FAULTING IN RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM OF HIGHWAYS

Von der Fakultt fr Bauingenieurwesen und Geodsie

der Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universitt Hannover

zur Erlangung des Grades eines

DOKTORS DER INGENIEURWISSENSCHAFTEN

Dr.-Ing.

genehmigte Dissertation
von
M.Sc. Mohamed El-Nakib
geboren am 21.12.1967 in gypten

2007

Referent

: apl. Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Jrgen Hothan

Korreferent

: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin Achmus

Tag der Promotion: 20.12.2006

Preface and Acknowledgements

This PhD research was carried out at the Institute of Transport Engineering and
Planning of Hannover University in Germany. The research was supervised by the Head
of Pavement Engineering Section, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jrgen Hothan.
First of all, I wish to express my deepest gratitude and best thanks for my advisor, guide
and principle referee, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jrgen Hothan for his positive support to the
completion of this doctoral thesis, for his generous efforts, valuable advice and
comments. I would especially like to thank and acknowledge Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin
Achmus, the Head of the Institute of Soil Mechanics, Foundation Engineering and
Water Power Engineering, who was the second referee for my research, for his valuable
advice in the field of mechanical behavior of soils under cyclic loads and for his
feedback and suggestions. I would like also to acknowledge the chairman of the
Examination Committee, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ludger Lohaus.
Also I am very grateful to Dr.-Ing. Khalid Abdel-Rahman for his continuous help and
support in many matters during my research.
I appreciate the help given by all my colleagues and friends at the Pavement
Engineering Section in the Institute of Transport Engineering and Planning. They were
always helpful and friendly.
Last but not least, I am deeply indebted to my parents and my wife for their continuous
support and encouragement.
Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to my Parents.

Hannover, January 2007

Mohamed El-Nakib

Vorwort des Herausgebers

Die Dimensionierung von Betonstraen findet in Deutschland nach einem festen
Regelwerk statt, das auf der Erfahrung von Jahrzehnten wie auch auf der
rechentechnischen Untermauerung aufbaut. Betonfahrbahnen gelten als langlebig, vor
allem bleiben sie whrend der gesamten Betriebsdauer frei von merklichen Spurrinnen.
Die Hauptversagensform von Betonfahrbahnen ist die Stufenbildung zwischen den
Fahrbahnplatten in Fahrrichtung. (Rissbildung ist als struktureller Schaden von
Bedeutung; fr Erhaltungsmanahmen nur durch damit ein-hergehende Stufenbildung
relevant). Dabei wird, wenn eine gewisse Beweglichkeit in der Dbellage erreicht ist,
bei berrollung eine relative Bewegung der aufeinander folgenden Platten erzeugt, die
mit einem Feinteiltransport von der nachfolgenden unter die vorhergehende Platte
verbunden ist. Dieser Vorgang wird durch Feuchtigkeitsanreicherung verstrkt. Deshalb
wird versucht, den Wasserhaushalt in der Befestigung durch Abdichten der Fugen und
schnelles Ableiten von eindringendem Wasser auf mglichst niedrigem Niveau zu
halten. Somit scheint der Schadensmechanismus hinreichend gedeutet zu sein. Eine
numerische Behandlung dieser Vorgnge stand bisher aus und erschpfte sich bisher in
verbaler Beschreibung.
Hier setzen die Untersuchungen von Herrn El-Nakib ein, der von einer
Betonbefestigung auf ungebundener Unterlage ausgeht und unter Einbeziehung aller
erreichbaren Fakten zum mechanischen Verhalten ungebundener Schichten ein FEModell entwickelt, das fr eine Simulation der Stufenbildung geeignet ist. Mit Hilfe von
Fluidelementen wird die Feinteilbewegung nachempfunden und deutlich der Einfluss
von Lastwechselzahlen und Feuchtigkeitsgehalt aufgezeigt. Herrn El-Nakib ist es
gelungen, durch sehr aufwndige Berechnungen den numerischen Zugang zur
Stufenbildung von Betonplatten zu ffnen.

Hannover im Januar 2007

Prof. Dr.- Ing. habil. Jrgen Hothan

Abstract
The modeling of pavement structures has been based for many years on a lot of
simplifications, which are being refined continuously during the time. The use of linear
behavior for building materials is regarded as history. Progress was made, particularly,
in the mechanical behavior of unbound granular materials, whose non-linearity is
actually known for long time ago. But because of complex computations, it is not
widely considered in the pavement analysis. In order to obtain progress with the
simulation of rigid pavements, the inclusion of real behavior of unbound materials of
base layers is inevitable. Therefore, in the current research, this behavior will be
included in failure analysis of rigid pavement due to faulting problem under cyclic loads
of traffic. The analysis will be conducted using the commercial finite element program
ABAQUS available at the University of Hannover.
After the investigation into the mechanical behavior of unbound granular materials, the
non-linearity in both elastic and plastic phases will be implemented through a user
material subroutine (UMAT) to define the constitutive law for these materials in the
finite element code. Validation of UMAT will be done through comparing results of
FEM analysis and experimental results to approve the correctness of implementing
constitutive laws in the user subroutine. The accumulation of permanent strains under
cyclic loads of traffic resulted in a formation of an elevation difference between
concrete slabs, defined as faulting. With the help of the UMAT, modeling of rigid
pavement with a simple 3-D model under two cases of loading shall be conducted and
an equivalent traffic load for a 2-D model shall be estimated. For the computation of
faulting, a 2-D model is chosen, consisting of three concrete slabs each 5.00 m long,
0.26 m thickness, which are supported over an unbound granular base layer of 0.60 m
thickness and a subgrade soil of 6.00 m depth. A reasonable model for the rigid
pavement analysis is built this way to take into account the following: the interface
between concrete slabs and the underlying base layer through friction, to minimize the
computing time and reduce the computing cost because of the big number of loading
cycles of moving traffic (considered as static loads). The faulting is computed
depending on the load amplitude and the number of cycles as well as the moisture
content of the unbound granular material of base layer.
Recommendations for future research regarding the optimization of riding quality and
suggestions for the minimization of the maintenance cost during the life period of rigid
pavement structures are given.

Key words: cyclic loads, faulting, Finite Element, unbound granular materials, UMAT,
non-linear behavior.

Kurzfassung
Die Modellierung von Fahrbahnbefestigungen geht von einer Vielzahl von
Vereinfachungen aus, die im Laufe der Zeit von Verfeinerungen abgelst wurden. Der
Ansatz der Linearitt fr die Baustoffe ist als historisch anzusehen. Fortschritte wurden
vor allem in der Ansprache des Verhaltens ungebundener Stoffe erzielt, deren
Nichtlinearitt schon lange bekannt ist, aber wegen der aufwndigen Berechnung nur
zgernd Verbreitung gefunden hat. Um Fortschritte bei der Simulation von
Betonstraen erzielen zu knnen, ist die Einbeziehung des realen Verhaltens
ungebundenen Schichten unumgnglich. Deshalb wird in dieser Arbeit dieses Verhalten
in die Analyse des Versagens von Betonstraen durch Stufenbildung unter zyklischer
Verkehrsbelastung einbezogen. Fr die Analyse mittels finiter Elemente (FEM) wird
das kommerzielle Programm ABAQUS benutzt.
Nach der Ermittlung des State of the Art von ungebundenen Schichten wird das
nichtlinear- elastische und plastische Verhalten ungebundener Schichten mittels einer
lokalen Benutzerroutine (UMAT) in dem finite Elemente System implementiert und
eine Einbettung in eine Routine zur Simulation wiederholter Belastungen, die in eine
akkumulierte dauerhafte Stufenbildung von Betonstraen mnden, gestaltet. Die
Validierung der UMAT wird durch einen Vergleich der FEM Berechnungen mit
experimentellen Ergebnissen belegt. Mittels UMAT wird ein einfaches 3-D-Modell der
Betonstrae fr zwei Belastungsfllen analysiert und eine vergleichbare
Verkehrsbelastung fr ein 2-D-Modell abgeschtzt, um den Rechenaufwand in
handhabbaren Grenzen zu halten.
Fr die Stufenbildungsberechnungen wird ein 2-D-Modell generiert, das aus drei
Betonplatten von 5,00 m Lnge und 0,26 m Dicke besteht und auf einer 0,60 m dicken
ungebundenen Tragschicht aufliegt, die wiederum auf einem 6,00 m mchtigen
Untergrund lagert. Dieses Modell wird mit folgenden Eigenschaften ausgestattet: Die
Interaktion zwischen den Betonplatten und der ungebundenen Tragschicht wird durch
Reibungselemente geschaffen; die Verkehrslasten werden als schrittweise versetzte
statische Lasten betrachtet vor dem Ziel die Berechnungszeiten wegen der groen Zahl
von Lastzyklen gering zu halten. Die Stufenbildung wird in Abhngigkeit von
Lastgre und zahl sowie dem Feuchtigkeitsgehalt der ungebundenen Schicht
simuliert und Empfehlungen fr zuknftige Forschungen hinsichtlich der Optimierung
der Fahrbahnqualitt und Anstze zur Minimierung der Instandhaltungskosten whrend
der Betriebsdauer von Betonstraen gegeben.

Schlagwrter: zyklische Belastung, Stufenbildung, finite Elemente, Tragschicht ohne

Bindemittel, UMAT, nichtlineares Stoffverhalten

Table of Contents

Notations and Abbreviations

List of Figures

ix

List of Tables

xv

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition of the problem

1.2 Thesis overview

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Existing pavement analysis methods
2.1.1 Classical methods for solution
2.1.2 Solution based charts and tables
2.1.3 Existing analysis programs for rigid pavement

6
6
9
9

2.2 Numerical modeling of rigid pavement system

15

2.3 Issues in finite element modeling

16
16
18
20

2.3.1 Issues in mesh generation of multi-layered system

2.3.2 Frictional contact interface
2.3.3 Numerical modeling of granular materials

2.4 Computation of faulting

21

3 MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

3.1 Resilient behavior of unbound granular materials
3.1.1 Effect of initial stresses

3.2 Permanent deformation of unbound granular materials

3.2.1 Modeling of permanent deformation of UGMs
3.2.2 Modeling with respect to stress condition

3.3 Dresden model for the unbound granular materials

3.3.1 Non-linear elastic Dresden model for UGMs
3.3.2 Dresden model for permanent deformation in UGMs

23
26
27
28
29
31
31
33

Table of Contents

3.4 Influence of moisture on performance of UGMs

3.4.1 Influence on resilient deformation
3.4.2 Influence on permanent deformation
3.4.3 Modeling of permanent deformation at higher moisture content

36
37
38
39

4 MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation
4.1.1 Mechanical behavior of granular materials under cyclic load
4.1.2 Model conceptions for description of plastic strains under cyclic loads
4.1.3 Applied models and material statements in the field of geotechnique
4.1.4 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion

4.2 Definition of material parameters for the developed material statements

4.2.1 Stiffness beyond flow surface and reduced Mohr Coulomb criterion
4.2.2 Dilatation

4.3 Implementation of material statements in ABAQUS

41
42
44
46
48
53
54
55
56

5 MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

5.1 Introduction

59

5.2 Development of a user material subroutine (UMAT)

60
60
60

5.2.1 General assumptions

5.2.2 Development of a new version of UMAT subroutine

5.3 Validation of the new version of the UMAT

5.3.1 Validation for resilient deformation behavior
5.3.2 Validation for permanent deformation behavior
5.3.3 Conclusion

5.4 3-D modeling of rigid pavement

5.4.1 Description of the system
5.4.2 Geometry of the system
5.4.3 Elements
5.4.4 Materials
5.4.5 Boundary conditions and interaction formulation
5.4.6 Loading

5.5 Results of the 3-D model

5.5.1 Load case 1, one central wheel on edge
5.5.2 Load case 2, two wheels near the corners
5.5.3 2-D model selection

61
62
64
68
68
68
69
70
70
71
72
74
74
80
82

Table of Contents

5.6 Equivalent 2-D system

5.6.1 Equivalent loads for 2-D model
5.6.2 Comparison between 2-D and 3-D results
5.6.3 Conclusion

83
84
87
88

6 PERIDICTION OF FAULTING
6.1 Introduction

89

6.2 2-D model for the simulation of faulting

90
90
90
92
92
93
94

6.2.1 Description of the system

6.2.2 Geometry and mesh generation
6.2.3 Elements
6.2.4 Materials
6.2.5 Boundary conditions and interaction formulation
6.2.6 Loading

6.3 Prediction of faulting with empirical method

6.3.1 An example of Khazanovich et al [31]
6.3.2 Analysis of chosen model with 40.00 kN wheel load
6.3.3 Analysis of chosen model with 53.00 kN wheel load
6.3.4 Assessment of results

6.4 Prediction of faulting with FEM simulation

6.4.1 Fluid structure interaction in ABAQUS
6.4.2 Fluid link element
6.4.3 Proposed model with fluid cavities
6.4.4 Material properties for fluid elements

6.5 2-D model with Mohr Coulomb for prediction of faulting

6.5.1 Material definition for the base layer
6.5.2 Loading
6.5.3 Results
6.5.4 Assessment of results

6.6 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with constant low RMC
6.6.1 Material definition for the base layer
6.6.2 Loading
6.6.3 Results
6.6.4 Conclusion of the 2-D model using UMAT with low RMC
6.6.5 Calculation of faulting
6.6.6 Assessment of faulting results

94
94
96
97
98
98
98
99
100
101
101
101
101
102
104
105
105
105
107
109
110
111

Table of Contents

6.7 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with higher RMC
6.7.1 Material definition for the base layer
6.7.2 Loading
6.7.3 Results
6.7.4 Conclusion of the 2-D model using UMAT with higher RMC
6.7.5 Calculation of faulting
6.7.6 Assessment of faulting results

6.8 Conclusion

111
111
112
112
114
114
116
116

7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions

117

7.2 Recommendation

119

References

121

Appendices
A : Results of 3-D model; load case 2 and comparison with Westergaard

128

B : Results of 3-D model; load case 1; variation in E, v, A, B

129

C : Results of faulting model with constant low RMC

135

D : Results of faulting model with higher RMC

139

Notations and Abbreviations

Greek Lower Case Letters
1

: absolute value of maximum principal stress

: absolute value of middle principal stress

: absolute value of minimum principal stress

: confining pressure (in triaxial test)

3,0

: regression constant

3,s

: static primary stress state

: maximum stress at the corner loading position, Westergaard theory

: deviator stress

hr

: residual lateral stress

: maximum stress at the interior loading position, Westergaard theory

: vertical overburden stress

: vertical stress

: effective stress

: maximum deflection at the corner loading position, Westergaard theory

: maximum deflection at the interior loading position, Westergaard theory

: empirical regression parameter

: empirical regression parameter

1r

: resilient axial strain

1,p

: total permanent axial strain

1,p*

: axial permanent strain with removal of first 100 cycles

N
2 , cp

: cyclic strain in 2 direction

N
3, cp

: cyclic strain in 3 direction

: axial strain

1
cp
1

: cyclic plastic strain for the 1st load cycle (N=1)

: deviator strain

ii

Notations and Abbreviations

cpN

: cyclic deformation portions

: permanent strain

p, wa

: permanent strain at actual water content

p, wr

: permanent strain at reference water content

: volumetric strain

vpN , t

: visco-plastic strain at time t

&

: total strain rate

&np

: vertical strain rate

& p

: horizontal strain rate

: empirical regression parameter

: viscosity

: sum of principal stresses (bulk stress)

: Lode angle - deviator polar angle

: ratio of cyclic strain in 2nd direction to the axial cyclic strain

: ratio of cyclic strain in 3rd direction to the axial cyclic strain

: coefficient of friction

: Poisson ratio

: resilient Poisson ratio

: density

: shear stress

: angle of internal friction (static)

: angle of internal friction (cyclic)

: empirical regression parameter

: dilatation angle (static)

: dilatation angle (cyclic)

: empirical regression parameter

Notations and Abbreviations

Latin Upper Case Letters

A

: material constant

A1

: strain rate type parameter

: material constant

: material constant

: material constant

D0el

: initial (undamaged) elastic stiffness

: modulus of elasticity

Fc

: reduced cyclic Mohr Coulomb failure criterion

: shear modulus

Gf

: flow potential

Ga

: material constant

: bulk modulus

: deviatoric failure stress parameter

: spring constant

Ka

: material constant

Mr

: resilient modulus of elasticity

Pa

: arbitrary pressure equal to atmospheric pressure (100 kPa)

: material constant

Q1

: material constant

Q2

: material constant

: material constant

Scf

: cyclic deviator failure stress

Ssf

: static deviator failure stress

U1

: displacement in X direction

U2

: displacement in Y direction

U3

: displacement in Z direction

: parameter (cyclic)

iii

iv

Notations and Abbreviations

Latin Lower Case Letters

a

: radius of the tire print

: material constant

a1 - a 4

: material constant

: material constant

b1 - b4

: material constant

: material constant

: cohesion (static)

cc

: cohesion (cyclic)

: scalar stiffness degradation variable

: pore number

: thickness of concrete layer

: subgrade reaction modulus

ko

: coefficient of lateral earth pressure for lateral stress

k1 to k3

: material constants

kp

: passive coefficient of lateral earth pressure

: radius of relative stiffness

mmob

: mobilized fraction of static failure stress

: material constant

: mean normal stress

p*

: stress parameter

: contact pressure of tire

: deviator stress

qr

: cyclic deviator stress

wa

: actual water content

wr

: reference water content

Notations and Abbreviations

Indices
a

: Index for axial direction

: cyclic

c,f

: cyclic failure

cp

: cyclic plastic

: primary state

pl

: plastic

: Index for radial coordinate

: static

s,f

: static failure

vp

: visco-plastic

: Index for vertical coordinate

vi

Notations and Abbreviations

Abbreviations
2-D

: two Dimensional

3-D

: three Dimensional

AASHTO

: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AC

: Asphalt Concrete

CCP

: Constant Confining Pressure

COST 337

: Project for Review of Models and Modeling Requirements of Unbound

Granular Materials for Road Pavements

COURAGE : European Commission COnstruction with Unbound Road AGgregates in

Europe
D

: modulus of rigidity

: Diabase material

DDR

: Relative Dry Density

DEM

: Distinct Element Method

DFG

: Central Public Funding Organization for Academic Research in Germany

(In German: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft)

DOC

: Degree of Compaction

DOF

: Degree of Freedom

: modulus of Elasticity

Eqn

: Equation

FEM

: Finite Element Method

FWD

: Falling Weight Deflectometer

Gr

: Granodiorite

G/S

: Gravel Sand

HVS

: Heavy Vehicle Simulator

JPCP

: Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement

LCPC

: French network of Laboratories des Ponts et Chausses (In French:

Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses)

MS

: Multi Stage

: Number of load cycles

OCR

: Over-Consolidation Ratio

Notations and Abbreviations

vii

OMC

: Optimum Moisture Content

PCC

: Portland Cement Concrete

RCC&A

: Recycled Crushed Concrete & Asphalt

RLT

: Repeated Load Triaxial

RMC

: Relative Moisture Content

[RStO]

: Richtlinie fr die Standardisierung des Oberbaues von Verkehrsflchen

(In English: Empirical German pavement design guideline),
Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und Verkehrswesen, Kln, 2001.

S&G

: Sand and Gravel

ST

: Static Triaxial

UGL

: Unbound Granular Layer

UGMs

: Unbound Granular Materials

UMAT

: User MATerial subroutine

W/C

: water content

VCP

: Variable Confining Pressure

List of Figures
Fig. 1.1

: Diagrammatic representation of a punch-out [30]

Fig. 1.2

: Pumping and faulting

Fig. 2.1

: Rigid pavement system

Fig. 2.2

: Problem definition by Westergaard, three loading positions

Fig. 2.3

: Problem definition by Burmister

Fig. 2.4

: 2-D Axisymmetry FEM programs

Fig. 2.5

: Mohr Coulomb failure criterion [46]

Fig. 2.6

: Problem definition for 2-D plates on elastic foundation based programs

Fig. 2.7

: Behavior of Winkler and elastic foundations

Fig. 2.8

: Mesh refinement and stress results [32]

Fig. 2.9

: Domain extent analysis with ABAQUS [32]

Fig. 2.10 : Contact status in contact surface pair

Fig. 3.1

: Effect of residual stresses on surface and subgrade deflections [17]

Fig. 3.2

: Stresses in a pavement structure due to moving load

Fig. 3.3

: Static failure line and mobilized stress [8]

Fig. 3.4

: Comparison of measured and FEM results for surface deflections [67]

Fig. 3.5

: Different phases of deformation behavior of UGMs under cyclic load [68]

Fig. 3.6

: Vertical strain vs. N, data and model For Granodiorite, Grading M

Fig. 3.7

: Vertical strain vs. N, data and model For Granodiorite, Grading M

Fig. 3.8

: Dependency of resilient strain on water content, Granodiorite material [42]

Fig. 3.9

: Permanent axial strains vs. load cycles [14]

Fig. 3.10 : Permanent strain parameter A1 vs. RMC at DDR=97%, control grading [14]
Fig. 3.11 : Permanent axial strain vs. number of cycles for Granite with 10% fines
Fig. 4.1

: Schematic presentation of stress strain curve for unbound granular materials

under cyclic loading, implicit and explicit procedures [54]

Fig. 4.2

: General presentation of stress strain behavior of soils under cyclic loads [54]

Fig. 4.3

: Explicit procedure for permanent strains under cyclic loads [54]

Fig. 4.4

: Typical deformation behavior of soil element in RLT tests [54]

List of Figures

Fig. 4.5

: Material statement for deformation cases in space [54]

Fig. 4.6

: Mohr Coulomb stress circle at failure state of cohesionless soils [33]

Fig. 4.7

: Mohr Coulomb hypothesis in ( ) diagram for cohesive soils [16]

Fig. 4.8

: Derived monographs of cyclic shear parameters as a function of the static

friction angle and the parameter K [54]

Fig. 4.9

: Volume strain and strain rates [51]

Fig. 4.10 : Description of calculation phases used by the UMAT in ABAQUS [54]
Fig. 4.11 : Flow chart of the UMAT subroutine used in ABAQUS
Fig. 5.1

: Plate bearing test model, geometry and FEM mesh

Fig. 5.2

: Surface deformation in plate bearing test, Gravel-Sand, pressure 0.3 MPa

Fig. 5.3

: Surface deformation in plate bearing test, Gravel-Sand, pressure 0.7 MPa

Fig. 5.4

: Model of triaxial test in FEM analysis

Fig. 5.5

: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model

(Granodiorite)

Fig. 5.6

: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model

(Sandy-Gravel)

Fig. 5.7

: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model

(Diabase)

Fig. 5.8

: 3-D model, geometry and FEM mesh

Fig. 5.9

: Boundary conditions for 3-D model

Fig. 5.10 : Applied load to 3-D model, tire pressure q = 850.0 kPa, case 1
Fig. 5.11 : Applied load to 3-D model, tire pressure q = 850.0 kPa, case 2
Fig. 5.12 : Maximum principle stress in concrete slab [kPa], load case 1
Fig. 5.13 : Vertical elastic displacement in base layer [m], load case 1
Fig. 5.14 : Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer,
load case 1
Fig. 5.15 : Maximum vertical stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 1
Fig. 5.16 : Maximum resilient modulus [kPa] against disp [mm], base layer, load case 1
Fig. 5.17 : Poissons ratio [-] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 1
Fig. 5.18 : Total vertical displacement in base layer [mm] after 106 cycles, load case 1
Fig. 5.19 : Parameter (A) of Dresden model against N in base layer, load case 1
Fig. 5.20 : Parameter (B) of Dresden model against N in base layer, load case 1

List of Figures

xi

Fig. 5.21 : Contact pressure between concrete slab and base layer [kPa], load case 1
Fig. 5.22 : Maximum vertical elastic stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, load
case 2
Fig. 5.23 : Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer,
load case 2
Fig. 5.24 : Contact pressure between concrete slab and base layer [kPa], load case 2
Fig. 5.25 : Frequency of wheel load positions for 3.60 m lane width [47]
Fig. 5.26 : Chosen system of the 2-D model
Fig. 5.27 : Vertical elastic displacement in base & subgrade layers [m], 2-D model
Fig. 5.28 : Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer, 2D model
Fig. 5.29 : Maximum vertical elastic stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, 2-D
model
Fig. 5.30 : Comparison of vertical stress (33) between 2-D and 3-D models
Fig. 6.1

: FEM model and mesh generation

Fig. 6.2

: Chosen system for faulting calculation, loads & boundary conditions

Fig. 6.3

: Overview of analysis of joint faulting, Khazanovich et al [31]

Fig. 6.4

: Vertical elastic displacement [m], wheel load 40.00 kN

Fig. 6.5

: Vertical elastic displacement [m], wheel load 53.00 kN

Fig. 6.6

: Model for a fluid-filled cavity [2]

Fig. 6.7

: Simulation of fluid-filled cavities under concrete slab edges

Fig. 6.8

: Load amplitudes for model with Mohr Coulomb material definition

Fig. 6.9

: Permanent vertical displacement [m], Mohr Coulomb model; step 4, (no

loads)

Fig. 6.10 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load; Faulting = 0.226 mm
Fig. 6.11 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; Faulting = 0.0
Fig. 6.12 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; Faulting = 0.035mm
Fig. 6.13 : Cyclic load amplitudes in joint area
Fig. 6.14 : Total vertical displacement [m] for left side loading (PA) after 106 cycles
Fig. 6.15 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load, left side amplitude (PA)
Fig. 6.16 : Total vertical displacement [m] for right side loading (PB) after 106 cycles
Fig. 6.17 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load, right side amplitude (PB)

xii

List of Figures

Fig. 6.18 : Faulting against number of loading cycles (N): (normal-log scale)
Fig. 6.19 : Faulting against number of loading cycles (N): (log-log scale)
Fig. 6.20 : Regions with high water content under transversal joints
Fig. 6.21 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load with higher w/c; left side
amplitude (PA)
Fig. 6.22 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load with higher w/c; right side
amplitude (PB)
Fig. 6.23 : Faulting due to high w/c against number of loading cycles (N): (normal-log
scale)
Fig. 6.24 : Faulting due to high w/c against number of loading cycles (N): (log-log
scale)
Fig. 6.25 : Prediction of faulting due to higher w/c at increased number of loading
cycles

List of Figures

xiii

Fig. A.1 : Maximum principle stress in concrete slab [kPa], load case 2
Fig. A.2 : Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete slab, load case 2
Fig. B.1 : Plan view for base layer in 3-D model with section A-B-C-D
Fig. B.2 : Resilient E-Modulus in base layer [kPa] at end of step 3, load case 1
Fig. B.3 : Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.2 (E-Modulus)
Fig. B.4 : Resilient Poissons ratio in base layer [-] at end of step 3, load case 1
Fig. B.5 : Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.4 (Poissons ratio)
Fig. B.6 : Parameter (A) for permanent deformation in base layer at end of step 4, load
case 1
Fig. B.7 : Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.6 (Parameter A)
Fig. B.8 : Parameter (B) for permanent deformation in base layer at end of step 4, load
case 1
Fig. B.9 : Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.8 (Parameter B)
Fig. B.10 : Resilient modulus [kPa] against (N) for element X in base layer; step 4, load
case 1
Fig. B.11 : Poissons ratio [-] against (N) for element X in base layer; step 4, load case 1
Fig. C.1 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; left side amplitude (PA)
Fig. C.2 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; left side amplitude
(PA)
Fig. C.3 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; right side amplitude (PB)
Fig. C.4 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; right side amplitude
(PB)
Fig. D.1 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) preceding to load; left
side amplitude (PA)
Fig. D.2 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) proceeding to load; left
side amplitude (PA)
Fig. D.3 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) preceding to load; right
side amplitude (PB)
Fig. D.4 : Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) proceeding to load; right
side amplitude (PB)

List of Tables
Table 3.1 : Resilient modulus models for granular materials
Table 3.2 : Parameters for Dresden model, Granodiorite, DOC = 100 % [42]
Table 4.1 : Evaluation of implicit model statements for geotechnical materials [54]
Table 4.2 : Necessary input parameters for the selected material equations for granular
soils
Table 5.1 : Parameters for resilient modulus calculation
Table 5.2 : Stress paths used in triaxial analyses
Table 5.3 : Parameters for granular materials [68]
Table 5.4 : Parameters for Westergaard calculation
Table 5.5 : Comparison of FEM and Westergaard results, edge loading
Table 5.6 : Comparison between 2-D and 3-D results
Table 6.1 : Material properties with Mohr Coulomb model for base layer

Table A.1 : Comparison of FEM and Westergaard results; load case 2 (corner loading)
Table C.1 : Vertical displacement [mm] at three joint positions; left side amplitude
(PA)
Table C.2 : Vertical displacement [mm] at three joint positions; right side amplitude
(PB)
Table D.1 : Vertical displacement [mm] at three joints with high w/c; left side
amplitude (PA)
Table D.2 : Vertical displacement [mm] at three joints with high w/c; right side
amplitude (PB)

INTRODUCTION

Research concerning the structural behavior of pavement systems receives great

recognition, especially after the growing use of heavy trucks in goods transportation.
The Institute for Roads and Railways Technology of Karlsruhe University stated in its
1992 Report Traffic in graphic that traffic performance of goods transportation in
1990 was about 169 billion ton-kilometer. The Institute for Economic Research stated
that in the year 1995, the traffic performance of goods transportation was about 284
billion ton-kilometer. With this development of goods transportation using heavy
trucks, and in order to minimize damage to the existing rigid pavement highways, it was
necessary to study the behavior of those pavement systems under heavy running loads.
Nevertheless, much of the existing rigid pavement research has been based on the
classical two-dimensional (2-D) theories developed by Westergaard and Burmister.
These classical methods were adequate analysis and design tools until 1980, but are
now outdated. Nowadays, modern computers can provide much better computing ability
than those used during the 1980s. Furthermore, the classical theories neglect many
important aspects compared to the finite element analysis regarding the behavior of
pavement systems.
Recently, Finite Element Method (FEM) has been increasingly viewed as a fundamental
tool to investigate the behavior of numerous structural systems. It has been widely
applied to various structural analysis problems, from bridges to buildings in civil
engineering applications and from automobiles to aircrafts in mechanical engineering.
Also it is increasingly being used as an extremely powerful method for solving many
geotechnical problems, such as dams, foundations, and pavement structures.

