LAW 112 Legal Methods II PDF

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF LAW
COURSE CODE: 112
COURSE TITLE: LEGAL METHODS II
COURSE
GUIDE
LAW 112
LEGAL METHODS II
Course Developer
Mr. Pius Imiera University of

London (External Degree
Programme) Lagos
Course Writer

Programme) Lagos
Course Editor
Professor A. O. Obilade
Cetep City University
Lagos
Course Co-ordinator
Mr. Ayodeji E. O. Ige Esq.

National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-302-5
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ..
For
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.0
INTRODUCTION 1
2.0
COURSE AIMS 1
3.0
COURSE OBJECTIVES 2
4.0
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE ... 2
5.0
COURSE MATERIALS . 2-3
6.0
STUDY UNITS 3
7.0
REFERENCES . 3-4
8.0
ASSIGNMENT FILE ....4
9.0
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 4-6
10.0 HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE .. 6-8

11.0 SUMMARY . 8
iv
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Legal Methods I and II is a two-semester course. You would have taken

the first part, Legal Methods 101 in the first semester. The second part,
Legal Methods II is a foundation level course. It will be available to all
students towards fulfilling core requirements for the degree in Law.
The course will discuss basic law principles. The material has been
developed to suit students in Nigeria by adapting practical examples
from within our jurisdictions.
This course guide tells you briefly what the course is about, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through
these materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the amount of
time you are likely to spend on each unit of the course in order to
complete it successfully. It also gives you some guidance on your tutormarked assignments (TMAs). Detailed information on TMAs is found in
the separate assignment file, which will be available to you in due
course. There are regular tutorial and surgery classes that are linked to
the course. You are advised to attend these sessions.
What you will learn in this course

The overall aim of LAW 102 is to introduce the fundamental principles
and applications of sources of law. During this course you will learn
about primary sources of law, secondary sources, letters, speeches,
interviews, periodicals and newspaper and foreign materials as sources of
law. You will also learn how these materials serve as sources of law.
2.0
COURSE AIMS
The aim of the course can be summarized as follows: this course aims to
give you an understanding of general principles of law and how they can
be used in relation to other branches of law.
This will be achieved by aiming to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Introduce you to the basic sources of law;

Use of source materials;
Cite cases;
Take brief and write legal letters
LAW 112
3.0
Legal Methods II
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out above, the course sets overall objectives. In
addition, each unit also has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read them before
you start working through the unit. You may want to refer to them during
your study of the unit to check on your progress. You should always look
at the unit objectives after completing a unit. In this way you can be sure
that you have done what was required of you by the unit.
Set out below is the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By
meeting these objectives you should have achieved the aims of the
course as a whole.
On successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
4.0
Explain the various sources of law;

Differentiate the difference between statutory and judicial
materials;
Use of source materials;
Report and cite cases;
Write legal letters;
Explain different styles of essay writing;
Divide topics into chapter in project writing;
Apply legal rules to social matters;
Explain the structure of courts in the contemporary English
legal system; and
List hierarchy of the judiciary in the legal system.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read set
books and other materials. Each unit contains self-assessment exercises,
and at points in the course you are required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course is a final examination. The
course should take you about 12 weeks or more in total to complete.
Below you will find listed all the components of the course, what you
have to do and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order to
complete the course successfully on time.
5.0
COURSE MATERIALS
Major components of the course are:

1.
2.
ii
Course guide;
Study units;
LAW 112
3.
4.
5.
Legal Methods II
Textbooks;
Assignment file; and
Presentation schedule.
In addition, you must obtain the set book; these are not provided by
NOUN, obtaining them is your own responsibility. You may purchase
your own copies. You may contact your tutor if you have problems in
obtaining these textbooks.
6.0
STUDY UNITS
These are 12 study units in this course, as follows:

Module 1
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Sources of Law
Secondary sources of Law
Uses of source materials
Module 2
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Legal research
Indexing and identification of library materials
Cases, citation of cases and reports
Methods and approaches in essay writing
Module 3
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
system
Unit 5
Analysis and note taking in legal matters

Authoritative elements in books and judicial opinion
Application of legal rules in social matters
The structure of courts in the contemporary English legal
The hierarchy of the judiciary in the English legal system
Each unit contains a number of self-tests. In general, these self-tests

question you on the materials you have just covered or require you to
apply it in some way and, thereby, help you to gauge your progress and
to reinforce your understanding of material. Together with TMAS, these
exercises will assist you in achieving the stated learning objectives of the
individual units and of the course.
7.0
REFERENCES
There are some books you should purchase for yourself:

Imiera, P. P. (2005). Knowing the Law FICO Nig. Ltd, (FMH) Lagos,
Nigeria
iii
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
Dada, T. O. (1998). General Principles of Law, T.O. Dada & Co. Lagos,
Nigeria
Obilade, A.O. (1994). The Nigerian Legal System, Sweet & Maxwell,
London.
7.0
ASSIGNMENT FILE
In this file you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain for these assignments will
count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further
information on assignments will be found in the Assignment file itself
and later in this course guide in the section on assessment. You are to
submit five assignments, out of which the best four will be selected and
recorded for you.
Presentation schedule
The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you
the important dates for this year for the completion of TMAS and
attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your
assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in
your work.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessments of the course. First are the
TMAs, second, there is a written examination.
In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply information,
knowledge and techniques gathered during the course. The assignments
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with
the deadlines stated in the presentation schedule and the Assignment file.
The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30% of
your total course mark.
At the end of the course you will need to sit for a final written
examination for three hours duration. This examination will also count
for 70% of your total course mark.
9.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)
There are five tutor-marked assignments in this course. You only need to
submit four of five assignments. You are encouraged, however, to submit
all five assignments, in which case the highest four assignments count
for 30% towards your total course mark.
Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
Assignment file. You will be able to complete your assignments from the
information and materials contained in your set books, reading, and study
iv
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
units. However, it is desirable in all degree level education to

demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than the
required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader
viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject.
When you have completed each assignment send it together with a TMA
form to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on
or before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and Assignment
file. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact
your tutor before the assignment is due to discus the possibility of an
extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless there
are exceptional circumstances.
Final examination and grading
The final examination for LAW 102 will be of two hours duration and
have a value of 70% of the total course grade. The examination will
consist of questions that reflect the types of self-testing, and tutormarked problems you have previously encountered. All areas of the
course will be assessed.
Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting the examination
to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your selfassessment exercises, TMAs and comments by your tutorial facilitator
before the examination. The final examination covers information from
all parts of the course.
Course marking scheme
The following table lays out how the actual course mark allocation is
broken down:
Assessment
Marks
Assignments 1- 4
Four assignments, best three marks of the four count at
30% of course marks.
Final examination
70% of overall course marks
Total
100% of course marks
Table 1 course-marking scheme
Course overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take
to complete them and the assignments that follow them.
Assessment
Weeks
activity
Unit
Title of work
(end of unit)
Course Guide
Week 1
1.
Sources of Law
Week 1
2.
Secondary sources of Law
Week 2
Assignment 1
3.
Uses of source materials
Week 3
v
LAW 112
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Legal Methods II
Legal research
Indexing and identification of library
materials
Cases, citation of cases and reports
Methods and approaches in essay
writing
Analysis and note taking in legal
matters
Authoritative elements in books and
judicial opinion
Application of legal rules in social
matters
The structure of courts in the
contemporary English legal system
The hierarchy of the judiciary in the
English legal system
Revision
Examination
Week 4
Week 5
Assignment 2
Week 6
Week 7
Assignment 3
Week 8
Week 9
Week 10
Assignment 4
Week 11
Week 12
Assignment 5
Week 13
Week 14
Table 2-Course organizer
How to Get the Most From this Course

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is
one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work
through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a
time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might
recommend some reading, the study units tell you when to read
recommended books or other material, and when to undertake practical
work. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study
units provides exercises for you to do at appropriate times.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of
learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be
able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these
objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit you
must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If
you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your
chances of passing the course.
The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from your recommended books
or from a readings section. Self-assessment exercises are interspersed
vi
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
throughout the units, and answers are given at the end of units. Working
through these tests will help you to achieve the objectives of the unit and
prepare you for the assignments and the examination. You should do
each self-assessment exercise as you come to it in the study unit. There
will also be numerous examples given in the study units; work through
these when you come to them, too.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If
you run into any trouble, telephone your tutorial facilitator or visit your
study centre. Remember that your tutors job is to help you. When you
need help, dont hesitate the call and ask your tutor.
1.
2.
3.
Read this course guide thoroughly

