F33C06: Atoms, Photons and Elementary

Particles
Adam Moss
September 30, 2013

1
1.1

Radioactivity
Radioactive decay

Definition: The spontaneous emission of radiation(s) that change the

state of the nucleus.
Of about 2500 known nuclides, only about 300 are stable. The stable nuclei
form a narrow distribution on a plot of N versus Z, as shown in Fig. 1. Unstable
nuclei change N , Z via radioactive decay in order to become more stable. No
nuclide with A > 209 or Z > 83 (Bismuth, Bi) is stable.

1.2

Natural radioactivity

The earth formed about 4.5 109 years ago from the debris of long dead stars.
Most of the elements were radioactive but have since decayed into stable nuclei.
However a few have half lives long compared to the age of the earth and so we
can still observe their radioactivity. Most are very heavy elements. They decay
by and emission. emission decreases A by 4, whereas emission leaves A
unchanged. There are therefore 4 independent decay chains, as shown in Fig. 2.
The decay process will concentrate the nuclei in the longest lived member of
the chain, and provided its half life is of the order of the age of the earth (or
longer), we can still observe that activity today.
If it were not for the very long half life of 235 U and 238 U there would be no
natural uranium and so no obvious source of nuclear power (or nuclear weapons).

1.3

Activity

Definition : Activity is defined as the number of decays per second.

The S.I. unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq). 1 Bq = 1 decay/s. However
an older unit is still in regular use, the Curie (Ci), originally defined as the
activity of 1g of radium. 1 Ci = 3.7 1010 Bq.

1. Radioactivity
1.1. Radioactive decay
Definition: The spontaneous emission of radiations that change the
nucleus.

Of
about 250
nuclides, only ab
stable. The stable
a narrow distributi
of N versus Z.
nuclei change
radioactive decay
become more st
nuclide
with
Z > 83 CBi)is stab

100
90

eo

60
50
40
30

10

20 30

40

50

60

70

eo

90

100 110 120 130 140 150

Neutron Dumber N

Figure
1.1
Segre
Chart
Figure
1: :Segre
chart.

1.2. Natural radioactivity

Final

Nucleus

4n+3
Nucleus
40+2
206Pb
40 +(Stable
208Pb
2I(y}
09Bi
235U
238U
4.47
109 )
232Th1.41
2.14
106
1010
7.04
xX207Pb
108
~
237N
P4n

Half-Life,

Longest-Lived Member

The earth formed about 4.5 x 109 years ago from the debris of long dead
of the elements were radioactive but have since decayed into stable nuclei
have half lives long compared to the age of the earth and so we can still o
radioactivity. Most are very heavy elements. They decay by alph
emission. Alpha emission decreases A by 4 units, whereas beta emissi
Figure 2: The disintegration
series
of the heavy4elements
(n is an integer).
unchanged.
There are
therefore
independent
decay chains. The decay
concentrate the nuclei in the longest lived member of the chain, and prov
Figure
disintegration
seriesage
of theof
heavy
is an integer)
life is
of 1.2
the: Theorder
of the
theelements
earth(n (or
longer), we can still observe
today.
2
If it were not for the very long half life of 235U and 238 U there would be no natural
uranium and so no obvious source of nuclear power (or nuclear weapons).
1.3. Activity
Definition:

Activity is def'med as the number of decays per second.

The S.1. unit of activity is the Becquerel (Bq). IBq

= 1 decay/so

I,)

Figure
law ofofradioactive
decay.
Figure3:1.3Exponential
: Exponentia11aw
radioactive decay

1.4

Radioactive decay law

number
Example: The
Carbon
datingof radioactive nuclei, dN , decaying in a time dt is proportional to
N, so
dN
Primary cosmic radiation converts 14N
in the
into 1:C eiN(n, p) 1:C)
= atmosphere
N ,
(1)
dt 1:C combines with oxygen to form CO2
which has a half life of 5730 years. This
which
is taken
up by
plants. When or
thedecay
plant dies
the decay
of the
1:Cberadioactivity
where
is the
disintegration
constant.
Eqn.
1 can
integrated to
cangive
be used
to
determine
its
age.
the exponential law of radioactive decay
If the activity of a sample of wood found
theet
tomb, of one of the Pharaohs is 6.8 (2)
N =in N
0
counts/minute/gram of carbon and the activity of 14Cin living plant material is 15.3
counts/min/gram
of number
carbon, what
is the at
aget =
of 0.
the The
woodhalf
sample?
where N is the
of nuclei
life, t , is the time taken
0

1/2

for half of the material to decay. Putting N = N0 /2 in Eqn. 2 gives

N0
2

= N0 et1/2 ,

t1/2

(3)

ln 2
.

