majority of the packaging material is removed
by suction during sieving and then the sieved fraction is dried by heating. Any residues of aluminum foil packages can be removed, after
cooling the bakery product granules, by squashing and subsequent
sieving. The process can be completely automated in a plant that
contains a comminuter, a sieving machine with a suction apparatus
attached, and at least one drier. With this process, it is possible to
obtain high-grade bakery product granules. Some companies have
designed specific machinery to separate a wide range of packaging
materials from its contents with up to 99% efficiency. The separation
is done using centrifugal force, air flow, and mechanical action that
cause minimal damage to the packaging and generate higher air flow,
which increases separation efficiency.
19.3.1.2 Processing of Bakery Waste for Feed Preparation Bakery waste

must be processed in order to convert bread crumbs, disposed of as an

industrial waste, into a feed that is merchandized to have high added
value besides yielding a satisfactory product for feeding. Initially, it
is necessary to crush and dry the waste bread into fine powder and
granular material with low moisture content so that it could be used as
a mixed feed for livestock. Therefore, all those products are subjected
to drying, cleaning, mixing, and milling. Yoshihiro etal. (2006) proposed the following process: the bakery waste is fed into a primary
drying passage containing rotary crushing vanes and a hot air injection nozzle; the water content in the waste bread is evaporated and
removed by the heated primary drying passage and hot air from the
injection nozzle; and then the waste bread is supplied into a secondary

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567

drying passage while crushing more finely by a rotary cutter. A gluten formula feed can also be obtained by mixing bread crumb as an
essential component with water as a formulating agent and a nutritive-assistant agent (Minoru 2004). This mixture is fed into a screw
extruder and subjected to heating followed by mixing and kneading
at 40140C. Thus, an inexpensive pellet-like gluten formula feed is
obtained having excellent digestion absorbability and shape-holding
properties. The formula feed can be used as a feed for cultivable fishes,
pets, and so on by regulating the nutritional component.
Anaerobic fermentation has been applied to bakery by-products and
wheat bran among other food wastes for improving the physicochemical characteristics of the feed using lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus
salivarius). Bakery waste and wheat bran were inoculated with lactic
acid at levels of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, and 1.0% and fermented anaerobically at room temperature (25C) for 1030 days (Yang etal. 2006).
The storage under nonanaerobic conditions led to microbial putrefaction with a concomitant loss of water and water-soluble carbohydrate
and increases in protein and fiber. Anaerobic fermentation with the
lactic acid bacteria led to an increase in the water-soluble carbohydrates along with a simultaneous fiber decrease, and contributed to
the overall nutritional improvement. Short-term storage (10 days) was
preferred because no additional changes in the chemical components
were obtained with long-term storage, which also induced a significant reduction in the number of total and lactic acid bacteria. On the
basis of these results, 0.2% inoculum was considered as the optimum
level for improving nutritional properties of the bakery waste and bran
using lactic acid bacteria (Yang etal. 2006).
One problem that assumes significance in recent times is the
increasing level of dioxin in the feed. Several incidents in Europe
with dioxins were reported, starting with contaminated feed
and resulting in contaminated food for human consumption. In
2003, a rapid alert was issued by the European Union, reporting
the presence of elevated dioxin levels (3.313.3ng TEQ/kg) in
dried German bakery waste which was used in animal feed. Part
of that bakery waste was used by a Dutch company for theproduction of different types of feed. In that reported case, the source
of the dioxins was found to be the waste wood used for the drying of the bakery waste (Hoogenboom et al. 2004). Further, the

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

waste is sometimes blended with different oils, and the use of

non-feed-grade oils in the production of feed could also be held
responsible for dioxin levels. Otherwise, the use of too high drying temperatures could also lead to an increase in the dioxin levels
(Independent 2008).
19.3.1.3 Commercial Products for Feeding Obtained from Bakery Waste Bak

ery by-products are sometimes marketed as individual feed ingredients, or as a mixture of two or more feedstuffs. In fact, there is a
maizegluten feed which is a mixture of steep water, bran, gluten, and
germ meal. In addition, high-energy ingredients can be obtained for
feeding. An example is the one registered as Cookie Meal (http://
www.bakeryfeeds.com) that nutritionally increases the quality of
the feeding pellets by providing proteins, fats, fibers, minerals, and
vitamins.
19.3.2 Production of Sourdough from Bakery By-Products