Organize a study schedule. Refer to the Course overview for
more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each unit
and how the assignments relate to the units. Important
information, e.g details of your tutorials, and the date of the first
day of the semester is available. You need to gather together all
this information in one place, such as your diary or a wall
calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide
on and write in your own dates for working on each unit.
Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything
you can to stick to it. The major reason that students do not
perform well is that they get behind with their course work. If you
get into difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know
before it is too late for help.
Tutors and tutorials

There are 10 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You
will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the name and phone numbers of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.
Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
assistance will be available at the study centre. You must submit your
tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least
two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and
returned to you as soon as possible.
Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or during
tutorial sessions if you need to. The following might be circumstances in
which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:
You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings
You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises
vii
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
You have a question or problem with an assignment or with your

tutors comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.
You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to
have face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are
answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course
of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials,
prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from
participating in discussions actively.
Some of the questions you may be able answer are not limited to the
following:
1. What there are differences between primary and secondary
sources of law?
2. What are the major points of departure between the English and
Nigerian hierarchy of courts?
3. Why legal research is important to academic and legal
development?
4. What is the major reason why legal practitioners take notes when
interviewing clients?
5. Why are citations of cases important during court proceedings?
6. Why are legal textbooks having authoritative elements not binding
on the court?
7. How do courts apply legal rules in social matters?
10.0 Summary
Of course the list of questions that you can answer is not limited to the
above list. To gain the most from this course you should try to apply the
principles that you encounter in every day life. You are also equipped to
take part in the debate about legal methods.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both
interesting and useful.
viii
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
MAIN
COURSE
Course Code
LAW 102
Course Title
LEGAL METHODS II
Course Developer

Programme) Lagos
Course Writer

Programme) Lagos
Course Editor
Professor A. O. Obilade
Cetep City University
Lagos
Course Co-ordinator
Mr. Ayodeji E. O. Ige Esq.

Lagos
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ix
LAW 112

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
National Open University of Nigeria 2006
First Printed 2006
ISBN: 978-058-302-5
All Rights Reserved
Printed by ..
For
Legal Methods II
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
Table of Content
Page
Module 1
Unit 1
Sources of Law 1-4
Unit 2
Secondary Sources of Law .. 5-11
Unit 3
Uses of Source Materials .12-18
Module 2
Unit 1
Legal Research .. 19-27
Unit 2
Indexing and Identification of Library

Materials 28-33
Unit 3
Cases, Citation of Cases and Reports . 34-38
Unit 4
Methods and Approaches in Essay Writing 39-45
Module 3
Unit 1
Analysis and Note Taking in Legal Matters 46-51
Unit 2
Authoritative Elements in Books and

Judicial Opinion .. 52-57
Unit 3
Application of Legal Rules in Social

Matters 58-64
Unit 4
The Structure of Courts in the

Contemporary English Legal system ...
Unit 5
65-72
The Hierarchy of the Judiciary in the

English Legal System ..
73-79
xi
LAW 102
Legal Methods II
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
MODULE 1
UNIT 1 SOURCES OF LAW
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1
Primary source
3.2
Statutory Materials
3.3
Judicial Materials
3.4
Reasons for studying sources of Law
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment
References/Further Readings
1.0.
INTRODUCTION
The term source of law is used in various senses. In the first place, it
means the ultimate origin of the whole body of a legal system, the origin
from which the system derives its validity: the electorate or voters, a
special body the general will or the will of a dictator. Secondly, the term
source of law is used to name the historical origin of a rule of law. For
instance, the common law is a historical source of English law, for the
origin of many rules of English law is traceable to the common law.
2.0.
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Define the term source of law.

Identify various sources of law;
Distinguish between statutory source of law and judicial source of
law.
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Primary source
The primary source of law is the Nigerian Legislation and Statutes. This
consists of other statutes and subsidiary legislations. Statutes are laws
made by the legislator or a body so duly constituted and authorized to
enact laws; while subsidiary legislations are also known as delegated
1
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
legislations or statutory instruments and are usually entrusted to

Ministers or Commissioners.
The primary source of law consists of Ordinances, Acts, Laws, Decrees
and Edicts, depending on the status of the issuing authority or the
circumstances of the prevailing political situation.
Ordinances were laws passed by the Legislative body during the colonial
era. In most cases, such enactments were usually in the form of orders
from the mother- countrys parliament and were deemed to be applicable
to the colonies concerned.
Self Assessment Exercise (SAE)1
Discuss briefly on legislation and statutes as the primary source of law.
3.2
Statutory Materials
Statutory materials as source of laws include statutes like Sale of Goods

Act 1893,
Infants Relief Act 1874, Partnership Act 1890, Fatal Ancient Act 1846,
Wills Act 1873, Statutes of Fraud 1877, Criminal Code Cap 77, The
Constitution 1999 etc.
3.3
Judicial Material
Judicial precedent is a source of law. Judicial precedent or case law

consists of laws found in judicial decisions. A judicial precedent is the
principle of law on which a judicial decision is based. It is the ratio
decidendi or the reason for the decision. Other judicial material includes
the Nigerian Law Reports. Nigerian law reports are reports of cases,
wherever published or edited, decided by Nigerian courts. They include
English law reports containing decisions of the Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council given on appeal from Nigeria, a number of Local and
foreign periodicals containing case reports and various reports including
loose-sheet (unbound) series.
Self Assessment Exercise (SAE) 2
Apart from the statutory materials listed above, name other statutory
materials known to you.
LAW 112
Legal Methods II

Discuss briefly what you understand by judicial material as a source of
law.
3.4 Reasons For Studying Sources of Law

1.
It affords an understanding of the various means by which the law

governing the society is made or through which it comes into
existence, e.g. through formal Legislative processes in parliament
or through judicial precedents
2. It affords the means by which authoritative written materials are

derived. This constitutes the literary source such as are represented by
the statute books and the various compilations of the annual laws and
the statutes in force including textbooks and monographs, with which
a lawyer should be thoroughly familiar.
3. The study of the sources of law facilitates an understanding of the
process by which law derives its validity. This refers to formal
sources of law such as reflected in the constitution of a country and
the activities of enacting bodies like the National Assembly.
4. A mastery of the sources of law of a given society also enhances an
understanding of the historical factors that have influenced the
evolution of the laws to such a direction as it had taken. By delving
into such historical sources, it may be possible to trace the nature and
content of the law with a view to arriving at the stuff of which the law
was made. For instance:
(i)
The historical fact that it is difficult, if not really impracticable to

divest customary law and Islamic law from the culture, religion
and traditions of the people.
(ii)
Similarly, by mere fact of history that Nigeria, for example,

evolved from a unitary state to a federal state under a colonial
domination, which spanned over a hundred years.
(iii)
The consequence of the great impact of English law on The

Nigeria Legal System.
(iv)
The fact of the multi-ethnic structure and political heterogeneity

resulting in the plurality of laws and the concomitant complex
legal system;
LAW 112
(v)
Legal Methods II
The resultant proliferation of court to cater for the various

dimensions exhibited in the ensuing polity.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The source of law means the origin from which the system derives its
validity, be it the electorate, a special body, the general will or the will of
a dictator. It also means the historical origin of a rule of law. Statutes
books, law reports and textbooks are sources of law in any legal system.
Examples of legal sources of law are legislation and judicial precedents.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Primary source of law;

Statutory materials as a source of law,
Judicial materials as a source of law
Reasons for studying the sources of law.
6.0
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Discus in detail why you think it is important or necessary to study the

source of law of a given society.
7.0 .
REFERENCES
Nigeria
Nigeria
London.
LAW 112
UNIT 2
Legal Methods II
SECONDARY SOURCES OF LAW
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1
Secondary sources of law
3.2
Interviews, periodicals and Newspapers
3.3
Foreign materials
3.4
Other secondary sources
Conclusion
Summary
Reference/Further Readings
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Under the second unit, you learnt about the primary source of law. In this
unit , you will learn about the secondary source of law. Secondary
materials as source of law include the legal textbooks, monographs,
reference works, commentaries and treaties in law. An understanding of
the content of these materials facilitates an effective research into the
various aspects of law.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Identify the secondary source of law;

