1-5 Units Study Materials

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION
ENGINEERING
EI2251 INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION-1

SEMESTER
BRANCH
:IV
: EIE
Lesson Planning Sheet
Sub
Name of the
Code
Subject
Sem Department of
Electronics &
Student
Instrumentation
EI2251
INDUSTRIAL
INSTRUMENTATION-1
IV
Time
No. of
Name of Faculty:
40
M.THIRUMAGAL
L-Lecture, T-Tutorial, P-Practical
Sl.
Covered
No
(each lecture session

wise)
Theory Coverage
Black
Board
OHP
Tutorial Support
Power
Exercis
Point
Assignment
s
Lecture
Industrial Visit
Lesson / Topic
Practical / Guest
Methodology
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1.
1.
MEASUREMENT
FORCE,
TORQUE
OF
AND
VELOCITY
INTRODUCTION
2.
Electric balance
Different types of load
cells
3.
Hydraulic, pneumatic
4.
Magneto elastic and Piezo
5.
Different methods of
strain gauge
electric load cell
torquemeasurements:
introduction
6.
strain gauge-Relative angular

twist-
7.
Speed measurement:- -
8.
Capacitive tacho
9.
Dragcup type tacho-D.C
Stroboscope.
Ac tacho
Unit 2
1
MEASUREMENT OF
ACCELERATION,
VIBRATION AND
DENSITY- introduction
Accelerometers:- LVDT,
Piezo-electric,
typeaccelerometer
Strain gauge and Variable

reluctance type
Mechanical type vibration
Seismic instruments as
Vibrometers : Calibration
Units of density and
instruments
anaccelerometer
of vibration pickups
specific gravity Baume
scale, and API scale
Pressure head type

densitometers- Floattype
densitometers
Ultrasonic
densitometer-
Bridge
type gas densitometer.
Unit 3
1
PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
introduction
Units
of
pressure-
Manometers-
introduction- -
Different types Elastic

type pressure gauges:
Bourdontube, bellows and

diaphragms-
Elastic elements with

LVDT and straingauges
Capacitive type pressure

gauge Piezo-resistive
pressure sensor-
Resonator pressure
Measurement of vacuum:-
sensor
McLeod
gauge-Thermal
conductivity gauges
- Ionization gauges: Cold

cathode type and hot
cathode
Testing and calibration of
pressure gauges
Dead weight tester.
10
Electrical methods
Unit4
1
2
Temperature
measurement-intro
Definitions and
standards-Primary and
secondary fixed points
Calibration
Different types of filled
Sources of errors in
ofthermometers
in system thermometer-
filledin systems and their
compensation
Electrical methods of
temperature
measurement
Signal conditioning of
industrial Bimetallic
thermometers
3 lead and 4 lead RTDs
Thermistors.
10
Bimetallic thermometers
and theircharacteristics-
Unit 5
1
THERMOCOUPLES AND
RADIATION
PYROMETERS- intro
Thermocouples-Laws of
thermocouple Response of
thermocouple -
Fabrication of industrial
thermocouples
Signalconditioning of
thermocouple output-
Isothermal block
reference junctions
Commercial circuits for

cold junction
compensation-
Special techniquesfor
measuring high
temperature using
thermocouples
Radiation fundamentals
Radiation methods of
temperature
measurement
Total radiation
pyrometers-Optical
pyrometers-
Fiber optic temperature
Two colour radiation
measurement
pyrometers
UNIT 1
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE, TORQUE AND VELOCITY
AIM:
Discussion of load cells, torque meter and various velocity pick-ups.
KEY WORDS:
Load
cell- strain gauge- torque measurement- torque metersTachogenerators-stroboscope
speed measurement-
UNIT-1
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE , TORQUE AND VELOCITY
Force may be defined as a cause that produces resistance or obstruction to any moving body, or
changes the motion of a body, or tends to produce these effects. Force is given as F=MA.
Force measurement is also done by electric means in which the force is first converted into
displacement at an elastic element and the displacement is measured
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction
Units of force
S.I unit= Newton (N)
ONE NEWTON:
The force capable of giving a mass of one Kg an acceleration of one meter per second
Types of forces
Frictional force:
Friction is a surface force that opposes relative motion
Tensional force:
Tension is the magnitude of the pulling force exerted by a string, cable, chain, or similar
object on another object. Measured in newtons (or sometimes pounds-force)
Compression force:
Opposite of tension
Elastic force:
Elastic force is the physical property of a material that returns to its original shape after
the stress
Various methods of measuring force:
1. Balancing on standard mass, either directly or through levers
2. Measuring acceleration of the body if its mass is known on which the unknown force is
applied
3. Balancing against a magnetic force of a current-carrying coil and a magnet
4. Transducing the force to fluid pressure and then measuring the pressure.
5. Force to elastic member and measuring the resulting deflection
6. Measuring the change in precession of a gyroscope caused by an applied torque due to
applied force
7. Measuring the change in natural frequency of a wire tensioned by the force.
Measurement methods
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
Measuring devices: Different types of electrical type force transducers are given below
Force gauge-Load cell etc.,
Spring scale
Strain gauge
Load cell
A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into electrical signal
This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages
Stage-1: The force being sensed deforms a strain gauge.
Stage-2:The strain gauge converts the deformation (strain) to electrical signals
Types of Load cell:
1. Hydrostatic load cell
2. Pneumatic load cell
3. Magneto elastic load cell
4. Piezo electric load cell
Hydrostatic Load cell:
The force is made to exerted on the load platform which is connected to the diaphragm
The diaphragm seals the chamber filled with fluid connected to bourdon gauge.
During the measurement process the applied force pressurizes the oil which in turn
activate the burdon gauge and the needle connected to it indicates the magnitude of the pressure
exerted
Full load deflection:;0.05 mm
Measurement range:0-20 Tonnes
Tare compensation of 0.2MPa is done
Used in static measurement
Also called as plunger
Pneumatic load cell:
The force is applied to the platform connected to the sealing diaphragm of air chamber
The applied force is measured by means of flapper nozzle principle described as follows
The chamber is equipped with constant air supply
The platform acts like a flapper and creates the backpressure on through the nozzle in the
chamber according to the force applied on it
This counter balance the platform and equilibrium is attained the value of pressure inside
the chamber indicated on meter gives the value of the force applied
If the
Applied mass = W
Output pressure=p
Diaphragm stiffness=k s
Flapper-nozzle gain=kf
Area of diaphragm=
p= W / (ks/kf + )
The force is made to exert on the load platform which in turn compresses the fluid closed
by the diaphragm resulting in deflection of meter pointer
Used in static measurement
Magneto elastic load cell:
Also called as pressductor load cell

Principle:
Stress on ferromagnetic material alters the magnetic moments resulting in the
change in permeability of the material.
The change in permeability is directly proportional to the applied force/stress.
Working:
Primary and secondary windings are wounded at right angles on diagonally drilled
hole pairs on the transducer body enclosed with laminated sheets of ferromagnetic material
Secondary windings remain undisturbed under no load condition. On load condition the
angle between the primary and secondary changes the resulting flux linkage is given by
=B cos
= C.S.A of material
= Total flux linkage
B= Magnetic flux density
Cos = change in angle
Piezo Electric Load Cell:
and induces a voltage proportional to the force applied
es= -n d /dt
n = turn ratio (n2/n1)
strain gages
static forces,
force sensors
for dynamicsuch
as
impact, or
compression
force applied
piezoelectric
produces a
charges
Unlike
that can measure
piezoelectric
are mostly used
force
measurements
oscillation,
high
speed
or tension. Any
to
the
sensing element
separation
of
within the atomic
structure of the material, generating an electrostatic output voltage. The polarity of the voltage
generated depends on the atomic structure of the material and the direction in which the force is
applied.
However, any leakage path lets electrons redistribute across the material, dropping the
voltage output back to zero. Internal leakage paths are formed by impurities within the crystal
while external paths are created by the electronics used to measure the voltage generated. All
leakages must be considered to determine the discharge time constant (DTC). The DTC typically
follows an exponential curve similar to an RC time constant and is used to determine the sensors
lowest frequency response.
In a typical quartz-based force sensor, a charge-collection electrode is sandwiched
between two quartz-crystal elements. The quartz elements are oriented to supply the same
polarity voltage to the electrode when compressed, while the opposite polarity is applied to the
sensor housing. This assembly resides between two mounting disks held together by an elastic,
beryllium-copper stud and then weld-sealed within the enclosure to prevent contamination. The
stud preloads the quartz elements to assure all parts are in intimate contact and to provide good
linearity and tensile-force measurements.
When a force is applied to the impact cap, the quartz elements generate an output voltage
which can be routed directly to a charge amplifier or converted to a low-impedance signal within
the sensor. The use of the direct sensor output demands that any connector, cable, and charge
amplifier input must maintain a high insulation resistance on the order of >10 .
Low-impedance quartz sensors have an internal MOSFET amplifier. Its output is a lowimpedance voltage signal that uses standard cabling. However, force sensors with internal
amplifiers do require external power to operate the amp.
TORQUE MEASUREMENT
The force which tends to change the linear motion or rotation of a body.
It is also defined as the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axisT= FX D
T=Torque
F=Force
D=perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation of the line of action of the force
Methods of measurement:
1. Inline rotating sensor based torque measurement
2. Inline stationary sensor based torque measurement
In line rotating sensor based torque measurement:
Strain gauge based measurement:
A strain gage can be installed directly on a shaft. Because the shaft is rotating, the torque sensor
can be connected to its power source and signal conditioning electronics via a slip ring. The strain
gage also can be connected via a transformer, eliminating the need for high maintenance slip
rings. The excitation voltage for the strain gage is inductively coupled, and the strain gage output
is converted to a modulated pulse frequency (Figure 6-5). Maximum speed of such an
arrangement is 15,000 rpm.
Strain gages also can be mounted on stationary support members or on the housing itself. These
"reaction" sensors measure the torque that is transferred by the shaft to the restraining elements.
The resultant reading is not completely accurate, as it disregards the inertia of the motor.
Strain gages used for torque measurements include foil, diffused semiconductor, and thin film
types. These can be attached directly to the shaft by soldering or adhesives. If the centrifugal
forces are not large--and an out-of-balance load can be tolerated--the associated electronics,
including battery, amplifier, and radio frequency transmitter all can be strapped to the shaft.
Torque measurement by relative angular twist method by proximity probe type
Proximity and displacement sensors also can detect torque by measuring the angular
displacement between a shaft's two ends. By fixing two identical toothed wheels to the shaft at
some distance apart, the angular displacement caused by the torque can be measured. Proximity
sensors or photocells located at each toothed wheel produce output voltages whose phase
difference increases as the torque twists the shaft.
Torque measurement by relative angular twist method by optical type
Another approach is to aim a single photocell through both sets of toothed wheels. As torque
rises and causes one wheel to overlap the other, the amount of light reaching the photocell is
reduced.
SPEED MEASUREMENT:
Speed is defined as rate of change of position of an object with respect to time.
Units of speed
Meters per second (symbol m s1 or m/s), the SI derived unit;

