ELECTRICAL MACHINES

ABSTRACT

Induction motor design has a major effect on the behavior and performance of
an induction motor.

The induction motor can be treated essentially as a transformer for analysis.

In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must be started from rest
and both the motor and load accelerated up to full speed.

The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a fixed voltage, will drop
a little to the minimum torque known as the pull up torque as the motor
accelerates, and then rise to a maximum torque known as the breakdown
or pull out torque at almost full speed and then drop to zero at
synchronous speed.

Once the motor is up to speed, it operates at low slip, at a speed determined by

the number of stator poles.

Motor Characteristics:
 Direct -current motors
 Shunt -wound motors
 Series-wound motors
 Compound wound motors
Motors designation consists of groups of capital letters and figures, which are marked
on the motor nameplate.
Motors cannot take over axial or radial loads from the driven equipment.

Motors are designed for direct coupling with the driven equipment by means of
flexible coupling.
Synchronous Generators:

All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.

Compass needle will follow the magnetic field exactly, and make the one revolution
per cycle.

If you start forcing the magnet around you will discover that it works like a
generator, sending alternating current back into the grid.

The rotor electromagnets are connected to the current by using brushes and slip
rings on the axle of the generator.

Induction Motor Design

has a major effect on the behaviour and performance of an induction
motor. design of a motor are well understood.

Stator design.
The stator is the outer body of the motor which houses the driven
windings on an iron core. In a single speed three phase motor design, the
standard stator has three windings, while a single phase motor typically
has two windings. The stator core is made up of a stack of round pre-
punched laminations pressed into a frame which may be made of
aluminium or cast iron. The laminations are basically round with a
round hole inside through which the rotor is positioned. The inner
surface of the stator is made up of a number of deep slots or grooves
right around the stator. It is into these slots that the windings are
positioned. and an electromagnet also has a North and a South pole. As
the induction motor Stator is essentially like one or more electromagnets
depending on the stator windings, it also has poles in multiples of two.
i.e. 2 pole, 4 pole, 6 pole etc.
the power rating of the motor is determined by the losses which
comprise copper loss and iron loss, and the ability of the motor to
dissipate the heat generated by these losses.

Rotor Design.
The Rotor comprises a cylinder made up of round laminations
 pressed onto the motor shaft, and a number of short-circuited
windings.The rotor windings are made up of rotor bars passed through
the rotor, from one end to the other, around the surface of the rotor.
The bars protrude beyond the rotor and are connected together by a
shorting ring at each end. The bars are usually made of aluminium or
copper made of brass.
. Equivalent Circuit.
The induction motor can be treated essentially as a transformer for
analysis. The induction motor has stator leakage reactance, stator
copper loss elements as series components, and iron
loss and magnetising inductance as shunt elements.
The rotor circuit likewise has rotor leakage
reactance, rotor copper (aluminium) loss and shaft
power as series elements.
. The magnetising current varies depending on the design of the motor.
For small motors, the magnetising current may be as high as 60%, but
for large two pole motors, the magnetising current is more typically 20 -
25%. At the design voltage, the iron is typically near saturation, so the
iron loss and magnetising current do not vary linearly with voltage with
small increases in voltage resulting in a high increase in magnetising
current and iron loss.

Starting Characteristics.
In order to perform useful work, the induction motor must be started from rest
and both the motor and load accelerated up to full speed. Typically, this is done by
relying on the high slip characteristics of the motor and enabling it to provide the
acceleration torque.
Induction motors at rest, appear just like a short circuited transformer,.

The starting torque of an induction motor starting with a fixed voltage, will drop a
little to the minimum torque known as the pull up torque as the motor accelerates, and
then rise to a maximum torque known as the breakdown or pull out torque at almost
full speed and then drop to zero at synchronous speed. The curve of start torque
against rotor speed is dependant on the terminal voltage and the motor/rotor design.
Starting efficiency = Locked Rotor Torque/ Locked Rotor Current

Running Characteristics.
Once the motor is up to speed, it operates at low slip, at a speed determined by
the number of stator poles.The frequency of the current flowing in the rotor is very
low. Typically, the full load slip for a standard cage induction motor is less than 5%.
The actual full load slip of a particular motor is dependant on the motor design with
typical full load speeds of four pole induction motor varying between 1420 and 1480
RPM at 50 Hz. The synchronous speed of a four pole machine at 50 Hz is 1500 RPM
and at 60 Hz a four pole machine has a synchronous speed of 1800 RPM

MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Squirrel – cage rotors:

Squirrel cage rotor has solid bars conducting material placed in

rotor slots and shorted through end rings on each side figure shows the view
of the squirrel cage of a small size motor. In large machines copper
bars driven in the slots and are brazed on to copper end rings. Rotors up to
50cm.s diameter usually have diecast aluminum bars where in the end rings
of also cast simultaneously with the same material by using a suitable mould.
This is economical process had is generally employed in mass production of
small size induction motors.
Slip Ring Motors.
Slip ring motors or wound rotor motors are a variation on the standard
cage induction motors. The slip ring motor has a set of windings on the
rotor which are not short circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip
rings for connection to external resistors and contactors. Another use of
the slipring motor is as a means of speed control. By modifying the speed
torque curve, by altering the rotor resistors, the speed at which the
motor will drive a particular load can be altered. This has been used in
winching type applications, but does result in a lot of heat generated in
the rotor resistors and consequential drop in overall efficiency.

Direct-Current Motors - DC motors are divided into three classes, designated

according to the method of connecting the armature and the field windings as shunt-
series and compound wound.

Shunt-Wound Motors - This type of motor runs practically constant speed,

regardless of the load. It is the type generally used in commercial practice and is
usually recommended where starting conditions are not usually severs. Speed of the
shunt-wound motors may be regulated in two ways: first, by inserting resistance in
series with the armature, thus decreasing speed: and second, by inserting resistance in
the field circuit, the speed will vary with each change in load: in the latter, the speeds
is practically constant for any setting of the controller. This latter is the most generally
used for adjustable-speed service, as in the case of machine tools.

Series-Wound DC Motors - This type of motor speed varies automatically with

the load, increasing as the load decreases. Use of series motor is generally limited to
case where a heavy power demand is necessary to bring the machine up to speed, as
in the case of certain elevator and hoist installations, for steelcars, etc. Series-wound
motors should never be used where the motor cab be started without load, since they
will race to a dangerous degree.

Compound-Wound DC Motors - A combination of the shunt wound and series

wound types combines the characteristics of both. Characteristics may be varied by
varying the combination of the two windings. These motors are generally used where
severe starting conditions are met and constant speed is required at the same time.

Advantages :-
1.high starting torque
2.high over load capacity
3.nearly constant speed
4.low starting current
Applications
1.line shafts
2.pumps
3.lifts
4.generators
5.mills

1. Destination
Herein there are presented motors meant for main equipment driving in the
cement plants: tube mills, crushers, blowers, rotary calciner kilns,
compressors and other equipment with similar features. They can operate
indoor or outdoor, in temperate or tropical climate, dusty environment, free of
chemical, corrosive or inflammable agents.

2.
Designation
Motors designation consists of groups of capital letters and figures, which are
marked on the motor nameplate. Their significances are the following:

M 3-phase induction motor

 I Closed construction
P wound-rotor
B cage-rotor
number constructive version
A water cooled
X special construction
number height of rotating axis (H quota)
letter frame length
number shaft end diameter
number number of poles

3. Constructive Characteristics

• Motors have wound-rotor, permanently applied brushes, or squirrel-cage rotor

• Windings are achieved in F insulation class, vacuum and pressure impregnated
(VPI process)

• Bearings are equipped with rolling bearings, provided with lubricators and
grease quantity regulators

• Motors cannot take over axial or radial loads from the driven equipment

• Constructive forms are IMB 3 and IMB 20 (for MIP-A type motors)

• Motors are designed for direct coupling with the driven equipment by means
of flexible coupling

Synchronous Generators

3-Phase Generator (or Motor) Principles

All 3-phase generators (or motors) use a rotating magnetic field.
In the picture to the left we have installed three electromagnets around a circle.
Each of the three magnets is connected to its own phase in the three phase electrical
grid.As you can see, each of the three electromagnets alternate between producing a
South pole and a North pole towards the centre. The letters are shown in black when
the magnetism is strong, and in light grey when the magnetism is weak. The
fluctuation in magnetism corresponds exactly to the fluctuation in voltage of each
phase. When one phase is at its peak, the other two have the current running in the
opposite direction, at half the voltage. Since the timing of current in the three magnets
is one third of a cycle apart, the magnetic field will make one complete revolution per
cycle

Synchronous Motor Operation

The compass needle (with the North Pole painted red) will follow the magnetic field
exactly, and make one revolution per cycle. With a 50 Hz grid, the needle will make
50 revolutions per second, i.e. 50 times 60 = 3000 rpm (revolutions per minute).