Know the various materials falling or classified as secondary
source of law; and
Conduct a research on secondary source of law.
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Secondary Sources of Law
Legal journals are the most current sources of law because of their
frequency of publications, some being monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or
bi-annual. They contain scholarly articles, commentaries, notes and
comments on current legal problems.
In most cases, some of the contents of legal textbooks might have been
published or serialized in journals earlier on. Legal journals that are of
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
general nature may contain articles reflecting various subject background

and topical issues in law.
Like the law reports, legal periodicals may be broadly categorized into
foreign and local titles. Periodicals oftentimes contain book reviews,
seminars, and roundtable and conference announcements. Some of the
standard foreign law journals as secondary source of law include, the
Cambridge law journal; (C.L.J.), Harvard Law Journal (H.L.J.), Yale
Law Journal (Y.L.J), Harvard law review (H.L.R).
Remarkable advancement has
periodicals publishing. Some
professional local journals as
Nigerian Law Journal (N.L.J),
Law (N.Y.C.L).
been recorded in the area of local

typical examples of academic and
secondary source of law include the
The Nigerian Journal of Contemporary

Discuss briefly the secondary materials as source of law mentioned under
1.3.
3.2
Interviews, Periodicals and Newspaper
Interviews granted by legal writers and jurists can also serve as a

secondary source of law. This is because these legal luminaries are
regarded as authorities and therefore their speeches or legal letters
written by them are persuasive and form secondary source of law.
Law libraries subscribe to newspapers and magazines not for the mere
purpose of general reading. A deliberate effort is usually made by the
law librarian to cut feature articles and notable news items and clip them
neatly for storage. Such materials are thus arranged under broad subject
headings in alphabetical sequence for easy retrieval. Newspaper and
magazine clippings provide the most accessible current sources of
research materials and therefore form secondary source of law.
Articles in newspapers often cover wide areas of subject matters
spanning every conceivable field of human endeavour. The only major
snag about newspaper clippings as source of law is that the facts
contained in a particular report or write-up may need to be further
clarified or verified possibly from the writer or the maker for
authenticity. This is not saying that newspaper articles and reports are not
dependable as sources of law. This fact notwithstanding, newspapers are
veritable sources of quick information on topical issues, which would
take some time to be covered by authoritative textbooks.
LAW 112
Legal Methods II

Why do you think Newspaper writing on legal issues is veritable source
of law?
3.3 Foreign Materials

Foreign materials as secondary source of law are those materials
published outside the jurisdiction of Nigeria. They include treaties and
conventions. These treaties and conventions consist of the various
international agreements and understandings concluded by countries
amongst themselves. Where the law-making bodies of the subscribing
nations have ratified such treaties and conventions, they become binding.
They serve as useful source of law especially in the areas of international
law. Typical examples of treaties include Nigerias treaties in force,
1971; consolidated treaty series, 1920 1946 and the United Nations
Treaty Series 1946. These are all vital sources of international laws.
Other foreign materials include the following: Law Quarterly Review,
(L.Q.R), Current Legal Problems (C.L.P), International and Comparative
Law Quarterly (I.C.L.Q); Modern Law Review, (M.L.R), Criminal Law
Review (C.L.R), The Journal of African Law (J.A.L) and the African
Journal of International Law (A.J.I.L.).
Digests also serve as foreign source of law. Digests are summaries of
cases judicially considered. They differ from law reports in that they are
mere paraphrasing of cases in very concise and understandable forms.
Encyclopedias and precedent books are also foreign sources of law. The
Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia America cover wide subject
areas of law, jurisprudence and legal theory, legal Biography etc. They
therefore provide valuable secondary sources of law.
Precedent books contain samples of works done by legal authors for
others to follow. Precedent books include the Butter worths
Encyclopedia of forms and precedents (5th Edition) which covers
extensive areas of solicitors work and the Atkins court forms which
deals with the forms, contents and procedure in civil matters. Other
basic foreign materials include the famous Halsburys laws of England
and the Halsburys statute of England. There are also standard
compendia, which are of immense source of law. An example is the
American Juris Secundum, which is an encyclopedic digest of American
cases and statutes.
LAW 112
Legal Methods II

Write short notes on Encyclopedia and precedent books as secondary
sources of law.
The most potent sources of law is the primary sources. Do you agree?
3.4
Other Secondary Sources of Law
(1)
Dictionaries
Dictionaries are indispensable sources of law. To this end, the law library
keeps some Standard English Language Dictionaries and lexicons. These
include, among others, the Oxford English Dictionary, chambers English
Dictionary and Websters International English Dictionary. Such
dictionaries help not only in verifying the meanings of words and phrase,
they also assist in the use of appropriate style, construction and framing
of legal sentences to elucidate some precision, conciseness, simplicity,
and unity all of which are salient hallmarks of any source of law.
Legal dictionaries may either be exclusively in English or bi-lingual.
Examples of Standard English language legal dictionaries include
Blacks Law dictionary and Strouds judicial Dictionary. There also
exists some specialized dictionaries concerning specific subject areas as
well as other topical issues Bi- lingual legal dictionaries are most
helpful for deciphering certain words or phrases especially Latin or
French, which have been unavoidably used in a passage. Most of such
words have Roman and Anglo saxon origins and have become part of
todays legal writing to drive home certain principles and legal maxims.
Examples of bilingual dictionaries may include English-French,
English Italian, English- Latin and English Arabic Dictionaries.
(2)
Words and phrase Defined
Another secondary source of law is the multivolume work titled

Words and Phrases Defined. This covers wide areas of definition and
interpretation of legal expressions. An example of such is the work of
Onomade (1988) in guide to words phrases and doctrines in Nigeria law.
(3)
Bibliographies and general references
Bibliographies serve as most useful source of law. A bibliography is a

publication that lists the topic or titles of materials available in a given
subject. The general arrangement is usually in alphabetical order by
subject.
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Compilation of legal bibliography is the preserve of the professional law

librarian. Typical examples of legal bibliographies, general or specific
include Jegedes Nigeria legal Bibliography (1993), which is a
detailed listing of invaluable source materials on the various aspects of
the Nigeria law. General references usually at the end of a chapter in a
book or at the end of an articles or paper assist in legal research by
offering directives as to further sources of information. Such general
references have become universally acknowledged sources of law and
legal writing.
(4) Theses, Dissertations and Technical Reports
These are written research reports and authoritative pontifications in the
area of law. They essentially have the characteristics of originality being
the outcome of spirited research endeavours. These are listings and
implications of such materials in aid of legal research. The lists are
helpful in the preliminary aspects of legal research especially in literature
searches and reviews, thereby forming secondary sources of law.
(5) Legal textbooks and Monographs
These constitute the bulk of the stock of a law library and can therefore
be regarded as the most authoritative secondary sources of law. Legal
textbooks consist of scholarly views, opinions, commentaries and
authoritative expositions in certain subject area. Some legal series have
become household names in academic and professional legal parlance.
An example is the common law library series made up of standard and
quite authoritative legal textbooks. Other notable modern legal text
writers include Lord Denning in the general aspects of law and practice.
Schwazenberger in the field of International Law, Street and Jolowicz on
torts, Cheshire and Fifefoot on contracts, Roscoe pound, Hart and Fuller
on Jurisprudence and legal theory, Margery and Wade on property.
Apart from citations in various academic papers, the opinions and views
of some of the legal textbooks writers have been referred to with
approval in the court proceedings, for instance, authoritative texts like
Johnsons history of the Yorubas, Cokers family property among the
Yorubas, obis Ibo land law and Ajayis History of west Africa have had
to be cited in order to get to the root of certain prevailing customary
practices in some societies.
(6)
Government Publications
Government documents have assumed great importance as source of law

owing to the fact that they emanate directly from government sources,
they are always considered to be very authoritative. For instance, any
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information contain in the Gazette are deemed to have been issued by

authority and as such deemed to be authentic. This also applies, for
example, to all documents and official publications emanating from and
bearing the stamp of Her Majestys is Stationary Office (HMSO) in the
United Kingdom.
Official publications include books, pamphlets, posters and pictorial
items issued by the government printer. Such materials also consist of
laws, regulations, directives, notices, decrees, edicts, bye laws and
important announcement relating to the state as contained in the gazette
or an extra ordinary publication.
These Government publications are usually in various forms like gazette,
reports of commissions of inquiries, white papers, reports of special
tribunals, as constitutional bodies, as the Constituent Assembly,
parliamentary publications including the Hansard and some other
personalities in government.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You learnt that primary materials as source of law include such items as
laws, or Acts collectively called statutes as well as law reports, law
journals, digest and indexes, while secondary materials include the legal
textbooks and monographs, reference works, commentaries and treatises
on law.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about other sources of law, falling under the
secondary sources. These include the following:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
6.0
Books, pamphlets;
Letters and speeches;
Interviews, periodicals and newspapers;
Foreign materials; and
Other sources.
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Attempt an appropriate classification of materials falling under primary