The use of waste bread in the production of fresh bread with desirable
bakery effects was well understood even in the 1950s. Currently, the
addition of waste bread to the bread dough in the preparation of fresh
bread involves grinding certain proportions of waste bread. Although
waste bread is a valuable nutrient, only a very small proportion can be
reused owing to the general attitude in the trade. Moreover, in some
countries, regulations allow only a maximum of 3% of stale bread to
be added when processing fresh bread. Nevertheless, the use of stale
or surplus bread for the sourdough processing has become a more
accepted alternative. The resulting product obtained by a bacteriological fermentation process is a completely new substance that can
be used for the preparation of bread and bakery products. In a study
conducted using bacteria that form homofermenting and/or heterofermenting lactic and acetic acid, for example, Lactobacillus brevis
and Lactobacillus fermenti, fermenting dough was made from waste
bread, such as pieces cut off crisp bread (Wilhelm 1986). The acid
value of that dough varied from about 20 to 30, such that it can be
used to replace traditional, natural, or crystalline dough acidifying
agents completely or partially. That fermenting dough was observed
to be particularly suitable for improving the baking properties of

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569

pentosans in wholemeal and refined flour, and the bread baked with
it had excellent improvements in flavor.
A different recycling process was proposed by Felch (2000), which
uses stale bread and/or cakes as the starter for producing yeast and
sourdough. The stale bread and/or cake is then hydrolyzed by either
using enzymes or acidic hydrolysis, and subjected to purification if
required. Following hydrolysis, the liquid syrup fraction is separated
and mixed with water under aerobic conditions with steeping yeast,
and is converted into yeast biomass. In a second separation stage, the
yeast is drawn off. The hydrolyzed fraction separated from the syrup
in the first stage is mixed with milled rye products and water, and is
then converted into sourdough using a sourdough starter culture and/
or process fluid, preferably with lactic acid bacteria.
Baked goods, and especially breads based on milled wheat or rye
products, can also be subjected to sequential processing for obtaining an
assortment of products that can be used back in the bread-making process. For recycling bakery products, Meuser (1998) and his colleagues
(Meuser and Martens 2009) proposed the following steps: (a)preparation of the starting material; (b) preparation of a fermentation substrate
by enzymatic hydrolysis of the starting material; (c) fermentation of
the hydrolysate with acid-forming bacteria (Lactobacilli delbrkii), and
finally performing one of the following steps: (i) recovery of bakers
yeast, (ii) recovery of an acid liquor, (iii) recovery of ballast substances,
(iv) recovery of ethanol, and (v) recovery of CO2. The end products
of this process are recovered separately, and used for making baked
goods. This process indicates potential scope for the bread factories to
use the returned and remainder bread economically within the frame
of a holistic concept of the preparation and marketing.
The recycling of stale or surplus bread has acquired such importance that even commercial products are available for upgrading this
waste. A starter launched as Sonextra Sustain (Sonneveld 2010) can
efficiently generate sourdough from stale or surplus bread, complying
with the holistic concept of the production. This starter, 3.8% on stale
bread basis, generated a sourdough that could be added to the normal
bread recipe which ultimately delivers extra taste, flavor, and softness
(up to 20% softer after 3 days), without deterioration in the bread quality, such as crumb structure and volume. Among other claims, the
supplying company indicated that the pH lowering during sourdough

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

fermentation is fast enough to prevent rope formation by Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus, but without delivering acid taste to the final
bread when added up to 20% on flour basis in the final bread recipe.
Optimum fermentation periods are also decreased by a factor of 34
(from 3648h to 12h), enabling the bakery to process the leftover and
waste bread within 24h.
19.3.3 Production of Sugars or Polysaccharides

Wheat bran from mills and bakery waste such as broken pieces and
crumbs of baked goods are an adequate feedstock for the production
of chemicals due to a high yield of almost 80g glucose/100g substrate. Wheat bran constitutes a significant underutilized source of
sugars and hence it is considered as a source for obtaining sugars or
different polysaccharides.
Industrial wheat bran is composed of the outer coverings of the
grain, the aleurone layer, and the remnants of the starchy endosperm.
It consists mainly of starch, arabinoxylans, cellulose, -glucans, protein, and lignin. Therefore, recovery of the maximum amount of
sugars from hemicellulose, cellulose, and glucan necessitates application of different treatments. Enzymatic liquefaction with thermostable -amylase followed by saccharification with amyloglucosidase
released between 20 and 34g glucan/100g wheat bran, depending on
the extraction rate during milling (Palmarola-Adrados etal. 2005).
After filtration, the solid material must be hydrolyzed for recovering
the sugars from the cellulose and hemicellulose. Palmarola-Adrados
etal. (2005) compared the efficiency of different hydrolysis methods
(acid hydrolysis with 1% sulfuric acid, enzymatic hydrolysis, thermal
pretreatment followed by enzymatic hydrolysis, thermal pretreatment under dilute acid conditions followed by enzymatic hydrolysis)
for sugar production and observed that arabinose, xylose, and glucose were released from all the treatments although yield of sugar
was significantly affected by the treatment conditions. The highest
yield (53g total sugar per 100g starch-free bran, which was equivalent to 31g total sugar per 100g wheat bran) was obtained with the
thermal pretreatment under dilute acid conditions followed by enzymatic hydrolysis. This treatment released arabinose:xylose:glucose in
the proportion 2.5:4.3:3.1. Acid hydrolysis also supported very high

