ESDEP WG 9

THIN-WALLED CONSTRUCTION

Lecture 9.1: Thin-Walled Members

and Sheeting
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To introduce cold-formed members, and to discuss their manufacture, applications and
design.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture 6.2: General Criteria for Elastic Stability
Lectures 6.6: Buckling of Real Structural Elements
Lecture 8.1: Introduction to Plate Behaviour and Design
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.4: Steel Grades and Qualities
Lecture 4A.3: Practical Corrosion Protection for Buildings
Lecture 14.1.1: Single-Storey Buildings: Introduction and Primary Structure
SUMMARY
This lecture introduces cold-formed sections and members; it discusses methods of
manufacture and applications and shows how these sections have certain advantages
over more conventional steelwork. The design methods generally used are explained
and advice is given on practical considerations.

1. INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN OF COLDFORMED SECTIONS

Formerly the use of cold-formed thin-walled steel sections was mainly confined to
products where weight saving was of prime importance, e.g. in the aircraft, railway
and motor industries. Simple types of cold-formed profiles (mainly similar to hotrolled shapes), as well as profiled sheeting, have also been used as non-structural
elements in building for about one hundred years.
Systematic research work, carried out over the past four decades, as well as improved
manufacturing technology, protection against corrosion, increased material strength
and the availability of codes of practice for design, have led to wider use of coldformed sections within the building industry. In many countries cold-formed steel
construction is the fastest growing branch of the structural steel market.
1.1 Typical Products and Uses
Cold-formed sections are prismatic elements, of constant sheet thickness, formed by a
sequence of plane sub-elements and folds in order to perform specific load bearing
functions for members and also sometimes a space-covering function (see Figures 13).

A characteristic feature of cold-formed sections is that slender parts in compression

are stiffened by folding (intermediate and edge stiffeners), which delays or prevents
premature buckling of the compressed zones. This phenomenon is discussed in
Section 2.
1.2 Applications
The types of products available for use in building structures are:
linear members, mainly used in the higher range of thickness, as beams for
comparatively low loads on small spans (purlins and rails), as columns and
vertical supports, and in trusses.
plane load-bearing members in the lower range of thickness and with loadbearing resistance, are used in cases where a space-covering function under
moderate distributed loading is needed, e.g. floors, walls, roofs.
Cold-formed thin-walled building elements are, therefore, mainly used in low-rise and
light industrial buildings with small spans, where combination of cold-formed
sections and profiled sheeting can be utilised to the best advantage. Stressed skin
design of profiled sheeting can also have applications in the more interesting field of
space structures such as folded plates or hyperbolic paraboloid shells.
1.3 Advantages
The use of cold-formed structural members offers many advantages over construction
using more standard steel elements;
the shape of the section can be optimised to make the best use of the material.
there is much scope for innovation (in practice this has proved to be very
significant).
cold-formed members combined with sheeting offer economic and reliable
solutions which provide a space-covering function and lateral restraint against
buckling. Light-weight industrial buildings constructed form cold-formed
members and sheeting are an example of the combination of these two effects
(Figure 4).

These advantages can, therefore, be generally classified as weight-saving, by

optimization of the products with respect to the load-bearing function and
constructional demands; and functional performance in terms of space-covering
ability.
1.4 Manufacture
Cold-formed sections can be manufactured either by folding (Figure 5), press braking
(Figure 6), or cold rolling (Figure 7).

For small batches of building elements with lengths 6m (in exceptional

cases 12m), it is normally advantageous to use hydraulic folding or press-braking
machines. The effort required to form the shape depends on the sheet thickness, the
ductility of the material and the shape of the section, which is limited by the strip
width.
These manufacturing methods allow the sections to be shaped for optimum loadbearing resistance, intended purpose and further product processing.
1.5 Materials

The type of steel used should be suitable for cold-forming and, if required, for
galvanising. For cold-formed sections and sheeting it is preferable to use cold-rolled
continuously galvanized steel with yield stresses in the range of 280-320-350N/mm 2,
and with a total elongation of at least 10% for a 12,5mm wide strip, referred to a
gauge length lo =80mm, and a ratio of ultimate tensile strength to yield stress of at
least 1,1.
Under normal conditions, zinc protection Z275 (275g/m 2) is sufficient; in more
corrosive environments, improved protection using suitable coating systems may be
necessary. Continuously applied zinc protective coating systems are generally limited
in core thickness to about 3,5mm. For increased material thickness, hot-dip
galvanizing and site- or shop-applied top coats may be used.
1.6 Effects of Cold Forming
Cold-forming techniques allow the geometrical properties of a shape to be readily
varied. It is possible, therefore, to influence the load-bearing behaviour of the element
with respect to strength, stiffness and failure modes by, for example, the introduction
of intermediate stiffeners or by ensuring adequate width-to-thickness ratios in adjacent
flat parts of the section.
As cold forming of the steel sheet involves work hardening effects, the yield stress,
the ultimate strength and the ductility are all locally influenced by an amount which
depends on the bending radius, the thickness of the sheet, the type of steel and the
forming process. The average yield stress of the section then depends on the number
of corners and the width of the flat elements. The effect of cold forming on the yield
stress is illustrated in Figure 8.