and secondary sources of law and explain them briefly.
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7.0
Legal Methods II
REFERENCES
Imiera, P. P. (2005), Knowing the Law FICO Nig. Ltd, (FMH) Lagos,
Nigeria
Dada, T. O. (1998), General Principles of Law, T.O. Dada & Co. Lagos,
Nigeria
Obilade, A.O. (1994), The Nigerian Legal System, Sweet & Maxwell,
London.
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Legal Methods II
UNIT 3
USE OF SOURCE MATERIALS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Law library
3.2 The library catalogue
3.3 Organization of library
3.4 Reference
Conclusion
Summary
INTRODUCTION
Source materials are those major items or institutions used in carrying

out legal research. These source institutions include the law libraries, the
Nigerian Institute of Advanced Legal Studies and the Nigerian Institute
of International Affairs. You shall learn about the library as a source
material in legal research or about libraries as a major aspect of an
educational organization.
2.0
OBJECTIVE
At the end of the unit, you should be able to use:

(i) The library;
(ii) The library catalogue;
(iii) Organization of the library ; and
(iv) Reference services.
3.0
3.1
MAIN BODY
Law library
Law libraries are very essential to the proper study of law. You should be
familiar with the cataloguing and shelving systems used in the library to
which you have access. Usually, university law libraries classify books
by subject and shelve them in accordance with that classification. In
order to enable you find easily books required by you, a law library
usually has at least one general card catalogue. A general card catalogue
lists all the books in the library. There is at least one card in the catalogue
12
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for each book. If only one card catalogue is available it may be arranged
by author or by author and title or by subject. In an author title
catalogue, there are at least two cards for each book one for the author
and the other for the title of the book. There may be two general card
catalogues one on author title catalogue and the other a subject
catalogue. In addition to general card catalogue there are, usually, special
catalogue which list books of a special class. For instance, there may be a
separate special catalogue for each of the following classes of materials:
law reports, periodicals, legislation and microfilms.
In general, books other than textbooks may be classified for shelving
purpose as follows:
1.
Legal periodicals
(a)
(b)
(c)
Nigerian Legal Periodicals

English Legal Periodicals
Other Legal Periodicals arranged by country
2.
Statute books
(a)
(b)
(c)
Nigerian Statute Books

English Statute Books
Other Statute Books arrange by country
3.
Law reports
(a)
(b)
(c)
Nigerian law reports

English law reports
Other law reports arranged by country
4.
Digests
(a)
(b)
(c)
Nigerian law digests

English law digests
Other law digests arranged by country
1.
Encyclopedia
2.
Reference books
Generally, textbooks may be similarly divided into three classes, namely:

(1)
(2)
(3)
Nigerian law textbooks;

English law textbooks; and
Other textbooks.
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The textbooks within each group is usually arranged by subject. For e.g.
textbooks on the law of contract are separated from textbooks on
criminal law. There may be in a law a reserve section containing rare
books in very high demand. Normally, books in a reserve section are not
to be borrowed. Some reserve sections are open to only a restricted class
of readers. A good study of the cataloguing, and shelving systems used
in a law library is only a starting point in legal research.
Self- Assessment Exercise (SAE) 1
Briefly discuss the shelving of legal textbooks in the law library.
3.2
The Library Catalogue
Libraries are of various sizes ranging from those with very few books
and other materials to the very large ones with several thousands of
materials. The former are very easy to cope with. The contents of such
libraries could be known by heart. But in the larger libraries, a formal
organization of their contents is imperative to make their use beneficial
and less frustrating.
The catalogue is therefore a record of materials held by the library
ranging from books, magazine / journals, documents, theses, and
dissertations to non-print media sources. The catalogues, therefore, is the
key to the library holding since it contains entries, representing each
material in the library. It is a vital tool to the use of the library because of
the functions it performs.
Functions of the Catalogue

(1)
The catalogue allows access to the collection and provides service

to its users.
(2)
It enables you to find a book or other library material if you know

any of the following:
(a)
(b)
(c )
(3)
(a)
(b)
Authors name;
Title of the work;
The subject;
It enables you to know the following:
All the works of a given author held in the library
The editions of any work

Discuss the library catalogue and the functions if performs.
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3.3
Organization of Library
(1)
Acquisition Department
Legal Methods II
In the Acquisitions department books and other materials are acquired

and processed. Books, pamphlet, government publications and audiovisual materials are received in the Acquisition Department. These
materials may be acquired by purchase, gift and by legal deposit
especially if the library has been made a depository by the government.
The National Library of Nigeria as you know receives three copies of all
publications in the country because it is the legal depository for the
whole country. The university of Lagos Library by the Edict of Lagos
State 1973 is a depository library for the state. All publishers in the state
must deposit three copies of their publications to the library. Some
libraries in Nigeria are legal depository libraries for state and for some
international organizations like WHO, UNESCO and ILO. Libraries
receive gifts from the friends of the library and the gifts are processed in
the Acquisitions Department.
Why do you think that the Acquisitions Department of a library cannot
be dispensed with?
3.4
Reference Services
The Reference Department of the library is very important in the library.

It is in this section that the library staff answers reference questions and
also provides bibliographic services to the library patrons. Books in this
part of the library cannot be borrowed like books in the open shelves;
they can only be used or consulted in the library. Books that are housed
in this part of the library have the inscription REFERENCE ONLY,
NOT TO BE TAKEN OUT OF THE LIBRARY.
The major characteristics of reference materials are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
The materials are meant to be consulted in the library only;

The library usually buys one copy or in rare cases two copies;
They are not meant to be read from cover to cover. Users usually
look for specific information. They contain factual information;
They are housed in a separate section within the library;
The arrangement of each material may be made to suit the
peculiarity of that material. The arrangement in the dictionary is
alphabetical chronological, for works on history, it could be
chronological; and
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Legal Methods II
They are revised from time to time so as to keep abreast of recent

developments.
Reference services in the library may involve the provision of personal

assistance to you. The type of service required may be simple
information in where to find books on a particular subject. They may be
questions on directions within the library. At other times, the services
may involve assistance on how to find the information on a subject
which may not be well known to you.
Certain books cannot be taken away from the library. Name some of
these books and the reason they are not taken away from the library.
3.5
Why do you use the Library?
The use of the library can be divided into three broad headings, namely:
go to a library to borrow books. You also go to a library to consult
reference materials, and for general study.
Let us assume that you have been given the author and title of a certain
book, which has been assigned to you to read. You would like to borrow
it from the library, because it makes you sometime to read it. The first
thing you do when you go to a library is to check whether or not the
book is in stock and be sure it is available for lending. The next thing is
to locate the book where it is in the library. To locate a book in the
library, you need to take the following steps:
Consult the right card catalogues. For example, if you know the name of
the author of the book, you should consult author or name catalogue.
Author or name catalogue consists of the name of the author on cards
arranged in alphabetical order according to the authors surname,
institution or editor, by which the book is best known.
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Legal Methods II
SAMPLE CARD
No.
Or No.
Authors name
Surname
Forenames
Imiera
Pius, O.
Class No 37,33.
Author No. 018C Knowing the Law (title of the book
Lagos: Fico, Nigeria Ltd, 2005).
131pp
Number of pages.
4.0
CONCLUSION
The library is very important. You should make constant use of it. A lot
of information stored in the library can be of great benefit to you.
5.0
SUMMARY
At the end of this unit, you have learnt about:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
The use of source materials; the library;