1.1

Definition of the problem

The structural behavior of rigid pavement systems is more complicated than that of
flexible pavements because they have more complex structural components (for
example, joints and load transfer devices). For rigid pavement systems, stress, strain,
and displacement distributions are all different in terms of the loading positions because
joints and load transfer devices make a significant impact on the structural behavior.
One of the known problems in rigid pavement systems is stepping (faulting), which is
defined as the difference of elevation across joints or cracks, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Faulting is considered an important distress of Portland Concrete Pavements (PCP)
because it affects riding quality. If significant joint faulting occurs, there will be a major
impact on the life-cycle costs of the rigid pavement system in terms of rehabilitation
and vehicle operating costs.

INTRODUCTION

Faulting is caused in part by a buildup of loose materials under the approach slab near
the joint or crack combined with the depression of the leave slab. Lack of load transfer
devices contributes greatly to faulting [30].

Fig. 1.1: Diagrammatic representation of a punch-out [30]

The pumping and faulting are a continuous process, which occurs due to the presence of
water in cracks and transverse joints between concrete slabs. This process takes place
during the crossing of traffic loads to joints, which do not have load transfer devices
(i.e. dowels) or those with a very low load transfer efficiency factor.
The process can be explained in 5 steps as the following (Figure 1.2):
1- Unsealed joints and cracks allow water to enter the pavement structure and
accumulate under the concrete slabs.
2- The joint deflects as a load moves across it. The water under the approach slab
(slab no. 1) is ejected gradually, carrying materials with it, and accumulates
under the leave slab (slab no. 2). This movement of materials by water pressure
is called pumping.
3- As the load moves to the leave slab, water and material from underneath the
leave slab are suddenly pumped back underneath the approach slab. Thus, the
original materials from underneath the approach slab are returned back,
however, with additional fine materials.
4- This process leads to the accumulation of material underneath the approach slab
and loss of material from underneath the leave slab. The approach slab bends up
to accommodate the extra material, while the leave slab bends down to fill the
associated void.

1.2 Thesis overview

5- These causes an elevation difference between the approach and leave slabs. This
elevation difference, called a fault (stepping), is a major contributor to rigid
pavement roughness and distress.

Fines

Cavity

Fig. 1.2: Pumping and faulting

The specific problem of the research is simulating the above-mentioned process with
the finite element method. It is clear that, the behavior of unbound granular materials
(UGMs) with high moisture content combined with the absence of an effective load
transfer device between concrete segments are the main reasons for the faulting
problem. Therefore, the modeling of unbound granular materials under cyclic loads with
the possibility of using the available material model in the finite element program shall
be the main subject of this research to simulate the faulting process.

1.2

Thesis overview

This dissertation introduces a new numerical tool, which simulates the structural
behavior of a rigid pavement system under cyclic loads through the modeling of
unbound granular materials of base layer in both elastic and plastic ranges of
deformation. Following are brief summaries of the main chapters.
Chapter two introduces existing pavement analysis approaches. Two important
analytic theories developed by Westergaard and Burmister will be briefly overviewed.
Three different numerical analysis approaches will be briefly introduced, namely;
numerical computation software for Burmister theory, axisymmetric FEM software, and
2-D FEM programs based on Westergaard theory. Numerical modeling for rigid
pavement with commercial FEM programs like ANSYS and ABAQUS may introduce
better analysis methods through their available tools. For example, effective mesh
construction, interface between different layers, and better modeling for unbound
granular layers, etc.

INTRODUCTION

A recent research concerning an empirical method for the calculation of faulting in rigid
pavement systems is presented.
Chapter three reviews the different models for modeling unbound granular materials
(UGMs) regarding both resilient and permanent deformation behavior under cyclic
loading due to traffic. The effect of initial stresses on the resilient modulus will be
addressed. Dresden Model for the description of UGMs in both resilient and permanent
deformation behavior shall be discussed in detail. The influence of moisture content on
the behavior of UGMs and how it should be considered in the modeling shall be
discussed.
Chapter four reviews the implementation of constitutive laws used for the modeling of
the behavior of unbound granular materials under cyclic loading in a user material
subroutine (UMAT). The subroutine shall be used throughout the ABAQUS program to
simulate the rigid pavement system subjected to cyclic loading of traffic. Different
material parameters required for this subroutine shall be defined. The subroutine is
based on the well-known Mohr Coulomb Theory of Plasticity.
Chapter five covers the development of an existing UMAT subroutine to follow the
Dresden Model conception for the UGMs. Validation of the new version of the UMAT
subroutine shall be proved through a comparison of finite element results with existing
analytical and experimental results.
A simple 3-D model was chosen for the simulation of a rigid pavement system.
Geometry of the model, generated mesh, elements, boundary conditions, loading
history, and material properties (plain concrete, unbound granular base, subgrade soil)
shall be discussed. Results of the analysis shall be presented and assessed. Comparison
with Westergaards theory is presented. An equivalent traffic load for a 2-D model shall
be determined for the purpose of simulation of the faulting problem.
Chapter six covers the description of the numerical modeling of rigid pavement
structure with regard to the problem of faulting. A 2-D model is chosen for the
simulation. Geometry of the model, elements, boundary conditions, loading history, and
definition of properties for different materials shall be discussed. Results of the analysis
and calculation of faulting shall be presented and assessed.
Chapter seven gives in brief conclusions of the current research and recommendations
for future research.
The well-known nonlinear finite element package ABAQUS [2] has been used to
perform the finite element analysis of rigid pavement system and the program PATRAN
has been employed as the pre-processor. The analysis platform is the Unix based
workstation belonging to the North Germany Organization for Highest Computation
Performance (in German: Norddeutschen Verbundes fr Hoch- und Hchstleistungsrechnen ,,HLRN).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Typical rigid pavement structures are composed of a Portland cement concrete slab
layer and at least one treated and/or compacted granular base layer on top of natural soil
subgrade, as illustrated in Figure 2.1-a. Transverse thermal joints (both expansion and
contraction joints) are provided to prevent thermal cracking of the concrete slab. For
convenience during construction, longitudinal construction joints are present through
the whole length of the highway. In order to prevent joint failure under wheel load, load
transfer devices (dowels for transverse joints and tie-bars for construction joints) are
included to transfer wheel load from loaded slab segment to adjacent slab segments, as
illustrated in Figure 2.1-b.

a) Cross section

b) Plan view
Fig. 2.1: Rigid pavement system

2.1

LITERATURE REVIEW

Existing pavement analysis methods

Structural analysis of pavement systems has evolved from the two important classical
theories developed by Westergaard and Burmister. In the Westergaard theory, the rigid
pavement system is idealized as an elastic plate resting on Winkler foundation.
Nearly two decades after the Westergaard theory, Burmister developed a closed-form
solution for layered linear elastic half-space problems for pavement systems, including
both rigid and flexible pavements. This axisymmetric solution is able to consider
pavement layers with different linear elastic material properties.
2.1.1

Classic methods for solution

2.1.1.1 Westergaard theory

The Westergaard theory was the first rational and mechanical approach ever attempted
to analyze a pavement system. From existing test data and experience, he identified the
three most critical loading positions: the interior (also called center), edge, and corner,
as illustrated in Figure 2.2, because the behavior of a rigid pavement is highly
dependant on the loading position relation to the joints. In terms of pavement analysis
and design, obtaining the maximum bending stress under the given wheel load was the
most important concern for early pavement engineers.
The magnitude of displacement is also required to estimate the damage to joints. If the
displacement is too large, then the pavement will be damaged when the wheel load
moves from one concrete slab segment to another.

Fig. 2.2: Problem definition by Westergaard, three loading positions

Westergaard [69, 70, 71, 72] idealized a Portland cement concrete pavement to be a
two-layered linear elastic system (concrete slab and subgrade layer) to create a linear
elastic solution for stress and deflection. He considered the concrete slab to be an
infinite (for internal loading) or semi-infinite (edge and corner loading) Kirchhoff plate
and the subgrade layer to be a Winkler foundation.

2.1 Existing pavement analysis methods

Westergaard developed formulae for stress and deflection of three different loading
positions using the method of successive approximation. Some of his formulae are still
used in pavement research and design. In order to simplify the solution, Westergaard
defined the radius of relative stiffness, denoted by l. The radius of relative stiffness is a
measurement of the stiffness of the concrete slab relative to that of the subgrade
(Winkler foundation) and has a dimension of length:

Eh 3
l =

2
12 (1 v ) k

0.25

(2.1)

Where E is the Youngs modulus, v is the Poissons ratio of concrete, h is the thickness
of the concrete slab, and k is the modulus of subgrade reaction. He derived an equation
for the approximate maximum stress under single circular distributed wheel load acting
at the interior (center) loading position as [70]:

i =

3 (1 + v ) P l
ln + 0.6159
2

2 h b

(2.2)

Here, definition of b depends on the radius of the tire print a and the thickness of the
concrete slab h
b =a

when a 1.724 h

b = 1.6 a 2 + h 2 0.675 h

when a < 1.724 h

(2.3)

The maximum deflection due to an interior center loading is [71]:

i = P 2 1 + 1
8 k l 2

2
ln a 0.673 a
2l
l

(2.4)

Corner loading formulae for stress and displacement were derived from a circular
pressure load, where the center is located at a radius away from the two edges of the
corner, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
0.6
3P a 2

c = 2 1
h l

(2.5)

a 2

c = P2 1.1 0.88
l
k l

(2.6)

Several different versions of edge loading solutions were created by Westergaard [70,
71, 72]. The solution was initially derived under a semi-circular uniformly distributed
load acting on the edge [70], as illustrated in Figure 2.2, then later extended to a full
circular loading. Following are the latest equations for both circular (Eqns 2.7 and 2.9)
and semi-circular (Eqns 2.8 and 2.10) loads for the edge loading position.

LITERATURE REVIEW

e =

1.18 (1 + 2v) a
3(1 + v) P Eh 3
+ 1.84 4v + 1 v +
ln

2
4
3
2
l
(3 + v) h 100 ka

(2.7)

e =

(1 + 2v) a
3(1 + v) P Eh 3
+ 3.84 4v +
ln

2
4
3
2l
(3 + v) h 100 ka

(2.8)

e =

P 2 + 1.2 v
(0.76 + 0.4v) a
1.0

l
E h3 k

(2.9)

e =

P 2 + 1.2 v
(0.323 + 0.17v) a
1.0

3
l
Eh k

(2.10)

2.1.1.2 Burmister theory

Nearly two decades after Westergaard theory, Burmister [9] derived a closed-form
solution for the layered linear elastic half-space system, which is the idealization of the
multi-layered pavement system. The prime objective of this solution is to compute
stress, strain, and displacement based on linear elasticity. In addition, interface behavior
between layers was included in the solution.
In order to simplify solution development for the 3-D multi-layered system, Burmister
assumed axisymmetric and infinite problem domain, as illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Fig. 2.3: Problem definition by Burmister

Burmister [9] assumed a stress function composed of Bessel and exponential functions,
satisfying the bi-harmonic equation, to obtain a linear elastic solution of a multi-layered
system:

= J o (mr ) [ Ae mz + Be mz + zCemz + zDe mz ]

(2.11)

2.1 Existing pavement analysis methods

Where r is the radial and z is the vertical coordinate variables, m is a parameter, and A,
B, C, D are the four constants. For a multi-layered system, four constants need to be
determined for each layer by the boundary and compatibility conditions. After
determination of those constants, stress, strain, and displacement can be calculated by
the traditional linear elasticity formulation in a radial coordinate system. Since the
Burmister solution is derived based on linear elasticity, multiple wheel load analysis
became possible under the principle of superposition.
Due to the 2-D axisymmetry assumption, the Burmister theory cannot be applied to the
edge and corner of the pavement. Further, only circular shaped uniform pressure loads
can be applied, even though in general the wheel load tire print is an ellipse. Besides
this, nonlinear behavior of granular material cannot be included because the Burmister
theory is derived based on linear elasticity assumption. Nevertheless, this solution is
still a core part of many pavement analysis and design programs.
2.1.2

Solution based charts and tables

Due to limited computing abilities up to the 1970s, tables and charts were the two most
effective analysis and design methods for pavement engineers. Therefore, numerous
charts and tables were created for both classical methods (Westergaard and Burmister).
However, those charts and tables were quite complicated because several design
variables (for instance, Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio, and thickness of layers) are
required to compute output results.
These charts and tables successfully eliminated most of the computing cost from the
pavement analysis and design process and were an efficient tool for many pavement
engineers. However, they inherited the shortcomings of both the Westergaard and
Burmister theories.
2.1.3

Existing analysis programs for rigid pavement

This section briefly overviews existing pavement analysis and design programs and
their algorithms. Every program has its own detailed features and each ones
applicability to rigid pavement analysis shall be investigated. For convenience, existing
pavement programs are classified by three major categories:
1- Burmister solution-based programs
2- 2-D axisymmetry finite element programs
3- 2-D plates on elastic foundation based programs
2.1.3.1 Burmister solution-based programs
Many numerical programs have been developed for the numerical evaluation of the
Burmister solution since the emergence of the computer in the late 1950s. The prime
objective of these programs was to eliminate the complex computations involved in
obtaining stress, strain, and displacement from the Burmister solution.

10

LITERATURE REVIEW

The first generation of software in this category is ILLI-AC written by Mehta and
Veletsos [36] and CHEVRON written by Michelow [37], but they were not widely used
among pavement engineers. In 1978, the Shell laboratory in Amsterdam [53] developed
BISAR. This became the first widely used pavement analysis software because it was
written in FORTRAN language and was portable to many existing computers using
different operating systems. Through these initial attempts, evaluation of the Burmister
theory became more convenient and therefore, these programs gradually replaced
existing charts and tables for the pavement analysis and design process.
Nearly ten years later, Van Cauwelaert [65] developed another version of Burmister
solution computing software: WESLEA. Unlike other developers, he paid more
attention to the fast integration algorithm of exponential and Bessel functions in the
solution. He separated Burmister solution into two parts: one for closed-form integrable
terms and the other for numerically integrable terms. As a result, WESLEA was able to
compute the answers much faster than previous programs.
In addition to known facts from the Burmister solution, pavement engineers also found
that these programs overestimate tensile bending stress in the supporting layer. Such an
overestimation is caused by the linear elastic constitutive model, which has the same
stress and strain relationship for both the tensile and the compressive sides. However,
all supporting layers are composed of granular materials, which is a group of discrete
particles. The Burmister solution considered the multi-layered pavement system as a
continuous linear elastic body. As a result, any point above the neutral plane is
subjected to compression and any point below is under tension. Hence, the stress state
of the whole base and subgrade layers often stays in tension because the composite
neutral plane of the multi-layered system is frequently located between the center and
bottom of a pavement layer. Due to their tensile strength, such a tensile stress state is
not admissible for the granular materials, although it is not a problem for a pavement
layer composed of asphalt or Portland cement concrete. The predicted stress state in a
pavement layer is often underestimated due to this overestimation of the tensile stress in
the granular layer. Such an approximation error became a motivation for future use of
nonlinear material models.
2.1.3.2 2-D axisymmetry finite element programs
After the introduction of finite element methods, numerous axisymmetry 2-D finite
element codes were developed for pavement analysis and design. Their prime objective
was to include nonlinear elastic constitutive models into the existing 2-D axisymmetry
pavement analysis framework initially derived by Burmister. In addition to linear
elasticity, a visco-elastic constitutive model was implemented for asphalt concrete, and
resilient behavior based non-linear elasticity models were included to capture the
complex behavior of granular materials. Further, the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion
was included to simulate the failure of granular materials. However, the codes still
preserved the axisymmetry assumption in order to reduce the problem size, as illustrated
in Figure 2.4-a.

2.1 Existing pavement analysis methods

11

Raad and Figueroa [46] developed the ILLI-PAVE program, which was the first
software available to the public in this category. Thompson et al [61, 62] applied ILLIPAVE into numerous practical pavement problems. Other important programs in this
category are MICH-PAVE developed by Harichandran et al [21] and KENLAYER
developed by Huang [26].
These programs no longer assume infinite domains, so an artificial roller boundary
condition was imposed at both the horizontal and vertical boundaries (Figure 2.4-a).
Stress dependent non-linear elastic material models (so-called resilient behavior
models) were included in these programs in addition to the linear elasticity models.
Here, the resilient behavior means an almost elastic behavior of granular materials
shown after enough axial load repetitions in the triaxial test (Figure 2.4-b). Hicks and
Monismith [23], and Uzan [64] developed non-linear elastic K- and Uzan models
respectively from such nearly elastic behavior. Detailed description for these material
models is discussed in Chapter 3. These non-linear material models could provide better
solutions, but a costly nonlinear solution procedure was inevitable.

b) Resilient behavior of granular materials

a) Problem definition
Fig. 2.4: 2-D axisymmetry FEM programs

Taciroglu [58] used the method of fixed-point iteration for the non-linear solution
algorithm. It has the following procedures:
1- Assume initial resilient modulus
2- Compute displacement by linear analysis
3- Compute strain and stress using displacement results
4- Compute new (or updated) resilient modulus
5- Compute the difference between former and updated resilient modulus
6- If the difference is within a given tolerance, then stop iteration, otherwise return
to procedure 2 until the solution converges

12

LITERATURE REVIEW

This algorithm is very easy to implement but it has critical drawbacks, not least that the
convergence of the solution is slow and not guaranteed (depending on the initial guess).
In spite of using non-linear material models, a large magnitude of tensile stress was still
predicted from the bottom of the granular base layer, discussed in detail in the previous
section. Such an unrealistic tensile stress remained in this approach because resilient
behavior based material models, although non-linear, are still elastic models. In fact, the
behavior of the tensile and compressive sides is symmetric in the space of deviator
stress versus axial strain, which defines the resilient modulus.
In order to attenuate this unrealistic tensile stress prediction, Huang [26] developed an
ad-hoc method that divides granular base layers into multiple sub-layers and updates
any computed tensile stress from a sub-layer to zero. According to stress results, it
eliminates tensile stress but, at the same time, is a time consuming process due to the
corresponding non-linear iteration procedures.

Fig. 2.5: Mohr Coulomb failure criterion [46]

The well-known Mohr Coulomb failure criterion was implemented in the ILLI-PAVE
program. This criterion identifies element level failure in granular supporting layers and
then limits the stress state of the failed elements. For example, if a computed stress state
of a given element exceeds the failure criterion (circle A), that stress state is modified
by reducing the major principal stress until the new circle touches the failure surface
(circle B), as illustrated in Figure 2.5 [46].
Software in this category could simulate rigid pavement behavior better than those
based on the Burmister theory. Nevertheless, fixed point iteration and the ad-hoc
methods could create solution convergence problems. Analysis at the edge and corner of
pavement is still restrained due to the axisymmetry assumption.
2.1.3.3 2-D plates on elastic foundation based programs
Soon after the introduction of finite element methods, many structural analysis
programs were developed, with structural elements (for example, beam, spring, plate,
and shell elements), including FINITE, SAP, and others. Pavement engineers also
developed their own finite element software by employing such structural elements.
ILLI-SLAB by Tabatabaie [57] was the first software in this category, and it provided a
major breakthrough in rigid pavement research.

2.1 Existing pavement analysis methods

13

Furthermore, several other programs were developed during the 1980s with the
objective of analyzing two-layered dowel-jointed rigid pavement systems. Ioannides
[28, 29] made ILLI-SLAB more user-friendly and implemented more features. KENSLAB developed by Huang [25] and JSLAB developed by Tayabji and Colley [59] used
the same 2-D plates on elastic foundation approach.
Tabatabaie [57] employed plates on a Winkler foundation into computer code ILLISLAB, but he no longer assumed infinite plates, as Westergaard had fifty years earlier.
Instead, he used finite size Kirchhoff plate bending elements for simulating the concrete
slab (Figure 2.6-a). Also, he included joint modeling capability by using beam elements,
which simulated the dowel load transfer system. For the supporting layers modeling, he
employed an elastic foundation in his program, in addition to the Winkler foundation.
The elastic foundation element like the Kirchhoff plate element has three DOFs (one
vertical displacement and two transverse rotations) per node (Figure 2.6-a, -d) while the
Winkler foundation element has only one DOF (vertical displacement).

Fig. 2.6: Problem definition for 2-D plates on elastic foundation based programs

14

LITERATURE REVIEW

In providing support to the concrete slab, both elastic and Winkler foundation showed
similar behavior (Figure 2.7) but the elastic foundation is closer to real subgrade
behavior. The deformed shape of the supporting layer predicted from the elastic
foundation is more reasonable than that from the Winkler foundation. However, both
foundation models cannot account for the horizontal displacement of the supporting
layer.

a) Behavior of Winkler foundation

b) Behavior of elastic foundation

Fig. 2.7: Behavior of Winkler and elastic foundations

Ever since Westergaard, modeling of the dowel joints has been one of the most
important issues in rigid pavement analysis. Tabatabaie [57] first simulated dowels
using Tirnoshenko beam element in ILLI-SLAB, as demonstrated in Figure 2.6-c. After
that, numerous modeling attempts were made in order to better simulate the behavior of
dowel joints.
All aforementioned programs have shown good performance for ordinary pavement
analysis and design through a series of numerical calibrations with field test
measurements. As a result, they are widely used by numerous pavement engineers. Yet,
important behavior of pavement systems was neglected by the 2-D assumptions behind
this approach, including the kinematics hypothesis, no shear deformation for Kirchhoff
plate theory, and the subgrade reaction modulus for elastic foundation.
Recent pavement systems are often subjected to a much higher load magnitude in
comparison to those 50 years ago. As a result, pavement systems are composed of a
thick concrete slab and multiple supporting layers. Therefore, the above approach may
produce a significant error in analysis of rigid pavement systems for the following
reasons:
1- Multiple supporting layers cannot be replaced by the subgrade reaction modulus
(denoted by k).
2- Rigid pavements are thick enough to produce nonlinear and shear deformation,
which are not allowed in Kirchhoff plate theory.
3- Interface behavior, often caused by a bond-breaking interlayer between concrete
slab and supporting layer, is ignored because plates are perfectly bonded with
elastic foundation.

2.2 Numerical modeling of rigid pavement system

2.2

15

Numerical modeling of rigid pavement system

The numerical modeling of rigid pavement system is a very challenging problem

because of its inherent complexity. The problem contains both geometric and material
non-linearity and shows heterogeneous behavior originating from the multi-layered
pavement structure. Also, applied loads and problem geometry are not symmetric.
Hence, a suitable finite element approach is required to accurately investigate the
behavior of rigid pavement systems. This section introduces some numerical difficulties
associated with rigid pavement system.
1- Rigid pavement is a multi-layered system with different material properties in
each layer. In order to capture the unique behavior of each pavement layer, a
finite element approach with continuum solid elements is absolutely required
because Kirchhoff plates on elastic foundation approach cannot represent multilayered system with different material properties. A refined finite element mesh
is needed to capture accurately the stress and strain variation across the
thickness. A coarse mesh is required in remote regions to reduce the problem
size. Meanwhile, such a combination of refined and coarse meshes could cause a
bad aspect ratio problem in the remote region due to relatively thin pavement
layers. This may increase the level of approximation error. Hence, attention to
both mesh refinement and mesh ill-conditioning is needed.
2- Problem domain is unbounded while applied loading is highly localized.
Approximately eighty cm thick rigid pavement sits on natural soil subgrade, an
essentially unbounded domain. In contrast, applied loading can be enclosed
within a 0.25 m by 0.25 m surface. Hence, there is a strong demand for an
efficient transition mesh, which connects between refined elements at the
vicinity of load and coarse elements in the remote domain. Furthermore, the
unbounded domain also needs special treatment.
3- Non-linear material modeling is required to capture the behavior of granular
material in supporting layers. Granular materials demonstrate a unique behavior,
including limited tension carrying capacity, pressure dependent hardening,
friction-governed behavior between grains, and volumetric dilatation. Hence,
non-linear material modeling is absolutely necessary to capture the above
characteristics.
4- Interface behavior exists between all layers of a pavement system. Of particular
importance is the interface between the concrete slab and base layer. A thin
bond-breaking interlayer, which prevents crack propagation from supporting
layers to the concrete slab, is often installed on that interface. It allows
discontinuous deformation and vertical opening across the interface under wheel
load and temperature variation.
To overcome the above-mentioned difficulties, the next section introduces some
important issues in finite element modeling for rigid pavement system.

