Advanced Engineering Mathematics

COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.1 Complex Numbers. Complex Plane
Equations without real solutions, such as x  = 1 or x  10x + 40 = 0, were observed early in
history and led to the introduction of complex numbers. By definition, a complex number z is an ordered
pair x, y of real numbers x and y, written in rectangular form as
z = x + jy

(1.1)

where x is the real part of z, y is the imaginary part of z, written

x = Rez
y = Imz

(1.2a)
(1.2b)

and j (in theoretical mathematics, i) as the imaginary unit which is equal to

j = 1

(1.3)

By definition, two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their imaginary
parts are equal, or if z = x + jy is equal to z = x + jy then
Rez  = Rez 
x = x

(1.4a)
(1.4b)

Imz  = Imz 
y = y

(1.4c)
(1.4d)

and

The addition of complex numbers z and z is defined as

z + z = x + x  + jy + y 

(1.5)

or the sum of two complex numbers is the sum of their real parts plus the sum of their imaginary parts
multiplied by the imaginary unit. The addition of complex numbers is similar to vector addition.
The multiplication of complex numbers z and z is defined as
z z = x x y y  + jx y + x y 

Complex Numbers

(1.6)

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Example 1.1
Let z = 8 + j3 and z = 9 j2. Find
(a) the real part of z and z .
(b) the imaginary part of z and z .
(c) the sum z + z
(d) the product z z
Answers:
(a) Rez  = 8 and Rez  = 9
(b) Imz  = 3 and Imz  = 2
(c) z + z = 17 + j
(d) z z = 78 + j11
Subtraction is defined as the inverse operation of addition. Thus the difference z z is defined as
z z = x x  + jy y 

(1.7)


Division is defined as the inverse operation of multiplication. The quotient  is defined as



z
x x + y y
x y x y
=
+j


z
x + y
x  + y 

(1.8)

Example 1.2
Let z = 8 + j3 and z = 9 j2. Find
(a) the difference z z .

(b) the quotient  .


Answers:
(a) z z = 1 + j5

#$
(b)  = !" + j !"


Since the complex number z = x + jy contains an ordered pair x, y, it can be plotted in a standard
Cartesian coordinate plane. We choose the horizontal axis as the x-axis and is called the real axis and the
vertical axis as the y-axis called the imaginary axis. We choose the same unit length for both axes. A
complex number z = x + jy is represented as a point Px, y, shown in Figure 1.1. The coordinate axes
in which complex numbers are represented are called the complex plane, or sometimes, the Argand
diagram.

Complex Numbers

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Figure 1.1 The Complex Plane

Figure 1.2 shows how the complex number z = 4 j3 is represented in the complex plane.

Figure 1.2 Example of a point z in complex plane

The complex conjugate z (in some books z') of a complex number z = x + jy is defined by
z = x jy

(1.9)

It is obtained geometrically by reflecting the point z in the real axis. Figure 1.3 demonstrates this.

Figure 1.3 Geometric interpretation of conjugation

Complex Numbers

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Drill Problems 1.1
For items 1 to 9, let z = 2 + j3 and z = 4 j5 . Showing the details of your work, find (in the
rectangular form x + jy):
1. 5z + 3z 
2. z z

3. Re (  )


4. Rez  , *Re z +

5. 




6.  , ( )


7. 4z z 
 
8.  , 
9.

 
 , 
 - 

For items 10 to 13, let z = x + jy. Find in the rectangular form:

$
10. Im z $ , *Im z+


11. Re ( )
12. Im.1 + j! z  /


13. Re (  )

14. Verify the following laws of conjugation:

z + z  = z + z
z z  = z z


15. Show that j = 1, j$ = j, j# = 1 and 0 = j, 0 = 1, 01 = j, 02 = 1. From the results of

these, evaluate j$ and its reciprocal, j-$ .