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yield but released mostly pentosans (arabinose and xylose). It must be

remarked that it is desirable to increase the yield of glucose, if effective
utilization of bran as low-cost feedstock for the ethanol production is
preferred, since currently, there are no pentose-fermenting organisms
used in commercial ethanol production.
Bakery waste contains mainly starch and minimal amounts of
hemicelluloses and celluloses. Choi and Mathews (1996) proposed a
two-step acid hydrolysis of bakery waste which yielded 92% conversion into glucose with no xylose in the hydrolysate. During the first
step, dried bakery waste, after grinding and sieving, was hydrolyzed
with 2% (w/w) sulfuric acid at 132C followed by another hydrolysis
with 15% (w/w) sulfuric acid at the same temperature. Alternative
steps include recovery of fats, sugars, proteins, and starch that are
present in the bakery waste (Muller and Grob 1977). The individual
recovery of the waste bakery components has the potential to provide value-added food products. Muller and Grob (1977) proposed
a system for sequential isolation of individual components of bakery
waste. First a solvent extractionfiltration step is performed to remove
fat and oil components, followed by sugar recovery with an alcoholic
solution. The filter residue could be subjected to acid or enzymatic
hydrolysis followed by an aerobic fermentation. The purification, concentration, and drying of the product allows recovery of crude protein
for reuse in food products.
Otherwise, the bakery waste could be hydrolyzed to convert the
starch into glucose or other fermentable sugars, and recovered by
ultrafiltration (Muller 1977). The resulting glucose-containing liquid could be used for the production of desired yeast or bacteria. The
protein-containing solids that remain after the ultrafiltration step are
a valuable source of proteins that may be used for the production of
animal feed or in human nutrition.
Pullulan is an extracellular, linear, unbranched, and water-soluble
microbial polysaccharide consisting of -(16)-linked maltotriose
units that are increasingly utilized for its filming properties. This
polysaccharide is used in food, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, agricultural, and chemical industries (Deshpande et al. 1992). Bakery
waste has been proposed as an alternative substrate for economic
production of pullulan (Thirumavalavan et al. 2008), and acidhydrolyzed bakery waste was used, after neutralization, as a sole

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

source of carbon by Aureobasidium pullulans for the batch production

of pullulan.
19.3.4 Isolation of Phytosterols from Cereal By-Products

The lipid extracts of certain cereal by-products may be rich sources of

health-promoting compounds such as phytosterols. Thus, sitosterol,
campesterol, brassicasterol, and stigmasterol were isolated as the
major phytosterols from the lipid extracts obtained from wheat germ
and bran (Jiang and Wang 2005). Wheat germ oil has a universal
health-improving action including normalization of the functions of
the immune and the endocrine system. It stimulates the reproductive
function, increases working ability and life tonus, and strengthens the
stress tolerance. In addition, it contributes to fast healing of wounds,
burns, ulcer, and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. It possesses
antiatherosclerotic and heart-protecting properties, and reduces the
level of cholesterol in the blood and the liver. Hence, the worlds leading companies in the cosmetic industry use wheat germ oil for producing creams, lotions, cosmetic masks, balms, shampoos, and so on.
Wheat fractions are rich in a number of phytosterols, but the
potential of fractions such as bran, germ, and straw has not been
exploited to its full extent. Germ extracts had the highest total phytosterol content followed by straw and bran extracts (Dunford etal.
2009). Phytosterol extraction from wheat germ, bran, and straw can
be carried out by a pressurized solvent extraction system, but the solvent type and the temperature significantly affect the phytosterol content and composition of the extracts collected from wheat fractions
(Dunford etal. 2009). When petroleum ether, chloroform, n-hexane,
and ethanol were used as solvents, ethanol extraction resulted in the
lowest total phytosterol recovery from germ, whereas -sitosterol was
the most abundant phytosterol in straw hexane extracts.
Recently, Tikhonov (2010) proposed a process to obtain an oil
concentrate from wheat germ, in which wheat germs were previously dried to a moisture content of 68% and then subjected to cold
pressing. The oil obtained was extracted twice with 9293 vol.% ethyl
alcohol at a ratio of 1:3 and 1:2, respectively. The alcoholic extracts
were combined, maintained, and after separation of the phases were
evaporated under vacuum at a temperature of 5060C. This method

