BRUNER

The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The

intelligent mind creates from experience "generic coding
systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and
possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner, 1957, p. 234).

Thus, children as they grow must acquire a way of

representing the "recurrent regularities" in their environment.
So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just
the concepts, categories, and problem-solving procedures
invented previously by the culture, but also the ability to
"invent" these things for oneself.
Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human
capabilities and "culturally invented technologies that serve as
amplifiers of these capabilities." These culturally invented
technologies include not just obvious things such as
computers and television, but also more abstract notions such
as the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and language
itself. Bruner would likely agree with Vygotsky that language
serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the
individual's response.
The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e.,
learning to learn).

In his research on the cognitive development of children

(1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of
representation:

Enactive representation (action-based)

Iconic representation (image-based)

Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or
knowledge are stored and encoded in memory.
Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget), the modes
of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as
they "translate" into each other.
Enactive
(0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based
information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the
form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might
remember the action of shaking a rattle.
The child represents past events through motor responses,
i.e. an infant will shake a rattle which has just been removed
or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to

produce the accustomed sound. And this is not just limited to

children.
Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing,
sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find
difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.
Iconic
(1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form
of images (a mental picture in the minds eye). For some, this
is conscious; others say they dont experience it. This may
explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often
helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal
information.
Symbolic
(7 years onwards)
This develops last. This is where information is stored in the
form of a code or symbol, such as language. This is the most
adaptable form of representation, for actions & images have a
fixed relation to that which they represent. Dog is a symbolic
representation of a single class.
Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered,
classified etc., so the user isnt constrained by actions or

images. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily

as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.
Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when
faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive
to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for
adult learners. A true instructional designer, Bruner's work
also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is
capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is
organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of
Piaget and other stage theorists.
The Importance of Language
Language is important for the increased ability to deal with
abstract concepts. Bruner argues that language can code
stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing
only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible
cognition.
The use of words can aid the development of the concepts
they represent and can remove the constraints of the here &
now concept. Basically, he sees the infant as an intelligent &
active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities
basically similar to those of the mature adult.
Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart
knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and

problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a

range of situations. Specifically, education should also
develop symbolic thinking in children.
In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was
published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that
students are active learners who construct their own
knowledge.
Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's notion of readiness. He
argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity
of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development.
This means students are held back by teachers as certain
topics are deemed to difficult to understand and must be
taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the
appropriate state of cognitive maturity.
Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of
any age) is capable of understanding complex information:
'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught
effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at
any stage of development'. (p. 33)
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the
concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information
being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a
simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels
later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of
gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy).

Ideally teaching his way should lead to children being able to

solve problems by themselves.
Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge
and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a
coding system. Bruner believed that the most effect way to develop
a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the
teacher. The concept of discovery learning implies that students
construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a
constructivist approach).
The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by
rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process.
This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help
student discover the relationship between bits of information.
To do this a teacher must give students the information they
need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral
curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.
Bruner and Vygotsky
Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasise a child's environment,
especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both
agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the
child's learning.
Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of
learning, citing that other people should help a child develop
skills through the process of scaffolding. The term scaffolding
first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner and Ross

described how tutors' interacted with preschooler to help them

solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).
The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's notion
of the zone of proximal development, and it not uncommon for
the terms to be used interchangeably. Scaffolding involves
helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child
with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.
'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees
of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can
concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of
acquiring' (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).
Bruner and Piaget
Obviously there are similarities between Piaget and Bruner,
but an important difference is that Bruners modes are not
related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it.
Whilst sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they
coexist. Bruner states that what determines the level of
intellectual development is the extent to which the child has
been given appropriate instruction together with practice or
experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right
explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only
understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of
education and the adult.
Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development,
he doesnt see them as representing different separate modes

of thought at different points of development (like Piaget).

Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and
techniques into more integrated adult cognitive techniques.
Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for
cognitive development and since language is our primary
means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance
to language in determining cognitive development.
BRUNER AGREES WITH
PIAGET

BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET

1. Children are PRE-ADAPTED

to learning

1. Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS

not a series of stages

2. Children have a NATURAL

CURIOSITY

2. The development of LANGUAGE is a cause

not a consequence of cognitive development

3. Childrens COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES develop over
time

3. You can SPEED-UP cognitive development.

You dont have to wait for the child to be ready

4. Children are ACTIVE

participants in the learning
process

4. The involvement of ADULTS and MORE

KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big
difference

5. Cognitive development entails 5. Symbolic thought does NOT REPLACE

the acquisition of SYMBOLS
EARLIER MODES OF REPRESENTATION

Bruner's studies on learning led to his research and ultimate

development of the famous scaffolding theory in education,
which identifies the importance of providing students with
enough support in the initial stages of learning a new subject.
A scaffold ensures that children arent left to their own devices
to understand something. The support is removed when the
student is ready, like the scaffolding that supports workers
whove been constructing or repairing a building, which is
removed when the construction is complete.
Vygotsky: Zone of proximal development
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
introduced the concept of a zone of proximal
development (ZPD), which is the notional
gap between a.) the learner's current
developmental level as determined by
independent problem-solving ability and b.)
the learner's potential level of development
as determined by the ability to solve
problems under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers.