In the picture above, we have in fact managed to build what is called a 2-pole
permanent magnet synchronous motor. The reason why it is called a synchronous
motor, is that the magnet in the centre will rotate at a constant speed which is
synchronous with (running exactly like the cycle in) the rotation of the magnetic field.
The reason why it is called a 2-pole motor is that it has one North and one South
pole. It may look like three poles to you, but in fact the compass needle feels the pull
from the sum of the magnetic fields around its own magnetic field. So, if the magnet
at the top is a strong South pole, the two magnets at the bottom will add up to a strong
North pole.
The reason why it is called a permanent magnet motor is that the compass needle in
the centre is a permanent magnet, not an electromagnet. (You could make a real motor
by replacing the compass needle by a powerful permanent magnet or an
electromagnet
which maintains its magnetism through a coil (wound around an iron core) which is
fed with direct current).
The setup with the three electromagnets is called the stator in the motor, because
this part of the motor remains static (in the same place). The compass needle in the
centre is called the rotor, obviously because it rotates.

Synchronous Generator Operation

If you start forcing the magnet around (instead of letting the current from the grid
move it), you will discover that it works like a generator, sending alternating current
back into the grid. (You should have a more powerful magnet to produce much
electricity). The more force (torque) you apply, the more electricity you generate, but
the generator will still run at the same speed dictated by the frequency of the electrical
grid.
You may disconnect the generator completely from the grid, and start your own
private 3-phase electricity grid, hooking your lamps up to the three coils around the
electromagnets. (Remember the principle of magnetic / electrical induction from the
reference manual section of this web site). If you disconnect the generator from the
main grid, however, you will have to crank it at a constant rotational speed in order to
produce alternating current with a constant frequency. Consequently, with this type of
generator you will normally want to use an indirect grid connection of the generator.
In practice, permanent magnet synchronous generators are not used very much.
There are several reasons for this. One reason is that permanent magnets tend to
become demagnetized by working in the powerful magnetic fields inside a generator.
Another reason is that powerful magnets (made of rare earth metals, e.g. Neodymium)
are quite expensive, even if prices have dropped lately.

Wind Turbines with Synchronous Generators

Wind turbines which use synchronous generators normally use electromagnets in the
rotor which are fed by direct current from the electrical grid. Since the grid supplies
alternating current, they first have to convert alternating current to direct current
before sending it into the coil windings around the electromagnets in the rotor.
The rotor electromagnets are connected to the current by using brushes and slip
rings on the axle (shaft) of the generator.
Applications
1.power houses and sub stations
2.factories
3mills and industries
4.constant speed equipment (fans,blowers,centrifugal pumps, motor generators etc..)

Alternator
A.C generators commonly called alternators, have no commutators as they are
required to supply electrical energy with an alternating voltage. THEREFORE, IT is not
necessary that armature be the rotating member.
Alternator Operation
The operation of an alternator is somewhat different than the dc generator.
An alternator has a rotating magnet (rotor) which causes the magnetic lines
of force to rotate with it. These lines of force are cut by the stationary (stator)
windings in the alternator frame, as the rotor turns with the magnet rotating the N and
S poles to keep changing positions. When S is up and N is down, current flows in one
direction, but when N is up and S is down, current flows in the opposite
direction. This is called alternating current as it changes direction twice
foreach complete revolution. If the rotor speed were increased to 60 revolutions per
second, it would produce 60-cycle alternating current.

CONCLUSION:
Induction machines:
More than 85% of industrial motors in use today are infact
induction motors. It is substantially a constant speed motor with a shunt characteristic;
a few percent speed drop from no load to full load. It is a single fed motor unlike the
synchronous motor which requires a.c supply on the stator side and d.c excitation on
the rotor
Externally excited generators require a little auxiliary equipment . These are run
parallel with an existing 3-phase system .Thus ,voltage and frequency of induction
can not be controlled . Only the active power can be regulated through the speed
control of prime-mover during the 3-phase induction generator.
These are also used in unattend small remote hydro plants there by
inter connecting a small power station to large power distribution network.
Self excited generators are used for the conversion of
unconventional energies into electrical energy. There is good example for this i.e the
conversion of the wind energy into electrical, an inductuion generator with a wind
min offers and ideal solution
SYNCHRONOUS MEACHINES:
 A synchronous machine one of the important types of
electric machine, in fact all generating machines at power stations are of synchronous
kind and are known as synchronous generators or alternators.
Alternators are used universally for the generation of
three-phase power in the whole world. These are also used in ships and air crafts.
Synchronous condensers are used to generate reactive
power and also to improve system power factor in situation where static capacitors
become more expensive