The library catalogue;
Organization of the library;
Reference service in the library;
That libraries are for lending out useful and relevant books, for
consulting reference works and for getting recent information; and
For effective study, you must use the library.
6.0
Relate the importance of the law library to a law student.
17
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7.0
Legal Methods II
REFERENCES
Nigeria
Nigeria
London.
Olanlokun, S.O. and Salisu, T.M. (1993), Understanding the Library,
Published by University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria.
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Legal Methods II
MODULE 2
UNIT 1
LEGAL RESEARCH
Contents
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Content
3.1
Principles of Legal Research
3.2
Methods of Legal Research
3.3
Tools of Legal Research
3.4
Legal textbooks and monographs
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Many people encounter the legal system in a variety of ways on a

variety of occasions. Whether they are seeking redress or are being
accused of something, the legal system appears like the system to use.
Others think it is the preserve of professionals. These professionals are
assumed to have particular skills and knowledge that the nonprofessionals are prepared to pay a fee for. There is, however, some
debate as to what these skills are and what the nature of this knowledge
is. This is the question this unit intends to answer.
As a law student, you may encounter the legal system predominantly
through texts, or words. How to work with those words, how to approach
the way they are collected is an essential skill you should learn. Learning
the law is, in this respect at least, like learning a new language. Training
to be a lawyer is accordingly, partly akin to learning the location of
meanings, the grammar and structure of the language.
This unit refers you to a minimal amount of reading and contains a
number of exercises. It introduces you to basic principles or the process
of legal research as it impacts on the professional task of finding and
arguing the law.
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2.0
Legal Methods II
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
State the principles of Legal research;

Explain methods of Legal research; and
Identify tools of Legal research; and
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Principles of Legal Research
Legal research is at the centre of professional legal skills, but the

question is what we mean by legal research.
In simple terms legal research is the search for material necessary to
support legal argument and decision-making. In a broader sense, legal
research is a process that begins with:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Analyzing the facts of a problem that is brought to a lawyer;

Identifying the relevant legal issues to be addressed;
Separating the factual and legal problems to be resolved;
Finding the law that is relevant to the legal problems; and
Concluding, applying and communicating the results of the search
and analysis.
Legal research should not be seen as merely preparatory. Law is an

argumentative process and research is directed to an argument. The
results of the research need to be communicated effectively and put into
an argumentative structure.
For example, persons who have suffered loss as a result of an injury want
to know if they can claim damages. They outline a chain of events to you
as the lawyer; the lawyer seeks to identity if there are indeed grounds to
launch a claim and whom it would be against. The lawyer is looking out
identify a "cause of action" and this might be due to a breach of contract,
negligence or some other claims. In the broad area of tort (i.e. obligations
between parties independent of contracts) a common claim is that the
loss was occasioned by the negligence of a third party.
As the lawyer, you will have a working set of assumptions as to the state
of the law of negligence and where to find the precise articulations of the
law that will serve as your working knowledge as you listen to your
client. Importantly, you will understand that the third party must owe
some form of a "duty of care" towards your client.
20
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Legal Methods II
You will know that the basic principles of the law of negligence are such
that where an injury has been caused by the negligent behaviour of
another person; the injured person may bring an action for damages
against that third party. You will be primarily interested in the law, as it
has worked out for other lawyers. Tort actions have moral and economic
purposes behind them, namely that it is just and fair to compel the
negligent third party to reimburse the injured party for any loses that the
client suffered as the result of his injury and to compensate him for the
pain he has suffered.
For the action to succeed, you as the lawyer must establish a set of
claims as to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The law accepted as valid;

The facts accepted as true;
How the events were interconnected, this must be proved
according to the degree of proof required, which in civil cases is
on the balance of probability.
Specifically for negligence, you as the lawyer must show that:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The other person owned a duty of care recognized by the law to

the plaintiff;
The third party was in breach of that duty; and
The injured suffered by the plaintiff was caused by the breach of
duty.
But the question is how will all of the above be achieved?

This will be achieved by the process of legal research, which is usually
laid out in a series of steps. These involve separating facts from law. You
will need to:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Identify and analyze the significant facts;

Frame the legal issues to be researched; and
Research the issues.
In the course of your studies, preparing for problem questions will

presuppose the steps of legal research.
What do you understand by the term legal research and what are the
processes that legal research must begin with?
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3.2
Legal Methods II
Methods of Legal research
Various approaches are used in retrieving necessary information for the

purpose of solving a given problem that has occasioned the conduct of
legal research. These include the approach by means of Author, Title,
Subject, the case method, by statute, by words and phrases as the case
may be.
Where the author or title of a book is known, you need only to consult
the Author/Title catalogue for guidance as to the location of the
particular material on the shelf.
There are many classification schemes used in law Libraries but the most
commonly used scheme is the Moy's classification scheme, which was in
use for major libraries. The subject structure of the Moy's scheme upon
which the call Mark is based is as follows:
K
KA
KB
KC
KD
KE
KF
KG
KH
KL
KM
KN
KP
KR
KS
KT
KV
KW
KZ
Journals and Reference Books

Jurisprudence
General and comparative law
International law
Religious Legal systems
Ancient and Medieval law
Primary Materials British Isles
Primary Materials- Canada, U.S West Indies
Primary Materials- Australia, New Zealand
General
Public Law
Constitutional and Administrative Law
Criminal Law and Procedure
Private Law
Own Country (Optional e.g. NIGERIAN LAW)
Africa
Latin America
Asia and Pacific
Europe
European Communities
Non- Legal Subjects.
The following are samples of the Author, Title and Subject Methods.
22
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Legal Methods II
AUTHOR CARD
DIAGRAM 1
KP
AGUDA, T. Akinola
144 practice and procedure of
A32 Supreme Court, court of appeal and
1995 High Court of Nigerian/ by T. Akinola Aguda
2nd ed. Lagos: MIJ Professional publishers, 1995
1
2
3
4.
7
5.
1xxxviii 1300P: 24CM (MIJ law
8.
10
1
1
1
and practice series

ISBN 978 2486- 14-0
practice and procedure Nigeria Courts. 1: Title 11. Series
1. Surname
2. Other names
3. Title
4. Edition
5. Place of publication
6. Publisher
7. Date of publication
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
13
9
Pagination
Height of the book
Inter. Standard Book number
Main subject
Call Mark
Series title
23
LAW 112
1
3
4
5.
7
8.
9
9
10
Legal Methods II
TITLE CARD
DIAGRAM 11
KP practice and procedure of the supreme
2nd ed. Lagos: MIJ Professional publishers, 1995 -
2
6
1xxxviii 1300P: 24CM (MIJ law

13
and practice series
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ISBN 978 2486- 14-0

practice and procedure Nigeria Court. 1: Title 11. Series
Surname
8.
Pagination
Other names
9.
Height of the book
Title
10.
Edition
11.
Main subject
Place of publication 12.
Call Mark
Publisher
13.
Series title
7.
Date of publication
SUBJECT TITLE
DIAGRAM III
1
3
4
5.
8.
13
9
11
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
24
KP practice and procedure of the supreme

2nd ed. Lagos: MIJ Professional publishers, 1995 1xxxviii 1300P: 24CM (MIJ law
and practice series
ISBN 978 2486- 14-0
practice and procedure Nigeria Court. 1: Title 11. Series
Surname
Other names
Title
Edition
Place of publication
Publisher
Date of publication
9.
10.
12.
13.
8.
Pagination
Height of the book
11.
Main subject
Call Mark
Series title
2
6
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
Cards are arranged alphabetically in the library's catalogue cabinet.