16

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.3

Issues in finite element modeling

The Finite Element Method (FEM) has been increasingly viewed as the best approach to
analyze the fundamental behavior of pavement structures. Despite many advantages of
this powerful tool, it has not been adapted extensively to pavement analysis because of
the difficulties associated with the mesh construction, the large amount of memory
space required, and the long computational time required to reach a solution. Thus,
developing tools to eliminate these difficulties are as important as the pavement analysis
itself. Several general finite element programs were applied to rigid pavements, such as
ADINA (1981), ANSYS, and ABAQUS (1989). Many researchers have verified the
accuracy and reliability of these models. The finite element analysis possesses several
advantages over plate theory calculations, as mentioned below:
1- A slab of any arbitrary dimension (uniform and non-uniform) can be analyzed.
2- Voids or loss of support beneath a slab can be considered.
3- Single and multiple wheel loads can be placed at any location on the pavement.
4- Temperature and traffic conditions can be applied simultaneously.
5- Multi-layer pavement systems can be modeled as either bonded or un-bonded.
6- Multiple slabs and cracks can be modeled with various load transfer conditions.
7- Both linear and non-linear stress-strain behavior of materials is permitted.
However, the finite element analysis should be applied with proper modeling for the
mesh and element members. In addition, special consideration should be taken
regarding the load and support conditions, slab geometry and configuration, and critical
stress/deflection locations.
2.3.1

Issues in mesh generation of multi-layered system

The accuracy of finite element analysis depends on the mesh refinement and geometric
characteristics of the finite elements, which include smooth transition, element
distortion (acute or obtuse element corner angle), and element aspect ratio.
The total number of elements (or total number of degrees of freedom) in the finite
element mesh governs the required computing time and data storage space. Threedimensional meshes require a large number of extra elements in the thickness direction,
while 2-D meshes only need a small number of elements in the planar domain.
2.3.1.1 Mesh refinement
The degree of mesh refinement is the most important factor in estimating an accurate
stress field in pavement. A fine mesh is required in the vicinity of wheel loads to
capture the steep stress and strain gradients. In general, smaller elements can reduce the
discrepancy in stress and strain values predicted at the sampling point of each element.
In the structural analysis of pavement systems, mesh refinement also determines how

2.3 Issues in finite element modeling

17

many sampling points are available throughout the thickness of each layer and how
close sampling points are to the point of true maximum. Thus, the use of more sampling
points helps in capturing smoother variation [32]. Comparison of stress distributions
obtained from several different refinement levels determines the optimum degree of
mesh refinement.
Figure 2.8 shows the results of an axisymmetric analysis of a layered system with four
different degrees of mesh refinement of the region under the load, level (I) being the
coarsest and level (IV) the finest. Each subsequent refinement quarters the elements of
the previous one. The horizontal stress (xx) and the vertical stress (zz) are plotted along
the axis of symmetry in the figure. Four-node axisymmetric elements are used and
stresses are reported at the centroid of each element.

Fig. 2.8: Mesh refinement and stress results [32]

The results clearly show convergence with mesh refinement. Although the element
centroids stresses appear to be accurate for the coarse mesh, the extreme values are not
well represented, except by extrapolation. For the coarsest mesh, the second layer has
only one element, making it impossible to estimate the bending effects in that layer.
Clearly, some of the finer features of the solution do not appear before a certain level of
mesh refinement. For this example, one can conclude that refinement level (II) or higher
is appropriate.

18

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.3.1.2 Geometric characteristics of finite elements

The accuracy of finite element analysis also depends on the geometric characteristics of
the used finite elements, including element aspect ratio, element distortion, and
transition of element size. In the case of continuum solid modeling, using a refined
uniform mesh with square elements for 2-D or cubic elements for 3-D (element aspect
ratio of 1.0, corner angles of 90o, and uniform size) are optimal from the standpoint of
solution accuracy and equation conditioning [6, 11, 35]. However, since the size of the
smallest element is dictated by the stress gradients in the region of the load, a uniform
mesh is prohibitively large for any practical application. Hence, a strategy for making a
smooth transition to larger elements in the regions of small stress gradients is essential.
Finite boundary truncation was examined by Kim and Hjelmstad [32] with two different
artificial boundary conditions, namely, the roller and fixed conditions, which are
applied along the truncated domain. Domain size was varied from a 30 to a 250 load
radii. This analysis was done for an axisymmetry model under a single wheel load.

without infinite elements (fixed B.C.)

without infinite elements (roller B.C.)
with infinite elements

Fig. 2.9: Domain extent analysis with ABAQUS [32]

Figure 2.9 shows that the difference in the displacement under the load from the two
different boundary conditions decreases as the domain extent increases. The influence
of boundary truncation is negligible (less than 5%) for domains larger than a 150 load
radii while exceptional accuracy is achieved for a domain extent of less than a 45 load
radii with an infinite element model. The displacements and stresses resulting from an
infinite element model with a domain greater than a 45 load radii are identical to the
results obtained by BISAR program. The reduction in total elements achieved by using
the infinite elements resulted in significantly reduced memory and CPU time
requirements.
2.3.2

Frictional contact interface

Rigid pavements are composed of multiple layers, such as concrete slabs, base layer,
sub-base, and granular subgrade. Each layer has its own distinct material properties that
result in the interface behavior between layers. In rigid pavement analysis, the interface
between the Portland cement concrete slab and unbound granular base layer needs more
focus due to the following reasons:

2.3 Issues in finite element modeling

19

1- The material characteristics above and below the interface are very different
(strength and material constants).
2- Temperature curling deformation can create openings between layers.
3- The bond-breaking interlayer is often installed to prevent crack propagation
from the supporting layer to the concrete slab.
Using a frictional contact interface can be the best treatment for this problem because it
allows discontinuous deformation above and beneath the contact surface. Hence, the
concrete slab and the supporting layer can behave separately while exchanging contact
traction.

Nodes
Open nodes

Stick nodes
Slip nodes

Contact zone

Fig. 2.10: Contact status in contact surface pair

The contact status is determined by non-linear equilibrium and discontinuity iteration

procedure and is governed by the transmission of normal and tangential contact pressure
and the relative displacement between nodes belonging to the contact surface pair [2].
The classifications of contact nodes are open, slip, and stick, which have literal
meanings, as illustrated in Figure 2.10. The stick and slip nodes can carry both normal
and tangential contact pressure between nodes, while the open nodes cannot. The full
amount of normal contact pressure can be transmitted through the contact surface pair
under stick and slip status. However, a limited amount of the tangential contact pressure
(shear stress) can be carried by the contact surface because Coulombs law of friction
determines the frictional resistance of contact surface.
If the shear stress acting over a certain region of a contact surface pair exceeds its
frictional resistance, that region is under slip status and a corresponding relative
tangential displacement is observed in the direction of applied shear stress. Otherwise,
the region is under stick and no tangential relative displacement occurs. The normal
relative displacement is zero for both stick and slip and only positive for open.
Negative normal relative displacement means penetration between two solid bodies and
is not allowed. The bending deformation induced by the heavy wheel load causes
tangential relative displacement between the concrete slab and the supporting layers.
Curling of the concrete slab under temperature gradients causes openings between the
concrete slab and the base layer, which can be closed again under heavy wheel loads.

20

LITERATURE REVIEW

The frictional contact interface eliminates the high tensile bending stress predicted in
supporting layers (which was mentioned with the Burmister solution in section 2.1.1
and the 2-D axisymmetric finite element approach in section 2.1.3). Discontinuous
deformation above and beneath the contact interface makes the concrete slab and
supporting layers behave separately in resisting bending deformation from wheel loads.
The frictional contact algorithm requires a considerable amount of extra computing time
for the non-linear equilibrium and discontinuity iterations.
2.3.3

Numerical modeling of granular materials

Neither of the two classical analysis methods of rigid pavement have accounted for the
non-linear behavior of granular materials. In these methods, the supporting layers are
considered as a Winkler foundation or an elastic layer. Moreover, no consideration for
permanent deformation behavior is included.
The supporting layers are the main cause of most problems in both pavement systems,
for example rutting in flexible pavement and stepping in rigid pavement. Therefore,
growing interest in studying the mechanical behavior of unbound granular materials is
involved. In flexible pavements, especially when thinly surfaced, the overall structural
performance is largely dependent on the behavior of the unbound granular base layer.
Therefore, a proper understanding of the mechanical properties of granular materials is
necessary for developing successful analytical design procedures for pavement systems.
Although granular material is one of the most commonly used materials in civil
engineering applications, it is one of the most difficult materials to simulate in
numerical analysis. Granular material is composed of numerous discontinuous grains
and shows a highly non-linear response due to the bonding and friction between grains.
Hence, granular material demonstrates very different behavior from continuum solid
materials such metals. As a result, it is very difficult to characterize the behavior of
granular materials within the context of continuum mechanics. In order to characterize
the complex behavior of UGMs, pavement engineers have developed their own nonlinear elastic material models for granular materials, for example, K-, Boyce, Uzan,
Dresden, and other models. These models are based on the resilient behavior of granular
materials observed under triaxial test after a high number of load repetitions.
Also a lot of work was done to develop models for permanent deformation behavior of
unbound granular materials under cyclic loading. The most famous model is the Paute
model. A detailed review of the mechanical behavior of unbound granular materials is
discussed in Chapter 3. The problem lies in defining such behavior in finite element
programs and learning to make use of them.
2.3.3.1 Material library in ABAQUS
The material library in ABAQUS is intended to provide comprehensive coverage of
linear and non-linear, isotropic and an-isotropic material models. Material behavior falls
into the following general categories [2]:

2.4 Computation of faulting

21

1- General properties (material damping, density, thermal expansion)

2- Elastic and inelastic mechanical properties
3- Thermal properties
For the description of the unbound granular materials, the choice between many
different material models is available, such as linear elastic model, visco-elastic model,
Mohr Coulomb or Drucker Prager plastic models, and many others. In order to
characterize the behavior of UGMs differently to those models available in ABAQUS,
for example, resilient elastic or permanent deformation behavior under cyclic loading, a
user defined material subroutine (UMAT) can be developed and implemented.
2.3.3.2 User defined material subroutine
User defined material subroutine (UMAT) is a powerful option in ABAQUS, which
provides an interface to the main solver to allow the definition of any mechanical
constitutive model for a material through the user. This is needed when the material
behavior does not follow one of the common models available in the material library.
The mean features of UMAT subroutine are [2]:
1- It can be used with any procedure that includes mechanical behavior.
2- It can use solution-dependent state variables.
3- It must update the stresses and solution-dependent state variables to their values
at the end of the increment for which it is called.
4- It must provide the material Jacobian matrix (/) for the mechanical
constitutive model.
5- It can be used in conjunction with the user defined field variable subroutine
(USDFLD) to redefine any field variables before they are passed in.
UMAT is executed for each integration point of the material at every time increment.
The accuracy of the results depends on the size of the chosen time increment. A smaller
time increment will yield better results, but at the same time requires longer computing
time. User has to find a balance between the accuracy of results and the computing
effort.
A complete description of the constitutive laws used for the definition of deformation
behavior of UGMs in the UMAT subroutine used in this research is discussed in
Chapters 4.

2.4

Computation of faulting

The problem of faulting has not been studied intensively, in spite of its great influence
to pavement distress. Khazanovich et al [31] developed an empirical formula to
calculate the faulting in rigid pavement system through an accumulative function.

22

LITERATURE REVIEW

The developed empirical equation has a number of factors which need to be calibrated
according to many criteria, for example, the weather conditions, the characteristics of
unbound granular base materials, and other related factors as mentioned below:
m

Faultm =

Fault
i =1

(2.12)

Faulti = C34 x (FAULTMAXi-1 Faulti-1)2 x DEi

FAULTMAXi = FAULTMAX0 + C7 x

(2.13)

DE x log (1 + C
j =1

x 5.0 EROD ) C6

(2.14)
C6

P xWetDays
EROD
FAULTMAX0 = C12 x curling x log (1+ C5 x5.0 ) xlog 200
(2.15)
Ps

Where:
Faultm

= mean joint faulting at the end of month m [inches]

Faulti

= incremental change (monthly) in mean transverse joint faulting

during month i [inches]

FAULTMAXi = maximum mean transverse joint faulting for month i [inches]

FAULTMAX0 = initial maximum mean transverse joint faulting [inches]
EROD

= base/subbase erodibility factor

DE

= differential elastic deformation energy

DE

= x k x (WL + WUL)x(WL - WUL) [kPa.mm]

= modulus of subgrade reaction [kPa/mm]

WL

= deflection of loaded slab [mm]

WUL
curling

= deflection of unloaded slab [mm]

= maximum mean monthly slab corner upward deflection due to
temperature curling and moisture warping [mm]

Ps

= overburden on subgrade [lb]

P200

= percent subgrade material passing #200 sieve

Wet Days

= average annual number of wet days (greater than 0.1 inch rainfall)

C1 through C7 and C12, C34 are calibration constants:

C12

= C1+C2 x FR0.25

C34

= C3+C4 x FR0.25

C1 = 1.29, C2 = 1.1, C3 = 0.0001725, C4 = 0.0008, C5 = 250, C6 = 0.4, C7 = 1.2

FR

= base freezing index defined as percentage of time the top base

temperature is below freezing (32 F) temperature.

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR

MATERIALS

During recent decades, growing interest in the development of so-called analytical or

mechanistic road pavement design methods has resulted in substantial research into the
mechanical behavior of the materials involved.
In comparison with most concrete and steelwork structures, the layered form of a road
pavement is relatively simple. Nevertheless, due to complexities in the behavior of the
constituent materials under traffic loads and environmental conditions, pavement design
techniques are still far from advanced. A fundamental requirement for an analytical
approach to pavement design is a proper understanding of the mechanical properties of
the constituent materials. The unbound granular base and sub-base layers in a pavement
play an essential role in the overall structural performance of the pavement structure.
However, the current knowledge concerning granular materials is limited.

3.1

Resilient behavior of unbound granular materials

Nazarian and Boddspati [39] have shown that non-linear behavior occurs in Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) testing. An increase in the load magnitude of the FWD
results in an increase in deflection that is less than one to one. Several procedures have
been developed to try to handle the non-linearity of unbound layers in pavement
structures. Some analyses attempt to model the non-linearity by considering the plastic
behavior of subgrade soils. Others approximate non-linear effects through iterative
linear elastic procedures. Most recently finite element codes have been utilized in
modeling the stress state dependency of granular base layers, and the strain level
dependency of subgrade materials.
As stresses and strains are used more and more to determine the relative condition of
layers in a pavement structure, the need for consideration of non-linear material
behavior becomes increasingly important. Linear elastic approximations of unbound
material behavior are no longer acceptable in pavement analysis. Errors from such
approximations have been noted and documented. The stress state dependency of
granular materials must be considered for an accurate estimation of true pavement
response.
Various non-linear elastic models, derived from Repeated Load Triaxial (RLT) tests,
have been proposed to describe the response of granular materials under loading.
Several widely used models are summarized in Table 3.1.

24

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

Table 3.1: Resilient modulus models for granular materials

Model

Model expression
k2

Model constants

M r = k1

Uzan

k1 , k2 , k3

UT-Austin

Mr = k1 k2 dk3
Mr = k1 dk2 3k3

UT-E1 Paso

Mr = k1 dk2 ak3

k1 , k2 , k3

Boyce

Mr =

K =

9K G
3K +G

k1 , k2
k1 , k2 , k3

Ka , Ga , n

K a .( p / p a ) 1 n
q
1 ( )2
p

G = Ga . ( p / pa )1n

=
Dresden

(1 n ) K a
6 Ga

Er = ( Q + C 3 Q1 ) 1 Q2 + D

r = R 1 / 3 + A 3 + B

Q, Q1, Q2, A, B,
C, D, & R

Where:

= bulk stress = 1 + 2 + 3

= deviator stress = 1 - 3

= deviator stress = 1 - 3

= absolute value of maximum principal stress

= absolute value of minimum principal stress

= confining stress = 2

= mean normal stress = (1 + 2 + 3) / 3

Mr

= resilient modulus

Er

= resilient modulus

= resilient Poissons ratio

= bulk modulus

= shear modulus

= axial strain, and

Pa

= arbitrary pressure equal to 100 kPa

The experimental models obtained from Constant Confining Pressure (CCP) tests show
the influence of stress on the stiffness. The CCP test gives for each stress-level the
secant resilient modulus (Mr) determined by the simple expression:

3.1 Resilient behavior of unbound granular materials

1r 3r
Mr = r =
1
1r
qr

25

(3.1)

Where qr is the cyclic deviator stress and 1r being the resilient axial strain. The
influence of the stress-level on the resilient modulus (Mr), demonstrating the nonlinearity of the elastic behavior, has generally been described by a relationship of the
form [23]:

Mr = k1 .

k2

(3.2)

Where is the sum of principle stresses at the maximum deviator stress of a loading
cycle and is expressed as:

= 1 + 2 + 3

(3.3)

k1 and k2 are material constants.

The resilient Poissons ratio is simply determined as: r = - 3r /1r, where 3r is the
resilient radial strain.
The tests carried out with Variable Confining Pressure (VCP) offer more possibilities
for resilient modeling. For example, Boyce [7] proposed a non-linear elastic model
capable of adequately describing the behavior observed in the VCP tests.
The stress-strain relationships characterizing an isotropic elastic material are:

v =

1
.p
K

and

q =

1
.q
3G

(3.4)

Where K is the bulk modulus, G is the shear modulus, p is the mean normal stress, and q
is the deviator stress.
The K- model was the most popular model in the past due to its simplicity. In this
model, the resilient modulus of granular materials is expressed as a function of the bulk
stress (). Only two material constants (k1 and k2) are required, which can be regressed
from the experimental data. One drawback of this model is that it neglects the effect of
the shear stress on the resilient modulus, which can result in an inaccurate prediction of
material behavior.
Uzans model and the UT-E1 Pasos model overcome this problem by adding either the
measured deviator stress (d) or axial strain (a) as the extra parameter to predict the
resilient modulus. The UT-Austins model directly relates two independent variables,
the deviator stress (d) and the confining pressure (3) to the resilient modulus.
Compared to the K- model, Uzans model, the UT-E1 Pasos model, and the UTAustins model all show better agreement with the experimental data.
Boyces model, widely used in European countries, is one of the advanced models for
granular materials. Although better results may be obtained from this model, more

26

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

complicated testing and material constants evaluation procedures are required. Thus it is
not considered practical in routine use.
The Dresden model has been developed and modified by Wellner in the last ten years at
the Dresden University of Technology. The model is expressed in terms of a resilient
modulus (Er) and a resilient Poisson ratio (r) where the values of (Er) and (r) depend
on the applied stresses. The Dresden model will be discussed in detail in section 3.3.
In order to provide models which could be applied in a FEM code for response and
performance modeling of pavement structures with unbound granular bases, two nonlinear elastic models were used in the COURAGE project [14]: the Boyces model and
the Dresden model.
The two models have been selected in the basis of:
1- The good prediction obtained with the Boyces model in the preliminary study
carried out in the COST 337 project [13]
2- Their ability to describe the results of repeated load triaxial tests with variable
confining pressure (i.e. the response of the material to a wide range of different
stress paths)
3- The possibility to use these models for pavement structure calculations, using
the finite element method
3.1.1

Effect of initial stresses

Most pavement design approaches, including the AASHTO methods, presently use a
single value of the resilient modulus of each layer in the thickness selection process.
Therefore, to select the design resilient moduli, the representative stress state acting
upon each layer must be either known or assumed. The complete stress state consists of
the combined effect of the initial residual stresses existing after construction and the
dynamic stresses caused by traffic loading. Temperature and moisture induced stresses
in stabilized layers are also important, but have received almost no attention.
During construction, heavy compaction equipment is used to densify, in thin lifts, the
subgrade, base, and surface layers. The heavy construction equipments then use each
completed lift as a temporary working platform. Usually the greatest stresses to which a
particular layer is ever subjected are applied during either compaction or else by
construction equipment before the pavement is completed. The application of large
vertical stresses during the stage of construction causes lateral stresses to develop in
granular layers, these stresses are called residual lateral stresses [3, 15, 64].
Uzan [64] has pointed out that residual lateral stresses of 14 kPa have been observed for
cohesionless and cohesive soils. Methods of analysis proposed by Uzan [64], Selig [52],
and Duncan and Seed [15] are quite encouraging for predicting residual lateral stresses
due to compaction of both granular and cohesive soils. Selig [52] concluded that the
residual lateral stress is the most important factor limiting permanent deformation in the

3.2 Permanent deformation of unbound granular materials

27

bottom of a granular base. Residual lateral stress is also an important factor determining
the appropriate confining pressure at which to evaluate the resilient modulus.
The residual lateral stress (hr) is relatively large and can be expressed as follows [52]:
hr = ko v

(3.5)

Where (v) is the vertical overburden stress and (ko) is the coefficient of lateral earth
pressure considering residual stress, which is greater than the unity but less than the
passive coefficient of earth pressure (kp). For a granular material the passive coefficient
of lateral earth pressure (kp) = tan2 (45+/2), where () is the angle of internal friction.
Earlier studies have shown that residual stresses develop in granular base due to
compaction during construction and subsequent traffic loading. These residual stresses
were considered in the GT-PAVE analysis. Residual stresses of 14.0, 21.0, and 34.5 kPa
were used for analysis of the pavement cross-section with a 20 cm AC surface, a 108
cm thick granular base layer, and medium strength subgrade. Figure 3.1 shows the
effect of residual stresses on surface and subgrade deflections. Including granular base
residual stress in the analysis reduces the surface and subgrade deflections, since the
residual stress in the horizontal direction reduces the vertical compressive strain and
stress in the pavement. Subgrade and surface deflections predicted by the two programs,
ILLI-PAV and GT-PAVE are in agreement [17].
80

Subgrade deflection
surface deflection

Deflection, mils

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

Granular base residual stress, kPa

Fig. 3.1: Effect of residual stresses on surface and subgrade deflections [17]

3.2

Permanent deformation of unbound granular materials

Unbound granular materials exhibit both resilient and permanent deformation under
traffic loading. The rutting in a flexible pavement system is initiated firstly in the
unbound base layer under heavy loads of traffic; this illustrates the permanent
deformation behavior of UGMs. To date, no overall framework has been established to
satisfactorily explain the response of unbound granular layers to the complex repeated
rotational loading, which they undergo due to traffic (Figure 3.2).

28

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

Fig. 3.2: Stresses in a pavement structure due to moving load

Granular materials, when subjected to repeated loading, exhibit permanent deformation

in addition to resilient deformation. During each load repetition, the permanent
deformation is normally just a fraction of the total deformation produced. However, the
gradual accumulation of these small permanent deformation increments with the
number of loading cycles could lead to the distress in pavement systems, for example
rutting in flexible pavement and faulting in rigid pavement.
For a long time, many researchers have studied the complex behavior of granular
materials under repeated loading, using laboratory and in-situ testing techniques. The
research has been mainly concentrated on understanding the resilient behavior of these
materials and great progress has been made. Compared with the data available on the
resilient behavior, the information on the build-up of permanent strain in granular
materials is limited. Some current studies concentrate on the understanding of long-term
behavior of unbound granular materials regarding the effect of the number of loading
cycles and stress-levels on the accumulation of plastic strain. Some of the modeling
techniques shall be discussed in the following sections.
3.2.1

Modeling of permanent deformation of UGMs

One of the main objectives of research into the long-term behavior of granular materials
is to establish a constitutive model, which allows an accurate prediction of permanent
strain. In such a relationship, it is essential to take into account the gradual
accumulation of plastic strain as a function of the number of loading cycles as well as
the important role played by the stress condition. Over the years several researchers
have attempted to outline procedures for predicting permanent strain in unbound
granular materials. Barksdale [4] performed a comprehensive study of the behavior of
different base course materials using repeated load triaxial tests with 105 load

3.2 Permanent deformation of unbound granular materials

29

applications. For a given stress condition, the accumulation of permanent axial strain
was shown to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of loading cycles and the
results could be expressed by a log-normal expression of the form:

1,p = a + b . log (N)

(3.6)

where :

1,p

: total permanent axial strain

: number of loading cycles

a,b

: constants for a given level of deviator stress and confining pressure

The long-term behavior of granular materials was also investigated by Sweere [56].
After applying 106 loading cycles in repeated load triaxial test, Sweere observed that the
log-normal expression did not fit his test results. He then suggested that for large
number of cycles, a log-log approach should be employed and expressed the results as
follows [56]:

1,p = a . N b

(3.7)

In which a and b are regression parameters. The applicability of this log-log model was
later questioned by Wolff and Visser [73] who performed full-scale Heavy Vehicle
Simulator (HVS) test with several million loading cycles. They suggested a different
model given as [73]:

1,p = (c . N + a) . (1 e -bN)

(3.8)

In which a, b and c are regression parameters.

3.2.2

Modeling with respect to the stress condition

Previous research has shown that the stress-level is one of the most important factors
controlling the build-up of permanent strain in granular materials. Several researchers
who studied unbound granular materials have found that, with regard to the stress
condition, permanent deformation behavior is principally governed by some form of
stress ratio. Lashine et al [34] conducted repeated load triaxial tests on crushed stone
and noted that the measured permanent axial strain was related to the ratio of q/3,
where q and 3 are the deviator stress and confining pressure respectively. Pappin [44]
described the permanent shear strain as a function of the length of the stress path in the
(p-q) space and the applied shear stress ratio (q/p), where p is the mean normal stress.
Other researchers have reported that the amount of permanent strain is determined by
how close the applied stresses are to the static failure stress. Barret and Smith [5]
suggested that the stress ratio (qmax/qfailure) could be used to estimate the value of
permanent strain. Thom [60] stated in his studies that permanent shear strain is related
to the stress ratio ((qfailure - qmax)/qmax). Paute et al [45] employed a new approach to
express the influence of both of the number of loading cycles and stress-levels on the
build-up of permanent strain in granular materials.

30

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

This approach is based on the assumption that permanent strain increases asymptotically
towards a limit value, which in turn, is a function of stresses related to the static failure
condition of the material. According to the Pautes model, the gradual accumulation of
permanent axial strain with the number of loading cycles can be expressed as [45]:

N B
1,p () = A1 1

100
where:

: strain rate-type parameter

B
1,p

(3.9)

: parameter

: axial permanent strain, with removal of first 100 cycles

: number of loading cycles

This model was developed at the French Network of Laboratories des Ponts et
Chausses (LCPC) and was used in the COURAGE project [14] to model the permanent
strain behavior of the unbound granular materials.

Fig. 3.3: Static failure line and mobilized stress [8]

According to equation 3.9, permanent axial strain (1,p) goes towards a limit value
(equal to A1) as (N) increases towards infinity. The parameter A1 is, therefore,
considered as the limit value for total permanent axial strain. The stress state of the
material is compared with the static failure line as shown in Figure 3.3. The maximum
shear stress ratio is defined as the value of (qmax /(pmax + p*)), where p* is the stress
parameter obtained by the intersection of the failure line and the p-axis. Thus this
maximum shear stress ratio (mmob) is, in soil mechanics terms, a (mobilized) fraction of
the static failure condition, which has slope m, as illustrated in Figure 3.3 [8]. It is
suggested that the value of total accumulated permanent strain (A1) increases with the
maximum shear stress ratio (mmob) according to equation 3.10, in which b is a
regression parameter.

1 =

mmob
b. (m mmob )

(3.10)

3.3 Dresden model for the unbound granular materials

31

Another model used in the COURAGE [14] is the permanent strain rate (VESYS)
model, which defines the permanent deformation of the UGMs and has the following
form:

1,p* () =

1r

(3.11)

where:

and : parameters
1,p*
: axial permanent strain, with removal of first 100 cycles
r
1
: axial resilient strain
N

: number of loading cycles

Taking the derivative of the equation 3.11, with respect to the number of loading cycles,
yields the rate of permanent strain parameter at a selected cycle number:
d 1 p
(N ) =
dN
*

where

d1p
dN

1r N 1

(3.12)

is strain rate parameter [ % / cycle ]

This model, and the LCPC (Pautes model) both neglect the first 100 cycles of
measured strains due to the effect of bedding, etc.