Kilometers per hour (symbol km/h);
Miles per hour (symbol mph);
Knots (nautical miles per hour, symbol kn or kt);
Feet per second (symbol fps or ft/s);
Mach number, speed divided by the speed of sound;
The speed of light in vacuum (symbol c) is one of the natural units:
Revolution per minute (rpm)
Measuring methods:
Generally speed is calculated using tachometers which calculates the angular speed in
revolution per minute(rpm) of the object and converted into the form required
Types of Tachometer:
1. Mechanical tachometer: Associated only with mechanical units to measure speed
2. Electrical tachometer: Associated with transducer for converting rotational speed to
electrical quantity.
Capacitive tacho:
It uses the principle of charging the capapcitor and discharging through a meter alternately . If
the charging and discharging is controlled by the speed of the equipment, the average discharge
current would be ppl to the speed, if ()omega is the speed of rotation, I=C R ()
Drag cup tachometer:
This type is very common in rotational speed measurement. The source angular speed
rotates a permanent magnet. An aluminum disc or cup is held close to the rotating magnet
restrained by a control spring. When the magnet rotates eddy current is set up in the drag cup or
disc and a torque is produced which tries to oppose the field produced by the eddy current. The
cup is thus dragged or rotated in the direction of the rotating magnet. Due to the restraining action
of the spring and angular rotation is indicated by the pointer which is proportional to speed.
D.C Tachogenerators
The transducer that converts speed of rotation directly into electrical signal is an
induction pickup such a tachometer is more commonly used for speed cpntrol rotating equipments
Here the dc generator with the output voltage from the commutator is directly proportional to the
speed measured
A.C Tacho generators:
Here the operation is similar to the dc tachometer but the magnet rotates in the
stationary coil proportional to the speed to be measured in a stationary coil and generates a a.c
voltage which is signal conditioned and displayed in the units of speed
Stroboscopic method
Stroboscopes are used to measure the speed of rotation or frequency of vibration of a

mechanical part or system. They have the advantage over other instruments of not loading or
disturbing the equipment under test. Mechanical equipment may be observed under actual
operating conditions with the aid of stroboscopes. Parasitic oscillations, flaws, and unwanted
distortion at high speeds are readily detected. The flashing-light stroboscopes employ gas
discharge tubes to provide a brilliant light source of very short duration.
UNIT 2
MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION, VIBRATION AND DENSITY
AIM:
. Exposure to various accelerometer pick-ups, vibrometers, density andviscosity pick-ups
KEY WORDS:
Accelerometers:- LVDT - Vibrometers - density and specific gravity densitometers- Ultrasonic densitometerBridge type gas densitometer
UNIT-II
MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION, VIBRATION AND DENSITY
MEASUREMENT OF ACCELERATION
Accelerometers:
An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a structure. The
force caused by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes the mass to "squeeze" the
piezoelectric material which produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the force exerted upon
it. Since the charge is proportional to the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is also
proportional to the acceleration.
There are two types of piezoelectric accelerometers (vibration sensors). The first type is a "high
impedance" charge output accelerometer. In this type of accelerometer the piezoelectric crystal produces
an electrical charge which is connected directly to the measurement instruments. The charge output
requires special accommodations and instrumentation most commonly found in research facilities. This
type of accelerometer is also used in high temperature applications (>120C) where low impedance
models
cannot
be
used.
The second type of accelerometer is a low impedance output accelerometer. A low impedance
accelerometer has a charge accelerometer as its front end but has a tiny built-in micro-circuit and FET
transistor that converts that charge into a low impedance voltage that can easily interface with standard
instrumentation. This type of accelerometer is commonly used in industry. An accelerometer power
supply like the ACC-PS1, provides the proper power to the microcircuit 18 to 24 V @ 2 mA constant
current and removes the DC bias level, they typically produces a zero based output signal up to +/- 5V
depending upon the mV/g rating of the accelerometer. All OMEGA(R) accelerometers are this low
impedance type.
LVDT accelerometer
A second type of accelerometer takes advantage of the natural linear displacement

measurement of the LVDT to measure mass displacement. In these instruments, the LVDT core
itself is the seismic mass. Displacements of the core are converted directly into a linearly
proportional ac voltage. These accelerometers generally have a natural frequency less than 80 Hz
and are commonly used for steady-state and low-frequency vibration. Figure shows the basic
structure of such an accelerometer.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
The piezoelectric accelerometer is based on a property exhibited by certain crystals where

a voltage is generated across the crystal when stressed. This property is also the basis for such
familiar sensors as crystal phonograph cartridges and crystal microphones. For accelerometers,
the principle is shown in Figure 5.28. Here, a piezoelectric crystal is spring-loaded with a test
mass in contact with the crystal. When exposed to an acceleration, the test mass stresses the
crystal by a force (F = ma), resulting in a voltage generated across the crystal. A measure of this
voltage is then a measure of the acceleration. The crystal per se is a very high-impedance source,
and thus requires a high-input impedance, low-noise detector. Output levels are typically in the
millivolt range. The natural frequency of these devices may exceed 5 kHz, so that they can be
used for vibration and shock measurements.
Variable Reluctance
This accelerometer type falls in the same general category as the LVDT in that an
inductive principle is employed. Here, the test mass is usually a permanent magnet. The
measurement is made from the voltage induced in a surrounding coil as the magnetic mass moves
under the influence of acceleration. This accelerometer is used in vibration and shock studies
only, because it has an output only when the mass is in motion. Its natural frequency is typically
less than 100 Hz. This type of accelerometer often is used in oil exploration to pick up vibrations
reflected from underground rock strata. In this form, it is commonly referred to as a geophone.
Seismic instruments as accelerometer
The mass is connected through the parallel spring and damper arrangement to the housing
frame. This frame is then connected to the vibration source whose characteristics are to be
measured. The mass tends to remain fixed in its spatial position, so that the vibration motion is
registered as a relative displacement between the mass and the housing frame. The displacement
is then sensed and indicated by an appropriate transducer. The seismic instrument may be used
for either displacement or acceleration measurement by proper selection of mass, spring and
damper combinations.
Vibration instruments
Calibration of vibration pick ups:
Constant Acceleration method: Constant acceleration methods, which are suitably