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5 73

allowed obtaining oil enriched with phytosterols, and different forms

of tocopherols and carotenoids, which increase the nutritional and
healing properties thereof. This oil concentrate has the potential for
use as an additive in the preparation of medicinal compounds and
prophylactic agents suitable for restoring disorders in sexual functions.
19.3.5 Production of Organic Acids from Cereal By-Products
andBakeryWastes

Reclamation of the solid and high-energy cereal by-products (bran,

streams) and bakery wastes (stale bread, bread rolls, and cookies) has
significant impact on effective management of wastes. Besides their
primary application as animal feed, the wastes have potential for production of valuable products such as organic acids with a good conversion efficiency. The optimization of the production of lactic acid,
from discarded bread crust, by an amylolytic lactic acid bacterium,
Lactobacillus amylovorus, and the application of the culture filtrate
obtained from the lactic acid fermentation in the bread-making process as an economical method of recycling bakery wastes have been
reported (Oda et al. 1997). Addition of 2.0% yeast extract in the
medium containing 3.58% bread crust led to maximum acid production. In the medium supplemented with 2.0% corn steep liquor and
2.0% defatted soybean powder, 47.2% of total sugars was converted
into dl-lactic acid in 72h under static incubation. The bread made
with the addition of the culture filtrate was preferred over those with
and without the addition of commercial fermented seasoning with
respect to taste and overall acceptability.
A novel generic feedstock production strategy based on solid-state
fermentation (SSF) has been developed and applied to the fermentative production of succinic acid (Du etal. 2008). Wheat was fractionated into bran, gluten, and gluten-free flour by milling and gluten
extraction processes. The resulting solutions were separately utilized
for the hydrolysis of gluten-free flour and gluten to generate a glucoserich stream of over 140g/L glucose and a nitrogen-rich stream of
more than 3.5g/L free amino nitrogen. A microbial feedstock consisting of these two streams contained all the essential nutrients required
for succinic acid fermentations using Actinobacillus succinogenes. In a
fermentation using only the combined hydrolysate streams, around

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

22g/L succinic acid was produced. The addition of MgCO3 into the
wheat-derived medium improved the succinic acid production further
to more than 64g/L. Increasing the inoculum concentration to 20%
did result in the production of 62.1g/L succinic acid (Dorado etal.
2009). Results indicated that A. succinogenes cells were able to utilize
glucose and maltose in the wheat hydrolysate for cell growth and succinic acid production. These results demonstrated that the SSF-based
strategy is a successful approach for the production of a generic feedstock from wheat, and that this feedstock can be efficiently utilized for
succinic acid production. The proposed process could be potentially
integrated into a wheat-milling process to upgrade the wheat flour
milling by-products (WFMB) into succinic acid, one of the future
platform chemicals of a sustainable chemical industry.
19.3.6 Production of Dietary Fiber from Cereal By-Products

Cereal milling by-products, mainly bran and husk/hull, are traditional sources for dietary fiber isolation and purification. Nowadays,
there is a trend to seek new sources of dietary fiber, such as agronomic by-products (fruits, vegetables, leguminous, plants) that have
traditionally been undervalued (Rodrguez etal. 2006). Today, they
are considered as a promising source of functional compounds. Cell
wall materials contain between 60% and 90% dietary fiber, whereas
the bran fractions of some whole-grain cereals, such as oats, wheat,
and rice, contain 1632%, 3545%, and 2033% total dietary fiber,
respectively. This is hindered by the fact that the yield of cell wall
material from fruit and vegetables on a fresh weight basis is very
low (14%) (Redgwell and Fischer 2005). Grigelmo-Miguel and
Martn-Belloso (1999) have compared the characteristics of dietary
fiber from by-products of processing fruits and greens and from cereals. The dietary fiber constituents and dietary fiber concentrates of
apple, pear, orange, peach, artichoke, and asparagus and of wheat and
oat bran were measured using an enzymatic-gravimetric method. In
addition, the water-holding capacity of the dietary fiber concentrates
and cereals was estimated by centrifugation. Dietary fiber concentrates of fruits and greens showed a high content of total dietary fiber
(3559g/100g), insoluble dietary fiber (2144g/100g), and soluble
dietary fiber (1014g/100g). The soluble fraction was found to be

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575

greater in dietary fiber concentrates in fruits and greens than in wheat

and oat bran (34g/100g). Measurements of water-holding capacity showed that dietary fiber concentrates of fruits and greens had a
greater affinity for water than those from cereals.
19.3.7 Production of Proteins and Enzymes from Cereal By-Products