3.3

Dresden model for the unbound granular materials

The Dresden model for the unbound granular materials consists of two separate models:
the first one is for the elastic resilient behavior, developed by Wellner et al, and the
second is for the permanent deformation behavior, developed by Werkmeister.
3.3.1

Non-linear elastic Dresden model for UGMs

Investigations into the resilient strain behavior of UGMs were carried out at the Dresden
University of Technology mainly by Wellner [67], Gleitz [18] and Numrich [42]. When
conducting modified plate-bearing tests on UGLs by Wellner [67] using cyclic loading,
surface heaving was observed at a distances from 0.45 to 1.20 m away from the center
of the load (Figure 3.4). At all measured stress-levels, the same behavior was observed.
Linear elastic analysis could not predict this heaving behavior. Therefore, RLT tests
were conducted on the same UGMs to investigate their non-linear elastic behavior.
Detailed analysis of the data from the RLT tests enabled a new material law, the Elastic
Dresden Model, to be developed [18, 67]. This non-linear elastic model is expressed in
terms of a resilient modulus of elasticity (Er) and a resilient Poissons ratio (r):
Er = ( Q + C 3 Q1 ) 1 Q2 + D
r = R 1 / 3 + A 3 + B;

(3.13)
where (0.0 < r < 0.5)

(3.14)

32

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

where:
D [kPa]

: constant term of the resilient modulus of elasticity

B [-]

: constant term of the resilient Poissons ratio

Q2 [-]

: constant

Q, C, Q1, R, A : model parameters, determined from the RLT tests

1 , 3

: absolute values of major and minor principal stresses respectively

Fig. 3.4: Comparison of measured and FEM results for surface deflections [67]

The Dresden model includes a stress-independent stiffness, parameter D, (as a

compensation for the residual confining in-situ stress, discussed in section 3.1.1) of 38.0
MPa for crushed materials and 30.0 MPa for sandy gravel materials. The parameter D is
mainly influenced by such macroscopic parameters as the degree of compaction of the
UGMs, the content of fines, the shape of the grains, and the water content ratio. The
parameter D cannot be determined from the RLT tests because the residual stresses need
some time to develop in a real pavement construction. According to the Herzian contact
theory, Wellner et al [18, 42, 67] have determined a value of 0.333 for the constant
parameter Q2. To obtain the other model parameters, the RLT apparatus at Nottingham
University was used [18].
In Figure 3.4, the surface deflections induced by plate bearing tests were predicted using
the FEM program FENLAP. A comparison was carried out to assess the accuracy of
other material laws (e.g. Mayhew, Boyce and K- models) by comparing the results of
calculated deflections from all models against the measured ones. The K- model
predicted a smaller deflection in the load axis than the measured one, the shape of the
deflection basin being similar to that of the measured one (except in the area of
heaving). The calculation with Mayhew and Boyce models gives a prediction of the
deflections greater than the measured one in the load axis. Gleitz [18] concluded that the
resilient elastic Dresden model generated the best solution, because the maximum

3.3 Dresden model for the unbound granular materials

33

deflection under the load agrees with the measured value. In addition heaving away
from the loading plate could be observed with the resilient elastic Dresden model.
3.3.2

Dresden model for permanent deformation in UGMs

Various models to describe the permanent deformation behavior of unbound granular

materials were discussed in section 3.2, but since none of the previous models obviously
fit the experimental results, a conceptual plastic model based on the Huurmans model
[27] was developed by Werkmeister [68]. Three different phases of deformation
behavior of unbound granular materials have been observed. In general, these can be
described mathematically in a separate way (Figure 3.5) [68]:
Phase I

: Post-compaction in the ranges A, B and C

Phase II : Stable behavior in the ranges A, B and C

Phase III : Collapse in the ranges B and C

Fig. 3.5: Different phases of deformation behavior of UGMs under cyclic load [68]

The Huurmans model describes phases II and III of the permanent deformation
process. However, phase I (the post-compaction) could not be described accurately.
This is unimportant because the post-compaction period in pavement structures only
occurs once.
As mentioned in section 3.2.1, the permanent deformation behavior can be described
through a linear increase of (p) on an (p) versus log (N) scale. Based on the Huurmans
model, Werkmeister used the following relationship to describe the permanent
deformation behavior in phase II [68]:
N
p () = A .

1000

(3.15)

34

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

where:
p

[ %O ] : permanent strain

A, B [ - ]

: model parameters

: number of loading cycles

[-]

For the implementation of RLT measured permanent strain in the computation of

pavement structures, the permanent strains in the materials have to be determined as a
function of the applied stresses and the number of loading cycles.
However, the determination of the parameters A, B, C and D for the model proposed by
Huurman [27] is depending on 1 (major principal stress) and 1,f (major principal stress
at failure). Investigation for the determination of 1,f from Static Triaxial (ST) tests
could not give the required results for the crushed UGMs. A new approach has been
proposed by Werkmeister [68] to determine the parameters A and B as a function of the
maximum (1) and minimum (3) principal stresses for the range A (Eqns 3.16 and
3.17) and for the range B (Eqns 3.18 and 3.19) in Phase II, as follows:

A = (a1 . e a 2. 3 ) 12 + (a3 . 3 ) 1
a4

(3.16)

B = (b1 . e b 2. 3 ) 1 + (b3 . 3 )

(3.17)

b4

a4
A = (a1 . ). 1 + (a3 . 3 ) 1
3
3

(3.18)

b4
B = (b1 . 3b 2 ). 1 + (b3 . 3 )

(3.19)

a2
3

where:
3

[kPa] : minor principal stress (absolute value)

[kPa] : major principal stress (absolute value)

a1, a2, a3, a4 : model parameters

b1, b2 b3, b4 : model parameters
To assess the accuracy of the newly developed equations by Werkmeister for the
determination of the material parameters A, B, C, and D, the results of permanent strains
obtained from RLT tests for Granodiorite material are compared against those proposed
by the Werkmeister model and shown in Figure 3.6. Similar plots for other confining
pressures and base course materials have been obtained and can be found in [68].
From Figure 3.6, it can be concluded that, the developed model by Werkmeister is in
agreement with the RLT test results, regarding the amount of permanent strain at the
first 100 cycles and the rate of increase of vertical permanent strain against (N).

3.3 Dresden model for the unbound granular materials

35

Vertical permanent strain (log e) [10 ]

10,0

Model
Sl= 140, S3= 210
1,0
Model

Sl= 140, S3= 140

Model
Sl= 140, S3= 70
0,1

0,01
100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

Number of loading cycles N [-]

c d : 140 70,
c d : 140 140,
c d : 140 - 210
Fig. 3.6: Vertical strains vs. N, data and model for Granodiorite, Grading M, c - d both in kPa

For the higher stress-levels, in Phase III, the observed behavior cannot be described by
means of the equation 3.15, therefore a second term was added to the equation. The
final equation that was selected is the equation 3.20 as suggested by Huurman [27]. This
equation is also commonly used to describe creep curves for asphalt mixes.
B
N
D1000

N
1
p () = A .
+ C. e
1000

(3.20)

where:
p

[%O] : permanent strain

[-]

: base of the natural logarithm (= 2.17828.)

[-]

: number of loading cycles

The model parameters C and D are again stress-dependent and unfortunately they
cannot be determined for range B because there were not enough test results for
recognizing the collapse behavior in the tested material. On the other hand, the
parameters A and B were easily determined [68]. Figure 3.7 presents a comparison
between the results obtained through the proposed model by Werkmeister [68] and
experimental results for Granodiorite materials under high confining stress-levels.
Finally, through the developed models for permanent strains, it was made possible to
model the permanent deformation behavior of UGMs in a stress-dependent way.
However, it is necessary to model each behavior range separately with related
parameters according to RLT test data.

36

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

10,0

Model
Sl= 140, S3= 420

1,0

Model
Sl= 140, S3= 280

Model
Sl= 140, S3= 350

0,1
100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

Number of loading cycles N [-]

c d : 140 280,

c d : 140 350,

c d : 140 - 420

Fig. 3.7: Vertical strains vs. N, data and model, for Granodiorite, Grading M, c - d both in kPa

3.4

Influence of moisture on performance of UGMs

When dry, a granular base course material is quite strong. A pavement structure
consisting of concrete slabs and an aggregate base will support traffic in a satisfactory
manner as long as water can be kept out of the granular base material. Once the
aggregate base becomes saturated, however, the water begins to act as a lubricant.
When loaded, the wet granular materials start to move under an applied traffic load.
The in-situ monitoring of the UGMs condition in pavements has revealed that the
moisture content of the UGMs changes considerably with the seasons. In the base
layers, the variation is between 40 and 90% of optimum moisture content. For the lower
sub-bases layer, an even greater variation between 30 and >100% of optimum moisture
content was measured [14].
The structural contribution to the pavement of UGMs with varying moisture content
was investigated in-situ and in the laboratory. The in-situ monitoring also revealed that
the moisture in the pavement structure is very dependent on:
1- Precipitation levels
2- Final preparation for the shoulders of a pavement system (sealed or unsealed,
width of the seal, and partial or full)
3- Level of the pavement (raised pavement or pavement in cutting)
4- Ability of the pavement to self drain (the UGMs permeability and the adequacy
of the pavements drainage system)

3.4 Influence of moisture on performance of UGMs

37

Pavement performance, as measured in-situ, shows a very serious degradation as the

moisture content of the UGMs rises. The RLT test was employed to allow the effects of
changing moisture content to be assessed. It was found that significant reductions in the
resilient modulus of the UGMs were observed as the moisture content increased. This
parameter largely dictates the ability of the UGMs to spread traffic loads safely onto the
underlying soil without over-stressing it and the strong influences on the fatigue life of
the surfacing layer. In addition, excessive water in joints between concrete slabs leads to
the problem of pumping and faulting.
3.4.1

Influence on resilient deformation

The test results in COURAGE were fitted to the Boyce and Dresden models. For
comparative purposes, a (characteristic) stress-level (p = 250 kPa and q = 500 kPa) is
used with the Hookes law to define a single value of resilient modulus for each
material. All the high-grade aggregates, at their control grading, displayed a marked
reduction in their moduli as the moisture content increased relative to the Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC). The levels of reduction between the moisture range of
Relative Moisture Content (RMC) = 40 to 70% were for Gneiss 10%, Granite 17%, and
Limestone 18%.
In the research carried out by Numrich [42], the resilient deformation behavior of a
Granodiorite was investigated at moisture content values of 4, 5, 6 and 7 %. During
RLT tests at 7 % moisture content (wopt), water was observed draining out of the sample
during the test, which indicated the possibility of inhomogeneous conditions. Therefore,
it was not possible to determine the material parameters for input into the elastic
Dresden model at moisture content values of 6 and 7 %. However, the RLT test results
at moisture content values of 4 and 5 % were taken into account for the Dresden model.
Figure 3.8 clearly shows a high dependency of the resilient deformation behavior, and
hence the model parameters on the moisture content for Granodiorite material.
Increasing the water content resulted in a significant reduction in stiffness, thus
increasing the resilient strain.

Fig. 3.8: Dependency of resilient strain on water content, Granodiorite material [42]

38

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

Table 3.2 gives the obtained parameters of the elastic Dresden model for Granodiorite at
two different values of moisture content, with a degree of compaction (DOC) =100%.
Table 3.2: Parameters for Dresden model, Granodiorite, DOC=100 % [42]

Parameters for
Elastic Dresden model
Q
[kPa]1-Q2
C
[kPa]1-Q1-Q2
Q1
[-]
Q2
[-]
R
[-]
A
[kPa] -1
B
[-]
3.4.2

Moisture Content
4%
5,386.1
2315.6
0.593
0.333
0.017
-0.0024
0.352

5%
10,772.2
599.1
0.690
0.333
0.037
-0.0012
0.320

Influence on permanent deformation

PERMANENT STRAIN x 10-

Typical results for permanent axial strains during the preconditioning test for granite
material at different relative moisture content levels are shown in Figure 3.9. Generally,
the plastic strain develops rapidly during the first few loading cycles and the resilient
behavior stabilizes as the material approaches a steady state condition.

Fig. 3.9: Permanent axial strains vs. load cycles [14]

However, for the granite material with high fines and high moisture content, no steady
state condition is observed. As a result of the COURAGE testing [14], it is clear that
some materials can support the heavy preconditioning applied load (1= 700 kPa and 3
= 100 kPa) and some others cannot. The results for the permanent strain parameter (A1)
of the high-grade aggregates (at their control grading) and RCC&A (at its supply
grading) are presented in Figure 3.10.

3.4 Influence of moisture on performance of UGMs

39

Fig. 3.10: Permanent strain parameter A1 vs. RMC at DDR=97%, control grading [14]

It can be seen that Figure 3.10 illustrates virtually identical strain susceptibility of the
four aggregates. All materials undergo rapid strain increases once a moisture content
level of approximately 60% of the optimum is reached.
3.4.3

Modeling of permanent deformation at higher moisture content

The Dresden model for permanent strain behavior, like many other models, does not
take into account the influence of moisture content. The tests on UGMs done in the
University of Nottingham by Werkmeister [68] were conducted at certain water content
ratios, which were measured in samples at the time. Consequently, the parameters of the
Dresden model were concluded and only valid at those water content values. No tests
were done at higher moisture content levels. Therefore, in this case, the parameters
cannot be used to predict the permanent deformation behavior.
From Figure 3.9, it can be concluded that, the permanent deformation of Granite
material with 10% fines is going to stabilize at a RMC of 43.9% after a high number of
loading cycles (shake down). Moreover, it was rapidly increasing when the RMC was
raised to 70.9% and increased too rapidly when the RMC reached 75.3%.
In order to take into account the influence of moisture content on the permanent strain
calculation of UGMs, there are two methods:
1- Conducting a new series of RLT tests for different materials at different levels of
water content (which is an enormous effort and also time consuming) in order to
obtain the material parameters at different RMCs.
2- Conducting tests for each material at some chosen high RMCs, then finding a
relation between permanent strain at stabilized conditions (those at low RMCs)
and those at high RMCs. This relation can take the following form:

40

MODELING OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS

p , wa = A . ( p , wr ) ( w

/ wr ) 2

(3.21)

where:
p, wa

: permanent strain at actual water content (high RMC)

p, wr
wa

: permanent strain at reference water content (low RMC)

: actual water content

wr

: reference water content

: regression parameter

The parameter A can be determined from comparing the results of permanent strain at
reference water content (low RMC) and that at actual water content (high RMC).
According to Figure 3.9, the permanent strain at a low RMC of 43.9% shall be
considered as the reference. Applying equation 3.21, the permanent strain at high RMCs
(70.9% and 75.3%) can be computed for Granite material. The parameter A is found to
be 0.211x106 and 6.865x106 for actual relative moisture content values of 70.9% and
75.3% respectively. Calculated permanent strains were plotted against the measured
values from the RLT tests as shown in Figure 3.11.
The measured values were available only for the first 20000 loading cycles, but the
calculated values can be extrapolated to any higher number of loading cycles.

0,18
Ref. Perm. Def. RMC=43.9%

0,16
0,14
Permanent strain

0,12

Perm. Def. RMC=70.9%(test)

Perm. Def. RMC=75.3%(test)
Perm. Def. RMC=70.9%(Eqn.)
Perm. Def. RMC=75.3%(Eqn.)

0,10
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00
1000

10000

100000

1000000

Number of loading cycles (N)

Fig. 3.11: Permanent axial strain vs. number of loading cycles for Granite with 10% fines

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE

LAWS FOR UGMs

Much research [19, 24, 54] has been conducted to model the behavior of UGMs and to
develop constitutive laws for these materials in the frame of the European Commission
Project (EUROBLAT II) with the cooperation of the Central Public Funding
Organization for Academic Research in Germany (in German: Deutsche ForschungsGeselschaft ,,DFG) through the research program: System Dynamics and Long Term
Behavior of Traffic Structures, Platform and Underground. Stcker [54] implemented
the constitutive equations, which describe the permanent deformation behavior of the
unbound granular materials under cyclic loads in a user material subroutine to be used
with ABAQUS for solving the problem of cyclic loading in railway structures. The
Mohr Coulomb theory of plasticity was used as the basis for the developed material
statements taking into consideration the different formulae of permanent deformation
models mentioned in section 3.2.

4.1

Permanent deformation calculation

The calculation of permanent deformation behavior under cyclic loading can be done
using two procedures:
1- Implicit procedure: in which the calculation must exactly follow the loading
path, until a relevant permanent deformation adjusts itself. This occurs only after
a long time of load application and/or a very high number of loading cycles. It
does not place an inherent limitation on the time increment size, as increment
size is generally determined from accuracy and convergence considerations. As
the computation must be done exactly for all loading cycles, the implicit
simulation needs a much higher number of increments than explicit simulations.
Beside the high number of loading cycles, which results in a high cost of
computation, the risk of error propagation is to be considered because of the
non-linear hysteretic material behavior. Thus, errors can accumulate, even if in
small magnitudes over the calculation of each load cycle, and the procedure can
lead to inaccurate results.
2- Explicit procedure: in this procedure, the process of continuously progressing
deformations over finite load cycles can be calculated with a quasi-static
statement (see Figure 4.1). This statement assumes average load amplitude with
the number of loading cycles as reference quantities. Explicit means that a
plastic deformation increment is derived depending on the existing state of
stresses at the soil element for a finite number of loading cycles. Simulations
generally need about 10,000 to 100,000 increments, but the computational cost

42

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

per increment is relatively small. Explicit statements are called (quasi-static) due
to the reduction of the simulation of the cyclic loading to average monotonous
static load amplitude neglecting the mass-inertia effects. In a comparison of both
procedures, the decision is in favor of the explicit statement as it suits the
requirements of the existing geotechnical problems.
Both terms, implicit and explicit, refer to the general procedure for the computation of
cyclic-plastic deformation and should not be confused with the well-known terms in the
numerical integration of strain rates [76, 77].

Fig. 4.1: Schematic presentation of stress strain curve for unbound granular materials
under cyclic loading, implicit and explicit procedures [54]

4.1.1

Mechanical behavior of granular materials under cyclic load

In relation to the material behavior of soils under dynamic loads, the term cyclic is often
used, with the meaning of a temporally variable load effect, which possesses a certain
degree of regularity in size, direction and frequency. Cyclic loads can be found in
reality. Machines and offshore structures always transfer cyclic stresses in a harmonic
way into the foundation bed. The term cyclic load effect does not mean only regular
cyclic loads, but also all repeated loads e.g. live loads due to traffic. The behavior of
granular materials under cyclic loads is very complex. Each load cycle results in the
development of both elastic and plastic strains, which does not return to the starting
point with unloading. The plastic strain rates decrease with the growing number of
loading cycles. The permanent deformations will be stabilized at a very high number of
loading cycles (shake down).
Due to the physical and geometrical structure of the soil, here granular soils, relative
motions and sliding between individual grains are observed. Under drained boundary

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation

43

conditions, the material behavior appears to be elastic (resilient) after a certain number
of loading cycles along the stress path (quasi-elastic) (see Figure 4.2-b).

a) Stress strain relationship

b) Strain vs. number of cycles

Fig. 4.2: General presentation of stress strain behavior of soils under cyclic loads [54]

Some causes of the non-linear material behavior of granular soils under drained
conditions and cyclic load effects are:
1- Contraction and dilatation of the material
2- Relocation of individual grains
3- Abrasion at the contact areas
4- Fragmentation of the single grains
Fragmentation and relocation of individual grains are the main causes of the
development of permanent deformations [7]. The ratio of plastic strain due to shear
stress and grain deformations to the elastic strain within a load cycle is very small. To
introduce a realistic material law for the description of the accumulating plastic strains
of a soil element under cyclic loading, the following factors are to be considered:
hysteretic energy dissipation, and accumulating irreversible strains. The parameters,
which describe an accumulation of plastic strains in granular materials, are summarized
as follows:
1- Number of loading cycles (N)
2- Static shear parameters and c
3- Ratio of the cyclic stress amplitude to the static stress state in the triaxial test
4- Hydrostatic pressure (first invariant of the stress tensor (m))
5- Load frequency (f )
6- Degree of saturation (S )
7- Over-consolidation ratio (OCR)
8- Void ratio (e)

44

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

4.1.2

Model conceptions for description of plastic strains under cyclic loads

For the development of a material constitutive law for soils under cyclic loading,
implicit or explicit statements described under section 4.1 are crucial.
4.1.2.1 Implicit statements
The implicit statements give the possibility to describe the material behavior of the soil
continuously along the load history of each load cycle (Figure 4.1). These statements
can also be divided in two categories:
- Dynamic model statements
- Quasi-static model statements
In the case of dynamic models, the inertia forces are considered and sometimes through
choice of suitable material constitutive laws, the material non-linearity can be
considered. These models can cover the short time dynamics and theoretically the longterm deformation behavior. On the other hand, with implicit (quasi-static) model
statements, the mass inertia can be neglected and the load path is illustrated
independently of the rate of load application or load frequency. These model
conceptions essentially depend on the extensions of the well-known statements for static
and monotonic loadings, i.e. the elasto-plastic and visco-plastic model theories or hypoplasticity. For a comprehensive overview of these theoretical statements, see
O'Reilly/Brown [43], Hu [24], and Wang [66]. The majority of these models is in fact
founded on the classical material statements and often has a complete theoretical
background.
A disadvantage of the implicit formulation of the stress strain history, is the
accumulation of error in addition to the very high computing cost. Table 4.1 shows a
comparison between the two categories of implicit model statements, with regard to
error propagation and computational cost.
Table 4.1: Evaluation of implicit model statements for geotechnical materials [54]

Aspect

Implicit model statements

Dynamic

Quasi-static

Physical time dependant

quantities i.e. inertia of mass,
frequency, loading rate,
moving loads, etc.

Yes

No

Non-linear material behavior

Partially

Yes

High

High

High to very high

Extremely high

Error propagation for nonlinear material behavior

Computing cost

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation

45

4.1.2.2 Explicit statements

In the explicit statements, one proceeds from a quasi-static load without consideration
of inertia forces, since including the long-term hysteretic deformation behavior stands in
the foreground of the interest. Simplification of the quasi-static load effect is divided
into two loading steps (Figure 4.3).
The system in the initial condition stands in static equilibrium. The additionally applied
cyclic load (considered as quasi-static) does not endanger the stability of the system.
Accumulating strain increments are computed with an approximation method. The
formulation of explicit statements differs very strongly from the material theories under
static and monotonic loading [40, 49, 55].

Fig. 4.3: Explicit procedure for permanent strains under cyclic loads [54]

Generally, empirical observations are part of such formulations. These can be expressed
through the behavior of volume strains and /or deviator strains against the number of
loading cycles, which must be derived from suitable experiments (see Chapter 3). The
most suitable experimental test to describe the material behavior under cyclic loading is
the cyclic (repeated) load triaxial test (RLT), since the influence of the number of
loading cycles on the plastic deformation can be examined under different boundary
conditions.

cp = f ( 3 , c , N , f , M , C )
with:
cp : cyclic axial plastic strain
3 : confining stress
c : cyclic deviator stress
N

: number of loading cycles

: frequency

M : mineralogical characteristics
C

: soil-mechanical characteristics

(4.1)

46

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

Stress history has direct influence on existing deformations. For constant hydrostatic
stress, the size of the permanent deformation after a certain number of loading cycles
depends on the difference between the maximum and minimum principle stresses [38].
This means that the stiffness of granular soils is strongly dependent on the hydrostatic
stress. An observation of the directions of the three principle stresses for explicit
computation statements is therefore of great importance.
Thus, for equation 4.1, the relationship between the permanent deformation and the
applied stresses in the space of principle stresses at a defined number of loading cycles
can take one form of a log-normal, log-log, or exponential relationship. For example,
the axial strain in RLT tests can be described with the following equation:

log cpN = log A + B log N

(4.2)

with:

cpN

: cyclic plastic strain in the axial direction

: number of loading cycles

A, B : regression coefficients
The regression coefficients determined from RLT tests, here simplified as A and B,
describe the relation between permanent deformations at the element and the load
boundary conditions. In this concern, the regression coefficient A stands for the
permanent strain due to the first load cycle and coefficient B stands for the magnitude of
the following plastic strain increments (please refer to Chapter 3). The aforementioned
regression parameters are usually determined by the evaluation of many RLT tests (see
Werkmeister [68]).
4.1.3

Applied models and material statements in the field of geotechnique

In the field of geotechnique, a simplified explicit procedure can be selected with a

quasi-static load assumption (equivalent to the cyclic load effect) for the description of
the permanent deformation behavior against the number of loading cycles [54].
For the description of the plastic strain development, two conditions were observed
during the repeated load triaxial tests, depending on the geostatic and cyclic deviator
stresses. These are cyclic calming and cyclic failure (Figure 4.4). Here, Fc refers to a
reduced Mohr Coulomb cyclic failure criterion and used for distinguishing between
these two deformation cases. It is observed that, with the same boundary conditions, a
soil element already fails in the cyclic triaxial test under smaller cyclic deviator stress
amplitude in comparison to the static triaxial test. This failure process can be
characterized as a failure, which happens due to the increasing number of loading cycles
(gradual failure).

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation

a) Cyclic calming: Fc 0

47

b) Cyclic failure: Fc > 0

Fig. 4.4: Typical deformation behavior of soil element in RLT tests [54]

In order to correctly describe this phenomenon, a definition for the shear parameters
was derived, which seizes the decreased shear strength of granular soils under cyclic
loads. The Mohr Coulomb failure criterion used in the developed statements was
therefore designated as a reduced cyclic criterion.
In Figure 4.5, the simulation of the plastic strain increments is represented in the space
of the three principle stresses. Hexagonal conical Mohr Coulomb is defined as a yield
surface. As long as the yield surface is not violated, i.e. the stress state is within the
yield surface (Fc 0), the cyclic plastic strains ( cpN ) shall be computed. Otherwise
stresses shall be relocated through local plastification ( vpN , t ) in other areas.

Fig. 4.5: Material statement for deformation cases in space [54]

48

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

Here, the yield surface does not have the same function as in the classical elasto-plastic
theory of defining the bounding surface between pure elastic and plastic behaviors. The
implementation of a yield surface in the material model is to define the empirical cases
observed in the repeated load triaxial tests (shake down and failure). This means for
numerical computations, that it should be proved in each iteration whether local
violation to the yield surface occurs. If this is the case, the stresses should always be
relocated within the cyclic failure until the reduced cyclic criterion is fulfilled. The
cyclic strain increments will only then continue to be computed.
4.1.4

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion

In order to describe the shear strength of soils, a failure criterion is necessary, within
which the results of experimental investigations of the shear strength can be evaluated
and represented. Numerous failure criteria were formulated, but in practice the simple
criterion of Mohr Coulomb became generally accepted [33].
Figure 4.6 represents the failure criterion for a granular soil, whose stiffness is given
only by friction (not by cohesion).

Fig. 4.6: Mohr Coulomb stress circle at failure state of cohesionless soils [33]

The friction angle is expressed in effective stresses as follows:

3
sin ' = 1
1 + 3

(4.3)

The criterion means that with a given ratio of the maximum and minimum principle
stresses (1) and (3), the stiffness is proportional to the normal stress. According to
Figure 4.6, the shear strength of a cohesionless soil can be expressed as:

f = tan '
Whereby the index f stands for failure.