only for calibrating accelerometers include the tilting- support method and the centrifuge.
The tilting-support method utilises the accelerometers inherent sensitivity to gravity..
Static acceleration over the range +-1g may be accurately applied by fastening the
accelerometer to a tilting support whose tilt support whose tilt angle from vertical is
accurately measured. This method requires that the accelerometer respond to static
accelerations; therefore piezoelectric devices cannot be calibrated in this way.
This method consists of a modified electro dynamic vibration shaker which has
been carefully designed to provide uniaxial pure sinusoidal motion which is equipped with
an accurately calibrated moving coil velocity pick up to measure its table motion. If a
motion is purely sinusoidal, knowledge of its velocity pickup to measure its table motion.
If Motion is known to be purely sinusoidal, knowledge of its velocity and frequency
enables accurate calculation of the displacement and displacement. The motion frequency
is easily obtained with high accuracy by electronic counters. This technique is thus useful
for displacement , velocity or acceleration pickups.
LASER DOPPLER VIBROMETERS:
During the last years the growing importance of the correct determination of the state of
conservation of artworks has been stated by all personalities in care of Cultural Heritage. There
exist many analytical methodologies and techniques to individuate the physical and chemical
characteristics of artworks, but at present their structural diagnostics mainly rely on the expertise
of the restorer/technician and the typical diagnostic process is accomplished mainly through
manual and visual inspection of the structure. For this reason, many innovative optical techniques
have been tried and applied to this issue and in these pages we will show some examples
regarding the use of the laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV); The basic idea behind the employment
of LDV is to substitute human senses and contact sensors with measurement systems capable of
remote acquisition and, if necessary, of remote structural excitation: surfaces are very slightly
vibrated by mechanical and acoustical actuators, while a laser Doppler vibrometer means the
objects measuring surface velocity and producing 2D or 3D maps. Think, for example, of a fresco
with delaminated areas: where these defects occur, velocity is higher than neighbouring areas so
defects can be easily spotted by a LDV. Laser vibrometers also identify structural resonance
frequencies thus leading to a complete characterization of these defects, and this holds true also
for massive structures, like towers, buildings, churches.
Laser Doppler Vibrometers, or better Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometers (SLDV), have been
applied to different types of movable or decorative artworks, like frescoes, icons, mosaics,
ceramics, inlaid wood and easel painting, with different degrees of success, but always showing
an impressive list of important advantages:
no remarkable intrusivity,
remote measurements,
ample frequency response,
high sensibility,
portability.
Moreover all existing systems are completely PC controlled and this allows digital data storage
and easy data transfer to other applications like software packages for structural and modal
analysis, and to spreadsheets applications like Excel or Matlab.
The application to historical buildings is more recent [2] and still limited but looks promising and
will be the subject of much research in the immediate future. Of course there still exist a lot of
difficulties, mainly related to the non-optically collaborative surfaces of tested structures and the
necessity of working at great distances to get data that can be considered representative of the
examined object. These two factors work one against the other, and this makes the application of
SLDV mainly a prototype application yet, but already exist situations where this is not the case
anymore [3].
Also we must not forget other problems, like instrument isolation from ground vibrations and the
realization of special excitation techniques but it has been already demonstrated the capability of
the LDV to acquire non-intrusively vibrational data on not-treated surfaces up to 10-15 meters, a
real asset when dealing with large structures. Regular monitoring of important parameters related
to the state of conservation of these huge objects, like frequencies of resonance, is thus possible
with no external intervention on the structure and may be performed quickly and with a high
degree of accuracy.
Optical Sensors for Vibration Measurements
When we say optical sensors, we mean an immense variety of instruments, devices and
systems. Just think of such different instruments like infra red thermal cameras or a Bragg grating
strain sensor. Even to measure vibrations we may have such different solutions like laser based,
LED based, fibre based sensors; not to mention the physical scale of such sensors, going from the
micro scale, e.g. optical MEMS accelerometers, to relatively immense laser Doppler
vibrometers. If we confine ourselves to laser based instrumentation, we may mention full field
techniques (holography, shearography, ESPI, for example) or focused beam ones (laser Doppler
vibrometers).
The advantages of optical sensors are outstanding and their use is spreading more and more, day
after day. Think for example to optical fibres sensors: their solid state design is resistant to
vibration, unaffected by electromagnetic interference (nor do they create additional EMI), and,
because the light source can be located far away from explosive materials, do not run the risk of
sparking an explosion. They also offer superior multiplexing capabilities, thanks to the possibility
of having multiple sensors in a single fibre line.
Also, fibre optic sensors fall into a variety of sensor types: chemical, temperature, strain,
biomedical, electrical and magnetic, rotation, vibration, displacement, pressure, and flow. Many
of these categories were developed by military organizations during the nineties. These sensors
are extremely effective at creating "smarter" structures, widely used nowadays for chemical
sensing (especially in the petrochemical industry), transportation, building and structural
monitoring, and biomedical.
However, fibre sensors must be placed in contact or closed to the object to be measured, and so
they maybe not used in many occasions, where the objects cannot be reached or are impossible to
modify, e.g. a fresco in a church.
For cases like these, instrumentation based on a laser beam used as a probe is much more suited,
and we will deal exclusively with these devices in the following of this publication. Major
advantages of such instruments rely not only in this absence of invasivity, but also in their high
sensibility and in their capacity of acquiring detailed data in the terms of space, time, and
frequency. Many of these systems are still quite expensive, but their contribution to solve design,
production process, or quality control problems is invaluable.
More specifically we will deal with focused laser beam instruments, laser Doppler vibrometers.
We will avoid detailed mathematical description of involved theory, preferring a more intuitive
approach to make this matter more palatable to a wider range of learners.
The scanning version of the LDV may automatically and accurately measure point-by-point
surface velocities using interferometric techniques and a couple of galvanometric driven mirrors
steering the laser beam. In this way it is possible to scan a grid of acquisition points acquiring
response spectra and time histories of the velocity of each point; these data are then processed and
presented as 2D or 3D colour maps. Modern SLDVs may scan 100 points/second for a total
number of more than 100.000 points working with a maximum frequency in the range of some
tens of MHz, and with a lower limit of less than a Hertz. Full-scale highest range is typically 10
m/s with lower ranges in the order of 1 mm/s, corresponding to a displacement of some tens of
nanometres.
These features make the SLDV an ideal instrument in applications where it is impossible or very
difficult to use standard vibration measuring devices, such as accelerometers. Accelerometers will
load the examined structures and may even damage the delicate surface of precious objects.
Moreover, to perform an accurate vibrational analysis it would require to employ many
transducers or to move one all around the tested piece and in both cases time and cost would rise
considerably
MEASUREMENT OF DENSITY:
Density:
Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.

Mass and Weight - the Difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of
the difference between weight and mass.
The density can be expressed as
= m / V = 1 / vg
(1)
where
= density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)
The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft 3 (slugs/ft3). While people
often use pounds per cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a measure
of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a
rough value in pounds.
Unit converter for other units
The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density is a
physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.
Densities and material properties for common materials
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the substance to the density of water, i.e.
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of
the difference between weight and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as

=g
(2)
where
= specific weight (N/m3)
= density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are N/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft 3. The local acceleration g is
under normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.
Ultrasonic densitometer
Twin folks are inserted into liqu9d or gas media whose density needs to be
measured since the natural frequency of the forks is a function of density of the media, small
changes in the natural frequency must be monitored accurately
Pressure head type densitometers:
The pressure at the bottom of the tank of the constant liquid column is proportional to
density and the weight of the given volume of the fluid is proportional to density.
It compares hydrostatic pressures due to the height of the liquids in two tanks. one is the
reference tank, consisting of a liquid of constant height and density. The other tank maintains the
height constant by overflow, so that the manometer can be directly in terms of density
measurement.
Float type densitometer:
The plumet is located entirely under the liquid surface the effective weight of the chain on
the plumet varies depending on the position of the plumet which in turn the function of density of
the liquid
Bridge type gas densitometer
It consist of four arm of pipe connections like wheat stone bridge for a balanced flow the
detector elements are equally cooled and when they are connected in the wheat stone bridge and
they indicates null balance. The detector bridge unbalance will therefore will beameasure of gas
density
UNIT 3
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
AIM:
To have an adequate knowledge about pressure transducers
KEY WORDS:
Manometers- pressure gauges- Elastic elements- bellows- diaphragms- LVDT and straingauges- Piezo-resistive
pressure sensor- Ionization gauges- Dead weight tester.
UNIT-III
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure :
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is usually more convenient to use pressure
rather than force to describe the influences upon fluid behavior. The standard unit for pressure is
the Pascal, which is a Newton per square meter.
For an object sitting on a surface, the force pressing on the surface is the weight of the
object, but in different orientations it might have a different area in contact with the surface and
therefore exert a different pressure
Units of pressure
Pressure measurements:
Manometer methods:
1. U-tube manometer:
When there is a pressure difference between two ends of the tube the liquid
goes down on one side of the tube and up on other side the difference in liquid levels from one
side to other indicates the difference in pressure
Well type manometer:
The well type

manometer is
widely used
because the
reading a single leg is required in it consist of very large diameter vessel connected on one side to
a very small size tube thus the zero level moves very little when pressure is applied
Inclined manometer:
Inclined manometer is used to measure very small pressure differences the manometer is tipped
so that the liquid moves a longer distance through the tube as it rises
Elastic type pressure gauges:
Bourdon-tube designs
Since the invention of the Bourdon-tube gauge more than a century ago, pressure gauge
manufacturers have been developing different types of gauges to meet specific needs without ever
changing the basic principle of the Bourdon tube's operation. Bourdon-tube gauges, Figure 1, are
now commonly available to measure a wide range of gauge, absolute, sealed, and differential
pressures, plus vacuum.
They are manufactured to an accuracy as high as 0.1% of span and in dial diameters from 1-1/2 to
16 in. A variety of accessories can extend their performance and usefulness. For example,
snubbers and gauge isolators can be installed to protect the sensitive internal workings of the
gauge from pressure spikes. The availability of Bourdon-tube pressure gauges to meet specific
needs, coupled with their inherent ruggedness, simplicity, and low cost has resulted in their wide
use in many applications.
Gauges using C-shaped Bourdon tubes as the
elastic chamber - the type shown in Figure 1 are by far the most common. Pressurized fluid
enters the stem at the bottom (which is
sometimes center-back-mounted instead) and
passes into the Bourdon tube. The tube has a
flattened cross section and is sealed at its tip.
Any pressure in the tube in excess of the
external pressure (usually atmospheric) causes Simplified view of spiral Bourdon-tube
the Bourdon tube to elastically change its shape pressure gage and movement.
to a more circular cross section.
This change in shape of the cross section tends to straighten the C-shape of the Bourdon tube.
With the bottom stem end fixed, the straightening causes the tip at the opposite end to move a
short distance - 1/16 to 1/2 in., depending on the size of the tube. A mechanical movement then
transmits this tip motion to a gear train that rotates an indicating pointer over a graduated scale to
display the applied pressure. Often, a movement is incorporated to provide mechanical advantage
to multiply the relatively short movement of the tube tip.
Bellows and diaphragms:
Low-pressure applications do not generate