A process for the microbial bioconversion of cereal milling by-products into proteinaceous material for human consumption has been
patented (Moo-Young etal. 1990). The by-products were aerobically
fermented by the fungus Neurospora sitophila at suitable temperature,
pH, and nutrient conditions over a period sufficient to grow microbial biomass protein. The resulting microbial biomass product had
a relatively high content of protein, dietary fiber, ergosterol, natural
flavor compounds, and B vitamins. The biomass lacked animal fat
and cholesterol. As animal feed, this product appears to be competitive with soy meal and fish meal. As a human food, this product
appears to be suitable for special health-conscious groups who seek
vegetarian, high-fiber, and/or low-cholesterol diets. More recently,
dos Santos et al. (2004) evaluated whether SSF is the best system
for producing enzymes. They found that the technique is appropriate for the production of enzymes and other thermolabile products,
especially when higher yields can be obtained than in submerged fermentation. Using SSF, the production of glucoamylases from wheat
bran has been accomplished (Pandey 1991). Nowadays, gelatinization is coupled with liquefaction, which is possible by the action of
thermostable amylases. Sodhi etal. (2005) determined that the productivity of thermostable amylases from Bacillus sp. was affected by
the nature of the solid substrate (wheat bran, rice bran, corn bran,
and combination of two brans). Maximum enzyme production was
obtained on wheat bran supplemented with glycerol (1.0%, w/w),
soybean meal (1.0%, w/w), l-proline (0.1%, w/w), vitamin B complex (0.01%) and moistened with tap water containing 1% Tween40. Sangeetha etal. (2004) have studied the production of fructosyl
transferase by Aspergillus oryzae employing a wide variety of agricultural by-products as substrates. They found that, among them, the
best results were obtained when rice bran, wheat bran, corn germ,
spent coffee, and tea were used supplemented with yeast extract and

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

complete synthetic media. Commercial pectinase preparations are

produced from fungal microorganisms mainly by Aspergillus niger
strains. The use of SSF for pectinase production has been proposed
using different solid agricultural and agro-industrial residues as
substrates, such as wheat bran (Castilho et al. 1999, Singh et al.
1999). The bran was also used to produce glucoamylase and protease
enzymes via SSF using Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae,
respectively. Feruloyl esterase and xylanase activities were detected
in culture supernatants from Humicola grisea var. thermoidea and
Talaromyces stipitatus grown on wheat bran. Maximum activities
were detected from cultures of H. grisea grown at 150rpm, with
9.1U/mL of xylanase activity on wheat bran. Maximum feruloyl
esterase activity was 0.33U/mL. Analysis of residual cell wall material after microbial growth showed preferential solubilization of arabinoxylan and cellulose, two main polysaccharides present in wheat
bran (Kosseva 2009). The production of low-cost cell-wall-deconstructing enzymes using agro-industrial by-products could lead to
the production of low-cost enzymes for use in the valorization of
food processing wastes (Mandalari etal. 2008).
19.3.8 Biofuel

Cereals and various industrial waste products from the bakery industry appear to be among the most promising raw materials for future
substitution of the conventional ones that are used in the petrochemical and fermentation industry (Polman 1994). The bioconversion
of crops and residues to fuels and chemicals is receiving increasing
attention due to the perceived need for the reduction of consumption.
The term biofuel refers to liquid, gas, and solid fuels produced from
biomass. Biofuels include bioethanol, biomethanol, vegetable oils,
biodiesel, biogas, biosynthetic gas, biooil, biochar, FishcherTropsch
liquids, and biohydrogen (Demirbas 2008). Bioconversion of waste
residues (by-products) from cereal processing industries requires biocatalysts and enzymes which degrade xylanosic and cellulosic material. However, one of the major drawbacks of this process is that
the yeast used for fermentation can utilize only hexose as sugars,
while many milling by-products and bakery waste contain significant

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577

quantities of hemicellulose and celluloses that yield pentose sugars

upon hydrolysis.
Vidmantiene etal. (2006) described a method for hydrolyzing the
polysaccharides from cereal-derived waste to yield a sugar feedstock
suitable for fermentation into technical ethanol using a complex of amylolytic and hemicellulolytic/cellulolytic enzymes. The enzymatic treatment of raw materials was carried out by liquid concentrated amylase
and glucoamylase in combination with xylanase, containing cellulase
and glucanase activities. Apart from ethanol, methanol, propanol, butanol, isoamyl and amyl alcohols, acetaldehyde, ethyl acetate, and methyl
acetate were found in the distillate. The maximum ethanol concentration reached after fermentation of rye and wheat bran was 44g/L, and
for rye and wheat grain it was 73 and 69g/L, respectively. An enzyme
preparation from Humicola insolens, Ultraflo has also been suggested
for solubilizing wheat bran. This preparation contained feruloyl esterases and glycoside hydrolases capable of solubilizing wheat bran, but
total solubilization was not achieved either through steric hindrance or
through the lack of certain key activities (Faulds etal. 2006).
19.3.9 Miscellaneous