1.2 Polar Form of Complex Numbers. Powers and Roots.

The complex plane becomes even more useful and gives further insight into the arithmetic operations for
complex numbers if besides the xy-coordinates (the rectangular form) we also employ the usual polar
coordinates r and , defined by
x = r cos
y = r sin

(1.10a)
(1.10b)

We see that then z = x + jy takes the so-called polar form

z = rcos + j sin  = r
Complex Numbers

(1.11)
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The parameter r is called the absolute value or modulus or magnitude of z denoted by |z|. Hence,
|z| = r = ;x  + y  = zz

(1.12)

Geometrically, r is the distance of the point z from the origin. Similarly, |z z | is the distance between
z and z .
The parameter is called the argument or angle of z and is denoted by argz. Thus,
?

argz = = arctan @

(1.13)
Geometrically, is the directed angle from the positive x-axis to the terminal point z. Here, all angles are
measured positive in the counterclockwise sense. See Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Polar coordinates in complex plane

The principle value of the angle , denoted as Argz (with a capital A) is a unique value for the angle
which lies in between and . Thus,
D Arg z E

(1.14)

for z F 0. For a given complex number, the other values of arg z are arg z = Arg z G 2n n =
G1, G2, . . . .

Complex Numbers

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Example 1.3
For z = 1 + j, z = 1 j, and z$ = 3 + j33, find
(a) the modulus r, the principal argument and express each in polar form.
(b) all the possible arguments.
(c) the plot of each one in complex plane.
Answers:
For z ,




(a) r = 2, Arg z = , z = 2 (cos + j sin ) = 2 ;
#

(b) arg z = G 2n n = G1, G2, . . . 

For z ,
$I
$
$
$
(a) r = 2, Arg z = , z = 2 (cos ( ) + j sin ( )) = 2 ( );
#
#
#
#
$

(b) arg z = # G 2n n = G1, G2, . . . 

For z$ ,
I



(a) r$ = 6, Arg z$ = $ , z$ = 6 (cos ($ ) + j sin ($ )) = 6 ($ );


(b) arg z$ = $ G 2n n = G1, G2, . . . 

Multiplication and division of complex numbers are easier to perform in polar rather than the rectangular
form. If we have z = x + jy = r  and z = x + jy = r  , we can prove that
z z = r r cos +   + j sin +   = r r  +  

(1.15)

Thus, |z z | = |z ||z | and argz z  = arg z + arg z . Similarly, for division,
z
r
r
= cos   + j sin   =   
z
r
r


| |

(1.16)

Thus, K K = | | and arg ( ) = arg z arg z .



Complex Numbers

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Example 1.4
Given z = 2 + j2 and z = j3,

(a) Find the product z z and the quotient  in rectangular form, without converting to polar form.


(b) Find the product z z and the quotient  by converting first to polar form, then back to rectangular


form.

Answer:

z z = 6 j6
z
2
2
= + j
z
3
3

The integer power of a complex number z, z L , can be found by induction from Eq. 1.15 by
z L = r L cos n + j sin n = r L n

(1.17)

For |z| = r = 1, Eq. 1.17 becomes the De Moivres formula

cos + j sin L = cos n + j sin n

(1.18)

Example 1.5
Evaluate the following, expressing the answer in rectangular form:
(a) 3 + j4$
(b) 1 + j
Answers:
(a) 117 + j44
(b) 64
If z = w L , then there are n complex values of z which will satisfy the equation. Those values, or roots,
can be found, from De Moivres formula as
N

z = r (cos

O,PI
L

+ j sin

O,PI
L

(1.19)

where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1. These n values lie on a circle of radius Nr with center at the origin and
constitute the vertices of a regular polygon on n sides. The value of Nz obtained by taking the principal
value of arg z and k = 0 in Eq. 1.19 is called the principal root.

Complex Numbers

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Figure 1.5. Plot of nth root of 1, for n = 3, 4 and 5 respectively

Example 1.6
Find all the roots of the following in rectangular form and plot them:
(a) ;j
(b) ;5 j12
Answers:


(a)  j  ,
(b) G2 j3




+j




Drill Problems 1.2

For items 1 to 8, represent the following numbers in polar form. Show the details of your work.
1. 3 j3
2. j2, j2
3. 5


4.  + j #
,0

5. -0

$,0
-0$
- ,0"

6. 7.