enough force in the Bourdon tube to operate the
multiplying mechanism; therefore, Bourdontube gauges are not generally used for pressure
spans under 12 psi. For these ranges, some other
form of elastic chamber must be used, a metallic
bellows, Figure 4, for example. These bellows
generally are made by forming thin-wall tubing.
However, to obtain a reasonable fatigue life and Cross-sectional view of spring-loaded
motion that is more linear with pressure, a coil bellows pressure gauge.
spring supplements the inherent spring rate of
the bellows. These spring-loaded bellows
gauges generally are used in pressure ranges having spans to 100 psi and to 1 in. Hg.
Metallic diaphragms also are used as the elastic chamber in low-pressure gauges. A diaphragm
plate is formed from thin sheet metal into a shallow cup having concentric corrugations. To make
an element with a low spring rate that generates substantial deflection from a small change in
pressure, two plates can be soft soldered, brazed, or welded at their periphery to form a capsule,
and additional capsules can be joined at their centers to form a stack, Figure 5.
Generally, the measured pressure is applied to the interior of the element and no supplemental
coil springs are used. A 2-in. diameter capsule (two plates) will provide about 0.060 in. of motion
without exceeding the elastic limit of the material. This is usually enough to operate a high-ratio
multiplying movement because diaphragm deflection can transmit high force.
Diaphragm elements often are used in gauges to indicate absolute pressure. In this form, the
diaphragm element is evacuated. sealed, and mounted within a closed chamber. The pressure to
be measured is admitted to the closed chamber and surrounds the diaphragm element. Changes in
the measured pressure cause the element to deflect, but because atmospheric pressure is excluded
and has no effect on the indication, the gauge may be calibrated in terms of absolute pressure. If
the applied pressure is atmospheric pressure, the gauge is known as a barometer.
Diaphragm elements also may be used in an opposing arrangement. By evacuating one side of the
assembly, the gauge can indicate absolute pressure. If a pressure is applied to one side of the
assembly, and a second pressure is applied to the other side, then the differential pressure will be
indicated. The differential pressure is limited with respect to the static pressure that can be
applied. That is, the gauge may be suitable to indicate between 10 psi and 12 psi, but not be
suitable to indicate between 100 psi and 102 psi. Also, the consequence of inadvertently applying
full pressure to one side of the element and no pressure to the other side of the element must be
considered.
Elastic element with LVDT based pressure measurement
Any change in pressure will given to bellows which in turn actuate the core of the
LVDT and produces output in the secondary the value of output is directly proportional to the
pressure input to the bellows
Capacitive type pressure transducer:
Any change in pressure causes the change in distance between diaphragm and fixed
plate which the unbalance the bridge the bridge is proportional to pressure applied.
Piezoresistive pressure sensor:
Piezoresistive materials are materials that change resistance to the flow of current when they are
compressed or strained. Metal is piezoresistive to some degree, but most pressure sensors use the
semiconductor silicon. When force is put on the silicon, it becomes more resistant to a current
pushing through. This resistance is usually very linear--twice as much pressure results in twice as
large a change in resistance.
A Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor contains several thin wafers of silicon embedded between
protective surfaces. The surface is usually connected to a Wheatstone bridge, a device for
detecting small differences in resistance. The Wheatstone bridge runs a small amount of current
through the sensor. When the resistance changes, less current passes through the pressure sensor.
The Wheatstone bridge detects this change and reports a change in pressure.
Resonant Wire pressure sensor:
The resonant-wire pressure transducer was introduced in the late 1970s. In this design , a wire is
gripped by a static member at one end, and by the sensing diaphragm at the other. An oscillator
circuit causes the wire to oscillate at its resonant frequency. A change in process pressure changes
the wire tension, which in turn changes the resonant frequency of the wire. A digital counter
circuit detects the shift. Because this change in frequency can be detected quite precisely, this
type of transducer can be used for low differential pressure applications as well as to detect
absolute and gauge pressures.
The most significant advantage of the resonant wire pressure transducer is that it generates an
inherently digital signal, and therefore can be sent directly to a stable crystal clock in a
microprocessor. Limitations include sensitivity to temperature variation, a nonlinear output
signal, and some sensitivity to shock and vibration. These limitations typically are minimized by
using a microprocessor to compensate for nonlinearities as well as ambient and process
temperature variations.
Resonant wire transducers can detect absolute pressures from 10 mm Hg, differential pressures
up to 750 in. water, and gauge pressures up to 6,000 psig (42 MPa). Typical accuracy is 0.1% of
calibrated span, with six-month drift of 0.1% and a temperature effect of 0.2% per 1000 F.
Measurement of vacuum:
McLeod gauge:
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer
until the pressure is a fewmmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression (it must
not condense, for example). The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is
capable of good accuracy.
Useful range: above 10-4 torr [3] (roughly 10-2 Pa) as high as 106 Torr (0.1 mPa),
mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other
vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other
pressure-controlled properties.
The McLeod gauge measures the pressure of gases by compressing a known volume with a fixed
pressure. The new volume is then a measure of the initial absolute pressure.
-- The McLeod gauge has been used until recently for calibrating other gauges.
- It covers the vacuum range between 1 and 10-6 torr.

Thermal Designs:
The thermal conductivity of a gas changes with its pressure in the vacuum range. If an element
heated by a constant power source is placed in a gas, the resulting surface temperature of the
element will be a function of the surrounding vacuum. Because the sensor is an electrically heated
wire, thermal vacuum sensors are often called hot wire gauges. Typically, hot wire gauges can be
used to measure down to 10-3 mm Hg.
Pirani guage:
In this design, a sensor wire is heated electrically and the pressure of the gas is
determined by measuring the current needed to keep the wire at a constant temperature
Ionisation gauges:
Hot cathode vaccum guage
The operating principles of this gauge are similar to the Penning gauge except that the electrons
are produced by a hot filament and accelerated to a grid. The pressure range covered is either 1 to
10-5 torr or 10-2 to 10-7 torr, depending on the electrode structure. Electrons emitted from the
filament ionize residual gas molecules in the container being evacuated; the ion current arriving at
the collector plates is directly proportional to the pressure and the ionization probability of the
residual gas. This is a clean, accurate gauge that can be used down to about 10 -6 torr; below this
pressure its accuracy is reduced due to the soft X-rays produced by electrons striking the grid.
These X-rays generate a current in the collector circuit independent of pressure.
Bayard-Alpert hot-filament ionization gauge. In this ionization gauge, the cross section of the
collector is reduced to minimum to reduce the X-ray effect. This is achieved by inverting the
gaugethat is, the collector (a fine wire) is surrounded by the grid. The pressure range covered is
10-3 to 10-9 torr or down to 10-11 torr if a modulated instrument is used. Operating principles are
the same as for the other ionization gauges
Cold cathode vacuum guage:
This gauge makes use of the fact that the rate of ion production by a stream of electrons in a
vacuum system is dependent on pressure and the ionization probability of the residual gas. Also
called the Penning gauge, it consists of two cathodes opposite one another with an anode centrally
spaced between them inside a metal or glass envelope. Outside the envelope a permanent magnet
provides a magnetic field to lengthen the path travelled by the electron in going from cathode to
anode, thus increasing the amount of ionization occurring within the gauge. Normally the anode
is operated at about 2 kV, giving rise to a direct current caused by the positive ions arriving at the
cathode. The pressure is indicated directly by the magnitude of the direct current produced. The
pressure range covered by this gauge is from as low as 10 -7 torr. It is widely used in industrial
systems because it is rugged and simple to use.
Testing and calibration of pressure gauges-Dead weight tester.