(4.4)

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation

49

In general form, i.e. for a soil with friction and cohesion (see Figure 4.7), the stiffness
can be expressed as:

f = c + tan '

(4.5)

From equation 4.5, and Figure 4.7, the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion can be expressed
as:
1 ( )
3
2 1
sin ' =
(4.6)
1 ( + ) + c cot '
1
3
2

Fig. 4.7: Mohr Coulomb hypothesis in ( ) diagram for cohesive soils [16]

In another form:
1 ( ) = 1 ( + ) sin ' + c' cos '
3
3
2 1
2 1

(4.7)

Or
F = 1 1 (1 sin ' ) 1 3 (1+ sin ' ) + c' cos ' = 0.
2
2

(4.8)

with:
1 , 3 : maximum and minimum principle stresses
, c

: internal angle of friction and cohesion

4.1.4.1 Cyclic calming (Fc 0.)

With the fulfilled reduced cyclic Mohr Coulomb failure criterion, the plastic strain (cp)
accumulates to a limit value according to Figure 4.4-a. During continuous load, quasielastic strain amplitude (qe) would only be developed. The existing condition can also
be regarded as hardening of the soil element and is described as cyclic calming.

50

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

The explicit formulation for the description of the hysteretic material behavior was
derived from repeated load triaxial tests. It was assumed that the empirical relations
derived from the triaxial test would also be applied to the three dimensional model.
Further, the function X defines the ratio of the cyclic deviator stress (Sc) to the static
deviator failure stress (Ssf).
( 1,c 3,c ) f S cf
3 ,c
S
K=
= c K 1.0 ,
=
1.0
X = 1,c
(4.9)
( 1,s 3,s ) f S sf
( 1,s 3,s ) f S sf
With (Scf) is the cyclic deviator failure stress.
From equation 4.9, it is assumed that the cyclic deviator stress (Sc) cannot become
larger than the static deviator failure stress (Ssf). The static deviator failure stress (Ssf) is
derived from the static primary stress state (3,s) with the assumption of the validity of
the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion [54].
2 sin '

( 1, s 3, s ) f =
(4.10)
1 sin ' 3, s
Hu [24] derived equations for the axial cyclic strains of ballast and granular soils from
triaxial tests. The equations are represented in semi-log and double-log as well as
exponential forms.
a) Semi-log form:

cpN 1 = cp1 1 (1 + log N ) ,

(4.11)

1
cp1

= . 3,s . X 2
Pa

(4.12)

with:
1
cp
1

: axial cyclic strain for the first load cycle (N = 1)

, , : empirical regression parameters

X

: the ratio of cyclic deviator stress to static deviator failure stress

Pa

: atmospheric pressure, Pa = 100 kN/m

The ratio X of the cyclic deviator stress to the static deviator failure stress and in
1
particular the static primary stress state (3,s) is of great importance for cp
1 and thus
serves as a reference quantity for the development of the plastic strains over the
following cycles. This applies likewise to the forms b) and c).
b) Double-log form:

cpN 1 = cp1 1 N

(4.13)

4.1 Permanent deformation calculation

51

Or in other form
1
log cpN 1 = log cp
1 + log N

P 13
a X ,
3, s
1
cp
1 =

3, s
2
P X ,
a

c)

(4.14)

3,s 35 kN / m 2
(4.15)

3,s > 35 kN / m

Exponential form:

cpN 1 = a e b / N

(4.16)

with:

a = 1,c
3,s

1,c

3, s

b = 3 , s
1,c

3, 0

1, c

(4.17)

(4.18)

Where is an empirical regression parameter.

Werkmeister [68] derived an equation based on the Huurmans model [27] for the
calculation of the axial cyclic permanent strain in RLT tests for the unbound granular
materials in the phase of stable behavior in range A (shake down limit), which
corresponds to the case of cyclic calming. This equation has the log-log form as the
following:

log cpN = log A + B log N

(4.19)

This equation has the same form of the double-log equation 4.13 of Hu with the
difference that A and B are both stress-dependent parameters. To the contrary of
1
equation 4.13 of Hu, only the ( cp
1 ) parameter is a function of the applied primary and
cyclic stresses. Moreover, for the application of material statement with the UMAT,
1
both ( cp
1 ) and () are determined as constant parameters through the evaluation of
some triaxial tests and are assumed constant from the beginning, remaining unchanged
during the analysis of the problem. A new version of UMAT subroutine shall be
developed to implement the A and B parameters as stress-dependent parameters (as
discussed in Chapter 5).
The cyclic radial permanent strain should also be considered for the developed
statements. There is not enough data or experience about the ratio of radial to axial
cyclic permanent strain in the conducted researches. Anyhow, the relation between

52

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

radial and axial cyclic strain can be concluded from the available researches and
implemented in the developed material statements.
In the research done by Raymond and Williams [48], and Gotschol [19], the cyclic
permanent strains in the 2nd and 3rd directions of principle stresses are assumed to have
1
the same magnitude and to equal cp
,r .
The following relation has been concluded [19]:

cpN , r = ( log N ) cpN ,1

(4.20)

N
N
With cp,
r is the radial cyclic permanent strain, and cp ,1 is the axial cyclic permanent

strain. The parameters and can be determined from the confining stress-level in
addition to the actual X (of eqn 4.9) as follows:
= 1 (1

=0 (

3, s
) + 2 X
3, 0

3, s
pa

) 1/ 2

(4.21)
(4.22)

Where 3,s is the confining static stress and 3,0 is a regression constant.
1, 2, and 0 are constants and can be determined from triaxial tests and Pa is
atmospheric pressure (Pa = 100 kN/m).
4.1.4.2 Cyclic failure (Fc > 0.)
By violation to the yield surface, as described in section 4.1.3, a gradual failure of the
soil element (cyclic failure) arises (Figure 4.4-b). In the cyclic triaxial test, this
condition means that, in a short time or after a small number of loading cycles, failure
of the soil element occurs. A local violation to the yield surface after a certain number
of loading cycles (N) in addition to the accumulated cyclic deformation ( cpN ) leads to
further plastification and produces visco-plastic strains ( vpN ,t ) in the material. Viscoplastic deformation increments arise in the case that, and as long as, the limit value
criterion is exceeded. This corresponds to the visco-plastic model conception after
Zienkiewicz and Cormeau [75], which permits, contrary to the classical theory of
plasticity, the material to have stress states for a finite time outside the failure criterion.
For the numerical implementation, this means that, the entire load shall be applied in
one step and on the basis of the elastic solution of the problem, shall be approved if the
stresses are within the flow surface; plastic strains shall be gradually computed.
Otherwise, the stresses shall be relocated and visco-plastic strain increments shall
accumulate over the total time, i.e. up to the keeping of failure criterion (F 0),
whereby all strain rates are equal to zero.

4.2 Definition of material parameters for the developed material statements

53

In the context of the quasi-static material statements, the terms of pseudo time and time
increment (t) are often mentioned. Since, for the considered method, only the final
result of the visco-plastic strain, and not the physical temporal process is important,
Cormeau [12] has derived an upper limit for time increment (t) in numerical analysis
with explicit statement in soil-mechanics with an associated flow rule (visco-plasticity,
= 0). This time increment limit used in the quasi-static Mohr Coulomb failure criterion
is therefore to be set:

4 (1 + v ) . (1 2 v ) .
(1 2 v + sin 2 ' ) . E

(4.23)

where:
t : time increment
E

: modulus of elasticity

: Poissons ratio

: viscosity

: angle of internal friction

4.2

Definition of material parameters for the developed material

statements

The material parameters required to define the permanent deformation behavior are
essentially determined from static and cyclic triaxial tests.
In Table 4.2, the necessary empirical parameters for a soil element are arranged along
with the dependant input data for material model statements (see section 4.1.4).
Altogether 14 parameters are necessary for the description of the material behavior of
granular soils under cyclic load effect with the developed statements. Six of these
parameters fall in the region of the well-known material law of Mohr Coulomb as static
parameters.
Table 4.2: Necessary input parameters for the selected material equations for granular soils

Required parameters

Material behavior
Elastic
Deformability
Plastic

Static

Cyclic

Isotropy

E,

1N, cp

, ,

2N, cp , 3N, cp

1, 2, 0, 3,0

Exceeding of stiffness
Dilatation

C0' ,

0' ,

'

54

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

For the description of the cyclic-plastic deformation behavior, eight parameters are
needed; three of them (, , and ) are required for the description of the cyclic-plastic
strain ( 1N, cp ) in the direction of the maximum principle stress (1). Of the remaining five
parameters, four are required to define the other strain components ( 2N, cp ) and ( 3N, cp ) in
the directions of the other two principle stress components (2) and (3).
The fifth parameter is the quantity (K), which is required for the definition of the
reduced Mohr Coulomb failure criterion. For simplicity, the strains in the two other
principle directions can also be assessed, whereby the number of the required four
parameters, after the falling of 1, 0, and 3,0 is reduced to one. In this case five cyclic
parameters remain (, , , 2 and K) for the practical applications of the suggested
material statement.
4.2.1

Stiffness beyond flow surface and reduced Mohr Coulomb criterion

The friction angle (') and the cohesion (c') are determined from conventional tests, e.g.
from static triaxial tests (see section 4.1.4). For fine grained soils, the value of '
depends primarily on the mineral structure of the soil, and for coarse-grained soils it
depends on the particle size distribution, the particle shape, and the roughness of the
grain surface. Therefore, for coarse grained soil, ' is a function of the maximum dry
density and for crushed stone material, it is observed that with increasing lateral
stresses, the effective friction shear strength decreases as follows [22]:

= '0 3

(4.24)

These observations can generally also be applied, with restriction, to granular soils. The
regression constant in equation 4.24 can be set for practical applications to = 0.0 for
simplicity. In this case the internal friction is treated independently to the lateral stress.
For quasi-static computations with the developed material statements for granular soils
and crushed stones under cyclic loads, reduced shear parameters are needed. Figure 4.8
shows monographs of the cyclic shear parameters c' as well as cc' as a function of the
deviator failure stress parameter (K) and the friction angle (').
The relationship of the cyclic to the static deviator failure stress, needed for the material
statements (K), depends on the dynamic load boundary conditions, such as, amongst
others, frequency and saturation.
( 3,c ) f
K = 1,c
1 .0
(4.25)
( 1,s 3,s ) f
At present K is determined, however, from cyclic triaxial tests independent of
frequency, and is simply assumed in the range of 0.60 < K < 0.90. Independent of the
load frequency, K must be 1.0, since under dynamic effects the friction between the
grains decreases.

4.2 Definition of material parameters for the developed material statements

a) Cyclic angle of friction ('c)

55

b) Cyclic cohesion (c'c)

Fig. 4.8: Derived monographs of cyclic shear parameters as a function of

the static friction angle and the parameter K [54]

4.2.2

Dilatation

For the description of material laws for numerical computations, the variation in volume
becomes important through the dilatation angle () (see details in Gudehus [20]). For
volumetric strain of cohesionless soil, e.g. sand, a rectangular element of a Mohr
Coulomb material with a thickness h shall be considered (Figure 4.9).

Soil Element

a) Soil with shear stress

b) Associated strain rates

Fig. 4.9: Volume strain and strain rates [51]

The volumetric strain is only possible in the vertical direction and the relevant stresses
are and n. If the material possesses an associated flow rule, the horizontal strain rate
& p . h at the point A must accompany a vertical strain rate [51]. From Figure 4.9, it can
be concluded that:

56

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

&np . h = & p . h . tan ' = & p . h . tan '

(4.26)

This leads to volumetric strain, which increases proportionally to the shear strength.

&np = & p . tan '

(4.27)

These rate vectors at the upper boundary surface of the element are not movable with
reference to the lower boundary surface, so:

& p
arctan np = ' = '
&

(4.28)

The angle , called the dilatation angle for the boundary condition, defines the plastic
potential within the range of the cyclic failure and can be selected as:
= 0 : for volume-constant flow
= : for associated flow rule
In order to obtain an applicable value for the dilatation angle, appropriate perfect
drained tests are to be evaluated, within which purely deviator stresses are applied and
the relevant volumetric strains are measured. However this procedure is considered
quite complex. Therefore, it is frequently sufficient to set a rough estimation for the
dilatation angle for problems of small volumetric deformation by kinematics boundary
conditions [50]. As an approximation for the implemented material statements, shall
be equal to 1/3 .

4.3

Implementation of material statements in ABAQUS

According to the material statements and the procedure mentioned in the last sections, a
user material subroutine UMAT was written in 2002 by Stcker [54] and used with
ABAQUS to simulate the behavior of ballast materials in railway structures. This
subroutine has been based on 4 steps for the calculation of different deformations under
cyclic load conditions.
Therefore, the load history shall be defined in four steps for any problem intending to
use the UMAT subroutine for the definition of the behavior of unbound granular
materials. These four steps are described as following:
1- The 1st step is to calculate the elastic deformation in the primary stress state due
to the own weight of the material itself and any pre-loading history (for example
own weight of the superstructure). An equilibrium condition between the applied
stresses and the initial stresses has to be achieved (called Geostatic step).
2- The 2nd step is to calculate the plastic deformation, if found, due to the resulting
stresses at the end of the 1st step. The total deformation at the end of this step
consists of the sum of elastic deformation in the last step and the found plastic
deformation in this step.

4.3 Implementation of material statements in ABAQUS

57

3- The 3rd step is a quasi-static stress state. The elastic deformation due to the
application of the foreseen (cyclic) load, which is considered in this step as a
simple monotonous static load shall be computed and added to both of the
deformation arts calculated in the last two steps. No consideration for cyclic
behavior is included in this step.
4- The 4th step is a quasi-static stress state. The calculation of the cyclic permanent
deformation in the procedure takes place during this step. The calculation
depends on the variation in principle stresses, due to applying the cyclic load in
the 3rd step. Calculation is made with an explicit procedure, according to the
empirical equations as mentioned in previous sections. The computation is
continued until the required number of loading cycles (N) is reached. The final
resulting deformation is the sum of the elastic deformations plus cyclic
permanent deformation.
The permanent deformation at different numbers of loading cycles for a certain element
can be determined through the deduction of the elastic deformation from the total
deformation at the given number of loading cycles.
Figure 4.10 shows a schema for the mentioned four steps of loading history with the
resulting deformations.

step 1

step 2

step 3

step 4

Fig. 4.10: Description of calculation phases used by the UMAT in ABAQUS [54]

Figure 4.11 presents a flowchart for the description of the UMAT subroutine and the
different routines which it comprises. For more details, please refer to Stcker [54].

58

MATERIAL MODEL AND CONSTITUTIVE LAWS FOR UGMs

Fig. 4.11: Flow chart of the UMAT subroutine used in ABAQUS

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM

IN ABAQUS

5.1

Introduction

One of the salient features of ABAQUS is its use of the library concept to create
different models by combining different solution procedures, element types, and
material models. The analysis module consists of an element library, a material library,
a procedure library, and a loading library. Selections from each of these libraries can be
mixed and matched in any reasonable way to create a finite element model. Chen et al
[10] have made a comprehensive study of various FEM pavement analysis programs
and have shown that the results from ABAQUS were comparable to those from other
programs. Zaghlol et al [74] simulated the pavement response under FWD loading for
flexible pavements and Uddin et al [63] investigated the effects of pavement
discontinuities on the surface deflections of rigid pavements using 3-D dynamic
analysis throughout, showing very good results. The main capabilities of ABAQUS in
solving pavement engineering problems include:
1- Linear and non-linear elastic, visco-elastic, and elasto-plastic material modeling.
Additionally, user defined material can be implemented through a user material
subroutine (UMAT).
2- Two-dimensional and three-dimensional calculation.
3- Static, harmonic dynamic, and transient dynamic loading simulation.
4- Cracking propagation modeling.
5- Thermal gradient analysis.
Among the element families in the element library are the following, which are of
specific interest for this research:
1- First- and second-order continuum elements in one, two, and three dimensions.
2- Hydrostatic-fluid elements, which are used to simulate a fluid structure
interaction.
3- Fluid-link element, to simulate the transfer of fluid between two fluid-filled
cavities.
4- Special purpose stress elements such as springs, dashpots, and flexible joints.
One can use different types of elements to simulate a given problem with regard to the
nature of loading, boundary conditions and any desired analysis procedure.

60

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

5.2

Development of a user material subroutine (UMAT)

5.2.1

General assumptions

For ideal simulation in numerical methods, some conditions and assumptions have to be
fulfilled for the used material model. These assumptions help achieve a better
understanding of material properties and deformation behavior. They also define the
limits and the area of application of the used material. The following general
assumptions are made:
1- From the macroscopic point of view, the principles of continuum mechanics are
based on material laws. With the assumption that, the particles are so small in
relation to the total system, the soil shall be considered as a homogenous
continuum.
2- The unbound granular material and soil are considered as a one-phase system.
This means that pore and pore water pressure shall be excluded.
3- The stress-strain relationship shall be considered as a pure mechanical process.
This means that; thermal, chemical, and electrical properties have no effect.
4- The system is subjected to static loads only, the loads and predefined strains are
applied incrementally (independently of time). This means that only quasi-static
deformation is considered and mass-inertia effects are neglected.
5- Phenomena like softening because of non-homogenous deformations shall not
be considered.
5.2.2

Development of a new version of UMAT subroutine

The UMAT subroutine written by Stcker [54] was modified to describe the behavior of
unbound granular materials according to the Dresden model mentioned in Chapter 3.
These modifications were verified and approved through many steps and now the new
version is available working perfectly with ABAQUS. This new version shall be used in
the following analyses.
The modification was not only made for the definition of permanent deformation
behavior but also for the elastic behavior of UGMs. Validation of the new version shall
be discussed in the next sections.
5.2.2.1 Elastic deformation behavior
The material statements for the elastic deformation behavior are based on the wellknown Hookes law, with a material modulus of elasticity E and Poissons ratio . The
stiffness relationship between the individual soil layers is of great importance to stress
re-allocation. For simplicity, it is accepted that the quasi-elastic modulus E can be
determined depending only on the stress-level.

5.3 Validation of the new version of the UMAT

61

The UMAT written by Stcker [54] considers the unbound material to be a linear elastic
material. This does not reflect the real behavior of such a material, as described in
section 3.1. The UMAT was then modified in this area to take into account the material
non-linearity through a resilient modulus of elasticity Er (see eqn 3.13) and a resilient
Poissons ratio r (see eqn 3.14), which are stress-dependent and will be automatically
updated after each iteration for all integration points in the material group.
According to the Dresden model for resilient behavior, the modulus of elasticity E
increases with growing principle stresses, which means decreasing the elastic strains
and enhancing the performance of the unbound base layer, especially in the regions of
high stresses under traffic loads.
5.2.2.2 Permanent deformation behavior
A re-formulation to the UMAT subroutine written by Stcker [54], regarding the
permanent deformation calculation, was necessary for two reasons: firstly, the old
version is developed for ballast materials used in the construction of railways, and
secondly, the permanent deformation calculation in the old version of UMAT depends
on three parameters (, , and ) which are only available for some materials used as
ballast in railways construction. The new version is intended to use a permanent
deformation model suitable for unbound granular materials used as base layers in
pavement construction. The chosen model was the Dresden model (refer to section
3.3.2) and accordingly the UMAT was modified.
In general, the ballast materials hove a similar behavior to the unbound granular
materials in permanent deformation under cyclic loads, with the exception of different
material models and related parameters. This conclusion leads to the fact that, the old
version of the UMAT can be used with its basic assumptions, as discussed in Chapter 4,
to simulate the behavior of UGMs with another material model whose parameters are
available through RLT tests.
The parameters for three different UGMs frequently used in road construction are
available for the Dresden model. These parameters are stress-dependent and have no
constant values; contrary to the parameters in the UMAT written by Stcker (, , and
), which are determined as average values from many RLT tests conducted under
different stress conditions (stress paths) for each given material. Therefore the
modifications were necessary to allow for updating the values of the parameters
involved in permanent deformation calculation, after each increment, according to the
actual stress-levels in all elements of UGMs.

5.3

Validation of the new version of the UMAT

In order to validate the new version of the UMAT subroutine and to approve its
correctness, it was important to make some analyses with the FEM program ABAQUS
using the new version as a material model for the UGMs. The results of the analyses

62

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

shall be compared with existing field and laboratory results for the same material under
the same conditions. The validation was made in two levels:
1- for the resilient deformation behavior
2- for the permanent deformation behavior
5.3.1

Validation for resilient deformation behavior

Wellner [67] conducted plate-bearing tests to investigate the resilient behavior of

unbound granular materials. From the test results, he developed the Dresden model as a
model for resilient behavior (see section 3.3). Wellner used the developed model with
two FEM programs: FENLAP and FEEREPGT, to simulate the resilient behavior of
UGMs. He simulated the plate bearing tests through these two programs and then
compared the results with the actual measurements.
In the current research, a simple subroutine was written to simulate the resilient
behavior of UGMs in order to use it with ABAQUS. The plate-bearing test conducted
by Wellner was modeled again with ABAQUS and the results of the analysis are
compared with the previous study of Wellner [67].
5.3.1.1 Plate bearing test model in ABAQUS
An axisymmetry 2-D model was chosen to simulate the plate-bearing test in ABAQUS.
The model has a 1.50 m radius and a 1.50 m depth. The model dimensions, loads,
boundary conditions, and finite element mesh were constructed exactly as the model
used by Wellner in his study (Figure 5.1).
1 5 0 cm
3 x 10

3 x 15

3 x 20

150 cm

Center Line

3 x 5

Fig. 5.1: Plate bearing test model, geometry and FEM mesh

5.3 Validation of the new version of the UMAT

63

The vertical load was applied using a uniformly distributed pressure on the top face of a
rigid circular steel plate with a radius of 0.15 m. Two analyses were made for GravelSand material with two different loads; firstly, with a pressure of 0.30 MPa, and
secondly, with a pressure of 0.70 MPa.
The material parameters used in the analyses for Gravel-Sand are the same used by
Wellner [67] in his study and are as listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Parameters for resilient modulus calculation

Parameters for
elastic Dresden model
Q
[kPa]1-Q2
C
[kPa]1-Q1-Q2
Q1
[-]
Q2
[-]
D
[kPa]
R
[-]
A
[kPa] -1
B
[-]

Material
(Gravel-Sand)
8617.7
3064.0
0.421
0.33
30000
0.075
-0.0012
0.458

Vertical strains were obtained beneath the center of the bearing plate in addition to
many other points in the radial direction on the top surface of the model.
The results of FEM analysis with ABAQUS were compared against the previous results
in the study of Wellner. These comparisons are shown in the next Figures: Figure 5.2
for a vertical pressure of 0.30 MPa, and Figure 5.3 for a vertical pressure of 0.70 MPa.
Horizontal distance (m)

0,15

0,3

0,45

0,6

0,75

0,9

1,05

1,2

1,35

1,5

Vertical deformation (mm)

0,2
0
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
Measured

Dresden M. in ABAQUS

Dresden M. in FENLAP

Dresden M. in FEEREPGT

Fig. 5.2: Surface deformation in plate bearing test, Gravel-Sand, pressure 0.3 MPa

64

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

Horizontal distance (m)

0,15

0,3

0,45

0,6

0,75

0,9

1,05

1,2

1,35

1,5

0,2

Vertical deformation (mm)

0
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
-1
-1,2
-1,4
Measured

Dresden M. in ABAQUS

Dresden M. in FENLAP

Dresden M. in FEEREPGT

Fig. 5.3: Surface deformation in plate bearing test, Gravel-Sand, pressure 0.7 MPa

From the previous Figures, it can be concluded that, the Dresden model for the
description of resilient behavior of UGMs (Gravel-Sand) gives a good prediction for
strains when used in FEM programs (please refer to section 3.3). Moreover, the shape of
the vertical strain bowl from ABAQUS analysis is the nearest one to the measured
values. This indicates the correct implementation of material statements for the
description of resilient behavior in the user material subroutine with the Dresden model.
5.3.2

Validation for permanent deformation behavior

Having modified the UMAT subroutine of Stcker [54], to include the Dresden model
for both resilient and permanent deformation behavior of UGMs, it was necessary to
validate the new version before using it in advanced analysis for permanent deformation
behavior in pavement systems.
In order to make the validation, a triaxial test was simulated in ABAQUS and the results
were compared with those calculated using the Dresden model. Moreover, as the triaxial
test simulation in FEM is not enough to judge the correctness of a material model
implementation, the new version was used in the analysis of a simple 3-D model to
assess the sound function of it. This analysis of the 3-D model shall be discussed in the
following sections.
5.3.2.1 Triaxial test model in ABAQUS
Werkmeister [68] conducted repeated load triaxial tests for three different unbound
granular materials at Nottingham University. Each material was tested at different stress
paths and at different water content ratios. The relevant material parameters were then
obtained for the Dresden model.

5.3 Validation of the new version of the UMAT

65

For triaxial test simulation, an axisymmetry 2-D model with eight-node quadratic
elements was chosen in ABAQUS. The dimensions of the model are chosen to be the
same as the actual triaxial test dimensions. The dimensions are 0.25 m for radius and
1.00 m for height. The geometry, finite element mesh, and boundary conditions are
shown in Figure 5.4.

Fig. 5.4: Model of triaxial test in FEM analysis

The loads were applied in two steps:

1- Application of the confining pressure (3,s) in vertical and radial directions.
2- Application of the vertical cyclic deviator pressure (1,c) which equals the
difference between the maximum and minimum principle stresses.
The simulation was made for three different materials, namely: Granodiorite, SandyGravel, and Diabase. Each material was subjected to different stress levels (max min)
as described in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Stress paths used in triaxial analyses

Stress path max (kPa) min=3,s (kPa) 1,c (kPa)

1

60

20

40

100

20

80

100

40

60

150

70

80

The material parameters used in the analyses for the three different materials are
mentioned in Table 5.3.

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MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

Permanent Deformation

Resilient Deformation

Table 5.3: Parameters for granular materials [68]

Parameters for
Dresden model
Q
[kPa]1-Q2
C
[kPa]1-Q1-Q2
Q1
[-]
Q2
[-]
D
[kPa]
R
[-]
A
[kPa] -1
B
[-]
a1
[-]
a2
[kPa]-1
a3
[kPa]-1
a4
[-]
b1
[-]
b2
[kPa]-1
b3
[kPa]-1
b4
[-]

Diabase

Material
Granodiorite Gravel-Sand

w/c = 4%

w/c = 4%

w/c = 3.4%

8617.7
3064.0
0.421
0.333
30,000
0.075
-0.0012
0.458
0.00003
-0.0129
0.0003
0.0584
0.0009
-0.0107
0.0067
0.5579

5,386.1
2315.6
0.593
0.333
38,000
0.017
-0.0024
0.352
0.00001
-0.0097
0.00001
0.4134
0.0009
-0.0107
0.0067
0.5579

16158.3
3862
0.561
0.333
30,000
0.015
-0.0018
0.285
0.00004
-0.0247
0.00005
0.4257
0.0009
-0.0107
0.0067
0.5579

For each system, the vertical permanent strain were obtained under different load
paths and compared against the calculated ones through the Dresden model. These
comparisons are shown in Figures 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7.
Vertical permanent strains versus number of load cycles, Dresdner Model and
Abaqus, Granodiorite, grading M (max.-min.)

Vertical permanent strains, p[10-3]

1,0

0,1

0,0
10

100

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

Number of load Cycles [-]

Abaqus, 60-20
Abaqus, 100-40

Dresden, 60-20
Dresden, 100-40

Abaqus, 100-20
Abaqus, 150-70

Dresden, 100-20
Dresden, 150-70

Fig. 5.5: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model (Granodiorite)

5.3 Validation of the new version of the UMAT

67

Vertical permanent strains versus number of load cycles, Dresdner Model and
Abaqus, Sandy-Gravel, grading M (max.-min.)

-3

Vertical permanent strains, p[10 ]

1,0

0,1

0,0
10

100
Abaqus, 60-20
Abaqus, 100-40

1000

10000
100000
Number of load Cycles [-]

Dresden, 60-20
Dresden, 100-40

Abaqus, 100-20
Abaqus, 150-70

1000000

10000000

Dresden, 100-20
Dresden, 150-70

Fig. 5.6: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model (Sandy-Gravel)
Vertical permanent strains versus number of load cycles, Dresdner Model and Abaqus,
Diabase, grading M (max.-min.)