Author and Title are usually filed together in a long alphabetical
sequence. It is important for you to know that these manual ways of
operations are gradually being replaced by modern and retrieval
techniques.
Conduct a research work on the subject; take note of cases, words,
phrases, approaches, and methods in legal research (Note: diagram, not
required).
3.3
Tools of Legal Research
The conduct of legal research entails the identification of and the ability
to use the various finding aids to discover the vital research materials
scattered all over the legal collection. These basic tools of legal research
consist of a mixture of primary and secondary source materials. Primary
materials include such items of laws, or acts collectively called statutes,
as well as law reports, law Journals, digests and indexes, secondary
materials include works, commentaries and treaties on law. An
understanding of the content of these materials facilitates an effective
research into the various aspects of law.
Using a well-labelled diagram, show samples of the Author, Title and
subject card in conducting Legal Research
3.4
Legal Textbooks and Monographs
These constitute the bulk of the stock of a law library and can therefore
be regarded as the most important single entity available for the conduct
of legal research. Legal textbooks consist of scholarly views, opinions,
commentaries and authoritative expositions in certain subject areas. The
audience or the status of people to which they are directed like
undergraduate, postgraduates, academic researchers, practitioners and
other topical issues that are foreign or local, have virtually become
synonymous and identifiable with certain subject areas of law,
categorizes such textbooks.
Examples include, Williams on Wills, Phipson on Evidence; Chitty on
contracts, Benjamin's Sale of Goods and Palmer's Company Law.
Similarly, some legal series have become household names in academic
and professional legal parlance. An example is the common law Library
series made up of standard and quite authoritative legal textbooks. Other
25
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Legal Methods II
notable modern legal text writers include Lord Denning M.R. on the
general aspects of law and practice, Schwazenberger in the field of
International Law, Street and Jolowicz on torts; Cheshire and FiteFoot
on contracts, Roscoe Pound, Hart and Fuller on Jurisprudence and legal
theory, Megarry and Wade on property.
The Nigerian local scene can also boast of an impressive array of
distinguished legal text writers whose publications are as authoritative in
every material respect and who have attained international recognition.
Late Honourable Justice T.O Elias formerly of the World Court at the
Hague, Netherlands, was a Pace-setter. For many years he bestrode the
entire legal publishing scene in Nigeria and abroad covering such fields
as Constitutional Law, International Law, Customary Law and virtually
all recognized fields of legal endeavours. Other notable legal writers
include Professor Ben Nwabueze, Dr. T. Akinola Aguda, Dr. Olakunkle
Orojo, Justice Karibi- Whyte, Professor Nwogugu, Professor Okonkwo,
Professor Peter Oluyede, Justice C. Oputa, Professor Itse Sagay,
Professor Akintunde Obilade, Justice Kayode Eso, and most recently Dr.
G.I. Oyakhirome and Pius Imiera. Legal publishing is still however,
yearning to come of age in Nigeria.
The main snag about legal textbooks as tools of research is that they
might not always be current with the conditions of the prevailing times.
In some cases, the facts contained in a monograph might have been
overtaken by events, which were not anticipated by the author when he
began to gather his thoughts together to write. Such examples include a
sudden change from civilian to military regime and vice versa or an
unanticipated repeal or re- enactment of certain laws in the land.
Conduct a research work on any well-known law textbook stating the
date or year of publication, place of publication, name of publisher,
number of pages, the ISBN, and a summary of chapter four of the book.
What do you consider as the main snag about legal textbooks as tools of
legal research? What solutions would you suggest?
4.0
CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been exposed to the rudimentary aspects of legal
research. The effort here is to show you that legal research is important
in the study of law and in being a successful legal practitioner.
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5.0
Legal Methods II
SUMMARY
Finding the law on a particular topic or issue is said to be a key skill of

the lawyer. The common saying that "a lawyer does not know the law
but he knows where to find it" expresses the importance of this reference
or research ability.
The process of legal research is one of the human elements that provide
glue for the legal system. A legal system is in constant danger of being
anything but a 'system'! Like many judges, the legal theorist Ronald
Dworkin argues that it is the task of legal personnel, including
legislators, to uphold and develop the systematic aspect of law in order to
achieve consistency, due process and deal with people in ways that
achieve substantive fairness. How is this achieved? In some part by legal
research, by developing techniques of interpretation and relating to the
texts that is called case reports, statutes or legal arguments.
6.0
Pick any legal textbook of your choice by a Nigerian author and

summarize in not more than two pages typed written chapter one of the
book.
7.0
REFERENCES
Morrison, W.J. and A. George, K. Malisons, (2004). Common Law

Reasoning and Institutions. University of London Press: UK.
Dada, T.O. (1998). General Principles of Law, T.O Dada & Co.: Lagos,
Nigeria.
Imiera P.P, (2005). Knowing the Law, Fico Nigeria Ltd, (FMH): Lagos,
Nigeria
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LAW 112
UNIT 2
Legal Methods II
INDEXING AND IDENTIFICATION OF

LIBRARY MATERIALS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Indexing and identification of library materials
3.2 Types of library materials
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Indexes serve as keys for the effective use of any given publications and
they are in various forms. They may precede the main chapter as in the
case of table of contents, table of cases and table of statutes or may be at
the end of the book in the form of subject indexes.
2.0
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to identify various types of
indexes such as:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Education index
Science citation index, 1961
British humanities index
Social science index
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Indexing and Identification of Library Materials
An index has been described as a table, which enables information to be

retrieved quickly. There are periodical indexes and subject indexes. The
card catalogue can also be regarded as an index. Most books have
indexes at the end. Periodical indexes help one to trace materials that
have been published on a particular subject. It is possible to trace an
author by using an index to locate the name of the author and his
published works. All this depends on the condition that what he
published is indexed by any of the commercial indexing publishers.
Some of the periodical indexes are published at times monthly or
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Legal Methods II
quarterly. They are then cumulated yearly for easy use. Some
newspapers also have indexes. There is the New York Times Index and
the Times Index. Some publishing Firms publish indexes on several
subjects. H.W. Wilson publishes the Applied Science Technology Index,
Education Index and Art Index. The following are some types of indexes:
(a)
Education Index
This is published monthly; it contains a subject entry to over 200

periodicals in the field of education.
(b)
Applied Science and Technology Index
This is published by H.W. Wilson, New York. It is a cumulative index to

English Language periodicals. It contains subject entries to periodicals
articles arranged alphabetically. Subjects covered in the index include
mathematics, metallurgy, aeronautics, space science, computer science
and engineering. It is devoted to periodicals in science and technology.
(c )
Science citation index, 1961
, Pa. Institute for Scientific information, 1963- three quarterly issues plus
annual cumulative volumes.
This index provides information on what has been published, who and in
what publication in the field of science. Olaitan, M.O: Cases on Nigerian
Law index 1880-1970- Lagos: Lagos University Library, 1978. This
index contains information on cases decided in Nigerian courts during
this period.
(d)
British Humanities index
This is published by the Library Association of Great Britain. The index

is arranged alphabetically by subject heading. It has author index in the
annual cumulative volume. It has an international coverage in scope.
(e)
Social Science index
This is published by H.W. Wilson, New York. It supersedes the social

science and Humanities index. The index consists of author and author
and subject entries to periodicals in economics, anthropology, medial
sciences, political sciences, public administration and other related
subjects.
In brief discuss the various types of indexes available
29
LAW 112
3.2
Legal Methods II
Types of Library Materials
The library stocks host legal and non-legal reference materials for the use
of researchers. Such materials are standard works to which reference
could always be made. These include the following:
a.
Dictionaries
Dictionaries are indispensable aids to legal research. To this end, the law
library keeps some Standard English Language Dictionaries and
lexicons. These include, among other, the Oxford English Dictionaries,
Chamber's English Dictionary and Webster's International English
Dictionary. Such Dictionaries help not only in verifying the meanings of
words and phrases; they also assist in the use of appropriate study,
construction and training legal sentences to elucidate some precision
conciseness, simplicity and clarity all of which are salient hallmarks of
any research report or findings.
Legal Dictionaries may either be exclusively in English Language or
bilingual. Examples of Standard English Language legal Dictionaries
include Black's
Law Dictionary; and Strouds Judicial Dictionary.
There also exist some specialized Dictionaries covering specific subject
areas as well as other topical issues. Bi-lingual legal Dictionaries are
most helpful for deciphering certain words or phrases especially Latin or
French, which have been unavoidably used in a passage. Most of such
words have Roman and Anglo- saxon origins and have become part of
todays legal writings to drive home certain principles and legal maxims.
Examples of Bi-lingual Dictionaries may include English Latin and
English- Arabic Dictionaries.
b.
Words and Phrases defined
Another unique and invaluable materials for legal research are the multivolume works titled, "Words and Phrases Defined". This covers wide
areas of definition and interpretation of legal expressions. Onamade's
Guide to Words Phrases and Doctrine in Nigerian Law (1988) is also a
most useful local effort.
c.
Encyclopedias and Precedent books
General encyclopedias, which the legal research library stocks, are

different from legal encyclopedias. General works such as Encyclopedia
Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana cover wide subject area of law;
History, Jurisprudence and Legal Theory, Legal Biography and political
30
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
theory. They therefore provide valuable reference materials for the

effective conduct of legal research.
There is no doubt that no successful research work or practice of law can
be embarked upon without the use of some legal encyclopedic works and
precedents. Among these are the Butter-worth's Encyclopedia of Forms
and Precedents (5th edition) which covers extensive areas of solicitors
work and the Atkin's Courts forms which deals with the forms, contents
and procedure in civil matters. Other basic reference materials include
the famous Halsbury's Law of England and the Halsbury's Statutes of
England. There are also standard compendia, which are of immense
research value. An example is American Juris Secundum, which is an
encyclopaedic digest of American cases and Statutes.
d.
Directories and Guides
These can be aptly described as pathfinders. They are most useful