Dead weight tester
Deadweights are usually used for pressure gauge calibration as they come with high accuarcy, So
they can be used as primery standard (as mentioned before).there are many types of them
depending on the application and they are operated with oil (hydrulic) or with air (penumatic).
Deadweight testers are the basic primary standard for accurate measurement of pressure.
Deadweight testers are used to measure the pressure exerted by gas or liquid and can also
generate a test pressure for the calibration of numerous pressure instruments.
Hope this helps!
Description
Known weights are placed on a rotating plate on top of a calibrated piston, connected by tubing to
the pressure sensor being tested. This puts a known force (weights) on a known surface area
(piston). The rotation eliminates any static friction that would affect the reading.
Dead Weight Testers.
1 - Handpump
2 - Testing Pump
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated
4 - Calibration Weight
5 - Weight Support
6 - Piston
7 - Cylinder
8 - Filling Connection
Dead weight testers are a piston-cylinder type measuring device. As primary standards, they are
the most accurate instruments for the calibration of electronic or mechanical pressure measuring
instruments.
They work in accordance with the basic principle that P= F/A, where the pressure (P) acts on a
known area of a sealed piston (A), generating a force (F). The force of this piston is then
compared with the force applied by calibrated weights. The use of high quality materials result in
small uncertainties of measurement and excellent long term stability.
Dead weight testers can measure pressures of up to 10,000 bar, attaining accuracies of between
0.005% and 0.1% although most applications lie within 1 - 2500 bar. The pistons are partly made
of tungsten carbide (used for its small temperature coefficient), and the cylinders must fit together
with a clearance of no more than a couple of micrometers in order to create a minimum friction
thus limiting the measuring error. The piston is then rotated during measurements to further
minimise friction.
The testing pump (2) is connected to the instrument to be tested(3), to the actual measuring
component and to the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil or gas such as compressed air or
nitrogen is used as the pressure transfer medium. The measuring piston is then loaded with
calibrated weights (4). The pressure is applied via an integrated pump (1) or, if an external
pressure supply is available, via control valves in order to generate a pressure until the loaded
measuring piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the fluid. This is the point where there is a balance
between pressure and the mass load. The piston is rotated to reduce friction as far as possible.
Since the piston is spinning, it exerts a pressure that can be calculated by application of a
derivative of the formula P = F/A.
The accuracy of a pressure balance is characterised by the deviation span, which is the sum of the
systematic error and the uncertainties of measurement.
Today's dead weight testers are highly accurate and complex and can make sophisticated physical
compensations. They can also come accompanied by an intelligent calibrator unit which can
register all critical ambient parameters and automatically correct them in real time making
readings even more accurate.
UNIT 4
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
AIM:
To have an idea about the temperature standards, calibration and signalconditioning used in RTDs
KEY WORDS:
Thermometers- Filled in thermometers- Bimetallic thermometers- RTDS- thermistors
UNIT-IV
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Temperature measurement:
Measurement of the hotness of a body relative to a standard scale. The fundamental scale of
temperature is the thermodynamic scale, which can be derived from any equation expressing the
second law of thermodynamics. Efforts to approximate the thermodynamic scale as closely as
possible depend on relating measurements of temperature-dependent physical properties of
systems to thermodynamic relations expressed by statistical thermodynamic equations, thus in
general linking temperature to the average kinetic energy of the measured system. Temperaturemeasuring devices, thermometers, are systems with properties that change with temperature in a
simple, predictable, reproducible
In the establishment of a useful standard scale, assigned temperature values of thermodynamic
equilibrium fixed points are agreed upon by an international body (General Conference of
Weights and Measures), which updates the scale about once every 20 years. Thermometers for
interpolating between fixed points and methods for realizing the fixed points are prescribed,
providing a scheme for calibrating thermometers used in science and industry.
The scale now in use is the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90). Its unit is the
kelvin, K, arbitrarily defined as 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature T of the triple point
of water (where liquid, solid, and vapor coexist). For temperatures above 273.15 K, it is common
to use International Celsius Temperatures, t90 (rather than International Kelvin
Temperatures, T90), having the unit degree Celsius, with symbol C. The degree Celsius has the
same magnitude as the kelvin. Temperatures, t90, are defined as t90/C = T90/K - 273.15, that is, as
differences from the ice-point temperature at 273.15 K. The ice point is the state in which the
liquid and solid phases of water coexist at a pressure of 1 atm (101,325 pascals). [The Fahrenheit
scale, with symbol F, still in common use in the United States, is given by tF/F = (t90/C 1.8)
+ 32, ortF/F = (T90/K 1.8) - 459.67.] The ITS-90 is defined by 17 fixed points.
Primary thermometers are devices which relate the thermodynamic temperature to statistical
mechanical formulation. The fixed points of ITS-90 are all based on one or more types of gas
thermometry or on spectral radiation pyrometry referenced to gas thermometry. Secondary
thermometers are used as reference standards in the laboratory because primary thermometers are
often too cumbersome. It is necessary to establish standard secondary thermometers referenced to
one or more fixed points for interpolation between fixed points. Lower-order thermometers are
used for most practical purposes and, when high accuracy is required, can usually be calibrated
against reference standards maintained at laboratories, such as the U.S. National Institute of
Standards and Technology, or against portable reference devices (sealed boiling or melting point
cells).
Primary and secondary thermometers
Thermometers can be divided into two separate groups according to the level of knowledge about
the physical basis of the underlying thermodynamic laws and quantities. For primary
thermometers the measured property of matter is known so well that temperature can be
calculated without any unknown quantities. Examples of these are thermometers based on the
equation of state of a gas, on the velocity of sound in a gas, on the thermal noise (seeJohnson
Nyquist noise) voltage or current of an electrical resistor, and on the angular anisotropy of gamma
ray emission of certain radioactive nuclei in amagnetic field. Primary thermometers are relatively
complex.
Secondary thermometers are most widely used because of their convenience. Also, they are
often much more sensitive than primary ones. For secondary thermometers knowledge of the
measured property is not sufficient to allow direct calculation of temperature. They have to be
calibrated against a primary thermometer at least at one temperature or at a number of fixed
temperatures. Such fixed points, for example, triple points and superconducting transitions, occur
reproducibly at the same temperat
C alibration of thermometers:
Thermometers can be calibrated either by comparing them with other calibrated thermometers or
by checking them against known fixed points on the temperature scale. The best known of these
fixed points are the melting and boiling points of pure water. (Note that the boiling point of water
varies with pressure, so this must be controlled.)
The traditional method of putting a scale on a liquid-in-glass or liquid-in-metal thermometer was
in three stages:
1. Immerse the sensing portion in a stirred mixture of pure ice and water at 1 Standard
atmosphere (101.325 kPa ; 760.0 mmHg) and mark the point indicated when it had come
to thermal equilibrium.
2. Immerse the sensing portion in a steam bath at 1 Standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa ;
760.0 mmHg) and again mark the point indicated.
3. Divide the distance between these marks into equal portions according to the temperature
scale being used.
Other fixed points were used in the past are the body temperature (of a healthy adult male) which
was originally used by Fahrenheit as his upper fixed point (96 F (36 C) to be a number divisible
by 12) and the lowest temperature given by a mixture of salt and ice, which was originally the
definition of 0 F (18 C).[14] (This is an example of a Frigorific mixture). As body temperature
varies, the Fahrenheit scale was later changed to use an upper fixed point of boiling water at
212 F (100 C).[15]
These have now been replaced by the defining points in the International Temperature Scale of
1990, though in practice the melting point of water is more commonly used than its triple point,
the latter being more difficult to manage and thus restricted to critical standard measurement.
Nowadays manufacturers will often use a thermostatbath or solid block where the temperature is
held constant relative to a calibrated thermometer. Other thermometers to be calibrated are put
into the same bath or block and allowed to come to equilibrium, then the scale marked, or any
deviation from the instrument scale recorded. [16] For many modern devices calibration will be
stating some value to be used in processing an electronic signal to convert it to a temperature.
Precision, accuracy, and reproducibility:
The "Boyce MotoMeter" radiator cap on a 1913 Car-Nation automobile, used to measure
temperature of vapor in 1910s and 1920s cars.
The precision or resolution of a thermometer is simply to what fraction of a degree it is possible
to make a reading. For high temperature work it may only be possible to measure to the nearest
10C or more. Clinical thermometers and many electronic thermometers are usually readable to
0.1C. Special instruments can give readings to one thousandth of a degree. However, this
precision does not mean the reading is true or accurate.
Thermometers which are calibrated to known fixed points (e.g. 0 and 100C) will
be accurate (i.e. will give a true reading) at those points. Most thermometers are originally
calibrated to a constant-volume gas thermometer.[citation needed] In between a process
of interpolation is used, generally a linear one.[16] This may give significant differences between
different types of thermometer at points far away from the fixed points. For example the
expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer is slightly different from the change in resistance of
a platinum resistance of the thermometer, so these will disagree slightly at around 50C.[17] There
may be other causes due to imperfections in the instrument, e.g. in a liquid-in-glass thermometer
if the capillary varies in diameter. [17]
For many purposes reproducibility is important. That is, does the same thermometer give the
same reading for the same temperature (or do replacement or multiple thermometers give the
same reading)? Reproducible temperature measurement means that comparisons are valid in
scientific experiments and industrial processes are consistent. Thus if the same type of
thermometer is calibrated in the same way its readings will be valid even if it is slightly
inaccurate compared to the absolute scale.
An example of a reference thermometer used to check others to industrial standards would be a
platinum resistance thermometer with a digital display to 0.1C (its precision) which has been
calibrated at 5 points against national standards (-18, 0, 40, 70, 100C) and which is certified to
an accuracy of 0.2C.[18]
According to a British Standard, correctly calibrated, used and maintained liquid-in-glass
thermometers can achieve a measurement uncertainty of 0.01C in the range 0 to 100C, and a
larger uncertainty outside this range: 0.05C up to 200 or down to -40C, 0.2C up to 450 or
down to -80C.[19]
Temperature Measurement: Filled-System Thermometers:
Many physical properties change with temperature, such as the volume ofa liquid, the length of a
metal rod, the electrical resistance of a wire, thepressure of a gas kept at constant volume, and the
volume of a gas kept atconstant pressure. Filled-system thermometers use the phenomenon of
thermal expansion of matter to measure temperature change.
The filled thermal device consists of a primary element that takes the formof a reservoir or bulb, a
flexible capillary tube, and a hollow Bourdon tubethat actuates a signal-transmitting device and/or
a local indicating temperaturedial. A typical filled-system thermometer is shown in Figure .In this
system, the filling fluid, either liquid or gas, expands as temperatureincreases. This causes the
Bourdon tube to uncoil and indicate thetemperature on a calibrated dial.
The filling or transmitting medium is a vapor, a gas, mercury, or another liquid. The liquid-filled
system is the most common because it requires a bulb with the smallest volume or permits a
smaller instrument to be used.The gas-filled system uses the perfect gas law, which states the
following for an ideal gas:
T = kPV
where:
T
temperature
constant
pressure
volume
If the volume of gas in the measuring instrument is kept constant, then the ratio of the gas
pressure and temperature is constant, so that
The only restrictions on Equation are that the temperature must be expressed in degrees Kelvin
and the pressure must be in absolute units.
Different types of Filled in thermometers:
1.Gas filled thermometers
2.Liquid filled thermometers
3.Mercury filled thermometers
4.Vapour pressure Thermometers
Sources of errors in filled system:
1.Ambient temperature effect:
The change of temperature causes volume changes in the capillary tube and the bourdon tube
therby causing error in measurement.
2.Head or elevation effect:
If the thermometer bulb is placed at a different height with respect to the bourdon tube, elevation
errors are produced
3.Barometric effect:
The effect due to change in the atmospheric pressure is known as the barometric effect.
4.Immersion effect:
If the bulb is not properly immersed or fully immersed and the head of the bulb is lost due to
conduction through the not properly insulated heat from the bulb is lost due to conduction
through the extension neck and thermal well.This causes what is known as immersion error.
5.Radiation effect:
radiation error occurs due to temperature difference between the bulb and other solid bodies
around.
Bimetallic Strip Thermometers
Bulb thermometers are good for measuring temperature accurately, but they are harder to use
when the goal is to control the temperature. The bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is made
of metal, is good at controlling things.
The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact that different metals
expand at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two different metals together, you can
make a simple electric controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures. This sort of
controller is often found in ovens. Here is the general layout:
Two metals make up the bimetallic strip (hence the name). In this diagram, the green metal would
be chosen to expand faster than the blue metal if the device were being used in an oven. In a
refrigerator, you would use the opposite setup, so that as the temperature rises the blue metal
expands faster than the green metal. This causes the strip to bend upward, making contact so that
current can flow. By adjusting the size of the gap between the strip and the contact, you control
the temperature.
You will often find long bimetallic strips coiled into spirals. This is the typical layout of a
backyard dial thermometer. By coiling a very long strip it becomes much more sensitive to small
temperature changes. In a furnace thermostat, the same technique is used and a mercury switch
is attached to the coil. The switch turns the furnace on and off. `
Electrical methods Of Temperature Measurement:
Thermistors.:
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly(more than in standard
resistors) with temperature. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor . Thermistors are
widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors,
and self-regulating heating elements.
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature
response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors
typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range [usually 90 C to 130
C].
Thermistor symbol
Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and
temperature is linear, then:
where
= change in resistance
= change in temperature
= first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of . If is positive,
the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If is negative, the resistance
decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a as
close to zero as possible(smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains nearly constant
over a wide temperature range.
Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance
(alpha) or
is used. It is defined as [1]
For example, for the common PT100 sensor,