Bruner: Scaffolding
Jerome Bruner,
researcher in
cognitive and
educational psychology, coined the term
scaffolding as a description for the kind of
assistance given by the teacher or more
knowledgeable peer in providing
comprehensible input and moving the
learner into the zone of proximal
development.
Scaffolding includes all the things that
teachers do already when they predict the
kinds of difficulty that the class or individual
students in it will have with a given task.
Typical examples are the activation of
background knowledge at the beginning of
the lesson or a brief review of key
vocabulary at the end of it. The Writing
Process is another prime example of
scaffolding.

Bruners scaffolding theory is that children need support and

active help from their teachers and parents if they are going to
become independent learners as they mature. According to
Bruners scaffolding theory, children are somewhat dependent
on those who have more knowledge or competency than they
do in certain areas, such as reading or calculating square
roots, when they begin learning. As students gain more
independence and confidence, the help from teachers and
parents decreases until the students are independent
learners, much as scaffolding used to support construction
workers and their materials is removed as a building project
nears completion.
In an elementary school classroom, for example, Bruners
scaffolding theory can be implemented as children learn how
to read. At first, the teacher might do most or all of the reading
aloud to students, pronouncing all words for them, defining
unfamiliar vocabulary words, and explaining the meaning of
the text. After the students have had the teacher to model
effective reading for them for a while, they will begin to be
assigned more independent reading, reading aloud in small
groups as they tackle the words and meanings but still ask
questions. As they gain more independence, students will take
more of the responsibility for learning how to read, such as
responding to the text verbally and in writing, seeking out the
meaning of new vocabulary words, reading fluently, and
gaining meaning from text by using higher-level thinking
strategies. The more that students practice reading and
become confident and proficient at it, the less they will depend
on help from their teachers.
The paradigm or idea behind Bruners scaffolding theory can
be used across all age and grade levels and across all subject
areas. In a high school math course, for example, students
might begin to learn how to solve quadratic equations or to

prove a geometric formula by listening to their teacher

describe how to do it as she works examples for them. They
might then be asked to work independently or in groups to
solve some of these problems as their teacher circulates,
helps them and then goes over the answers with the entire
class to check for accuracy. Once students have gained more
independence and competency in these mathematical
concepts, they might work in groups where they teach and
guide one another or present problems and solutions to their
class without help from their instructor.
adult controlling those elements of the task that are essentially
beyond the learner's capacity, thus permitting him to
concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are
within his range of competence.
ZPD is defined as the distance between the child's actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the higher level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance and
in collaboration with more capable peers (Vygotksy, 1978, p.
86). Enabling the learner to bridge this gap between the actual
and the potential depends on the resources or the kind of
support that is provided.
The expert is knowledgeable about the content of instruction
as well as a facilitator with the skills, strategies and processes
required for teaching. The expert not only helps motivate
learners by providing just enough support to enable them to
accomplish the goal, but also provides support in the form of
modeling, highlighting the critical features of the task, and
providing hints and questions that might help learners to
reflect (Wood et al., 1976). In this conception then, the adult's
role has perceptual and cognitive as well as affective
components (Stone, 1998).

a task of building a pyramid from interlocking blocks, with

guidance from a tutor. Each child was tutored individually and
the tutor followed a set of guidelines for her tutoring. But the
tutor did not always follow pre-set rules in her interactions;
instead she provided just enough assistance to help the child
move forwardassistance that was sensitive to, and adapted
based on, the child's progress. Wood and colleagues
documented six types of support that an adult can provide:
recruiting the child's interest, reducing the degrees of freedom
by simplifying the task, maintaining direction, highlighting the
critical task features, controlling frustration, and demonstrating
ideal solution paths.
learning occurs iScaffolding and the spiral
curriculum
There are clear similarities with theories already
propounded by Piaget - particularly the concept of
stages. But the structure of Bruners stages is much
more flexible. Piaget saw language as a tool produced
by cognitive development. For Bruner however, the
development of language runs side by side with
cognitive development and indeed, this co-existence
is mutually beneficial. Symbolic thought, he
maintained, does not replace previous modes of
communication. It allows for communication with
adults and older peers and is essential to the
development of thought. Effectively, it enhances
communication.