Some other products can also be obtained from the recycling of cereal
by-products. Delrue etal. (1998) described an additive composition
for enhancing the strength and/or stability of food products. The
additive composition comprises a cooked cereal by-product, in which
the edible starch is gelatinized to an extent, and can be added at a
level of at least 0.5% to masa (corn dough which has usually been nixtamalized) or other cereal grain flour or dough. A new food has been
also obtained by reusing bread crust and waste bread (overproduced
bread) as raw materials (Shinji and Yoshikazu 2003). Those materials
are gelatinized, melted, and kneaded with a heated screw extruder
at a water content of 875wt% and 30180C under a pressure of
015MPa and extruded through a forming die attached to the tip
end of the cylinder barrel of the extruder. The processed food is a
dough food or a processed food having plate, rod, granule, or foamed
shape. Recently, a multistep process was applied for the enzymatic
treatment of the leftover bread to produce syrup which serves as a

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

substrate for fermentations (Meuser and Martens 2010) (more details

in the case study section). Bioabsorbents, paper, and so on can be cited
among the nonfood uses of the cereal waste.
Wheat bran can be used as filling material in the production process of paper products. The incorporation of wheat bran up to 5%
does not significantly affect the strength properties of the resulting
paper materials (Modzelewska and Adamska 2006). The addition of
a greater amount of wheat bran can lead to the deterioration of paper
properties due to the reduction in the tensile strength.
Biosorption is an emerging process that uses biomaterials for metal
removal and waste remediation. Functional groups such as carboxyl,
hydroxyl, sulfhydryl, and amido present in the wheat straw and bran
can attach heavy metal ions from waters. The benefits of using those
materials as bioabsorbents for removal of metal ions rely on their high
efficiency, high absorption capacity, cost effectiveness, and renewability (Farooq etal. 2010).
The bakeries and confectionery industries generate a large amount
of waste water that is produced from general cleanup operations,
which could contain grease, sugar, flour, filling ingredients, and
detergents. The wastewater can be treated by physical methods passing through several storage tanks, chemical methods, or biological
agents. Considering the type of aeration, anaerobic methods have also
been proposed (Shin etal. 1990), in which methane gas is generated
that can be used for heating purpose. A bioremediation scheme that
included pH adjustment and mixing aeration systems, an external
biological reactor for production and periodic injection of the appropriate bacteria, and a biological filter was recommended for treating
oil and grease in bakery wastewater (Keenan and Sabelnikov 2000).
19.4 Socioeconomic Aspects of the Identified Value-Added Processes

Bread is the single largest item in the consumers waste bin. It has been
estimated that in Italy the annual amount of bakery waste is about
110,000130,000 metric tons per year, of which 70% is produced in
Northern Italy (Cevolani 2004). In 2009, it was reported that U.K.
consumers waste bin holds/contains seven million slices of bread
every day (Partos 2009). U.K. bakeries correspond to 782,000mT/
year of avoidable food waste, which costs around 1.5 million euros.

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Since the twelfth century, bread in the United Kingdom has been
regulated by prescribed quantities and is sold in 400 or 800g or multiples of 400g thereafter. However, the European directive 2007/45/
EC offered some freedom to the bakers and retailers, allowing different bread sizes. The same report indicates that this EC regulation
contributed, in the United Kingdom, to a decrease in the amount of
daily bread waste because people can buy the bread they use. There
is great pressure on the bakery industry to design solutions to combat waste, owing to their important contribution to the total food
waste. Over the last decade, the European legislative requirements for
waste disposal are becoming increasingly restrictive (EC Regulation
1493/1999), and accordingly there is a pressing need for the proper
disposal of waste material. In addition, owing to the increasing necessity to take into consideration the various aspects aimed at preventing environmental pollution, promotion of economic motives, and
need to conserve energy and new materials, several new methods and
policies for waste handling and treatment have been introduced into
the recovery, bioconversion, and utilization of valuable constituents
from food processing wastes. Besides their pollution and hazardous
aspects, milling, bakeries, and confectionery processing wastes do
have a potential for recycling raw materials, for conversion into useful
products of higher value as a by-product, as raw materials for other
industries, and for their use as food or feed/fodder after biological
treatment, as it has been shown in the preceding sections.
Different goals in product development and food production
highest product quality and safety, highest production efficiency,
and minimizing the negative environmental impactare integrated
in the holistic concept of food production (Laufenberg etal. 2003).
The recycling of residues is important to every manufacturing branch
and has high developing potential. A systematic reduction of product
losses and emissions is profitable under both economical and ecological aspects, and special attention is given to the recovery of valuable
substances or product losses and internal process water recycling
(Laufenberg etal. 2003). The need for sustainable production of products using renewable, nonhazardous materials and energy efficiently,
while conserving biodiversity, is fulfilled by the green/clean production processes. Clean production systems are circular and use fewer
materials and less water and energy; as a result, resources flow through

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

the productionconsumption cycle at slower rates (Laufenberg etal.