coefficient should not be confused with the
or 0.385 %/C. This

parameter below.
1. Steinhart-Hart equation
2. B parameter equation
3. Conduction model
4. Self-heating effects
5. Applications
1. Steinhart-Hart equation
In practice, the linear approximation (above) works only over a small temperature range.
For accurate temperature measurements, the resistance/temperature curve of the device
must be described in more detail. The Steinhart-Hart equation is a widely used third-order
approximation:
where a, b and c are called the Steinhart-Hart parameters, and must be specified for each
device. T is the temperature in kelvins and R is the resistance in ohms. To give resistance
as a function of temperature, the above can be rearranged into:
where
and
The error in the Steinhart-Hart equation is generally less than 0.02 C in the
measurement of temperature[citation needed]. As an example, typical values for a thermistor
with a resistance of 3000 at room temperature (25 C = 298.15 K) are:
2. B parameter equation
NTC thermistors can also be characterised with the B parameter equation, which is
essentially the Steinhart Hart equation with
and
where the temperatures are in kelvins and R0 is the resistance at temperature T0

(usually 25 C = 298.15 K). Solving for R yields:
or, alternatively,
where
. This can be solved for the temperature:
The B-parameter equation can also be written as

. This can be used to
convert the function of resistance vs. temperature of a thermistor into a linear function of
vs.
B parameter.
. The average slope of this function will then yield an estimate of the value of the
3. Conduction model
Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a
sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the
number of electrons able to move about and carry charge - it promotes them into the conduction
band. The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material can conduct. This is
described in the formula:
= electric current (amperes) = density of charge carriers (count/m)

= cross-sectional area of the material (m)
= velocity of charge carriers (m/s)
= charge of an electron (
coulomb)
The current is measured using an ammeter. Over large changes in temperature, calibration is
necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of
the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are many different semiconducting
thermistors with a range from about 0.01 kelvin to 2,000 kelvins (273.14 C to 1,700 C).
Most PTC thermistors are of the "switching" type, which means that their resistance rises
suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The devices are made of a doped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. The dielectric constant of this
ferroelectric material varies with temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high
dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading
to a low resistance. In this region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the
Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of
potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply. At even higher
temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour. The equations used for modeling this
behaviour were derived by W. Heywang and G. H. Jonker in the 1960s.
Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such as
"Polyswitch" "Semifuse", and "Multifuse". This consists of a slice of plastic with carbon grains
embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other,
forming a conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the
carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly. Like the BaTiO 3
thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear resistance/temperature response and is used for
switching, not for proportional temperature measurement.
Yet another type of thermistor is a silistor, a thermally sensitive silicon resistor. Silistors are
similarly constructed and operate on the same principles as other thermistors, but employ silicon
as the semiconductive component material.
4. Self-heating effects
When a current flows through a thermistor, it will generate heat which will raise the temperature
of the thermistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor is being used to measure the
temperature of the environment, this electrical heating may introduce a significant error if a
correction is not made. Alternatively, this effect itself can be exploited. It can, for example, make
a sensitive air-flow device employed in a sailplane rate-of-climb instrument, the electronic
variometer, or serve as a timer for a relay as was formerly done in telephone exchanges.
The electrical power input to the thermistor is just:
where I is current and V is the voltage drop across the thermistor. This power is converted to heat,
and this heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environment. The rate of transfer is well
described by Newton's law of cooling:
where T(R) is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance R,

is the
temperature of the surroundings, and K is the dissipation constant, usually expressed in units of
milliwatts per degree Celsius. At equilibrium, the two rates must be equal.
The current and voltage across the thermistor will depend on the particular circuit configuration.
As a simple example, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed, then by Ohm's Law we
have
and the equilibrium equation can be solved for the ambient temperature as a
function of the measured resistance of the thermistor:
The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal connection of the thermistor to its
surroundings. It is generally given for the thermistor in still air, and in well-stirred oil. Typical
values for a small glass bead thermistor are 1.5 mW/C in still air and 6.0 mW/C in stirred oil. If
the temperature of the environment is known beforehand, then a thermistor may be used to
measure the value of the dissipation constant. For example, the thermistor may be used as a flow
rate sensor, since the dissipation constant increases with the rate of flow of a fluid past the
thermistor.
5. Applications
PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large
enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up,
causing its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating. This creates a selfreinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, reducing the current and voltage available to
the device.
PTC thermistors are used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of CRT displays and televisions.
When the unit is initially switched on, current flows through the thermistor and degauss coil. The
coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will heat the thermistor to the
point that the degauss coil shuts off in under a second.
NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the
order of 10 K.
NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. They
present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and
then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal
operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring type thermistors, and are
purposely designed for this application.
NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor things
like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the ECU
and, indirectly, to the dashboard. They can be also used to monitor temperature of an incubator.
Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).
Another type of electrical resistance temperature sensor is the Resistance Temperature Detector
or RTD. RTD's are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals such
as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a
function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor. Also available are thin-film RTD's.
These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a white ceramic substrate.
RTD
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the
thermistor their output is extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
However, they have poor sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a very small
output change for example, 1/oC. The more common types of RTD's are made from platinum
and are called Platinum Resistance Thermometer or PRT's with the most commonly available
of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a standard resistance value of 100 at 0 oC. However,
Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this type of device is its cost.
Like the thermistor, RTD's are passive resistive devices and by passing a constant current through
the temperature sensor it is possible to obtain an output voltage that increases linearly with
temperature. A typical RTD has a base resistance of about 100 at 0oC, increasing to about 140
at 100oC with an operating temperature range of between -200 to +600oC.
Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current through them and monitor the
resulting voltage. However, any variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the
current flows through it, I2R, (Ohms Law) causes an error in the readings. To avoid this, the RTD
is usually connected into a Whetstone Bridge network which has additional connecting wires for
lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant current source.
Signal conditioning of RTDs:
Several types of signal conditioning should be considered when using RTDs and thermistors, as
described below.
Current Excitation
Because RTDs and thermistors are restive devices, your data acquisition (DAQ) system must
provide a current excitation source to measure a voltage across the device. This current source
must be constant and precise.
2, 3, and 4-Wire Configurations (RTDs only)
RTDs come in 2, 3, and 4-wire configurations. Therefore, your system must handle support
whatever type of RTD you choose. (Thermistors are typically 2-wire devices because they have
higher resistance characteristics, thus eliminating lead resistance considerations.)
Linearization
Both the RTD and themistor output voltage is not linear with temperature. Therefore, your system
must perform linearization either in hardware or software.
An Overview of RTD Lead Wire Compensation
Lead Wire Resistance
RTDs are resistive devices, so lead wire resistance directly affects its accuracy.The error can be
quite large, depending on the lead wire resistance (measured in ohms / foot).For example, an
uncompensated 2-wire circuit using 30 gauge wires can have an error as high as 1.2F per
foot!Fortunately, there is a method to compensate for the lead wire resistance.
2-wire:One lead wire is connected to each end of the element.This arrangement is suitable for
uses where the lead wire resistance may be considered as a constant in the circuit, or where
changes in the lead wire resistance due to ambient temperature changes can be ignored.
3-wire:This is the most common of RTD configurations.One lead wire is connected to one end of
the element and two lead wires are connected to the other end.The purpose of the third lead is to
compensate for the lead wire resistance, thereby increasing accuracy.An instrument capable of
utilizing a 3- wire RTD must be used to benefit from this configuration.
4-wire:The most accurate of the RTD configurations, this element uses two wires for each end of
the element. Building on the 3-wire concept, compensation is made for the resistance in each lead
wire, creating a highly-accurate temperature-measurement device for critical applications.An
instrument capable of utilizing a 4-wire RTD must be used to benefit from this configuration.
To use an RTD, a small voltage is passed through the element and then measured. The
resistance of the element reduces the voltage and this voltage drop can be converted into
a temperature measurement. With most RTDs, the higher the temperature, the higher the
resistance. The following diagram represents a simple 2-wire RTD circuit. An instrument
is hooked to one red wire and sends a voltage thru that red wire, through the element and
back thru the other red wire. This reading is then converted to a temperature by the
instrument. The only problem with this simple 2-wire circuit is that you read the
resistance of the lead wire along with the resistance of the element. There is no way to
separate the three resistances.
Resistance of circuit = 5 + 100 + 5 = 110 ohms
The 3-wire circuit does allow for compensation of lead wire resistance, which is
normally
done by the measuring instrument. The instrument measures the resistance between the
red and the white leads and then subtracts the resistance between the two reds.
5 (w) + 100 + 5 (r) = 110 (5 (w) + 5 (r)) = 100

The problem with the 3-wire circuit is that the formula assumes that all three wires are
the same resistance. This is not a problem on short lead wire lengths but can become a
problem as the length of the extension lead wires increases. The 4-wire circuit is a true 4wire bridge circuit that eliminates any differences in lead resistances.
The 4-wire bridge circuit eliminates lead wires resistance electrically instead of
mathematically.
UNIT 5
THERMOCOUPLES AND RADIATION PYROMETERS
AIM:
To have a sound knowledge about thermocouples and pyrometrytechniques
KEY WORDS:
Thermocouple- cold junction compensation- Radiation methods- pyrometers- fibre optic method
of temperature measurement-
UNIT-5
THERMOCOUPLES AND RADIATION PYROMETERS
One of the most common industrial thermometer is the thermocouple. It was discovered by
Thomas Seebeck's in 1822. He noted that a voltage difference appeared when the wire was heated
at one end. Regardless of temperature, if both ends were at the same temperature there was no
voltage difference. If the circuit were made with wire of the same material there was no current
flow.
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, and produce a small
unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is measured and interpreted by a
thermocouple thermometer.
The thermoelectric voltage resulting from the temperature difference from one end of the wire to
the other is actually the sum of all the voltage differences along the wire from end to end
Thermocouples can be made from a variety of metals and cover a temperature range 200 oC to
2,600 oC. Comparing thermocouples to other types of sensors should be made in terms of the
tolerance given in ASTM E 230.
Base metal thermocouples
Maximum Temperature (oC)
Thermocouple
Continuous
Spot
Copper-Constantan
400
500
Iron-Constantan
850
1,100
Chromel-Constantan
700
1,000
Chromel-Alumel
1,100
1,300
Nicrosil-Nisil
1,250
Tungsten-Molybdenum*
2,600
2,650
* Not used below 1250 oC.