-3

Vertical permanent strains, p[10 ]

10,0

1,0

0,1

0,0
10

100

Abaqus, 60-20
Abaqus, 100-40

1000

10000
100000
Number of load Cycles [-]

Dresden, 60-20
Dresden, 100-40

Abaqus, 100-20
Abaqus, 150-70

1000000

10000000

Dresden, 100-20
Dresden, 150-70

Fig. 5.7: Results of permanent strains in RLT test, ABAQUS and Dresden model (Diabase)

The comparison shows that the results of the triaxial tests in ABAQUS match the results
after calculation with the Dresden model for the three considered materials at different
stress paths. This assures us that the implementation of the Dresden model in the new
version of the UMAT subroutine is correct and is reliable within ABAQUS to describe
the behavior of the unbound granular materials in pavement systems subjected to cyclic
loading.

68

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

It is noted that, the matching of results between FEM and the Dresden model is almost
100%. This may refer to the fact that the triaxial test is an idealization of the stress
strain relationship upon which the material model for permanent deformation is based.
It is also noted that, for all materials, the permanent deformation at the first 100 cycles
has high values when compared to the total values after a million cycles. This happens
usually with the cyclic triaxial tests because of the lack of good compaction and
consequently lack of development of residual lateral stresses (see section 3.1.1 for the
effect of residual lateral stresses on strains). Therefore, many researchers [14, 27, 45]
have neglected the permanent deformation values for the first 100 and sometimes 1000
cycles in their developed models.
5.3.3

Conclusion

The new version of the UMAT subroutine has shown good results when used with
ABAQUS to simulate both resilient and permanent deformation behavior of UGMs.
The new version can be used now for the analysis of pavement systems, as a material
model for the unbound granular materials subjected to cyclic loads. An assessment for
using the new subroutine with a 3-D model shall be discussed in the following section.

5.4

3-D modeling of rigid pavement

A simple 3-D model for rigid pavement analysis was considered in this research for the
following reasons:
1- To ensure that the newly developed UMAT subroutine functions properly with
3-D problems and will properly simulate the behavior of UGMs for both
resilient and permanent deformations (as discussed in section 5.3).
2- To get an equivalent traffic load for the simulation of rigid pavement system in
the 2-D analysis for the purpose of faulting computation.
3- To predict the required time and computing cost for the analysis of rigid
pavement subjected to cyclic loading.
5.4.1

Description of the system

The 3-D model for rigid pavement system in this analysis comprises of two slabs (two
halves for reasons of symmetry) with a transversal joint between them. This way
enables us to simulate both edge and corner load cases. The system is composed of
three layers. As a first layer come the concrete slab which is supported on a base layer
consisting of unbound granular materials. The pavement construction is consequently
supported by the subgrade soil (Figure 5.8).

5.4 3-D modeling of rigid pavement

5.4.2

69

Geometry of the system

A 3-D model is chosen to simulate the rigid pavement problem at the joint location. The
model consists of two adjacent slabs each 2.50 m long, 3.50 m wide, 0.26 m thick,
resting on an unbound granular base layer with a thickness of 0.60 m. The pavement
structure is supported by a 3.00 m depth subgrade soil. Therefore, we have a 3-D model
with the dimensions of 5.00 m length, 5.00 m width, and 3.86 m depth.
The discretisation of FEM mesh is chosen to be uniform on the horizontal plan to enable
the application of wheel load at any location on the top surface of the concrete slab. As
the depth of both the concrete slab and base layer is small compared with the subgrade
soil, it was better to have uniform element lengths in the vertical direction for both
layers. The discretisation of the subgrade layer in the vertical direction is generated in a
biased manner to minimize the total number of elements in the system. Figure 5.8
shows the geometrical model with the generated finite element mesh.

Fig. 5.8: 3-D model, geometry and FEM mesh

70

5.4.3

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

Elements

The elements for the concrete slab, base layer, and subgrade soil are chosen to be
common first-order 8-node 3-D continuum elements with eight integration points for
each element.
5.4.4

Materials

After defining the geometry of a model and discretisation of all entities to finite
elements, the second procedure is to assign a material for each element or element
group. Following this, properties for each material should be defined.
For the rigid pavement system, there are different materials with different mechanical
behaviors. For accurate modeling, and for the achievement of reasonable results, the
following materials properties for different layers shall be assumed:
5.4.4.1 Material properties of plain concrete
The material library in ABAQUS includes, in addition to the common elastic model of
plain concrete, another two models for plastic behavior. For the current model, in order
to enhance the convergence, especially when using the UMAT subroutine for the cyclic
behavior of UGMs, it was better to model the concrete slab as an elastic material. The
elastic properties for the concrete material are assumed to be as following: Youngs
modulus of 30,000 MPa and Poissons ratio of 0.20. The density of plain concrete is
assumed to be 25.0 kN/m3.
5.4.4.2 Material properties of the base layer
The main subject in the current analysis is the behavior of unbound granular material
under cyclic loading and investigation into certain related problems (faulting) in rigid
pavement structures. Then, the material model for this layer was chosen according to
the Dresden model for unbound granular materials, as discussed before in Chapter 3,
and shall be defined in ABAQUS through the new version of the UMAT subroutine.
Through the implementation of the user material subroutine UMAT in ABAQUS to
define the behavior of UGMs, it is possible to run the analysis up to any defined number
of loading cycles (e.g. one million cycles). The different parameters for the definition of
the Dresden model are taken from Numrich [42], Wellner [67], and Werkmeister [68].
After running some analyses with the three different materials mentioned in the
previous section (section 5.3.2), it was found that, there is no great difference in the
behavior of those materials when used in rigid pavement, regarding permanent
deformation behavior. Therefore, only one material shall be considered in the following
analyses. This material is Gravel-Sand and the material parameters are the same as
previously mentioned in Table 5.3. The density of Gravel-Sand is assumed to be 20.0
kN/m3.

5.4 3-D modeling of rigid pavement

71

5.4.4.3 Material model of subgrade soil

For the description of subgrade soil, many material models were suggested by different
researchers for the definition of both resilient and permanent deformation behavior in
this layer under repeated loads. These models are similar to those of UGMs. In rigid
pavement systems, because of the high stiffness of pavement structure, it is supposed
that, the induced stresses due to traffic loads in the subgrade layer are so minute that the
predicted permanent deformations are too small and do not greatly affect the permanent
deformation behavior of the whole system. On the other hand, there is not available
enough data to simulate the behavior of subgrade soil under cyclic loads as in the case
of unbound granular base layer.
Therefore the material of subgrade soil was considered to be a linear elastic material
with Youngs modulus of 45.0 MPa and Poissons ratio of 0.30. The density of
subgrade soil is assumed to be 17.0 kN/m3.
5.4.5

Boundary conditions and interaction formulation

The next step in the definition of a finite element model is assigning the boundary
conditions for free edges and defining of interaction behavior between different layers.
5.4.5.1 Boundary conditions
The whole system is allowed to deform in the vertical direction except the bottom
surface of the subgrade layer, which is prevented from moving either in the horizontal
or vertical direction.
All vertical planes of base layer and subgrade layer are prevented from deformation in
the horizontal direction (due to symmetry and infinite domain). The two concrete slabs
are prevented from deformation in the horizontal direction only at the plane of
symmetry (plane of cut). These boundary conditions are shown in Figure 5.9.

0.26

2.50 m

Interaction surface

0.60

Base layer

Base layer

a) Longitudinal section

Fig. 5.9: Boundary conditions for 3-D model

3.00

3.86 m

b) Transversal section

Center Line

Subgrade layer

Center Line

3.00

Subgrade layer

Center Line

Center Line

3.86 m

Interaction surface

Concrete slab

0.60

Concrete slab

0.26

5.00 m
3.50 m

5.00 m
2.50 m

72

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

The two concrete segments are neither connected together through dowels nor other
interaction devices. For numerical simplicity, a gap of 2.0 mm is assumed between the
two slabs along the transversal joint to allow for the free displacement and rotation of
the slab edges against each other.
5.4.5.2 Interaction between layers
Interaction conditions between layers could affect the behavior of multi-layered
pavement systems. The most important interaction is the one between the concrete slab
and the unbound base layer. This allows discontinuous deformation across the interface
surface. According to the preliminary numerical evaluation, the existence of an
interaction made a large impact on the numerical results, but variation in the interface
conditions (changing the friction coefficient between the slab and base layer) only
produced minor changes in the global response of pavement system.
The interaction between the concrete slab and base layer is defined through frictional
contact option, which can be defined for two surfaces in contact. The angle of friction
() between the concrete slab and base layer depends on the internal angle of friction ()
of the base layer material and the nature of the concrete surface in contact (smooth or
rough). For a rough surface, it is assumed that = and for a smooth surface = 2/3 .
The coefficient of friction is defined as f = tan .
The option of contact interaction in ABAQUS [2] can be used to model the interaction
between two deformable bodies or between a deformable body and a rigid body in twoand three-dimensions. With this approach, one surface definition provides the master
surface and the other surface definition provides the slave surface. In this case, a
kinematic constraint that the slave surface nodes do not penetrate the master surface is
assumed. The two surfaces in contact need not have matching meshes. However, the
highest accuracy is obtained when the meshes are initially matching. For initially nonmatching meshes, accuracy can be improved by judiciously specifying initial
adjustments to ensure that all slave nodes that should initially be in contact are located
on the master surface.
There are two types of interaction:
1- Small-sliding formulation
2- Finite-sliding formulation
Generally small-sliding contact is computationally less expensive than finite-sliding
contact and was therefore used in the current analysis.
5.4.6

Loading

The external loads applied to the system should be defined according to the loading
history. These loads are defined through the areas of application, magnitude, variation,
and nature of the load (static or dynamic). In the current model, the traffic cyclic loads
are defined as static loads and no consideration to dynamic effects are included. The

5.4 3-D modeling of rigid pavement

73

magnitude of a load is usually defined by the data lines of the loading option, and the
variation of the load during a step can be defined by the default amplitude variation for
the step or by a user-defined amplitude curve. Two cases of loading shall be considered
in the current 3-D model, as described below:
1- Case 1: a wheel load of 53.0 kN shall be applied in the middle area of the edge
parallel to the transversal joint. The wheel load is distributed over a contact area
of 0.25 x 0.25 m2 with a contact pressure of 850.0 kPa (Figure 5.10).

1.75

Movement Direction

3.50

0.25

Node 8080

1.75

0.25

Transversal Joint

Leave Slab

Approach Slab

Fig. 5.10: Applied load to 3-D model, tire pressure q = 850.0 kPa, case 1

0.25

0.75

2- Case 2: two wheel loads each of 53.0 kN (simulating an axle load) shall be
applied near the corners of the edge parallel to the transversal joint. The wheel
loads are distributed over two contact areas each 0.25 x 0.25 m2 with a contact
pressure of 850.0 kPa (Figure 5.11).

0.25

Transversal Joint

Leave Slab

0.75

0.25

2.00

3.50

M ovement Direction

0.25

Approach Slab

Fig. 5.11: Applied loads to 3-D model, tire pressure q = 850.0 kPa, case 2

74

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

The number of loading cycles is defined as an input data to the UMAT constants in the
ABAQUS input file. In this analysis the number of cycles shall be set as one million
cycles (can be also set up to any greater number).
The 3-D model shall be analyzed for each case of loading and the corresponding results
shall be obtained regarding elastic and plastic deformations in addition to stresses and
contact pressure between the concrete slab and the base layer. The results are presented
in the next section.

5.5
5.5.1

Results of the 3-D model

Load case 1, one central wheel on edge

Both elastic stresses and displacements can be obtained for all layers at the end of step 3
in the analysis (applying of wheel load). Total deformation (elastic + permanent) can be
obtained at the end of step 4.
5.5.1.1 Elastic stress in the concrete slab
For the concrete slab, the tensile elastic stress (maximum principle stress) is presented
as contour lines in Figure 5.12. Section A-A shows the stress distribution along the edge
of the concrete slab in the area directly under the applied load.

Fig. 5.12: Maximum principle stress in concrete slab [kPa], load case 1

5.5 Results of the 3-D model

75

5.5.1.2 Elastic displacement in base and concrete layers

Figure 5.13 presents a contour plot for the elastic vertical displacement in the base layer
at the end of step 3. It is clear that the maximum elastic displacement occurs directly
beneath the wheel load.

Fig. 5.13: Vertical elastic displacement in base layer [m], load case 1

The maximum elastic displacement in the concrete slab at a node directly beneath the
wheel load is nearly equal to that in the base layer. Figure 5.14 presents the maximum
vertical elastic displacement against a vertical load ratio in step 3. The given values of
displacement are positive for convenient simulation in the following figures. The linear
relationship in Fig 5.14 is similar to the experimental results in the work of Gleitz [18].

Vertical load ratio

Fig. 5.14: Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer, load case 1

76

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

5.5.1.3 Comparison of FEM results with Westergaard theory

For the previous 3-D pavement system with load case number one, calculation of
maximum tensile stress and maximum deflection according to Westergaard is
accomplished as following:
1- First, the modulus of subgrade reaction (k) can be calculated from the plate
bearing tests conducted by Wellner [67] for the used material (Gravel-Sand). In
section 5.3.1.1, the results of plate bearing tests showed that an applied pressure
of 300.0 kPa produced a vertical deflection of 0.58 mm and an applied pressure
of 700.0 kPa produced a vertical deflection of 1.18 mm in Gravel-Sand material.
So (k) can be calculated by dividing the applied pressure by the resulted
deflection, then we get two values for (k) which are 5170.0 and 5930.0 kPa/cm
respectively. For the calculation with Westergaard, (k) shall be assumed to have
a value of 5000.00 kPa/cm.
2- The radius of the tire print can be calculated from an equivalent circular area to
the real area in FEM (square with 0.25 m edge). The input data for calculation
with Westergaard theory is presented in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Parameters for Westergaard calculation

Parameter (k), UGMs E,concrete

(kPa/cm)

(kPa)

(cm)

(cm)

(kN)

(cm)

(cm)

5000.00

3x107

14.07

26.00

53.00

13.96

55.00

Value

3- Using equations 2.7 and 2.9 to calculate the maximum tensile stress and the
maximum vertical deflection of the concrete slab according to Westergaard, the
following results are obtained and compared to those of FEM in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5: Comparison of FEM and Westergaard results, edge loading

Calculation method

Westergaard

Max. tensile stress (kPa)

1593.50

FEM
Load case 1
1282.00

Max. vertical deflection (mm)

0.121

0.310

The maximum tensile stress calculated with Westergaards theory is about 24% more
than that calculated through FEM, which may refer to the under-estimation of the
subgrade reaction (k) used in Westergaards theory. However, the prediction of vertical
deflection with Westergaard is about 40% of the value predicted with FEM analysis.
This may refer to the modeling of the base layer as elastic springs in Westergaards
theory, these springs have only one degree of freedom in the vertical direction. On the
other hand the simulation of base and subgrade layers in FEM as continuum elements
allows them to deform in all directions, thus increasing the deformation in the direction
of maximum principle stress.

5.5 Results of the 3-D model

77

5.5.1.4 Maximum vertical stress in the base layer

Figure 5.15 presents the maximum vertical stress against vertical displacement in step 3
for an element lying directly beneath the wheel load area in the base layer. The linear
relationship in Fig 5.15 is similar to the experimental results in the work of Gleitz [18].

Fig. 5.15: Maximum vertical stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 1

5.5.1.5 Variation of E-Modulus and Poissons ratio with stresses

The following figures present the variation of the resilient modulus of elasticity and
Poissons ratio depending on the stress-level in base layer elements, for example, EModulus and Poissons ratio for the element whose maximum vertical stress shown in
Figure 5.15 are presented against displacement in Figures 5.16 and 5.17 respectively.
Contour plots for E-Modulus and Poissons ratio are presented in Appendix B.

Fig. 5.16: Maximum resilient modulus [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 1

78

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

Fig. 5.17: Poissons ratio [-] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 1

5.5.1.6 Total displacement in the base layer

Figure 5.18 presents the development of the maximum total vertical displacement in the
base layer during step 4 (application of one million cycles). The permanent
displacement can be calculated after the deduction of the elastic displacement from the
total displacement.

Fig. 5.18: Total vertical displacement in base layer [mm] after 106 cycles, load case 1

5.5 Results of the 3-D model

79

5.5.1.7 Variation of parameters A and B of the Dresden model with stresses

The following figures present the variation of the A and B parameters during step 4
(calculation of cyclic permanent deformation) depending on the stress-level in the base
layer elements. For example, A and B for an element whose maximum vertical stress
shown in figure 5.15 are presented against number of cycles (N) in Figures 5.19 and
5.20 respectively. Contour plots for A and B parameters are presented in Appendix B.

Fig. 5.19: Parameter (A) of Dresden model against N in base layer, load case 1

Fig. 5.20: Parameter (B) of Dresden model against N in base layer, load case 1

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MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

5.5.1.8 Contact pressure on the top surface of the base layer

Figure 5.21 presents the contact pressure between the concrete slab and the base layer at
interface surface at the end of step 3.

Fig. 5.21: Contact pressure between concrete slab and base layer [kPa], load case 1

The contact pressure has its maximum value directly beneath the wheel loads
application area and has a value of 40.10 kPa for this loading case.
5.5.2

Load case 2, two wheels near the corners

The results for the second case of loading (two wheel loads on the edge) can be
presented in the same way as for load case number 1 (one central wheel on the edge).
But only those results needed for comparison with load case 1 are presented here in this
section. The comparison between the two cases of loading defines which case has the
maximum influence on the base layer regarding maximum elastic stresses and
deformations. Then, an equivalent 2-D system with an equivalent load can be developed
from the 3-D system.
Other results regarding the maximum stresses in the concrete slab and a comparison
with the Westergaards theory are found in Appendix A.

5.5 Results of the 3-D model

81

5.5.2.1 Maximum elastic stress in the base layer

Figure 5.22 presents the maximum vertical stress against the displacement in step 3 for
an element lying directly beneath the wheel load area in the base layer. The linear
relationship in Figure 5.22 is similar to the experimental results in the work of Gleitz
[18].

Fig. 5.22: Maximum vertical elastic stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, load case 2

5.5.2.2 Maximum elastic displacement in the base layer

The maximum elastic displacements in the concrete slab for the nodes directly beneath
the both wheel loads are nearly equal to those in the base layer. Figure 5.23 presents the
maximum vertical elastic displacement against the vertical load (wheel load) ratio in
step 3.

Vertical load ratio

Fig. 5.23: Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer, load case 2

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MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

5.5.2.3 Contact pressure on the top surface of the base layer

Figure 5.24 presents the contact pressure between the concrete slab and the base layer at
the interaction surface at the end of step 3.

Fig. 5.24: Contact pressure between concrete slab and base layer [kPa], load case 2

From both Figures 5.21 and 5.24 showing contact pressure between the concrete slab
and the base layer, it can be noted that, at the interface surface, high concentration in
contact pressure exists under the loaded edge of the concrete slab. Therefore, the
faulting problem arises.
5.5.3

2-D model selection

The analysis platform for ABAQUS in this research is a UNIX based workstation
composed of 32 hyper nodes (IBM p Series 690); each node is equipped with 32
processors Power 4 (1,30 GHz). The whole memory of the machine is divided into: two
nodes with 256 GB RAM, two nodes with 128 GB RAM, and 28 nodes with 64 GB
RAM (the whole machine contains 1024 processors and 2560 GB RAM) [41].
Large-scale 3-D finite element problems often provide good approximate solutions. But
in our case of cyclic load calculation (up to one million cycles) with a non-linear
material model to compute the permanent deformation in the unbound granular base
layer, the analysis requires a very long computing time and too much data storage
space. The previous 3-D model as described in section 5.4 contains 6282 nodes and

5.6 Equivalent 2-D system

83

4960 elements, in addition there is only one contact interface pairs between the concrete
slab and the base layer.
The analysis for the model with one million loading cycles required about 70089
seconds for completion with one processor. In order to minimize the computing time,
parallel computation was put into practice. With 2 processors, the time was reduced to
43090 seconds. Trying again with 4 processors, the analysis was not completed due to
time spent waiting for the allocation of free processors to the problem. Anyhow, using
two processors reduced the computing time to 62.5% of the time required by one
processor. In an ideal situation, the reduction of the time should be 50%. The volume of
the output data bank file (*.odb) for the results is about 3.864 GB.
It means that for such a simple 3-D model, the required time and storage capacity is
very high. If we imagine a 3-D model, for faulting simulation, with the following
dimensions: about 15.00 m length, 7.00 m width, and 7.00 m depth in addition to having
fine mesh in stress concentration regions, then the supposed model may be 8 to 10 times
greater than this simple one. The use of a 2-D model for the simulation of faulting
problem was advised but such 2-D finite element problem still creates a demand for
rapid processors and large amount of memory space.

5.6

Equivalent 2-D system

For the study of rigid pavement system under heavy cyclic loads with regard to the
faulting problem, it is important to know the distribution and frequency of wheel loads
over the cross-sectional area of a traffic lane.

Lane width [m.]

Fig. 5.25: Frequency of wheel load positions for 3.60 m lane width [47]

84

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

An earlier study showed that, the frequencies of wheel loading positions over a 3.60 m
wide lane have their maximum values at a distance of about 0.60 m from both the road
edge and the middle longitudinal joint. Figure 5.25 presents the distribution and
frequency of wheel positions over a cross-section in rigid pavement [47]. From Figure
5.25, one can conclude that, the load case number 2 in the 3-D model for rigid pavement
system presented in section 5.5 represents more than 75% of rolling-axles over the
cross-section of a 3.60 m wide lane.
5.6.1

Equivalent loads for 2-D model

From the results of the 3-D model analysis, it is noted that the loading case number 2
(two wheels near the corners) caused more stress and deflection in the base layer than
load case number 1. If an assumption shall be considered for redistribution of the two
wheel loads over the whole edge length (3.50 m) of the concrete slab, then the resulting
maximum stresses and displacement in the base layer should be equivalent to those in a
real situation. This assumption needs verification through FEM calculation. For this
reason, a 2-D model is chosen to simulate the rigid pavement in the 2-D plane for the
verification of wheel loads redistribution. The results of the 2-D model shall be
compared with those of the 3-D model.
5.6.1.1 2-D model analysis
The 2-D model is chosen in such a way that it represent a longitudinal section through
the 3-D model. The dimensions, FEM mesh, material properties, and boundary
conditions shall be maintained from the 3-D model to the 2-D model. Figure 5.26 shows
the equivalent 2-D system.
5 .0 0 m
2 .5 0 m

3.00

3.86 m

0.60

0.26

2 .5 0 m

Fig. 5.26: Chosen system of the 2-D model

5.6 Equivalent 2-D system

85

After some trials with the 2-D analysis assuming different values for the equivalent
pressure of wheel load, it was determined that, an equivalent pressure of 125.00 kPa
with a width of 0.25 m acting on the edge of the concrete slab gives approximate
prediction of the results to those obtained with the 3-D model. This is discussed in the
following section.
5.6.1.2 Results of the 2-D analysis
The results of the 2-D model can be presented in the same way as of those of the 3-D
model. Only these results required for the comparison with the 3-D model shall be
presented her.
Figure 5.27 presents the elastic vertical displacement in the base and subgrade layers at
the end of step 3.

Fig. 5.27: Vertical elastic displacement in base & subgrade layers [m], 2-D model

From Figure 5.27, the maximum elastic displacement in the unbound base layer is found
under the edge of the concrete slab directly beneath the application area of the
equivalent pressure (equivalent to wheel load).
For better comparison, x-y plots are presented for both maximum elastic displacement
and stress of an element lying directly beneath the loaded edge of the concrete slab.
Figure 5.28 presents the maximum vertical elastic displacement against the vertical load
(equivalent pressure) ratio in step 3.

86

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

Vertical load ratio

Fig. 5.28: Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete and base layer, 2-D model

Figure 5.29 presents the development of maximum vertical stress against the
displacement in step 3 for an element in the base layer lying directly beneath the wheel
load area. The nearly linear relationship in Figure 5.29 is similar to the experimental
results in the work of Gleitz [18].

Fig. 5.29: Maximum vertical elastic stress [kPa] against disp [mm] in base layer, 2-D model

5.6 Equivalent 2-D system

5.6.2

87

Comparison between 2-D and 3-D results

The following table shows a comparison between the 2-D and 3-D results regarding
maximum elastic vertical stress and displacement values in the base layer material for
an element lying directly beneath the applied loads.
Table 5.6: Comparison between 2-D and 3-D results

2-D model

3-D model

(Equiv. pressure)

(Load case 2)

Max. vertical elastic deformation

(mm)

0.47

0.44

Max. vertical stress (kPa)

50.37

49.95

Max. contact pressure on base

layer surface (kPa)

77.40

61.50

Relative displacement of concrete

slab edges (mm)

0.282

0.29

Result variable of base layer

From the above results in Table 5.6, it can be concluded that the maximum vertical
elastic deformation and stresses of the 2-D model are very close to the same results of
the 3-D model with load case number 2.
For more assessment, the distribution of vertical stress (33) in the base layer for a
section beneath the centerline of the applied loads is plotted for both the 2-D model and
the 3-D model with load case number 2 (Figure 5.30).
Vertical stress 33 (kPa)
20,0
0,00

25,0

30,0

35,0

40,0

45,0

50,0

55,0

60,0

Depth (m.)

-0,10
-0,20
-0,30
-0,40
-0,50
-0,60
3-D model, load case 2

2-D model, equiv. pressure

Fig. 5.30: Comparison of vertical stress (33) between 2-D and 3-D models, R2= 0.96

88

MODELING OF RIGID PAVEMENT SYSTEM IN ABAQUS

It is to be noted that, the shown vertical stresses are plotted for the centroid points of the
elements in the chosen element set (section). Therefore, the stresses on the top and
bottom surfaces of the base layer; at depth equal 0.0 and 0.60 m respectively cannot be
presented in the shown figure.
5.6.3

Conclusion

From the above results and comparisons, it can be concluded that, an equivalent
pressure of 125.00 kPa in the 2-D model can give the same influence as real pressure of
850.00 kPa due to the wheel load in the 3-D model for the load case number 2 (an axle
load of 2 wheels, each being 53.00 kN). This conclusion is only valid for the current
model with the given materials and load configuration. It cannot be generalized for
other models with another materials or another load configurations. The analysis for a
faulting prediction with a 2-D model can now use this equivalent pressure for the
simulation of applied wheel loads. The analyses of faulting problem are presented in the
following chapter.

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.1

Introduction

The main objective of the current research is the development of a model with FEM
aiming to study the faulting problem at the joint location between two adjacent concrete
slabs. Also important is the attempt to simulate the physical concept of the faulting
process numerically in order to find a tool, which would help in the understanding of
the problem.
A model was built to simulate, to an extent, the real conditions, with the consideration
of a moving cyclic load crossing the joint from the approach slab towards the leave slab.
The model is chosen in a 2-D system because of many factors:
1- To have a reasonable model, which can achieve good convergence.
2- To minimize the computation time and cost.
3- As the faulting occurs in the longitudinal direction of a road, the maximum
vertical deformation and relative displacement between the transversal concrete
slab edges are the dominating factors.
Firstly, the faulting shall be computed according to the empirical formula of
Khazanovich et al [31].
Secondly, through a new developed procedure, using the fluid structure interaction
capability in ABAQUS, the faulting shall be computed through FEM analysis under
cyclic loading. In order to assess the correctness of the developed procedure, firstly, the
unbound granular base material shall be considered as an elastic material with Mohr
Coulomb hardening. The moving load across the joint is applied firstly on the edge of
the approach slab then moved across the joint to the edge of the adjacent leave slab. The
analysis shows good results indicating that the forming of a fault is a result of applying
a load which moves from the approach slab towards the leave slab across a joint with no
or a very low load transfer efficiency device.
Following that, the model shall be analyzed again using the UMAT subroutine to
account for the behavior of the unbound granular base materials under cyclic loading in
relation to the computation of faulting. The unbound granular base material shall be
assumed having two cases regarding moisture content; (1) a uniform constant moisture
content, and (2) a non-constant moisture content. For the suggested procedure some
factors need calibration. Unfortunately, neither field nor experimental data are available
for the calibration purpose, therefore, these factors shall be assumed in a reasonable
way.