2003). Significant environmental and economic benefits can accrue
from separating industrial wastes with the objective of recycling/
reusing these valuable components and/or the bulk of water, by using
clean production systems.
19.5 Environmental Concerns and Regulatory Considerations

Different studies have pointed out the important contribution of the

cereal waste to the global pollution. A specific example is included in
this section to give some numbers about the incidence of this pollution. During the period between 1980 and 1998, an average mass of
8Tg of cereal waste was burned annually in Spain, with 1Tg of ash
remaining on the cereal fields after combustion (Ortiz de Zrate etal.
2005). By using emission factors, it was deduced that pollutant emissions linked to the cereal waste-burning process reach values of 11Tg
CO2, 80Gg of TPM, and 23Gg of NOx per year during the cerealburning period. These emissions represent 46% of the total CO2 and
23% NOx emitted in Spain during the burning period that lasts 1
month after harvesting. Therefore, the production of 1kg of cereal
crop implies that 410g of carbon and 3.3g of nitrogen are going to be
introduced into the atmosphere by this pollutant process.
Although recycling is a major concern in numerous industries, it
requires additional technology and specialized personnel. Generally,
manufacturers dispose of the waste in overcrowded landfills, which
has prompted the creation of specialized companies that collect and
recycle inedible bakery products. In addition, in response to more
stringent regulations and rapidly escalating costs associated with
waste management, many industries have started to investigate
and implement resource recovery systems for treating their residual
streams. The application of biotechnology across various industry
sectors has invariably led to both economic and environmental benefits including less expensive processing, enhanced product quality,
entirely new products, and environmentally sustainable processing
relative to conventional operations. Economic drivers are the main
factor for increasing acceptance of bioprocessing and bioproducts, but
sustainability considerations are playing an increasing role. In effect,
the application of biotechnology has contributed to an uncoupling of

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5 81

economic growth from adverse environmental impact. Industrial biotechnology is changing the way energy, chemicals, and other products are produced. Through engineered biocatalysis, biotechnology
is enabling the use of previously unusable renewable materials and
production of novel products. Functionally acceptable products that
are less polluting and persistent than conventional counterparts are
emerging. All this is being achieved with reduced environmental
impact and enhanced sustainability. Undoubtedly, biotechnology is
set to transform industrial production to a basis that is more compatible with the biosphere (Gavrilescu and Chisti 2005).
19.6 Specific Case Study: Valorization of Specific By-Product

The implementation of a waste management system could appear, at

first glance, to be time consuming and costly. However, in most cases,
good environmental practice leads to good business. An interesting case
study is the valorization of stale or surplus bread that can be upgraded
through sequential enzymatic and fermentative processes (Meuser and
Martens 2009). Leftover bread or bread returns has become a serious
environmental and economical problem and, as is has been illustrated in
previous sections, they have been mainly recycling to feedstuff. Meuser
and Martens (2009) showed the economy of the processing of bread
returns to a feedstuff by drying, indicating that the economic value of
the leftover bread is lower than that of the wheat for feeding, but a
complete recycle process at the place of origin would be more valuable.
Meuser (1998) gave a specific example of a system for recycling
stale bread (Figure 19.1). Stale bread (4000kg wet basis or 2400kg
dry bread) is mixed with 2000L of water in a thermostatic tank. The
addition of -amylase initiated the liquefaction process at 70C for
3h at pH 5.2, followed by saccharification with amyloglucosidase at
60C over a period of 16h. At least 80% of the initial starch was
hydrolyzed. Considering that of the initial bread 1680kg are starch,
1493kg glucose was obtained. Afterwards, protein was hydrolyzed by
a protease with exo and endopeptidase activity, at 45C, pH 5.2 over
21h. During this time, 70% of the protein was converted into soluble lowmolecular-weight peptides and amino acids. Then, protease
was inactivated by heating at 100C for 30min. A decantation step
was included to separate the insoluble solids (mainly fibers), which

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

Bread
returns

Water

Starch hydrolysis
Protein hydrolysis
Lactic acid fermentation
Feed
Fermentation
substrate
Aerobic fermentation
Liquid yeast

Anaerobic fermentation
Ethanol
Carbon dioxide
Liquid sour

Figure 19.1 Simplified flow sheet for the recycling of bread returns. (Adapted from Meuser, F.
1998. Process for recycling bakery products, more specially rests of bread and bread remainders.
International patent number EP0821877, filed July 11, 1997, issued February 4, 1998.)