Advantages with thermocouples
Capable of being used to directly measure temperatures up to 2600 oC.
The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct contact with the material
being measured.
Disadvantages with thermocouples
Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two temperatures be measured, the
junction at the work end (the hot junction) and the junction where wires meet the instrumentation
copper wires (cold junction). To avoid error the cold junction temperature is in general
compensated in the electronic instruments by measuring the temperature at the terminal block
using with a semiconductor, thermistor, or RTD.
Thermocouples operation are relatively complex with potential sources of error. The materials of
which thermocouple wires are made are not inert and the thermoelectric voltage developed along
the length of the thermocouple wire may be influenced by corrosion etc.
The relationship between the process temperature and the thermocouple signal (millivolt) is not
linear.
The calibration of the thermocouple should be carried out while it is in use by comparing it to a
nearby comparison thermocouple. If the thermocouple is removed and placed in a calibration
bath, the output integrated over the length is not reproduced exactly.
Thermocouple Types
Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals or calibrations. The four most
common calibrations are J, K, T and E. Each calibration has a different temperature range and
environment, although the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the
thermocouple.
Some of the thermocouple types have standardized with calibration tables, color codes and
assigned letter-designations. The ASTM Standard E230 provides all the specifications for most of
the common industrial grades, including letter designation, color codes (USA only), suggested
use limits and the complete voltage versus temperature tables for cold junctions maintained at 32
o
F and 0 oC.
There are four "classes" of thermocouples:
The home body class (called base metal),

the upper crust class (called rare metal or precious metal),
the rarified class (refractory metals) and,
the exotic class (standards and developmental devices).
The home bodies are the Types E, J, K, N and T. The upper crust are types B, S, and R, platinum
all to varying percentages. The exotic class includes several tungsten alloy thermocouples usually
designated as Type W (something).
Temperature
Range
Instrument
Accuracy
Recommended
(oF)
Type J probes
32 to 1336
Type K probes
32 to 2300
Type T probes
-299 to 700
Type E probes
32 to 1600
Type R probes
32 to 2700
Type S probes
32 to 2700
Maximum
(oF)
-310 to 1832
1.8 to 7.9oF or 0.4% of

reading above 32oF,
whichever is greater
-418 to 2507
1.8 to 7.9oF or 0.4% of

reading above 32oF,
-418 to752
0.9 to 3.6oF or 0.4% of

reading above 32oF,
32 to 1650
1.8 to 7.9oF or 0.4% of

reading above 32oF,
32 to 3210
2.5oF or 0.25% of
reading, whichever is
greater
32 to 3210
2.5oF or 0.25% of
reading, whichever is
greater
Temperature Conversions
F = (1.8 x oC) + 32
C = (oF - 32) x 0.555
Kelvin = oC + 273.2
o
Rankin = oF + 459.67
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control [1] and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are
inexpensive [2] and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can measure
a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one
degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve. [3]
Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys
are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be
important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the
measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less
costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against
a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of
cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals.
Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple,
and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements.
Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
Laws for thermocouple
Law of homogeneous material
A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material by the
application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section. In other words,
temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not affect the output voltage,
provided all wires are made of the same materials as the thermocouple.
Law of intermediate materials
The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric emfs in a circuit composed of any number of dissimilar
materials is zero if all of the junctions are at a uniform temperature. So If a third metal is inserted
in either wire and if the two new junctions are at the same temperature, there will be no net
voltage generated by the new metal.
. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures
If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal emf1 when the junctions are at T1 and
T2 and produce thermal emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3 , the emf generated when the
junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 + emf2
SIGNAL CONDITIONING OF THERMOCOUPLE OUTPUT:

Difficulties Measuring with Thermocouples
It is not easy to transform the voltage generated by a thermocouple into an accurate temperature
reading for many reasons: the voltage signal is small, the temperature-voltage relationship is
nonlinear, reference junction compensation is required, and thermocouples may pose grounding
problems. Let's consider these issues one by one.
Voltage signal is small: The most common thermocouple types are J, K, and T. At room
temperature, their voltage varies at 52 V/C, 41 V/C, and 41 V/C, respectively. Other lesscommon types have an even smaller voltage change with temperature. This small signal requires
a high gain stage before analog-to-digital conversion. Table 1 compares sensitivities of various
thermocouple types.
Voltage Change vs. Temperature Rise

(Seebeck Coefficient) for Various Thermocouple Types at 25C.
Thermocoup Seebeck Coefficient
le Type
(V/C)
E
61
52
41
27
41
Because the voltage signal is small, the signal-conditioning circuitry typically requires gains of
about 100 or sofairly straightforward signal conditioning. What can be more difficult is
distinguishing the actual signal from the noise picked up on the thermocouple leads.
Thermocouple leads are long and often run through electrically noisy environments. The noise
picked up on the leads can easily overwhelm the tiny thermocouple signal.
Two approaches are commonly combined to extract the signal from the noise. The first is to use a
differential-input amplifier, such as an instrumentation amplifier, to amplify the signal. Because
much of the noise appears on both wires (common-mode), measuring differentially eliminates it.
The second is low-pass filtering, which removes out-of-band noise. The low-pass filter should
remove both radio-frequency interference (above 1 MHz) that may cause rectification in the
amplifier and 50 Hz/60 Hz (power-supply) hum. It is important to place the filter for radio
frequency interference ahead of the amplifier (or use an amplifier with filtered inputs). The
location of the 50-Hz/60-Hz filter is often not criticalit can be combined with the RFI filter,
placed between the amplifier and ADC, incorporated as part of a sigma-delta ADC, or it can be
programmed in software as an averaging filter.
Reference junction compensation: The temperature of the thermocouple's reference junction
must be known to get an accurate absolute-temperature reading. When thermocouples were first
used, this was done by keeping the reference junction in an ice bath. Figure 2 depicts a
thermocouple circuit with one end at an unknown temperature and the other end in an ice bath
(0C). This method was used to exhaustively characterize the various thermocouple types, thus
almost all thermocouple tables use 0C as the reference temperature.
Basic iron-constantan thermocouple circuit.

But keeping the reference junction of the thermocouple in an ice bath is not practical for most
measurement systems. Instead most systems use a technique called reference-junction
compensation, (also known as cold-junction compensation). The reference junction temperature is
measured with another temperature-sensitive devicetypically an IC, thermistor, diode, or RTD
(resistance temperature-detector). The thermocouple voltage reading is then compensated to
reflect the reference junction temperature. It is important that the reference junction be read as
accurately as possiblewith an accurate temperature sensor kept at the same temperature as the
reference junction. Any error in reading the reference junction temperature will show up directly
in the final thermocouple reading.
A variety of sensors are available for measuring the reference temperature:
1. Thermistors: They have fast response and a small package; but they require linearization
and have limited accuracy, especially over a wide temperature range. They also require
current for excitation, which can produce self-heating, leading to drift. Overall system
accuracy, when combined with signal conditioning, can be poor.
2. Resistance temperature-detectors (RTDs): RTDs are accurate, stable, and reasonably
linear, however, package size and cost restrict their use to process-control applications.
3. Remote thermal diodes: A diode is used to sense the temperature near the thermocouple
connector. A conditioning chip converts the diode voltage, which is proportional to
temperature, to an analog or digital output. Its accuracy is limited to about 1C.
4. Integrated temperature sensor: An integrated temperature sensor, a standalone IC that
senses the temperature locally, should be carefully mounted close to the reference
junction, and can combine reference junction compensation and signal conditioning.
Accuracies to within small fractions of 1C can be achieved.
Compensation,signal conditioning, and respose of thermocouple
Voltage signal is nonlinear: The slope of a thermocouple response curve changes over
temperature. For example, at 0C a T-type thermocouple output changes at 39 V/C, but at
100C, the slope increases to 47 V/C.
There are three common ways to compensate for the nonlinearity of the thermocouple.
Choose a portion of the curve that is relatively flat and approximate the slope as linear in this
regionan approach that works especially well for measurements over a limited temperature
range. No complicated computations are needed. One of the reasons the K- and J-type
thermocouples are popular is that they both have large stretches of temperature for which the
incremental slope of the sensitivity (Seebeck coefficient) remains fairly constant.
Variation of thermocouple sensitivity with temperature. Note that K-type's Seebeck

coefficient is roughly constant at about 41 V/C from 0C to 1000C.
Another approach is to store in memory a lookup table that matches each of a set of thermocouple
voltages to its respective temperature. Then use linear interpolation between the two closest
points in the table to get other temperature values.
A third approach is to use higher order equations that model the behavior of the thermocouple.
While this method is the most accurate, it is also the most computationally intensive. There are
two sets of equations for each thermocouple. One set converts temperature to thermocouple
voltage (useful for reference junction compensation). The other set converts thermocouple
voltage to temperature. Thermocouple tables and the higher order thermocouple equations can be
found at http://srdata.nist.gov/its90/main/. The tables and equations are all based on a reference
junction temperature of 0C. Reference-junction compensation must be used if the referencejunction is at any other temperature.
Grounding requirements: Thermocouple manufacturers make thermocouples with both
insulated and grounded tips for the measurement junction (Figure 4).
Thermocouple measurement junction types.