90

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.2

2-D model for the simulation of faulting

6.2.1

Description of the system

The 2-D model for rigid pavement system in this analysis comprises of three slabs (two
complete slabs + two halves), in order to have three joints, which are symmetrical with
reference to the middle joint under study.
The choice of such a system was to have all possible contributions to the calculation of
faulting, as a load crossing a joint causes not only faulting to this joint but to the
preceding joint and to the proceeding joint as well.
The system is composed of three layers: the first one is the surface layer made up of the
concrete slabs which are supported on the second layer (base layer) of an unbound
granular material, the whole structure being supported by the subgrade soil layer
(Figures 6.1 and 6.2). The traffic loads shall only be applied to the intermediate joint, as
described in detail in the following sections.
The chosen 2-D system will be used in two analyses: firstly as it is described below to
calculate the elastic displacement of concrete slabs edges under wheel load, and
secondly, it will be used with the new developed procedure to calculate the faulting
using the fluid structure interaction through the addition of two fluid-filled cavities
under the edges of concrete slabs (as described in Section 6.4).
6.2.2

Geometry and mesh generation

The 2-D model chosen to simulate the rigid pavement for prediction of faulting at the
joint location consists of two adjacent slabs, each 5.00 m long, bounded by two half
slabs, each 2.50 m long. The thickness of the concrete layer is chosen to be 0.26 m
(after RStO, Road Class I). The thickness of the unbound granular base layer is chosen
to be 0.60 m. The pavement structure is supported by a 6.00 m depth subgrade soil. It
means that the 2-D model has total dimensions of 15.00 m long x 6.86 m deep.
Because the loads are localized near the joints, the FEM mesh is generated in the
horizontal direction, so that it is very fine in the regions of the transversal joints and
coarser towards the outside.
As the depth of both the concrete slabs and base layers is very small compared with that
of the subgrade soil, it was better to have uniform element lengths in the vertical
direction for both layers. This method provides a better aspect ratio (from 1.3 to 2.0) for
elements under high stresses due to wheel loads and also a good ratio (up to 5.0) for
elements in the regions of small stress gradients.
The discretisation of the subgrade layer in the vertical direction is generated in a biased
manner to minimize the total number of elements in the system. Figure 6.1 shows the
geometrical model with the generated finite element mesh.

91

Fig. 6.1: FEM model and mesh generation

6.2 2-D model for the simulation of faulting

92

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.2.3

Elements

The elements for the concrete slab, the base layer, and the subgrade soil are chosen to
be a common first-order 4-nodes 2-D continuum elements with four integration points
for each element.
6.2.4

Materials

The definition of the materials is the same as that of the 3-D model in Chapter 5. Here
again is a brief definition of the different materials used in the analysis.
6.2.4.1 Material properties of plain concrete
The concrete slab was modeled as an elastic material with Youngs Modulus of
30,000.00 MPa and Poissons ratio of 0.20. The density of plain concrete is considered
to be 25.00 kN/m3.
6.2.4.2 Material properties of base layer
The analysis of the 2-D model for the prediction of faulting shall be conducted using
four material models for the unbound base layer:
1- Firstly, with an elastic material model to calculate the elastic displacement of
concrete slabs under wheel load, from which, the faulting shall be computed
according to the empirical formula of Khazanovich et al [31].
2- Secondly, with a classical Mohr Coulomb plasticity model in order to verify the
proposed procedure with fluid structure interaction capability in ABAQUS when
applying the wheel load for only one cycle.
3- Thirdly, after verifying the procedure with the Mohr Coulomb plasticity model,
the analysis shall be performed again using the Dresden model for the unbound
granular base layer assuming a constant low relative moisture content (RMC)
over the whole base layer, using the UMAT subroutine.
4- Fourthly, assuming that regions of the base layer beneath the transversal joints
have higher relative moisture content than those beneath the middle of the
concrete slabs, a new analysis shall be conducted to study the influence of a high
RMC of the base layer on the faulting process.
Detailed description of material models for the base layer shall be discussed in
respective sections.
6.2.4.3 Material model of subgrade soil
The material model of subgrade soil is defined as a linear elastic material with Youngs
Modulus of 45.00 MPa and Poissons ratio of 0.30. The density of subgrade soil is
assumed to be 17.00 kN/m3.

6.2 2-D model for the simulation of faulting

6.2.5

93

Boundary conditions and interaction formulation

Assigning correct boundary conditions for the free edges in the current model is of great
importance, because the model is not symmetric in loading history.
6.2.5.1 Boundary conditions
The whole system is allowed to deform in the vertical direction except the bottom
surface of the subgrade layer, which is prevented from moving in either the horizontal
or vertical direction. All vertical edges of the base and subgrade layers are prevented
from deformation in the horizontal direction (due to infinite domain). The concrete slab
layer is free to move in both horizontal and vertical directions. In order to keep the
stability of the concrete slabs, the two bounding half slabs are connected to artificial
ground springs with a very low spring stiffness (10.0 kPa/m). These boundary
conditions are shown in Figure 6.2. The adjacent concrete slabs are neither connected
together through dowels nor other interaction devices. There is a gap of 2.00 mm
between adjacent edges of the slabs at the joint location to allow for free translation in
both horizontal and vertical directions.
6.2.5.2 Interaction between layers
The same conditions of the 3-D model in Chapter 5 apply here. The only interaction
between the concrete slab and the base layer is defined by the frictional contact option.
The angle of friction between the concrete slab and the base layer is defined as (). The
coefficient of friction is defined as f = tan , and is assumed to be 0.50.
Movement direction
15.00 m
5.00 m

5.00 m

PA
Approach slab

Leave slab
Interaction surface

0.60

Fluid cavity

2.50 m

PB
0.26

2.50 m

6.00

6.86 m

Unbound base layer

Subgrade soil

Fig. 6.2: Chosen system for faulting calculation, loads & boundary conditions

94

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.2.6

Loading

The external loads applied to the system should be defined exactly according to the real
loading history. Three methods for applying the external traffic loads are considered:
1- Applying the wheel load on one edge of the concrete slab to get the elastic
displacement under the load for the purpose of empirical calculation of faulting.
2- Applying only one loading cycle to solve the model with Mohr Coulomb
material definition for UGMs within the proposed FEM procedure for prediction
of faulting.
3- Applying the load as a cyclic load with a defined number of loading cycles using
the UMAT subroutine for the definition of the behavior of UGMs.
Each model has its own loading history which shall be discussed in detail in respective
sections.
6.2.6.1 Equivalent traffic load for a 2-D model
In the real conditions of traffic loads, the wheel load acts randomly at different points
on the concrete slab. It means that all points on the transversal edge of concrete slabs
could be subjected to the same loading at different times. As more than 75% of rollingaxles are found to act like the load case 2 in the previous analysis of the 3-D model in
Chapter 5. The analysis for equivalent pressure for 2-D modeling in Section 5.6
indicated that, a uniform pressure of 125.0 kPa is equivalent to the real loads of case 2
in the 3-D model (axle load of 106 kN).

6.3

Prediction of faulting with empirical method

6.3.1

An example of Khazanovich et al [31]

Khazanovich et al [31] developed an empirical formula for the calculation of faulting

(described in Section 2.4). They gave an example for the calculation of faulting in a
rigid pavement system with the following configuration: 0.26 m concrete slab thickness,
4.50 m distance between joints, an unbound granular base layer of 0.40 m thickness,
and a lane width of 3.70 m. They considered an equivalent axle load of about 80.0 kN
(i.e. wheel load 40.0 kN) for a design period of 20 years.
The analysis of joint faulting damage involves the calculation of differential elastic
deformation energy (DE), which is a function of slab corner deflections obtained from
FEM analysis with loading at the transverse joint (Figure 6.3). (DE) is defined as:
DE

= x k x (WL + WUL)x(WL - WUL) [kPa.mm]

Where:
WL

= deflection of loaded slab [mm]

WUL

= deflection of unloaded slab [mm]

= modulus of subgrade reaction [kPa/mm]

(6.1)

6.3 Prediction of faulting with empirical method

95

Using ILLI-SLAB for the FEM analysis of the given model, and assuming a modulus of
subgrade reaction (k) = 27.15 kPa/mm, the results of the slab deflections on both loaded
and unloaded sides at the corners of the slabs were obtained as follows:

Fig. 6.3: Overview of analysis of joint faulting, Khazanovich et al [31]

Unloaded deflection, WUL

= 0.35044 mm

Loaded deflection,

= 0.44773 mm

WL

For the given modulus of subgrade reaction (k) = 27.15 kPa/mm and using equation
(6.1), the differential elastic deformation energy could be calculated as follows:
DE

= x 27.15 x (0.44773 + 0.35044) x (0.44773 - 0.35044)

= 1.053871 kPa.mm

A typical load spectrum and a typical climatic condition for Michigan State are assumed
for this example, the faulting calculation could be conducted using equations (2.12)
through (2.15). It should be noted that an erodibility index of 3 (erosion resistant) is
assumed for the calculation of faulting. The predicted faulting at the end of the design
period (20 years) is found to be about 4.24 mm.
Referring to the used equations in the calculation of faulting, one can see that there are
many factors which need calibration. Anyhow, it is clear that the faulting magnitude is
directly proportional to the differential elastic deformation energy (DE), if the other
factors remain constant.
For the current research, the same procedure of Khazanovich et al [31] shall be used to
calculate the faulting, assuming the same conditions and factors of the previous
example. The only difference shall be the configuration of the chosen system and the
software used for the FEM analysis. Hence from the results of FEM, the differential
elastic deformation energy (DE) shall be calculated, and with the assumption that,
faulting is linearly proportional to the differential elastic deformation energy, the related
faulting magnitude can be concluded.

96

6.3.2

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

Analysis of chosen model with 40.00 kN wheel load

Following the same procedure of Khazanovich et al [31] to predict faulting in the

chosen system, an analysis with FEM shall be conducted to get the elastic displacement
of concrete edges under the given wheel load. The properties for the unbound granular
materials in this analysis shall be assumed to be elastic material with Youngs Modulus
of 120.00 MPa and Poissons ratio of 0.40. The density of this material is considered to
be 20.00 kN/m3. The material properties for plain concrete and subgrade soil layers are
the same as defined in Section 6.2.4.
The wheel load shall be assumed 40.00 kN, applied on the edge of concrete slab to the
left side in middle joint (as PA in Figure 6.2). The contour plot of the vertical elastic
displacement (U2) is shown in figure 6.4 below.
From the analysis results, the following values are found:
Unloaded deflection, WUL

= 0.47111 mm

Loaded deflection,

= 0.57559 mm

WL

For the given modulus of subgrade reaction (k) = 27.15 kPa/mm and using equation
(6.1), the differential elastic deformation energy could be calculated as follows:
DE

= x 27.15 x (0.57559 + 0.47111) x (0.57559 - 0.47111)

= 1.48455 kPa.mm

Fig. 6.4: Vertical elastic displacement [m], wheel load 40.00 kN

6.3 Prediction of faulting with empirical method

97

6.3.2.1 Calculation of faulting after Khazanovich et al [31]

If we consider the ratio of the differential elastic deformation energy in this analysis to
that in the example of Khazanovich, the ratio shall be found of about 1.408665, then the
faulting can be predicted at the end of the design period (20 years) to be about 1.408665
x 4.24 = 5.97 mm.
6.3.2.2 Comparison with Khazanovich et al [31]
Comparing the results of the current model to that of Khazanovich, one can find that the
differential elastic deformation energy of the current model is greater than that of
Khazanovich of about 40%. This can refer to the use of different FEM analysis
programs with different assumptions in both systems. Khazanovich used ILLI-SLAB
assuming finite size Kirchhoff plate bending elements for the concrete slab supported
by Winkler/elastic foundation (refer to Section 2.1.3.3 for the description of ILLISLAB), whereas, the current model is analyzed with ABAQUS using continuum
elements for the whole layers with different material properties. Hence the faulting of
the current system is greater than that of Khazanovich with the same ratio (40%).
6.3.3

Analysis of chosen model with 53.00 kN wheel load

The analysis will be conducted again for the same system of Section 6.3.2 above,
assuming a wheel load of 53.00 kN, applied on the edge of concrete slab to the left side
in middle joint. The contour plot of the vertical elastic displacement (U2) is shown in
figure 6.5 below.

Fig. 6.5: Vertical elastic displacement [m], wheel load 53.00 kN

98

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

From the analysis results, the following values are found:

Unloaded deflection, WUL

= 0.65128 mm

Loaded deflection,

= 0.80226 mm

WL

For the given modulus of subgrade reaction (k) = 27.15 kPa/mm and using equation
(6.1), the differential elastic deformation energy could be calculated as follows:
DE

= x 27.15 x (0.80226 + 0.65128) x (0.80226 - 0.65128)

= 2.9791 kPa.mm

6.3.3.1 Calculation of faulting after Khazanovich et al [31]

If we consider the ratio of the differential elastic deformation energy in this analysis to
that in the example of Khazanovich, the ratio shall be found of about 2.979108, then the
faulting can be predicted at the end of the design period (20 years) to be about 2.979108
x 4.24 = 12.63 mm.
6.3.4

Assessment of results

It is noted that, through increasing the applied wheel load from 40.00 kN to 53.00 kN
with all other factors remaining constant, the faulting is increased from 5.97 mm to
12.63 mm, i.e. more than the double. One can not assess the correctness of this
conclusion as there are no relevant data to compare with. The prediction of faulting
depends not only on the differential elastic deformation energy (DE) obtained from
FEM analysis but also on many other factors which must be calibrated according to
field or experimental tests.
Increasing the applied wheel load may affect the values of some input parameters used
in the calculation, for example; modulus of subgrade reaction (k), erodibility factor
(EROD), etc. (refer to Section 2.4 for more details). Hence, one cannot generalize this
procedure without having good reliable calibrated parameters taking into consideration
all factors affecting the faulting process.

6.4

Prediction of faulting with FEM simulation

6.4.1

Fluid structure interaction in ABAQUS

In certain applications it may be necessary to predict the mechanical response of a

structure coupled with a fluid-filled cavity. A primary difficulty in addressing such
applications is the coupling between the deformation of the structure and the pressure
exerted by the contained fluid in the cavity. The response of the structure depends not
only on the external loads but also on the pressure exerted by the fluid, which, in turn, is
affected by the deformation of the structure. The hydrostatic fluid elements provide the
coupling needed to analyze such situations. The cavity is assumed to be completely
filled with fluid. Structures with fluid-filled cavities are modeled by using standard

6.4 Prediction of faulting with FEM simulation

99

elements to model the main structure and hydrostatic fluid elements to provide the
coupling between the deformation of the structure and the pressure exerted by the
contained fluid (Figure 6.6).

Fig. 6.6: Model for a fluid-filled cavity [2]

Hydrostatic fluid elements appear as surface elements that cover the boundary of the
fluid cavity but they are actually volume elements when the cavity reference node is
accounted for. All hydrostatic fluid elements associated with a given cavity share a
common node known as the cavity reference node. This cavity reference node has a
single degree of freedom representing the pressure inside the fluid cavity and is also
used in calculating the cavity volume.
The hydrostatic fluid elements share the nodes at the cavity boundary with the standard
elements which used to model the boundary of the cavity. These fluid elements are
needed to define the cavity completely and to ensure proper calculation of its volume.
The fluid within a fluid-filled cavity must be modeled by using one of the available
hydrostatic fluid models. In these models, the following properties can be defined for a
fluid: bulk modulus, density, and coefficient of thermal expansion.
6.4.2

Fluid link element

In addition to the fluid cavity elements, ABAQUS also offers a 2-node fluid link
element that can be used to model fluid flow between two cavities or between a cavity
and the environment. This is typically used when the fluid has to flow through a narrow
orifice. Fluid properties of the nodes of the link element are assumed to be the same as
in their respective cavities. The program will not check whether a fluid link element has
been defined between two cavities that are filled with dissimilar fluids; e.g., a fluid link
element between two cavities filled with two fluids of different densities. If this
situation exists, the mass transferred from one cavity needs to be converted to a volume
change in the second cavity.
The mass flow rate through the link element is defined as a function of the pressure
differential, and may also depend on the average pressure and temperature. The fluid

100

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

link element will account for differences in fluid density between the cavities. The
conversion of mass flow rate into volume flow rates at the two ends of the link element
is based on the fluid properties given for both cavities. Hence, the volume flow rates at
the two ends may not balance.
The fluid transfer between the two fluid-filled cavities depends on many factors. Among
these factors are the induced pressure on the fluid cavities, the fluid properties (density
and bulk modulus), the resistance of the hydraulic link element connecting both
cavities, and any other field variables defined by the user. An implicit functional
relationship between the mass flow rate (q) and the pressure difference (p) between
the two nodes of a fluid link element can be defined through a viscous resistance
coefficient (Cv) and a hydrodynamic resistance coefficient (Ch). This can be defined as:
p = Cv q + Ch q |q|
6.4.3

(6.2)

Proposed model with fluid cavities

The problem of faulting is caused mainly through the transfer of fine materials through
water in the base layer at joint locations and cracks. In the current 2-D model for the
computation of faulting, two cavities under the edges of the concrete slabs are assumed
(Figure 6.7). The cavity dimensions are assumed to be about 0.06 x 0.50 m (depth x
width). In order to simulate the material transfer between the two cavities, a fluid-link
element between the two cavities is needed.
Movement direction
Left cavity

PA

2 mm.
PB

Right cavity
Concrete slab

Base layer

Fig. 6.7: Simulation of fluid-filled cavities under concrete slab edges

In the faulting process, the fines are supposed to be transferred through water from the
right cavity to the left one, as the moving load is crossing the joint from the left to the
right side. Therefore a higher density shall be assigned for the fluid in the right cavity
more than the fluid in the left cavity. This assumption refers to the fact that, the transfer
happens for fines in real conditions, which have a higher density, and not for a fluid as
assumed in the current model.

6.5 2-D model with Mohr Coulomb for prediction of faulting

6.4.4

101

Material properties for fluid elements

The properties of hydrostatic fluid elements are defined through the bulk modulus (K)
and density. In the current analysis a value of 20,000.00 MPa was assumed for the bulk
modulus (an incompressible fluid) in both cavities. The density of the fluid in left cavity
is assumed to be 10.00 kN/m3 and that for the fluid in right cavity (equivalent to density
of fines) is assumed to be 20.00 kN/m3. The fluid link element is mainly supposed to be
used in dynamic loading applications of fluid flow in a form of steady-state vibration.
Here in the current analysis, the procedure is static and there is no pressure difference
between the two cavities (i.e. p = 0.0), in this case, the mass flow rate does not depend
on the two resistance values (Ch) and (Cv) of the fluid link element. Hence they are not
needed for the analysis.

6.5

2-D model with Mohr Coulomb for prediction of faulting

6.5.1

Material definition for the base layer

The first model to predict the faulting due to traffic moving load will be analyzed using
the Mohr Coulomb plasticity model for the unbound granular base layer. This model
helps to verify the proposed procedure when applying the loads for only one cycle at the
intermediate joint. The material parameters of UGMs are presented in Table 6.1. Other
properties of concrete and subgrade soil materials are mentioned in section 6.2.4.
Table 6.1: Material properties with Mohr Coulomb model of base layer

6.5.2

Density

(MPa)
120.00

(-)
0.40

(deg.)
45

(deg.)
15

(kPa)
5.00

(kN/m3)
20.00

Loading

The loading procedure for the model using the Mohr Coulomb material definition for
UGMs takes the following sequences (Figure 6.8):
1- Step 1 (timing from 0.0 to 1.0) is for the equilibrium condition for the system
under initial stresses and own weights of different materials.
2- Step 2 (timing from 1.0 to 2.0), the wheel load (PA) is applied on the left side to
the intermediate joint (on the edge of the approach slab).
3- Step 3 (timing from 2.0 to 3.0), the wheel load (PB) is applied on the right side to
the intermediate joint (on the edge of the leave slab), at the same time, unloading
the left side. In this step, (PB) goes up from 0.0 to 1.0 and (PA) goes down from
1.0 to 0.0, which means that the load moves from the left to the right side.
4- Step 4 (timing from 3.0 to 4.0), the wheel load (PB) is removed from the right
side of the intermediate joint. At the end of this step there are no more external
loads and the system returns to its initial conditions (only its own weights).

102

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

Time scale has no physical meaning here and is only used for the definition of the load
amplitudes sequences.
L oad
Movement direction

1.0
PA

PA PB

PB
Approach slab

0.0
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

T im e

Fluid cavity

Leave slab
Interaction surface

Fig. 6.8: Load amplitudes for model with Mohr Coulomb material definition

6.5.3

Results

In the following figures, the results of the analysis with the Mohr Coulomb material
model are presented in two ways: Figure 6.9 presents a contour plot of vertical
displacement (U2) at the end of the last step of loading (removing the applied loads
from the system), and Figures 6.10 to 6.12 present x-y plots for vertical displacement of
transversal edges of the concrete slabs during the whole loading history.

Fig. 6.9: Permanent vertical displacement [m], Mohr Coulomb model; step 4 (no loads)
Scale factor for magnified views is 5.0 in the vertical direction

6.5 2-D model with Mohr Coulomb for prediction of faulting

103

The following x-y plots, present the results for the development of vertical displacement
(U2) against loading time with Mohr Coulomb materials assumption. As the procedure
is static analysis, time here has no physical meaning and therefore has no unit.
Movement direction
PA

PB

Node 3056

Node 3181
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

0.226 mm

Fig. 6.10: Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load; Faulting = 0.226 mm

Movement direction

Node 2901

Node 3026
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Fig. 6.11: Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; Faulting =0.0

104

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

Movement direction

Node 3211

Node 3276
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

0.035 mm

Fig. 6.12: Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; Faulting = 0.035mm

6.5.4

Assessment of results

The results of the analysis with the Mohr Coulomb material assumption yield the
following conclusions:
1- From Figure 6.10, at time (t) = 4.0, the fault in the joint under load is about
0.226 mm and shall be defined as the main fault.
2- From Figure 6.11, at time (t) = 4.0, the fault in the preceding joint to the joint
under load is about 0.00 mm (i.e. about 0.0% of the main fault).
3- From Figure 6.12, at time (t) = 4.0, the fault in the proceeding joint to the joint
under load is about 0.035 mm (i.e. about 15.5% of the main fault).
4- In real conditions, the fault in both joints (those preceding and proceeding to the
joint under load) may be equal, but in the analysis they are not equal. This may
refer to the unsymmetrical boundary and load conditions. Anyhow, the
contribution of an applied load to cause a fault in the both joints can be
calculated from both values. This means that this contribution is about 15.50%
of the value of the main fault at the joint under load.
5- From Figure 6.10, when loading the left side of the joint (time, t = 1.0 2.0),
both slab edges deform downwards. However, the left edge deforms greater than
the right edge, because it is the edge under loading. On moving the load to the
right side of the joint (time, t = 2.0 3.0), the right edge deforms downwards
and the left edge deforms upwards. Anyhow, the relative displacement between

6.6 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with constant low RMC

105

both edges is greater than that in the left side loading. Moreover, it is noted also
that at the end of loading on the right side and starting to remove the load (time,
t 3.0), the left edge heaves up above its original position. This refers to the fact
that the fluid in the right cavity has a higher density than that in the left one.
Therefore, when fluid flows from the left cavity to the right one, the transferred
fluid volume shall become smaller than its original volume. To the contrary,
when fluid flows from the right cavity to the left one, the transferred fluid
volume shall become greater than its original volume (refer to Section 6.4.2).
These conversions of the transferred fluid masses into equivalent volumes of
respective cavities resulted in a greater increase of the left cavitys volume more
than the right cavitys volume which in return cause the left slab edge to heave
up above the original position.

6.6

2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with constant low RMC

6.6.1

Material definition for the base layer

After verifying the procedure with the Mohr Coulomb plasticity model, the analysis can
be conducted again using the UMAT subroutine for the definition of the unbound
granular base layer according to the Dresden model. Therefore, computation of faulting
under any defined number of loading cycles can be made possible. The chosen material
for the UGMs in the current model is Gravel Sand with a relatively constant low water
content of 3.40%. Different material parameters have been presented in Table 5.3. Other
properties for concrete and subgrade soil materials are as defined in section 6.2.4.
6.6.2

Loading

Running the analysis under a very high number of loading cycles (for example one
million cycles), with the Dresden material model for UGMs, can only be possible using
the UMAT subroutine, as previously discussed in Chapter 5.
The UMAT subroutine is based on 4 steps of loading history (refer to Section 4.3).
According to those steps, it is impossible to take into consideration the movement (as in
the previous model with the Mohr Coulomb material) of the applied cyclic loads (traffic
loads) that is the main cause of the occurrence of faulting in rigid pavement. To
overcome this problem, the superposition of loading history shall be used. Figure 6.13
presents the load amplitudes acting on the two edges of the concrete slabs in transversal
joints. Time scale here has no physical meaning, consequently no unit and is only used
to define the sequence of loading amplitudes.

106

PREDICTION OF FAULTING
Movement direction
PA PB
Approach slab
Fluid cavity

Leave slab
Interaction surface

Load

1.0
PA
0.0
2.0

PB

3.0

4.0

PA

PB

5.0

First load cycle

Time
Second load cycle

Fig. 6.13: Cyclic load amplitudes in joint area

The idea of superposition assumes that the loads are applied as two successive
amplitudes: (PA) for the left side and (PB) for the right side. Therefore, two analyses
have to be run, firstly for the left side load amplitude (PA) and secondly for the right
side load amplitude (PB). By adding the results of both analyses, the faulting values can
be obtained at different times (cycle numbers).
B

The loading history in the two models shall follow the same procedure. For the first
model, the following four steps are considered:
1- The first step (timing from 0.0 to 1.0) is a geostatic step to achieve equilibrium
conditions between the initial stress in the supporting layers and the own weight
of the structure itself.
2- The second step (timing from 1.0 to 2.0) is for the calculation of plastic
deformation due to the previous stresses in step no 1 if found.
3- The third step (timing from 2.0 to 3.0) is for the application of the supposed
cyclic load (PA) on the left side, on the intermediate joint only (refer to Figure
6.13).
4- The fourth step (timing from 3.0 to 3.0+t) is for the computing of the
permanent deformation due to the applied load in step no 3 up to reaching the
given number of loading cycles.
For the second model, the first and second steps are the same as for the first model.
Only the third and fourth steps are different as following:

The third step (timing from 2.0 to 4.0) is for the application of the supposed
moving cyclic load onto the right side, which moves from the left side (PA

6.6 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with constant low RMC

107

for timing from 2.0 to 3.0) to the right side (PB for timing from 3.0 to 4.0).
This way the movement of the load across the joint is considered and this
movement should affect the resulting stresses at the end of the step.
B

Fourth step (timing from 4.0 to 4.0+t) is for the computing of the
permanent deformation up to reaching the same given number of cycles.