was deposited at a flow of 394kg/h. The hydrolyzed suspension was

fermented with Lactobacillus delbrckii for 24h, during which the
pH decreased to 4.0. Therefore, approximately 5% of the glucose was
converted into lactic acid and the remaining 1418kg glucose was
subjected to continuous aerobic and anaerobic fermentation in two
different tanks. It is stated that in the aerobic tank the concentration of
glucose should be 20g/L and in the anaerobic tank 125g/L, whereas
the yeast concentration in both tanks should be about 40g/L. From
the daily rhythm, initially, batchwise fermentation approach resulted
in a flow of 250kg glucose/h for continuous fermentation. Based on
the glucose content in the fermentation substrate, the mass flow ratio
of 25:75 was shared between the two fermentation stages; therefore
and taking into account the losses occurred during decantation, in
practice 14.1kg glucose/h will lead to the aerobic stage and 42.1kg
glucose/h to the anaerobic stage. The fermentation process resulted in
7.6kg of dry yeast from the aerobic fermentation and 3.2kg from the
anaerobic one. The range of soluble nitrogen compounds accounted
for 4045% of the acid-fermented liquid, and the yeast dry weight
had a protein content of 4045%. In addition, 19.6kg/h of ethanol,

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583

18.5kg/h of carbon dioxide, 2024kg/h of fibers, and 220240kg/h

of acid liquor were produced. Those values refer to the transformation
of glucose and protein into the end products, whereas the discharged
mass includes the wet mass of yeast and fiber. The yield of ethanol and
carbon dioxide refers to an efficiency of distillation or liquefaction of
90% of the mass flow of the anaerobic fermentation step.
Meuser and Martens (2009) estimated the economic viability of
the recycling process giving an analysis of the break-even point for
the application of the processing of bread returns in the industrial
bakery. The calculation of the economic viability was estimated for
recycling 100kg of bread returns. The obtained products will yield
1943106/a, including liquid yeast, proteins, ethanol, carbon dioxide, and feedstuff, whereas the running costs (electricity, enzymes and
nutrients, air, water, etc.) will be 687/a and the fixed cost (investment interest, maintenance, and staff) will reach 1103/a; thus, the
final balance for this process will be 153/a, confirming the cost
effectiveness of this recycling process.
In summary, stale and bread remains are converted by enzymatic
and fermentative processing into raw and auxiliary materials for the
production of bread and other bakery products, which could close the
production cycle in a sustainable way. This bread is back in the process stages of manufacture of bread. The special advantage is that the
transformation of bread in return for bread-making essential commodities, in particular, the yeast, is associated with a value. In fact the
transformation of bread in return for bread-making essential commodities, in particular, the yeast, attributes more value to the material. A further advantage is that the energy required for this effort can
be kept low by using the waste heat of the oven. Finally, it should be
mentioned that the application of the procedure represents an environmentally friendly measure, since it helps to increase the energy
use for the baking of the necessary raw and auxiliary materials for
production, both economically and nutritionally.
19.7 Future Trends, Bottlenecks, and Research Gaps

Economical and environmental benefits could be derived when the

valorization of the by-products is combined with the reduction of the
waste. However, implementation of the systems for reducing waste and

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Valorization of Food Processing By-Products

improving environmental performance requires the active involvement

of employee teams who help to identify areas that require waste minimization. The variable composition of the bakeries and confectionery
wastes renders the processing or recycling of those by-products very
difficult into value-added compounds. Development of rapid techniques for characterizing those products is needed to identify its possible recycling process. Further research is needed for hydrolyzing
pentose sugar, making it available for ethanol production.
Different strategies and processes have been reported in scientific
documents and patents but the global implementation at the different stages of processing and the utilization system are required. The
recycling of the different by-products or wastes must be integrated
into the production cycle to meet the holistic concept in the production system, which in turn will contribute to sustainable production.
Waste minimization initiatives will have a positive impact on the
consumption of raw materials, reduction in energy and water disposal cost, and waste disposal cost. The exploitation of clean/green
production technologies for (a) upgrading bakeries and confectionery
by-product residues for the production of existing and novel types
of products by means of bioconversion via SSF and (b) the conversion of bakery wastes into operating supplies such as bioadsorbents
for waste water treatment would result in sustainable production and
environmental and economic benefits in manufacturing, monitoring,
and waste management.

References

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Effect of bakery waste on sheep performance and the carcass fat quality.
Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances 6:559562.
Al-Tulaihan, A. A., Najib, H., and Al-Eid, S. M. 2004. The nutritional evaluation of locally produced dried bakery waste (DBW) in the broiler diets.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 3:294299.
Arosemena, A., DePeters, E. J., and Fadel, J. G. 1995. Extent of variability
in nutrient composition within selected by-product feedstuffs. Feedstuffs
61:3237.
Arvanitoyannis, I. S. and Tserkezou, P. 2008. Wheat, barley and oat waste:
A comparative and critical presentation of methods and potential uses
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