The thermocouple signal conditioning should be designed so as to avoid ground loops when
measuring a grounded thermocouple, yet also have a path for the amplifier input bias currents
when measuring an insulated thermocouple. In addition, if the thermocouple tip is grounded, the
amplifier input range should be designed to handle any differences in ground potential between
the thermocouple tip and the measurement system ground (Figure 5).
Grounding options when using different tip types.

For nonisolated systems, a dual-supply signal-conditioning system will typically be more robust
for grounded tip and exposed tip types. Because of its wide common-mode input range, a dualsupply amplifier can handle a large voltage differential between the PCB (printed-circuit board)
ground and the ground at the thermocouple tip. Single-supply systems can work satisfactorily in
all three tip cases if the amplifier's common-mode range has some ability to measure below
ground in the single-supply configuration. To deal with the common-mode limitation in some
single-supply systems, biasing the thermocouple to a midscale voltage is useful. This works well
for insulated thermocouple tips, or if the overall measurement system is isolated. However, it is
not recommended for nonisolated systems that are designed to measure grounded or exposed
thermocouples.
Practical thermocouple solutions: Thermocouple signal conditioning is more complex than that
of other temperature measurement systems. The time required for the design and debugging of the
signal conditioning can increase a product's time to market. Errors in the signal conditioning,
especially in the reference junction compensation section, can lead to lower accuracy. The
following two solutions address these concerns.
The first details a simple analog integrated hardware solution combining direct thermocouple
measurement with reference junction compensation using a single IC. The second solution details
a software-based reference-junction compensation scheme providing improved accuracy for the
thermocouple measurement and the flexibility to use many types of thermocouples.
Measurement Solution 1: Optimized for Simplicity
Figure 6 shows a schematic for measuring a K-type thermocouple. It is based on using the
AD8495 thermocouple amplifier, which is designed specifically to measure K-type
thermocouples. This analog solution is optimized for minimum design time: It has a
straightforward signal chain and requires no software coding.
Measurement solution 1: optimized for simplicity.

How does this simple signal chain address the signal conditioning requirements for K-type
thermocouples?
Gain and output scale factor: The small thermocouple signal is amplified by the AD8495's gain
of 122, resulting in a 5-mV/C output signal sensitivity (200C/V).
Noise reduction: High-frequency common-mode and differential noise are removed by the
external RFI filter. Low frequency common-mode noise is rejected by the AD8495's
instrumentation amplifier. Any remaining noise is addressed by the external post filter.
Reference junction compensation: The AD8495, which includes a temperature sensor to
compensate for changes in ambient temperature, must be placed near the reference junction to
maintain both at the same temperature for accurate reference-junction compensation.
Nonlinearity correction: The AD8495 is calibrated to give a 5 mV/C output on the linear
portion of the K-type thermocouple curve, with less than 2C of linearity error in the 25C to
+400C temperature range. If temperatures beyond this range are needed, Analog Devices
Application Note AN-1087 describes how a lookup table or equation could be used in a
microprocessor to extend the temperature range.
Handling insulated, grounded, and exposed thermocouples: Figure 5 shows a 1-M resistor
connected to ground, which allows for all thermocouple tip types. The AD8495 was specifically
designed to be able to measure a few hundred millivolts below ground when used with a single
supply as shown. If a larger ground differential is expected, the AD8495 can also be operated
with dual supplies.
More about the AD8495: Figure 7 shows a block diagram of the AD8495 thermocouple
amplifier. Amplifiers A1, A2, and A3and the resistors shownform an instrumentation
amplifier that amplifies the K-type thermocouple's output with a gain appropriate to produce an
output voltage of 5 mV/C. Inside the box labeled "Ref junction compensation" is an ambient
temperature sensor. With the measurement junction temperature held constant, the differential
voltage from the thermocouple will decrease if the reference junction temperature rises for any
reason. If the tiny (3.2 mm 3.2 mm 1.2 mm) AD8495 is in close thermal proximity to the
reference junction, the reference-junction compensation circuitry injects additional voltage into
the amplifier, so that the output voltage stays constant, thus compensating for the reference
temperature change.
AD8495 functional block diagram.

summarizes the performance of the integrated hardware solution using the AD8495:
Solution 1 (Figure 6) Performance Summary
Measurement
Thermocou Junction
ple Type
Temperature
Range
25C to +400C
Reference
Junction
Temperature
Range
Accuracy
at 25C
Power
Consump
tion
0C to 50C
3C (A
grade)
1C (C
grade)
1.25 mW
Measurement Solution 2: Optimized for Accuracy and Flexibility

Figure 8 shows a schematic for measuring a J-, K-, or T-type thermocouple with a high degree of
accuracy. This circuit includes a high-precision ADC to measure the small-signal thermocouple
voltage and a high-accuracy temperature sensor to measure the reference junction temperature.
Both devices are controlled using an SPI interface from an external microcontroller.
Measurement solution 2: Optimized for accuracy and flexibility.

How does this configuration address the signal conditioning requirements mentioned earlier?
Remove noise and amplify voltage: The AD7793, shown in detail in Figure 9a highprecision, low-power analog front endis used to measure the thermocouple voltage. The
thermocouple output is filtered externally and connects to a set of differential inputs, AIN1(+)
and AIN1(). The signal is then routed through a multiplexer, a buffer, and an instrumentation
amplifierwhich amplifies the small thermocouple signaland to an ADC, which converts the
signal to digital.
AD7793 functional block diagram.

Compensate for reference junction temperature: The ADT7320 (detailed in Figure 10), if
placed close enough to the reference junction, can measure the reference-junction temperature
accurately, to 0.2C, from 10C to +85C. An on-chip temperature sensor generates a voltage
proportional to absolute temperature, which is compared to an internal voltage reference and
applied to a precision digital modulator. The digitized result from the modulator updates a 16-bit
temperature value register. The temperature value register can then be read back from a
microcontroller, using an SPI interface, and combined with the temperature reading from the
ADC to effect the compensation.
ADT7320 functional block diagram.

Correct nonlinearity: The ADT7320 provides excellent linearity over its entire rated
temperature range (40C to +125C), requiring no correction or calibration by the user. Its
digital output can thus be considered an accurate representation of the reference-junction state.
To determine the actual thermocouple temperature, this reference temperature measurement must
be converted into an equivalent thermoelectric voltage using equations provided by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). This voltage then gets added to the thermocouple
voltage measured by the AD7793; and the summation is then translated back into a thermocouple
temperature, again using NIST equations.
Handle insulated and grounded thermocouples: Figure 8 shows a thermocouple with an

exposed tip. This provides the best response time, but the same configuration could also be used
with an insulated-tip thermocouple.
Table 3 summarizes the performance of the software-based reference-junction measurement
solution, using NIST data:
Solution 2 Performance Summary
Measurement
Thermocou Junction
ple Type
Temperature
Range
Reference
Junction
Temperature
Range
J, K, T
10C to +85C 0.2C

20C to +105C 0.25C
Full Range
Accuracy
Power
Consump
tion
3 mW
3 mW
Conclusion
Thermocouples offer robust temperature measurement over a quite wide temperature range, but
they are often not a first choice for temperature measurement because of the required trade-offs
between design time and accuracy. This article proposes cost-effective ways of resolving these
concerns.
The first solution concentrates on reducing the complexity of the measurement by means of a
hardware-based analog reference junction compensation technique. It results in a straightforward
signal chain with no software programming required, relying on the integration provided by the
AD8495 thermocouple amplifier, which produces a 5-mV/C output signal that can be fed into
the analog input of a wide variety of microcontrollers.

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION

EI2251 INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION-1

L-Lecture, T-Tutorial, P-Practical

(each lecture session

Magneto elastic and Piezo

electric load cell

strain gauge-Relative angular

Dragcup type tacho-D.C

Strain gauge and Variable

Mechanical type vibration

Units of density and

specific gravity Baume

scale, and API scale

Pressure head type

type gas densitometer.

Different types Elastic

Bourdontube, bellows and

Elastic elements with

Capacitive type pressure

- Ionization gauges: Cold

Testing and calibration of

Dead weight tester.

secondary fixed points

Different types of filled

filledin systems and their

3 lead and 4 lead RTDs

Commercial circuits for

Fiber optic temperature

Two colour radiation

Pneumatic load cell:

Also called as pressductor load cell

Strain gauge based measurement:

Torque measurement by relative angular twist method by proximity probe type

Torque measurement by relative angular twist method by optical type

Meters per second (symbol m s1 or m/s), the SI derived unit;

Stroboscopes are used to measure the speed of rotation or frequency of vibration of a

A second type of accelerometer takes advantage of the natural linear displacement

The piezoelectric accelerometer is based on a property exhibited by certain crystals where

Constant Acceleration method: Constant acceleration methods, which are suitably

Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.

Unit converter for other units

Densities and material properties for common materials

Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Specific Weight can be expressed as

The well type

Low-pressure applications do not generate

- It covers the vacuum range between 1 and 10-6 torr.

Testing and calibration of pressure gauges-Dead weight tester.

For example, for the common PT100 sensor,

or 0.385 %/C. This

where the temperatures are in kelvins and R0 is the resistance at temperature T0

. This can be solved for the temperature:

The B-parameter equation can also be written as

= electric current (amperes) = density of charge carriers (count/m)

where T(R) is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance R,

separate the three resistances.

Resistance of circuit = 5 + 100 + 5 = 110 ohms

5 (w) + 100 + 5 (r) = 110 (5 (w) + 5 (r)) = 100

* Not used below 1250 oC.