The average yield stress can be estimated by approximate expressions given in the
appropriate codes. In the example, the average yield stress ratio f ya/fyb 1,05 and the
corner yield stress ratio fyc/fyb 1,4.
During the cold-forming process varying stretching forces can also induce residual
stresses, which can significantly change the load-bearing resistance of a section.
Favourable effects can be observed if residual stresses are induced in parts of the
section which act in compression and, at the same time, are susceptible to local
buckling.
1.7 Connections

The development of lightweight construction requires the availability of adequate

fastening techniques; suitable fasteners are bolts with nuts, blind rivets, self-tapping
screws, self-drilling screws and powder actuated fasteners (Figure 9); industrialized
production spot welding and adhesives may also be used. In order to use fasteners in
building construction, it is necessary to be familiar with the behaviour of the
connections and to lay down design criteria for serviceability and stability.
Comprehensive experimental and theoretical investigations form the basis of the
analytical evaluation of the load-bearing behaviour of the fasteners under static and
dynamic loading. Figure 10 shows fields of application and the appropriate failure
modes.

Generally, failure modes causing sudden failure of connections should be avoided.

Local over-stressing is indicated by large deformations and should be reduced by load
transmission to adjacent fasteners.
1.8 Codes
Extensive research and product development in the past has led to national design
specifications for cold-formed sections and structures in many countries. European
Recommendations for the design of cold-formed sections have been developed by the
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork [1,2], and form the basis for Part
1.3 of Eurocode 3 "Cold-formed thin-gauge members and sheeting" [3].

2. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIOUR
2.1 General
Compared with conventional steel members, thin-walled structural elements are
characterised by:
relatively high width to thickness ratios.
unstiffened or incompletely restrained parts of sections.
singly symmetrical or unsymmetrical shapes.
geometrical imperfections of the same order as or exceeding the thickness of
the section.
structural imperfections caused by the cold-forming process.
As a consequence, a number of factors must be considered when designing these
elements:
buckling within the range of large deflections.
effects of local buckling on overall stability.
combined torsional and flexural buckling.
shear lag and curling effects.
effects of varying residual stresses over the section.
Under increasing load, thin-walled structural elements are generally subject to varying
non-linear distributions of stress and strain over the cross-section, often in conjunction
with substantial out-of-plane deflections. There is also the possibility of different
failure modes, particularly for sections with flat parts in compression which are
unstiffened, i.e. elastically restrained along one edge only.
The influence of stiffeners on the load-bearing resistance is illustrated in Figure 11,
where the mass and nominal force at failure of a hot-rolled profiled HEB240 is
compared with different shapes of thin-walled elements. In addition, this example
shows the advantage of the space-covering function of thin-walled elements. Another

example is given in Figure 12, where the increase in moment resistance due to
intermediate flange and web stiffeners is shown.

It is evident from the above discussion that an accurate analysis of the mode of action
is usually extremely complicated, especially when imperfections and plasticity have to
be taken into consideration. For practical design there is a need for simplified
analytical models which allow an approximate but conservative estimate of the failure
load and the behaviour of the structure under service load to be made.

3. LOCAL BUCKLING AND THE EFFECTIVE WIDTH

CONCEPT
As illustrated above, the effect of local buckling in the compression elements of a
section often determines the behaviour and load-bearing resistance. The theoretical
solution to this problem, taking into account the post-buckling strength, is not
practical for design purposes, for which the effective width design model has been
developed.

It is evident from the stress distribution of a simply supported plate strip under normal
forces (see Figure 13a) that in the post-buckling range the stresses are concentrated
along the plate supports. Thus, the ultimate load can be determined from a uniform
stress distribution within an effective width bef, which depends on the critical buckling
stress (cr=bifurcation stress) and the yield stress (fy) of the plate material. The
expression for bef, given by Von Karman, has been subsequently modified by Winter
with provision for unintended geometrical imperfections (see Figure 13b).