0$
,0$

8. ",0#
For items 9 through 11, find all the roots of the given expression in rectangular form. Plot the roots in the
complex plane.
2
9. 1
10 1;3 + j4
S
11. 1

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For items 12 and 13, evaluate the following, expressing the final answers in rectangular form.
12. 9 + j9$
13. 2 + j6
For items 14 and 15, prove the following trigonometric identities using De Moivres formula:
14. cos 2 = cos sin
15. sin 2 = 2 cos sin
1.3 Exponential Form of Complex Numbers. Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Forms.Logarithms and General
Power.
Complex number z = x + jy can be written in an exponential form
z = re0O

(1.20)

where r and are the magnitude and argument of z as discussed in the previous section. Taking the polar
form of z,
z = rcos + j sin  = r

(1.11)

e0O = cos + j sin

(1.21a)

we see that

which is called the Eulers formula. The conjugate of this is

e-0O = cos j sin

(1.21b)

The exponential form of complex numbers has many interesting properties, which relates exponential,
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions of complex numbers. For example, adding Eqs. 1.21a and 1.21b
gives the exponential equivalent of cosine function, that is
cos =

e0O + e-0O
2

(1.22a)

and subtracting the two gives the exponential equivalent sine function
sin =

Complex Numbers

e0O e-0O
j2

(1.22b)

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Hyperbolic cosine and sine functions are defined as follows:
e + e-
2

(1.23a)

e e-
sinh z =
2

(1.23b)

cosh z =

If we replace z = j into Eqs. 1.23a and 1.23b, they become

e0O + e-0O
= cos
2

(1.24a)

e0O + e-0O
sinh j =
= j sin
2

(1.24b)

cosh j =

Similarly, we can prove the following identities

cos j = cosh

(1.25a)

sin j = j sinh

(1.25b)

Take note that the exponential form of complex numbers is also periodic, following the periodic properties
of cosine and sine functions. Thus, for a complex number e ,
eG0I = e

(1.26)

Example 1.7
Evaluate the following expressions, expressing answers in rectangular form
(a) cos1 + j
(b) sinh4 j3
Answers:
(a) 0.8337 j0.9889
(b) 27.0168 j3.8537

Complex Numbers

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The natural logarithm of z = x + jy is denoted by ln z and is defined as the inverse of the exponential
function; that is, w = ln z is defined for z F 0 by the relation eV = z. By setting w = u + jv, we find
that the logarithm of a complex number z is given as
ln z = ln r + j

(1.27)

where r = |z| > 0 and = arg z.

Recall that the argument of z is determined only up to integer multiples of 2, it follows that the complex
natural logarithm is infinitely many-valued. The value of ln z corresponding to the principal value Arg z is
denoted by Ln z and is called the principal value of ln z. Thus,
Ln z = ln|z| + j Arg z

(1.28)

The uniqueness of Arg z for given z implies that Ln z is single-valued, that is, a function in the usual
sense. Since, the other values of arg z differ by integer multiples of 2, the other values of ln z are given
by
ln z = Ln z G j2n

(1.29)

Example 1.8
Evaluate the following logarithms, expressing the answers in rectangular form:
(a) ln 1, Ln 1
(b) ln3 j4, Ln 3 j4
Answers:
(a) ln 1 = 0, Gj2n, Ln 1 = 0
(b) ln3 j4 = 1.609 j0.927 G j2n, Ln 3 j4 = 1.609 j0.927
The general powers of a complex number z = x + jy are defined by the formula
z [ = e[ \L 

(1.30)

where c is also a complex number, and z F 0. Since ln z is infinitely-valued, z [ , will, in general, be

multivalued. The particular value
z [ = e[ ]L 

(1.31)

is called the principal value of z [ .

Complex Numbers

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Example 1.9
Evaluate the following, expressing the answers in rectangular form:
(a) j0
(b) 1 + j-0
Answers:
(a) e-IIL


(b) 2eI# GIL _sin ( ln 2) + j cos ( ln 2)`


Drill Problems 1.3

For numbers 1 through 4, find the principal value of ln z, rectangular form, when z equals:
1. 10
2. 2 + j2
3. 2 j2
4. je
For numbers 5 through 8, evaluate the following, expressing the answers in rectangular form.
5. ln e
6. ln e-0
7. ln4 + j3
8. ln e0$
For numbers 9 through 12, find the principal value in rectangular form:
9. j0 , j20
10. 4$,0
11. 1 j,0
12. 1-0
For numbers 13 through 15, solve for z, in rectangular form:

13. ln z = (2 j )
14. ln z = 0.3 + j0.7
15. ln z = e j

Complex Numbers

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