It is also useful to consider

-- the mean lifetime, ,
nucleus is likely to survive before it decays. This
5'~3R
Q if I 0 q
dt
-- (j t |dN/dt|
= R0 o . &'3
=
|dN/dt| dt
0
.'>("

defined as the average time a

is given by
1
.

(4)

6~o( occur,
;J
Activity is the rate at which decays
i.e.

A = N .

(5)

6
Why is it always an alpha particle that is ejected?

-7.26
7Li
6Li
Emitted
6He
4He
sHe
Release
Particle
-1.94
-6.12
-2.59
+5.41
-6.19
-3.79
-10.70
-10.24
-9.92
Energy

Emitted

(MeV)

(Me V)

Figure 4: Energy release for different decay modes of

1.5

232

U.

Figure 1.4 : Energy release for different modes of decay of 232U

Types of decay

The three principal decay types are , , . In and decay processes an

unstable nucleus emits a particle as it tries to become more stable. In decay
For an232U
we can
calculate
energy
release
for different
particles.changing
Spontaneous
excited
nuclear
state the
decays
toward
the ground
state without
the
nuclear
species.
decay
is only
possible for the ex particle.

There
is a strong
relationship (the Geiger-Nuttall rule) relating the energies of the
1.5.1
decay
ex particles emitted 4and the half lives ofthenucIides, with large energies associated
In this process a He nucleus ( particle) is emitted
with short half lives.2 The variation in half life is astounding (note the log axis in Fig
A
1.5).
X A4 Y +4 He .
(6)
Z

Z2

An example is the decay of radium

226
88 X

4
222
86 Y +2 He ,

(7)

with t1/2 = 1600 years and an particle KE of 4.8 MeV.

emission is a Coulomb repulsion effect and becomes more significant for
heavy nuclei (such as radium) because the Coulomb force increases as Z 2 ,
whereas the nuclear binding force increases with A (see later).
Why is it always an alpha particle that is ejected? For 232 U we can calculate
the energy release for different particles. Spontaneous decay is only possible for
the particle.
There is a strong relationship (the Geiger-Nuttall rule) relating the energies
of the emitted and the half-lives of the nuclides, with large energies associated
with short half lives. The variation in half life is astounding (note the log axis in
Fig. 5). For example, 232 Th has t1/2 = 1.4 1010 years, Q = 4.08 MeV. 218 Th
218rh
has t1/2 = 1.0 107 seconds, Q = 9.85 MeV.
~
This can largely be explained by a model based on 212Po
quantum
mechanical
214Rn Zl6J!a
tunnelling -10
(Gamov, Gurney and Condon in 1928). In this theory an particle
is assumed to move in a spherical region defined by the daughter nucleus. An
important feature of this one-body model is the particle is pre-formed inside
5

10

Q (NeY)

Figure 1.5 : The inverse relationship between ex-decay half life and ex-decay
energv

There is a strong relationship (the Geiger-Nuttall rule) relating the energies of the
ex particles emitted and the half lives ofthenucIides, with large energies associated
with short half lives. The variation in half life is astounding (note the log axis in Fig
1.5).

218rh

212Po 214Rn Zl6J!a

-10

10

Q (NeY)

Figure 5: The inverse relationship between decay half life and decay energy.
the nucleus.
There
is actually
not muchbetween
reason toex-decay
believe half
particles
do exist
Figure
1.5 : The
inverse
relationship
life and
ex-decay
separately, but the model works quite
well. The potential is shown in Fig. 6,
energv
where Q is the disintegration energy.
To obtain the tunnelling probability recall the time-independent Schrodinger
equation for a particle of mass m in one dimension,

~2 d 2
+ V (x)(x) = E(x),
2m dx2

(8)

where (x) is the wave function. The complete solution, including time dependence is (x, t) = (x)eiE/~ t . For the case of E > V (x) the solutions are
oscillatory. For a constant potential V (x) = Vc the wave function is given by
= Aeikx + Beikx ,
where

(9)

2m(E Vc )
.
(10)
~2
The solutions are exponential when E < V (x). Again for a constant potential
V (x) = Vc we have
= Cekx + Dekx ,
(11)
k=

where

r
k=

2m(Vc E)
.
~2
5

(12)

This can be largely explained7 by a model based on quantum mechanical tunnelling

(Gamov and Gurney and Condon in 1928).
For example
232Th

(t~= 1.4

Th

(t~= 1.0

218

= 4.08

1010y; Q

X 10-7

s; Q

,jj::

MeV)

I""';")

.-hJr 60

= 9.85

MeV)

This can be largely explained by a model based on quantum mechanical tunnelling

(Gamov and Gurney and Condon in 1928).

-_.

b ~)
;;_1.
('t!
~
__

I"

-_.
_1.