Note: the (t) variable, defined in the step no 4 mentioned above, depends on the given
number of loading cycles in addition to the convergence criterion controlled by
ABAQUS and is not an input data.
Following the above procedure and analyzing both systems, the prediction of faulting
magnitude in the intermediate joint at different cycle numbers can be obtained.
6.6.3

Results

6.6.3.1 Left side loading

The following are the results of the analysis with UMAT subroutine as a material model
for the unbound granular base layer. The load is applied only to the intermediate joint.

Fig. 6.14: Total vertical displacement [m] for left side loading (PA) after 106 cycles
Scale factor for magnified views is 5.0 in the vertical direction

The following x-y plots present the results for the development of total vertical
displacement against loading time/number of loading cycles for the left side loading at
the intermediate joint.

108

PREDICTION OF FAULTING
M o v e m e n t d ire c tio n
PA
N ode 3181

N ode 3056
2 mm.
C o n c re te s la b s

Fig. 6.15: Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load, left side amplitude (PA)

6.6.3.2 Right side loading

The results for the right side loading are presented in the same way as those for the left
side loading.

Fig. 6.16: Total vertical displacement [m] for right side loading (PB) after 106 cycles

6.6 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with constant low RMC

109

M o v em en t d irectio n
PB
N ode 3056

N ode 3181
2 mm.

C o n crete slab s

Fig. 6.17: Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load, right side amplitude (PB)

6.6.4

Conclusion of the 2-D model using UMAT with low RMC

The results of the analysis with the UMAT subroutine yield the following: from the x-y
plots for the development of vertical displacement against loading time, it can be noted
that:
1- In loading case 2, when loading on the left side (on the edge of the approach
slab) the elastic displacement between the two edges is found to be about 2.45
mm (Figure 6.17, time=3.0). When the load was being moved to the right side
(on the edge of the leave slab) the elastic displacement increased to about 2.65
mm (time=4.0), which is similar to what happened to the Mohr Coulomb model.
2- In Figure 6.17, the heave up of the left slabs edge during the right side loading
was explained in Section 6.5.4.
3- In step no 4 one can determine the total displacement for the both loading cases
(models) at different number of cycles up to 106 cycles (Figures 6.15 and 6.17).
4- The permanent displacement can be calculated at different numbers of cycles
throughout the deduction of the elastic displacement resulting at the end of step
no 3 from the total displacement developed during step no 4.
The results of the x-y plots of displacement in the other two joints (preceding and
proceeding the joint under load) are presented in Appendix C.

110

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.6.5

Calculation of faulting

By adding the results of the permanent displacement at different numbers of cycles (N),
for the above two loading cases (models), the relevant difference in elevation between
each two adjacent edges of the concrete slabs can be determined in the three joint
positions. These elevation differences present the faulting at the three joint positions and
can be presented against the number of loading cycles (Figure 6.18 in normal-log scale)
and (Figure 6.19 in log-log scale).
8,00
7,00

Faulting (mm)

6,00
5,00
4,00
3,00
2,00
1,00
0,00
1,E+00

1,E+01

1,E+02

1,E+03

1,E+04

1,E+05

1,E+06

No. of Loading Cycles, N

Faulting, joint under load
Faulting, previous joint to load
Faulting, next joint to load

Total Faulting

Fig. 6.18: Faulting against number of loading cycles (N): (normal-log scale)

Faulting (mm)

10,00

1,00

0,10
1,E+00

1,E+01

1,E+02
1,E+03
1,E+04
No. of Loading Cycles, N

Faulting, joint under load

Faulting, next joint to load

1,E+05

1,E+06

Faulting, previous joint to load

Total Faulting

Fig. 6.19: Faulting against number of loading cycles (N): (log-log scale)

6.7 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with higher RMC

111

The magnitude of faulting in the first loading cycle is not realistic, but that may be a
result of using a permanent deformation model which assumes also unrealistic values
for the first loading cycle (refer to Section 5.3.2). However, in order to obtain realistic
values, this magnitude can be ignored from the total faulting.
The results of the elastic and total vertical displacements for the three joints in the 2-D
model are found in Appendix C. The calculation of faulting is based on these results.
6.6.6

Assessment of faulting results

For the assessment of the obtained results, the following remarks should be made:
1- The development of the faulting matches the development of the permanent
deformation behavior of the unbound granular materials, in both the linear
growth in a log-log relationship against the number of loading cycles, and the
magnitude of faulting in the first loading cycle. It means that faulting is going to
be stabilized as the number of loading cycles grows. To get representative values
of faulting against the number of loading cycles, the magnitude at the first
loading cycle (2.20 mm) is to be ignored.
2- On calculation with the Mohr Coulomb material model for UGMs, it was found
that the ratio of faulting at the preceding joint is 0.0% and that at the proceeding
joint is 15.50%. The relevant two ratios are found to be 5.25% and 10.00%
respectively for the first loading cycle when using the UMAT Subroutine. One
can conclude that the difference is very small, and the sum of both values is
nearly equal.
3- The total faulting in the presented 2-D model, after the removal of the fault at
the first cycle, is about 4.45 mm after one million cycles. By extrapolation, one
can predict that, the total faulting after 20 million cycles is about 5.93 mm. The
faulting magnitude obtained from the calculation after Khazanovich is 12.63 mm
(see Section 6.3.3), which is more than twice the resulting value with FEM
model using fluid cavities. A modification has to be made in the proposed model
to enhance the results and make it reasonable as described in the next section.

6.7

2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with higher RMC

6.7.1

Material definition for the base layer

In order to study the influence of higher moisture content in the regions in the base layer
under transversal joints on faulting, a new analysis shall be performed using a
Grnodiorite material as the base layer material with non-constant water content. It shall
be assumed that only regions under transversal joints as shown in Figure 6.20 have
higher moisture content than other regions.

112

PREDICTION OF FAULTING
Right cavity

Left cavity

Concrete slab

Base layer

Subgrade soil
RMC for this region 6.88%

Fig. 6.20: Regions with high water content under transversal joints

The chosen material for the UGMs in the current model is Grnodiorite. A relatively low
water content of 4.0% for regions away from joints and a higher water content of 6.88%
for regions under joints are assumed. Different material parameters have already been
presented in Table 5.3 for the material with a w/c ratio of 4.0%. With the same material
parameters and using equation 3.21, the behavior of the material with a higher w/c ratio
can also be defined (refer to Section 3.4.3). Other properties for concrete and subgrade
soil materials are previously defined in Section 6.2.4.
6.7.2

Loading

The loading history of the previous model shall be applied here (refer to Section 6.6.2).
6.7.3

Results

The results of the analysis can be presented in the same way as those of the last model
in Section 6.6. Only the x-y plots for the development of total vertical displacement
against loading time/number of loading cycles are presented here for the calculation of
faulting at the intermediate joint.
Figure 6.21 presents the x-y plot for the left side loading (PA) and Figure 6.22 presents
the x-y plot for the right side loading (PB).
B

The results of x-y plots for the displacement in the other two joints (preceding and
proceeding the joint under load) are presented in Appendix D.

6.7 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with higher RMC

113

M ovem ent direction

PA
N ode 3056

N ode 3181
2 mm.

C oncrete slabs

Fig. 6.21: Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load with higher w/c; left side amplitude (PA)

Movement direction
PB
Node 3056

Node 3181
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Fig. 6.22: Vertical displacement [m] at joint under load with higher w/c; right side amplitude (PB)

114

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.7.4

Conclusion of the 2-D model using UMAT with higher RMC

The same conclusions of the model with constant low RMC are applied here. Moreover,
comparing Figures 6.15 and 6.17 of the previous model (base layer is Gravel Sand
material with constant low RMC) to Figures 6.21 and 6.22 of the current model (base
layer is Granodiorite material with higher RMC) we can conclude that, the shape of
relative deformation between the two slab edges is nearly the same, except that the
deformation rate in step 4 (cyclic behavior) is more greater in the model with
Granodiorite material than that of the model with Gravel Sand material. This can due to
the assumption of a higher w/c ratio of the regions under joints.
6.7.5

Calculation of faulting

By adding the results of the permanent displacements at different numbers of cycles (N)
for the above two loading cases (models), the relative difference in elevation between
each two adjacent edges of the concrete slabs can be determined in the three joint
positions. These elevation differences present the faulting at the three joint positions and
can be presented against the number of loading cycles (Figure 6.23 in normal-log scale)
and (Figure 6.24 in log-log scale).
The magnitude of faulting in the first loading cycle is not realistic, but that may be a
result of using a permanent deformation model. This also assumes unrealistic values for
the first loading cycle. However, in order to obtain realistic values of faulting, this
magnitude can be ignored from the total faulting.
The results of the elastic and total vertical displacements for the three joints in the 2-D
model are found in Appendix D. The calculation of faulting is based on these results.
12,00

10,00

Faulting (mm)

8,00

6,00

4,00

2,00

0,00
1,E+00

1,E+01

1,E+02

1,E+03

1,E+04

1,E+05

1,E+06

No. of Loading Cycles, N

Faulting, joint under load
Faulting, next joint to load

Faulting, previous joint to load

Total Faulting

Fig. 6.23: Faulting due to high w/c against number of loading cycles (N): (normal-log scale)

6.7 2-D model using UMAT for UGMs with higher RMC

115

100,00

Faulting (mm)

10,00

1,00

0,10

0,01
1,E+00

1,E+01

1,E+02
1,E+03
1,E+04
No. of Loading Cycles, N

1,E+05

Faulting, joint under load

Faulting, previous joint to load

Faulting, next joint to load

Total Faulting

1,E+06

Fig. 6.24: Faulting due to high w/c against number of loading cycles (N): (log-log scale)

6.7.5.1 Prediction of faulting at a higher number of loading cycles

Figure 6.25 presents the total faulting for the first million cycles after the deduction of
faulting at the first cycle. In order to predict the faulting at a higher number of loading
cycles, the faulting data of the first million cycles are fitted to an exponential function
whose equation is presented below. The faulting after 10.0 million cycles can be
expected to be 18.7 mm.
20,00
18,00
16,00

y = 0,3478e

0,5693x

Faulting (mm)

14,00
12,00
10,00
8,00
6,00
4,00
2,00
0,00
0,00

1,00

2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
No. of Loading Cycles, Log (N)
Total faulting

6,00

7,00

Exponentiell (Total faulting)

Fig. 6.25: Prediction of faulting due to higher w/c at increased number of loading cycles

116

PREDICTION OF FAULTING

6.7.6

Assessment of faulting results

For the assessment of the obtained results, the following remarks should be made:
1- The development of the faulting matches the development of the permanent
deformation behavior in the unbound granular materials with higher RMC, in
both the exponential growth in a normal-log relationship against the number of
loading cycles, and the magnitude of faulting in the first loading cycle (compare
Figure 6.23 to Figure 3.11). To get representative values of faulting against the
number of loading cycles, the magnitude of faulting at first loading cycle (2.24
mm) should be ignored.
2- By extrapolation, one can predict that, the total faulting after 20 million cycles is
about 22.2 mm. The faulting magnitude obtained from the calculation after
Khazanovich is 12.63 mm (see Section 6.3.3), which is less than the resulting
value with FEM model using fluid cavities with higher RMC.
3- Comparing the faulting results obtained from both analyses in Sections 6.6 and
6.7, one can see that faulting magnitude depend strongly on the properties of
unbound granular materials, especially the RMC.

6.8

Conclusion

Comparing the resulted value of faulting after Khazanovich (12.63 mm) for a design
period of 20 years with both values of the 2-D FEM model with cavities which are 5.93
mm for model with constant low RMC and 22.20 mm for model with relative high
RMC, one can see that the value after Khazanovich exists between the two values of
FEM models. Therefore it can be concluded that, there are some input data which must
be calibrated before using the proposed procedure with FEM analysis. The most
important factors are:
1- The value of w/c and region of application in base layer under transverse joints.
2- Densities of both fluids in cavities.
3- Volume of fluid-filled cavities.
These can be calibrated through experimental and/or field tests.
Comparing both models of faulting simulation which are the model for a base material
with a constant low RMC (Section 6.6) and the model for a base material with a relative
higher RMC in regions under joints (Section 6.7), it can be concluded that the faulting
rate in the second model rapidly increases with the growing number of loading cycles
which refers to the decrease of the stiffness of the UGMs with higher RMC levels (refer
to Section 3.4). This can lead to quick failure of a pavement system in a short time or
before reaching a considerable number of loading cycles (compare Figures 6.18 and
6.23).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1

Conclusions

For many years, structural analysis of pavement systems was based on the two classical
solution methods developed by Westergaard and Burmister. In the last few decades
many computer programs have been developed according to these classical methods, for
example, BISAR, ILLI-PAVE, FENLAP, WESLEA, amongst others. The assumptions
of solutions with these two historical methods are no longer accepted, especially since
the development of finite element method for analysis not only in engineering but also
in many other applications, for example medicine.
The FEM gives us the opportunity to simulate a given problem to a greater extent as in
real conditions. The choice of the appropriate element type is available (i.e. shell
element, beam element, axisymmetric 2-D or 3-D continuum elements, etc.). It also
better defines the boundary conditions and applied loads. This enables the simulating
recent complex and different load types. The interaction between different materials and
element types is also available. The most effective tool in FEM analysis is the
possibility of defining new material constitutive laws to model the engineering
characteristics of the behavior of different materials according to experimental and field
test results.
For the problems in geotechnical engineering, much effort is being made to better
model the behavior of different soil types and granular materials in order to obtain
reasonable solutions and design methods. The unbound granular material used in base
layer construction of pavement systems is one of the geo-materials, which according to
its nature, has a complex behavior. In the past and according to the classical methods of
Westergaard and Burmister, this material was assumed to be elastic, which does not
reflect its real nature. Consequently, results of design are not accurate. Hence many
efforts are still being made to better model these materials in pavement analysis and
design.
These materials are found to have a resilient behavior, with stress-dependent Youngs
modulus and Poissons ratio; referred to as resilient Youngs modulus and resilient
Poissons ratio. On the other hand, the accumulation of permanent deformation
increments was observed during the repeated load triaxial test. This explains the rutting
problem in flexible pavements, which is first initiated in the unbound base layer. Many
researchers have been trying to model the permanent deformation behavior of the
unbound granular materials and many models are being developed. It is concluded that
many of these models have a common point of view, that the permanent deformation
behavior depends on many factors, i.e. stress history, number of loading cycles, stresslevel, water content, grading, degree of compaction, maximum dry density, and

118

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

mineralogical composition. Many factors were considered in wide research, but the
water content influence was not closely studied in spite of its great influence on the
permanent deformation behavior which may lead to the failure of the material before
reaching a high considerable number of loading cycles.
Having all this research for the modeling of the behavior of UGMs in both elastic and
plastic states, it was an urgent requirement to use such new models for modeling such
materials in FEM analysis. Some programs have used the non-linear elasticity model for
the modeling of UGMs in the analysis and design of flexible pavement. Until now, no
program has counted for the permanent deformation behavior. The first trial to use the
permanent deformation models for the description of the behavior of the UGMs in FEM
analysis for ballast materials subjected to cyclic loads was performed by Stcker [54] in
the GH University of Kassel. Stcker implemented the material model in a user material
subroutine (UMAT) which can be used with the FEM program ABAQUS. He used the
reduced Mohr Coulomb failure criterion to model the material in an explicit procedure
(independent of loading path), assuming the system is in equilibrium in the initial
conditions. Then the additional cyclic loads, which are considered as quasi-static loads,
do not endanger the stability of the system. The accumulating strain increments are
computed with an approximation method.
Stcker [54] considered the material behavior as linear elastic and implemented the
calculation of permanent deformation increments with three different empirical models
(see equations 4.11 to 4.18). The material parameters (for example und ) in these
empirical equations are obtained from the average values after evaluating many results
of repeated load triaxial tests, conducted at different stress-levels. According to the
work of Werkmeister [68], a similar empirical equation was concluded (see equation
4.19) with stress dependant parameters (A and B). The parameters can be calculated for
any stress-level using the maximum and minimum principle stress values. It was
therefore important to modify the UMAT subroutine developed by Stcker to take into
account; firstly, the resilient behavior of the UGMs and, secondly, the stress-dependent
parameters (A and B) for the calculation of permanent deformation increments of these
materials under cyclic loads.
One of the most important problems in rigid pavements is stepping or faulting, which is
defined by the difference in elevation of adjacent concrete slabs across transversal
joints. This problem affects the riding quality and causes a big impact on the life-cycle
cost of the rigid pavement in terms of rehabilitation and vehicle operating costs. The
faulting occurs as a result of erosion in the UGMs in the presence of water under
unsealed or damaged joints between concrete slabs. The fine materials are transferred
through water from underneath the edge of the leave slab to underneath the edge of the
approach slab because of the sudden pressure on the UGMs beneath the edge of the
leave slab as the wheel crosses the joint.
In order to study this problem closely, the transfer of fines through water in FEM
analysis is nearly impossible. So it is assumed that the transfer of a hydrostatic fluid will

7.2 Recommendations

119

simulate the transfer of these fines instead. This transfer is simulated through a fluid
link element, which connects between two cavities filled with fluids; underneath the
edges of both the leave and approach slabs. This link element has a viscous and
hydrodynamic resistance that allows a specific volume of fluid to cross the link under a
specific pressure deferential in steady state dynamic analysis. In static analysis, the
resistance of the fluid link element is not active, hence, has no influence on the results.
Through this assumption and with the help of the UMAT subroutine for the description
of the permanent deformation of UGMs, it is possible to calculate the faulting with
FEM analysis but only in a qualitative way. A 2-D model was developed and the load
was applied as a moving load crossing the joint. In order to verify the proposed
procedure, the model was analyzed firstly with a Mohr Coulomb material definition for
the unbound material of base layer. From the results, it was found that the movement of
the load is the main cause of faulting.
After that, the analysis was performed again with two materials using the UMAT
subroutine. The first material is Gravel Sand with a relatively low water content which
is assumed to be constant over the whole base layer, and the second material is
Granodiorite with an assumption that, regions of base layer under transversal joints have
a higher water content than those under the middle of concrete slabs. The results
showed that, the faulting rates increase rapidly in the model with assumptions of higher
water content than the model with a low water content ratio. Assessment of results
showed that the employed procedure is reliable and can be used after calibration of
some input data, i.e. fluid densities, volume of cavities, and w/c values. This calibration
can be made through experimental or field tests under application of cyclic loads.

7.2

Recommendations

In the recent research into the behavior of unbound granular materials, the radial
permanent deformation has received little recognition. Some extra research is required
in the future to relate the radial permanent strain to the axial one, as this may have an
impact on the implemented material models in FEM analysis.
Another very important issue to be addressed is the effect of water content on the
behavior of UGMs. Consideration of this variable in the developed formulae for both
resilient and permanent deformation behavior, which currently only concentrate on the
stress-level and number of loading cycles, is very important. In this research a suggested
formula was concluded according to the observations from the COURAGE project. This
suggested formula still needs some verification through research based on repeated load
triaxial tests.
Regarding faulting problem, some field measurement and monitoring is required to
study the problem and to define the factors, which are affecting this phenomenon.
Among these factors are, the situation of load transfer devices in transversal joints, the
nature of UGMs, the thickness of the concrete slab, the thickness of the unbound

120

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

granular base layer, the level of stress, consideration of thermal stresses, and any other
effects of boundary conditions. From these previous studies, the most dominating
factors for the occurrence of faulting can be determined and the most suitable solution
to overcome such problem can be suggested.
As the joints present the weakest points in rigid pavement systems and are responsible
for many distress problems in those systems, new research considering the mode of
interaction between adjacent slabs in the joint area is urgent and necessary. New
methods for a durable load transfer mechanism across joints to overcome the problem of
faulting also need more research. On the other hand, one of the reasons for faulting is
the erosion in base layer materials. Preventing this erosion would greatly help prevent
the faulting problem, and can be achieved by using strips of geosynthetic materials (for
example geonets or geogrids) under the edges of the concrete slabs along the transversal
joints. This method will help reinforce the base layer in these areas in addition to
controlling the erosion process. Some research in this subject is needed to assess the
suggested method.
The UMAT subroutine, used in the current research for the definition of permanent
deformation behavior of unbound granular materials under cyclic loads will greatly aid
the analysis of rigid pavement systems. On the other hand, it is recommended to use the
new version of the subroutine in the future research of flexible pavement systems to
analyze some problems due to cyclic loading, for example, fatigue and rutting in
Asphalt layer.

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Appendices: Results

128

Appendices: Results

Appendix A

Fig. A.1: Maximum principle stress in concrete slab [kPa], load case 2

Fig. A.2: Maximum vertical elastic displacement [mm] in concrete slab, load case 2
Table A.1: Comparison of FEM and Westergaard results; load case 2 (corner loading)

Calculation method
Westergaard
Max. tension stress (kPa)
1075.00
Max. vertical deflection (mm)
0.274

FEM, Load case 2

839.00
0.440

129

Appendix B

Element X

Transversal joint position

Base layer

D
Contact area with concrete slab

Fig. B.1: Plan view for base layer in 3-D model with section A-B-C-D

130

Appendices: Results

Fig. B.2: Resilient E-Modulus in base layer [kPa] at end of step 3, load case 1

Fig. B.3: Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.2 (E-Modulus)

Appendix B

131

Fig. B.4: Resilient Poissons ratio in base layer [-] at end of step 3, load case 1

Fig. B.5: Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.4 (Poissons ratio)

132

Appendices: Results

Fig. B.6: Parameter (A) for permanent deformation in base layer at end of step 4, load case 1

Fig. B.7: Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.6 (Parameter A)

Appendix B

133

Fig. B.8: Parameter (B) for permanent deformation in base layer at end of step 4, load case 1

Fig. B.9: Section A-B-C-D for Figure B.8 (Parameter B)

134

Appendices: Results

Fig. B.10: Resilient modulus [kPa] against (N) for element X in base layer; step 4, load case 1

Fig. B.11: Poissons ratio [-] against (N) for element X in base layer; step 4, load case 1

Appendix C

135

Appendix C
M o v em e n t d irectio n

N ode 2901

N ode 3026
2 mm.

C o n crete slab s

Fig. C.1: Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; left side amplitude (PA)
M ovem ent direction

N ode 3211

N ode 3276
2 mm.

C oncrete slabs

Fig. C.2: Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; left side amplitude (PA)

136

Appendices: Results
M ovem ent direction

N ode 2901

N ode 3026
2 mm.

C oncrete slabs

Fig. C.3: Vertical displacement [m] at joint preceding to load; right side amplitude (PB)
Movement direction

Node 3211

Node 3276
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Fig. C.4: Vertical displacement [m] at joint proceeding to load; right side amplitude (PB)

Appendix C

137

Movement direction
PA

Movement direction

Node 2901

Movement direction

Node 3056

Node 3026

Node 3181

Node 3211

2 mm.

2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Joint (1)

Node 3276
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Table C.1: Vertical displacement [mm] at three joint positions; left side amplitude (PA)

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Previous to load

Under load

Next to load

3026

3056

3181

3211

3276

Elastic deformation

-0.34

-0.14

-2.80

-0.57

-0.27

-0.34

-0.36

-0.03

-4.73

-0.92

-0.28

-0.35

10

-0.37

-0.01

-4.93

-0.92

-0.28

-0.35

100

-0.37

0.02

-5.17

-0.91

-0.27

-0.35

1000

-0.38

0.04

-5.42

-0.90

-0.27

-0.35

10,000

-0.38

0.07

-5.71

-0.90

-0.27

-0.34

100,000

-0.39

0.11

-6.03

-0.89

-0.27

-0.34

1000,000

-0.41

0.15

-6.37

-0.88

-0.27

-0.34

at cycle No.

2901

Total deformation

Node No.

138

Appendices: Results

Movement direction

Movement direction

Movement direction

PB
Node 2901

Node 3056

Node 3026

Node 3211

Node 3181

2 mm.

Node 3276
2 mm.

2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Table C.2: Vertical displacement [mm] at three joint positions; right side amplitude (PB)

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Previous to load

Under load

Next to load

3026

3056

3181

3211

3276

Elastic deformation

-0.33

-0.28

-0.12

-2.65

-0.12

-0.32

-0.43

-0.61

1.66

-4.36

0.09

-0.30

10

-0.45

-0.68

2.15

-4.50

0.12

-0.30

100

-0.46

-0.76

2.70

-4.64

0.14

-0.30

1000

-0.47

-0.86

3.30

-4.78

0.17

-0.30

10,000

-0.49

-1.01

4.12

-4.93

0.20

-0.30

100,000

-0.51

-1.22

5.11

-5.09

0.24

-0.30

1000,000

-0.53

-1.54

6.58

-5.25

0.28

-0.30

at cycle No.

2901

Total deformation

Node No.

Appendix D

139

Appendix D
M o v em e n t d irectio n

N ode 2901

N ode 3026
2 mm.

C o n crete slab s

Fig. D.1: Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) preceding to load; left side amplitude (PA)
M ovem ent direction

N ode 3211

N ode 3276
2 mm.

C oncrete slabs

Fig. D.2: Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) proceeding to load; left side amplitude (PA)

140

Appendices: Results

M o v em e n t d irectio n

N ode 2901

N ode 3026
2 mm.

C o n crete slab s

Fig. D.3: Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) preceding to load; right side amplitude (PB)
M ovem ent direction

N ode 3211

N ode 3276
2 mm.

C oncrete slabs

Fig. D.4: Vertical displacement [m] at joint (with high w/c) proceeding to load; right side amplitude (PB)

Appendix D

141

Movement direction
PA

Movement direction

Node 2901

Movement direction

Node 3056

Node 3026

Node 3181

Node 3211

2 mm.

2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Joint (1)

Node 3276
2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Table D.1: Vertical displacement [mm] at three joints with high w/c; left side amplitude (PA)

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Previous to load

Under load

Next to load

3026

3056

3181

3211

3276

Elastic deformation

-0.35

-0.13

-2.83

-0.74

-0.25

-0.33

-0.37

-0.12

-3.50

-1.03

-0.26

-0.35

10

-0.37

-0.12

-3.57

-1.01

-0.26

-0.35

100

-0.37

-0.11

-3.66

-0.99

-0.26

-0.35

1000

-0.37

-0.10

-3.76

-0.98

-0.26

-0.35

10,000

-0.37

-0.09

-3.85

-0.95

-0.27

-0.35

100,000

-0.37

-0.08

-3.97

-0.93

-0.27

-0.34

1000,000

-0.37

-0.07

-4.06

-0.89

-0.27

-0.34

at cycle No.

2901

Total deformation

Node No.

142

Appendices: Results

Movement direction

Movement direction

Movement direction

PB
Node 2901

Node 3056

Node 3026

Node 3211

Node 3181

2 mm.

Node 3276
2 mm.

2 mm.

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Concrete slabs

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Table D.2: Vertical displacement [mm] at three joints with high w/c; right side amplitude (PB)

Joint (1)

Joint (2)

Joint (3)

Previous to load

Under load

Next to load

3026

3056

3181

3211

3276

Elastic deformation

-0.33

-0.29

0.03

-2.67

-0.08

-0.31

-0.36

-0.55

1.79

-3.29

-0.08

-0.34

10

-0.35

-0.59

2.25

-3.37

-0.07

-0.34

100

-0.34

-0.65

2.85

-3.44

-0.06

-0.34

1000

-0.33

-0.73

3.62

-3.51

-0.06

-0.34

10,000

-0.29

-0.86

4.70

-3.57

-0.05

-0.34

100,000

-0.22

-1.05

6.33

-3.64

-0.04

-0.34

1000,000

0.06

-1.56

10.33

-3.69

-0.04

-0.34

at cycle No.

2901

Total deformation

Node No.