The "Winter-Formula"

=
implies that bef=0,78 bp, when cr=fy.
Substituting cr, the relative slenderness
p

is given by:

= (1,052/k)(bp/t)(fy/E)

and
= (1/

)(1 - 0,22/

i.e. that = 1,0 if

0,673.

If the buckling factor k for the bifurcation stress is known, the effective width b ef can
be calculated; for example, bef=bp for a doubly supported plate element under constant
normal stress with k=4, if bp/t 1,33 E/fy; or for a singly supported plate element
with k =0,43 if bp/t 0,42 E/fy. Assuming a yield stress fy=320N/mm2, the elements
are fully effective if bp/t 34 or bp/t 11 respectively.
Where appropriate these reduced effective widths should be taken into account by
using the effective values of the section properties, i.e. the effective area (A ef), section
modulus (Wef), and moment of inertia (Ief). Appropriate k values are given in [1].
3.1 Doubly and Singly Supported Elements
Elements of a section are either doubly supported (flanges or webs of trapezoidal
sheeting) or singly supported (flanges of U- or L-shaped profiles). Doubly supported
elements are much stronger, especially when they also have low b/t ratios; this can be
achieved by longitudinal edge stiffeners, (lips, bends folds) and/or by intermediate V,
U or trapezoidal shaped stiffeners (see Figures 1, 2). These stiffeners, located in the
compression zone, are subjected to normal forces and, working as beam columns on
elastic foundations, are prone to buckling. This behaviour gives the basis for a
simplified design model where the stiffener and adjacent parts of the flat elements are
treated as beams on elastic foundation, with a spring stiffness dependent on the
boundary conditions of the element.

The buckling mode and load depend on the effective area and stiffness of the stiffener.
If the stiffener has an adequate stiffness, it may be treated as a rigid support for the
adjacent flat element; codes of practice gives approximate criteria for assessing this.
Depending on the buckling load of the stiffener, an interaction of local and global
buckling may occur, as illustrated in Figure 14.

3.2 Effective Cross-sections

The first step when analyzing the load-bearing behaviour and estimating the failure
load of a cold-formed member is to evaluate the effective width of the compression

elements of the section, based on the appropriate stress distribution over the crosssection; the next step is to calculate the geometric properties of the effective section,
taking into account the shift of the neutral axis caused by disregarding the ineffective
parts of the section. Thereafter the design procedure is the same as for thick-walled
sections. In general, the resistance of a thin-walled effective cross-section is limited
by the design yield stress at any part of the section, based on an elastic analysis.
Deviations from this rule are only permitted in special cases.
In the following, only basic design rules are used in order to explain the design
procedure; the interaction of different effects, causing biaxial stress distributions,
follows the same principles as for hot-rolled members.
In general terms, the design resistance is based on the value f y/M, where M is a partial
safety factor for resistance (normally M=1,1).
If the member does not buckle the moment resistance is given by:
RM = Weff.fy/M
where Weff is the section modulus of the effective cross-section. In order to avoid an
iterative procedure, the effective portions of the web may be based on =2/1,
obtained by assuming the compression flange to be reduced, but the web being fully
effective (see Figure 15).

When yielding first occurs on the tension side, the plastic reserves of the tension zone
can be utilized until the compression stress reaches f y. This will normally lead to
iterative calculations.
If the same section is affected by a normal force acting at the centre of gravity of the
cross-section, the effective section has to be determined with respect to compressive
stresses in each element. As illustrated in Figure 16, it may happen that the centre of
gravity of the effective section moves, causing an additional bending moment
(M=Ne). This implies that cross-sections, where the effective neutral axis has shifted,
have to be checked for compression and bending.

3.3 Web Buckling and Crippling

Web buckling can be caused by compressive bending stresses or by shear stresses
above the critical buckling strength. In both cases, the buckling strength depends on
the web slenderness (sw/t). For a yield stress of about fy=320N/mm2, webs are prone to
buckling if sw/t>80 for pure bending and sw/t>60 for pure shear. However, buckling
does not necessarily imply a limit state for the structure, if post-critical equilibrium
can be relied on (Figure 17).

Crippling is a phenomenon associated with local loading of high intensity

perpendicular to the plane of the web. It is most evident in the case of concentrated
loading (Figure 17) or at intermediate supports of continuous beams. It is often more
severe than web buckling, since crippling reduces the effective depth of a section and
there is no post-critical strength. Depending on the webs' eccentricity relative to the
load direction, and on the category of loads (see below), various values for web
crippling resistance can be expected (Figure 18).