;; ('t!
~)
~
__

~~~~j
r-

.--

L;

if

1.

jJ

hJr 60

r~

,jj::

I""';")

~~~~j
r-

I-

'"
...J

'"

L;

...J

if

1.

jJ

I"

r~

Figure 1.6 : Potential energy diagram for an alpha particle/daughter

nucleus system

Figure
6: 1.6
Potential
energy
diagram
anan alpha
particle/daughter
system.
Figure
: Potential
energy
diagramforfor
particle/daughternucleus
nucleus
system

We can simplify the potential through which the alpha particle has to tunnel.
We can simplify the potential through which the alpha particle has to tunnel.

-.- CQ

-'

-'

-~

-~

-VD
~ ~

-VD

1:

1:

,
~
~I

,
I

"-----"------ - -
(~c:)

2__
L\~
i2.. -.-3....
j~
2-(~c:)
L\~
-.-3....
~__

1-11-;. -;.

i2..

-.-

-:7

..

-:7

.......

.......

..

Figure 1.7 : SimplifIed potential

Figure 7: Simplified potential.

Figure 1.7 : SimplifIed potential

For our model of the nucleus we can simplify the potential which the
particle has to tunnel to that of Fig. 7. The average value of Vc E in the
barrier region is (B Q)/2, which means (in the barrier region)
r
m(B Q)
.
(13)
k=
~2
Obtaining solutions in the other regions and applying boundary conditions, one
can compute the transmission coefficient, defined as the ratio of transmitted to
incident particle currents, as
P =

jtransmitted
ek(ba) .
jincident

(14)

The decay constant is given by

= fP

(15)

where f is the frequency with which the particle hits the barrier, roughly v/a,
where v is the velocity of the particle.

1.6

decay

decay is the process by which a nuclide can correct a proton or a neutron

excess
n

p + e

negative decay ,

n+e

positive decay ,

p + e

(16)

orbital electron capture .

In the case of decay, the particles are emitted with precise energies, but for
decay there is a continuous distribution up to a maximum energy. For example,
in the case of the decay of 210 Bi, the change in the nuclear mass suggests
that the particles should have an energy of 1.16 MeV. Instead a continuous
distribution is observed.
Pauli provided an explanation for this in 1931 by proposing that a second
particle was released in the decay process. These were later named by Fermi
as the neutrino, , and anti-neutrino, , and accounted for the missing energy.
Thus Eqn. 16 should properly be written as
n
p+e

p + e + ,

(17)

n+e +,

n+.

Examples of decay include

14
6 C
18
9 F

14

7 N+e
18
+
8 O+e

+ ,
+.

(18)

In the case of ex: - decay, the ex: particles are emitted with precise energies, but for f3
decay there is a continuous distribution up to a maximum energy. For example, in the
case of the f3 - decay of 210Bi, the change in the nucleur mass suggests that the f3 =
particles should have an energy of 1.16 MeV. Instead a continuous distribution is
observed.

/'

r; /.I

,J<.Nr."

).' L:,'

Figure 1.8 : Electron energy distribution from the f3

Figure 8: Electron energy distribution from the decay of

- decay
210

Bi.

of 210Bi

Unlike for decay, in the case of decay there is no barrier to penetrate. The
particle
neutrino
notinexist
the decay that
process
and particle was
Pau1i and
provided
an (anti-neutrino)
explanation fordothis
1931before
by proposing
a second
wereleased
must account
theirprocess.
formation.
In 1934
theoryasof the
neutrino Cv)
in the for
decay
These
wereFermi
later developed
named bya Fermi
decay
based
on
Paulis
neutrino
hypothesis.
It
requires
an
interaction
that
is
and anti-neutrino Cv) and accounted for the missing energy. Thus Eqn 1.7 should
weak
compared
to the interaction
that gives rise to the (quasi) stationary states.
properly
be written
as:
The transition rate is given by Fermis Golden Rule (see later).
2

, + iJ
n = ~~|Vfi |2 (E
f ) ep+
n

(19)

+ e+ + v

where Vfi is a matrix element connecting then+v

initial and final states, and (Ef ) Eqn 1.8
is the final density of states.

1.7

decay

decay is the nuclear equivalent of optical or x-ray transitions within the electronic structure of an atom. An excited nucleus can decay towards the ground
state by emission of a ray photon. In the process Z and A are unchanged.
An example is 99m
43 Tc, which has t1/2 6 h and a ray energy of 140 keV
(here the m stands for metastable, or long lived). It is widely used in nuclear
medicine as a radiotracer.

1.8

Uses of radioactivity

All of you will be aware of the potentially harmful effects of exposure to radioactivity. First and foremost of these is its ability to cause cancer. However,
there are also many positive uses of radioactivity. Examples include
8

1. Nuclear power generation.

2. Treatment of cancer (cancer cells are less able to recover from the effects
of radiation damage).
3. Radiotracers in scientific research, industrial and medicine applications.