sources of names, addresses and other relevant details about individuals,
constitution or groups. Legal directories cover only matters of
professional interest to the legal profession. Typical examples include the
Nigerian Lawyer's Diary published annually. It consists of the normal
day-to- day spaces for recording events as well as other useful details as
the Roll Call of all the Lawyers in Nigeria and their dates of enrolment
and the list of statutes in force. An example is Gani Fawehinmis Bench
and Bar in Nigeria (1988). Other directories include the Directory of
Incorporated Companies in Nigeria. The Vanguards Yellow Pages, the
NIALS Directory of Law Teachers in Nigeria (1995) and Vanguards
Directory of Lawyers in Lagos State (1995).
e.
Handbooks
These are publications provided specially for the purpose of giving

general information about the scope, purpose and happening at a place or
institution or a group of establishments. A very good example is the
Nigerian Company Handbook, an annual publication, which consists of
basic information data about listed companies operating in various
locations in Nigeria.
f.
Yearbooks and Annuals
These categories of publications also contain basic research information

about a country, state, institutions or bodies. They are produced each
year to reflect certain changes and remarkable Landmarks that have
occurred in the preceding year. Typical examples are the Nigerian
Yearbook and the West African Annual.
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LAW 112
g.
Legal Methods II
Bibliographies and General references
Any research work in law should commence with a detailed

bibliographic search, that is, a look into related works; Bibliographies
serve as the most useful aid in this respect. A bibliography is a
publication that lists the topics or titles of materials available in a given
subject. A development from ordinary bibliography is the use of
Bibliography of Bibliographies, a special publication that lists specific or
some subject matters.
Bibliographies are mere listing of available materials and nothing more.
However, in certain cases such materials may be briefly described as to
the nature, scope and content of the publication. This is then called an
Annotated Biblography. Such a development helps legal researchers to
decide immediately on the benefit of the materials to their work.
Compilation of legal bibliography is the preserve of the Professional Law
Librarian. It may be solicited in which case it comes in the form of
completion of a reading list on given subject. On the other hand, it may
be unsolicited and takes the form of professional routine compilation to
which the attention of interested researchers may be directed through the
process of selective dissemination of information to the effective
Consultation of the Laws of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1990), and
the annual cumulative volumes.
Typical examples of legal bibliographies, general or specific include
Jegedes Nigerian Legal Bibliography (1995), which is a detailed listing
of invaluable research materials on the various aspects of the Nigerian
law. Arrangement is by broad subject groupings and it lists laws,
statutes, articles, conference papers, treaties and textbooks. Another is
Jegedes Bibliography on the Constitutions of Nigeria (1993), which is
an invaluable source book for any research into the Nigerian
constitutional law. General references usually at the end of chapter in a
book or at the end of an article or paper assist in legal research by
offering directives as to further sources of information. Such general
references have become universally acknowledged standards for legal
writings and are highly valuable.
1.
2.
32
Discuss briefly the various types of library materials you have

studied under this unit.
What are the uses of an Encyclopedia and precedent books?
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
3.
What are Bibliographies? Why are they important in legal

research?
4.0
CONCLUSIONS
This unit prepares you on how to identify materials through indexing

during your legal research. This unit helps you to identify education
index, science citation index, British Humanities index and social
sciences index as types of indexes available
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to indexing and identification of

library materials and types of library materials. You also learnt about
some books, which serve as legal materials, such as dictionaries,
Encyclopedias, and precedent books and bibliographies.
6.0
1.
2.
What are indexes?

Discuss in brief the different types of indexes you have learnt
under this unit.
7.0
REFERENCES
Dada, T.O. (1998). General Principles of Law, T.O Dada & Co.: Lagos,
Nigeria.
Imiera P.P, (2005). Knowing the Law, Fico Nigeria Ltd, (FMH): Lagos,
Nigeria
33
LAW 112
Legal Methods II
UNIT 3
CASES, CITATION OF CASES AND REPORTS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Cases, citation of case and reports
3.2 Nigerian law reports
3.3 Identification of issues, principles of application of rules in
legal problems
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
1.0
INTRODUCTION
An efficient system of law reporting is essential to the proper operation

of the doctrine of judicial precedent. A case report published or edited in
Nigeria usually begins with the title of the case. This is followed by the
name of the court and the names of the judges constituting the court.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Cite relevant cases;

Report cases; and
Make reference to Nigerian law reports
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Cases and Citation of Cases
After the name of the court, the next thing is the catchwords. Catchwords
indicate the subject matter of the case and, sometimes, the issues to be
determined. The head note appears immediately after the catchwords. It
is a summary report of the case. In includes what the reporter considers
to be the ratio decidendi of the case. It list cases referred to in the case
and states how they are dealt with. For example, it states whether a case
was distinguished, followed, not followed or overruled. Where a case in
on appeal, the head note states, as appropriate, that the judgment of the
lower court was affirmed or reversed or that it was set aside and a retrial
ordered.
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Legal Methods II
The head note, also states whether an appeal was allowed or dismissed.
The head note, is usually followed immediately by a statement of the
nature of the proceedings, an account of how the case reached the court
including the essential facts and the names of counsel who appeared for
the parties. Then follows the actual judgment usually reported verbatim.
Where three or more judges constitute a court and there is a dissenting
judgment, the dissenting judgments, the dissenting judgment is reported
after the major judgments. The actual judgment is followed by a brief
statement of the courts decision in the case, e.g. judgment for the
defendant. Regular law reporting started in Nigeria in 1916 with the
established of the Nigeria Law Reports series by the judicial department.
Briefly discuss the reporting of cases on Nigeria. When did law reporting
start in Nigeria?
3.2
Nigerian Law Report
Nigerian law reports are reports of cases, whenever published or edited,

decide by Nigerian courts. They include "English Law Reports" a
number of local and foreign periodicals containing case reports, and
various cyclostyled reports including loose-sheet (unbound) series.
The only cases reported in the law reports are selections from cases
decided by the superior courts, for example the Supreme Court of
Nigeria, and High Courts. On the other hand, cases decided by inferior
courts, for example magistrate courts, are not reported.
Why do you think that cases decided by magistrate courts are not
reported?
3.3
Identification of issues, principles and application of rules

in legal problems
Issues are the problems to be resolved in legal matters or problems.

Principles are merely reasons whose cogency has been acknowledged in
a given legal system and which must be taken into account when they are
relevant to a case. Courts are not bound to apply a principle in the same
way as a rule. So, even if it is a principle that no man should be allowed
to profit from his wrong doing, there are many cases in which a court
will allow a man to do just that; not because it thinks that the principle is
not applicable, but because other principles or rules may be given
preference in the relevant case.
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Legal Methods II
The following are examples of principles, some of which are given a