First category loads include end supports of beams, loads near the ends of a cantilever,
and loads applied so close to a support that the distance from the support to the nearest
edge of the load, measured parallel to the beam axis, is less than 1,5s w.
Second category loads include intermediate supports and loads situated more than
1,5sw from a support or an end of a cantilever.
It should be noted that expressions given in the codes are semi-empirical.
3.4 Lateral-torsional Buckling
Unbraced members in flexure are generally susceptible to lateral-torsional buckling;
this type of failure is more likely if the section is subjected to torsion due to the
inclination of the main axis relative to the load direction, or if the shear centre of the
section is not on the loading axis.

In order to minimise these effects, varieties of Z- and C-sections have been developed
(see Figures 19 and 20).

The susceptibility of thin-walled open sections to twisting and lateral-torsional

buckling can effectively be neutralized by restraints provided by adjacent building
elements, for example, metal sheeting connected to the sections using self drilling or
self tapping screws.
In the case where Z-purlins are used for roof structures, the lower flange is normally
free to rotate whereas the upper flange is attached to the sheeting. The in-plane
stiffness of the sheeting prevents a lateral displacement of the upper flange and the
distance between the fasteners and the edges of the section provides the lever arm for
torsional restraint. The rotational spring stiffness C [Nm/rad] depends on the bending
stiffness of the sheeting (Cm), the distortion of the section (Cp) and the stiffness of
the connection between the sheeting and the purlin (CA); the last value must be
estimated by tests.
From 1/C= 1/Cm + 1/Cp + 1/CA
the effective value of C can be derived.
The exact analytical solution of the problem of lateral buckling of continuous beams
is too complicated for practical use; however, the beam-on-elastic-foundation model
can help to solve the problem.

3.5 Interaction of Local and Global Buckling

It is obvious that local buckling influences the load-bearing resistance of a section
subjected to axial loading. Using the effective width method, the reduced (effective)
area Aef has to be taken into account when calculating the slenderness of the column
(l/ief).(Aef/Ag)1/2 and when determining the design resistance N d=k Aef fy/M. The
buckling factor k is taken from the relevant European buckling curves (a-d) for the
appropriate value of . The classification of section types shows that members
without end stiffeners should be avoided since the load-bearing resistance is relatively
low (see also Lecture 9.2).

4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Good Practice Notes
As cold-formed sections are characterised by relatively low sheet thicknesses and/or
high width thickness ratios account must be taken of:
local buckling which can occur in the serviceability state.
special requirements regarding corrosion protection.
protection against unacceptable deformations during transport and erection of
the structure.
Members and structures should be designed so that:
deformations in the serviceability state are within acceptable limits with regard
to functional requirements.
preferably symmetrical (double-, single- or point-symmetrical) section shapes
are chosen.
the effective area of the section is as close as possible to the gross area (this can
be achieved by the addition of intermediate stiffeners in flat parts of the section
under compression).
joints and connections have sufficient rigidity and rotation capacity.
local instability phenomena are prevented by adequate stiffeners.

 global instability phenomena such as lateral buckling or increased stresses due

to torsion of the section, can be prevented by adequate external restraint (for
example, by connecting to building elements such as sheeting or bracing).
essential load-bearing parts of the structure are protected against impact loads.
corrosion due to poor detailing, e.g. detailing which allows accumulation of
water, is avoided.
4.2 Influence of Joint Flexibility
If thin-walled members are connected to each other by mechanical fasteners, the
rigidity of the joints is influenced by slip and by local buckling effects in front of the
fasteners - the latter may occur if bolts are used in order to transmit relatively high
forces; another possible problem is where the rigidity is reduced by large reductions in
effective areas within the joint. The flexibility of the joint may influence the
distribution and redistribution of bending moments and shear within the structure, and
also the calculation of the load-bearing resistance. These effects must be properly
investigated - by testing if necessary.

5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Cold-formed products are typically used in building construction as light duty
beams or columns, or as sheeting.
Their shape can be optimised to reduce weight and facilitate functional
performance.
They are manufactured by folding, press braking or cold rolling. All of these
processes can result in an increase in yield strength.
Design of cold-formed sections uses the concepts of effective width, giving
effective section properties.
For beam design maximum moment of resistance, lateral-torsional buckling (if
unrestrained), and web buckling and crippling are the principles checks
required.

6. REFERENCES

[1] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations

for the Design of Light Gauge Steel Members", Publication 49, ECCS, 1987.
[2] European Convention for Constructional Steelwork: "European Recommendations
for the Design of Profiled Sheeting", Publication 40, ECCS, 1983.
[3] Eurocode 3, Part 1.3: "Cold-formed Thin-gauge Members and Sheeting" CEN (in
preparation).