traditional formulation "courts will not permit themselves to be used as
instruments of injustice, caveat emptor, violenti non fit injuria, the
"neighbour principle" "there should not be liability without fault the
principle of freedom of contract, in probate law whenever possible effect
should be given to the wishes of the deceased.
It has been said that "we decide under rules but in the light of principles".
This illustates the point that a rule either applies a case or it does not, and
if it applies then case has to be decided as the rule prescribes. Principles,
on the other hand, can be compared to proverbs. Several apparently
contradictory proverbs can apply to the same situation. A person
considering how many people should work on "given project could be
told two things that many hands make light work" and that "too many
cooks spoil the broth". He is not expected to apply any of these proverbs
blindly; their function is rather to alert him to different relevant
considerations whose effect on the specific situations confronting him he
should carefully consider.
Ronald Dworkin has explained that:
All that is meant, when we say that a particular principle is a
principle of our law is that the principle is one which officials
must take into account, if it is relevant, as a consideration
inclining in one direction or another.
R. Cotterell, in The Politics of Jurisprudence, has offered the example of
the equitable maxims such as "equity regards as done that which ought to
be done" "equity will not perfect an imperfect gift", and "equity will not
allow a statute to be used as an instrument of fraud". Each of these
maxims may suggest a different result when applied to the same case; the
judge's task will be to assess their relative weight in the particular
circumstances and decide which should prevail.
How do we identify the principles of Nigerian law? According to
Dworkin , if we were challenged to back up our claim that some
principle is a principle of law, we would mention any prior cases in
which that principle was cited; or figured in the argument. We would
also mention any statute that seemed to exemplify that principle
Unless we could find some such institutional support, we would probably
fail to make out our case, and the more support we found, the more
weight we would claim for the principle.
An example of how the court will base its decision on a principle in the
absence of a rule clearly covering the case is provided by the case of
Home Office vs. Dorset Yatch Ltd (1970) A.C. 1004. The facts of the
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Legal Methods II
case were that some boys living in a borstal home escaped during one
night, and did extensive damaged in the respondents club. The question
was whether the Home Office owed any duty of care to members of the
public to prevent the escape of boys from borstal homes. There was no
previous authority for the existence of such a duty, but a majority of the
House of Lords took the "neighbour principle" as being enough
supporting ground for a decision in the respondents favour, even though
the statement of the neighbour principle in Donoghue vs. Stevenson
(1935) A.C 562, is not part of the reasons of the case and therefore is not
a rule of law in a strict sense.
At the same time, because the neighbour principle is only a principle
and not a rule, a court may decide not to apply it particulary when it
thinks that other competing principles should be given preference in a
given situation. An example of this is provided by the decision of the
House of Lords in Rondel vs. Worsley (1969) A.C. 191. The question
that had to be decided in that case was whether a barrister owed a duty of
care to his client in respect of this presentation of the client's case in the
court. In spite of the existence of the neighbour principle, the court
decided that there were other important principles and reasons which
should be given priority in the circumstances of that type of case, like the
need to have finality in litigation and the need to protect the position of
the barrister as an officer of the court.
When the courts have to decide a case for which there is no clear preexisting rule of law, they may sometimes reason by analogy from the
decision reached in a similar case or line of prevention of cases, without
invoking explicitly any principle. Thus, for instance, in D. vs. National
Society for the cruelty of children (1978) A.C 17, the House of Lords
had to decide whether the society was entitled to refuse to disclose the
identity of one of its informers despite the fact that this information was
needed for the plaintiff to institute an action for negligence against the
society. The law at the time was believed to be that a person in the
position of the plaintiff was entitled to obtain the information he required
and there was no rule of law authorizing a society to refuse to disclose
that information. However the House of Lords upheld the societys claim
to withhold its source of information. In reaching this decision the court
reasoned by analogy from the rule of law which allows government
departments to withhold relevant evidence when its disclosure will harm
public interest in the proper and efficient functioning of government.
Even though the society was not a government department the court
reasoned that the functions it carried out justified extending to its sources
of information similar special protection as that enjoyed by, for instance
police informers.
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Legal Methods II

1.
2.
3.
What will the courts do in situations where there are no preexisting rules to decide a case before the court?
Differentiate between a principle of law and a rule
Discuss three maxims of equity known to you.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Indeed, this is a very important unit. Many lawyers have lost cases
because relevant cases where not cited in court during the court
proceedings. Our suggestion in this unit is that as you proceed in your
study, you should read cases and learn how to cite them.
5.0
SUMMARY
At the end of this unit, you have learned how to

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Cite of cases;
Use the Nigerian law reports
The history of case reporting in Nigeria
Apply rules and principles in cases, and
How courts decide in cases when there are no pre-existing rules.
6.0
TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Write a report on the case between Gani Fawehinmi vs. Abacha. Name
the Justices that heard the case, the court in which it was heard, the
counsel representing each party and what were the issues in contention in
that case.
7.0
REFERENCES
Nigeria
London.
Elegido, J.M. (1994). Jurisprudence, Spectrum Law Publishing: Ibadan,
Nigeria.
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LAW 112
UNIT 4
Legal Methods II
METHODS AND APPROACHES IN ESSAY

WRITING
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1
Methods and approaches in essay writing
3.2
Checklist on the form of letter
3.3
Punctuation
3.4
Uses of certain punctuations
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The essence of essay or letter writing is to communicate message to the

recipient and this involves, the style or methods. The most effective
words should be used in the most appropriate order so that the choice of
words can create effect. There are no strict rules about style in essay
writing, the idea is that the style to be adopted depends on whether the
letter/essay meant to simply convey information, or persuade the
addressee to act or retain from an act.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Identify and write informative letters/essays

Identify and write persuasive letter/essays
Describe letter/essays layout and style
Correctly use punctuation marks
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Methods and Approaches in Essay writing
There are no strict rules concerning the style/ method adopted in essay
writing, or the layout of a letter. The choice is a matter of style. The
style or layout of letters/essays has continued to improve with
technological aids.
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Legal Methods II
Method/ Style
1.
Blocked and semi-blocked method / style
The difference is that the blocked styled paragraph starts from the same
left hand margin of the essay /letter head paper, while the semi-blocked
style has the recipients address and the main body of the letter set to the
left-hand margin with indented paragraph openings.
2.
Open and Close Punctuation
Open punctuated letters omit virtually all punctuation marks (but not
apostrophes) in the address sections of the letter. Close punctuated letters
are generous with punctuations; for example, a comma is inserted at the
end of each line of the address. Modern letters / essays combine the
blocked and open punctuation style to achieve elegance and economy of
words.
1.
2.
Is there any hard and fast rule in the style adopted in essay/ letter
writing? If not, why?
Write two essays, using the methods or style discussed above for
each.
3.2
Checklists on the Form of a Letter
(a)
Letter references, for example" our ref" or my ref" and "your

ref". They are usually pre-printed on letter headed paper, and
inserted mainly for filing purposes and cross- referencing.
(b)
Date: For example, 4th April 2001 not 4/4/2001.

The North American style is April 4, 2001. The convention in
Nigeria is to use the British style, but whichever style is adopted;
it is important that you are consistent.
(c )
Name and address of the recipient: Official letters should use

the official title of the recipient, for example, "The Managing
Director". But depending on the familiarity, you may address the
recipient by his name before writing the postal address e.g. Mr.
Dele Ayo. Better still, you may combine both the name and the
title e.g. Mr. Dele Ayo, Chairman/Chief Executive Officer. There
are no strict rules and the style adopted depends on your level of
contact with the recipient. You may choose to adopt the open or
closed punctuation style, provided you are consistent.
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Legal Methods II
(d)
Salutation: This should depend on the gender and the relationship

between you and the recipient. The convention is to use opening
salutation formulae such as "Dear Sir" Dear Madam: Dear Dr.
John, Messrs John & James, Gentlemen". The choice of salutation
depends on how you perceive the recipient, and whether the
letter /essay is formal or personal. Modern essays/ letters are not
restricted to the formal and traditional "Dear Sir", they are more
informal and personal. It is important to note that the salutation
will eventually determine the closing salutation, Yours sincerely,
Yours faithfully and so on.
(e)
Body of the letter: This is the most important part of a letter/

essay. This is where the message is communicated to the
recipient; the idea is to put the message in a concise and
straightforward language, one main idea per paragraph. In line
with the modern drafting technique, a letter/ essay should be short,
precise and intelligible. The interest of the recipient is paramount,
even where the letter is to threaten the recipient to do or retain
from doing an act. Unless the message is understood clearly by
the recipient, the letter/ essay will not achieve the desired result.
Sometimes one paragraph will be sufficient to communicate the
message, yet it may well require several paragraphs, hence the
length of a letter is determined by the message.
(f)
Signature space: The letter /essay must be signed by the

writer.
There should be space to append a hand written signature. It is
good practice to ensure that no letter /essay is signed without first
reading it to correct common errors.
(g)
Writer's name and firm's name: You should append your

signature above your name typed in full.
If you are a sole practitioner, you should adopt it this simple
style:
Haruna, Ibrahim
If you are writing on behalf of a firm, that is you have consistently
used "we" you may sign either as:
Signed:
Haruna, Ibrahim
OR
Haruna, Ibrahim & Co
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Legal Methods II
Signed:
Haruna, Ibrahim
Discuss brief five of the checklists when writing letter/ essay.
3.3
Punctuation
This is a useful tool by which accuracy and clarity in legal writing is

achieved. The way you punctuate a sentence can determine how well
you communicate with the reader. Punctuations like words are symbols
that by convention are used to stand for certain things. There is no
inextricable connection between these symbols and what they stand for.
But unlike words, which consist of alphabets, punctuations are symbols;
they include the comma, colon, semi colon, question mark, exclamation
mark, bracket and full stop. The grammarian (and broadcasters) use
punctuations to indicate the length of pause, but the concern of legal
writers / lawyers about punctuations is how they can be used to aid
clarity and understanding. There was a time when it was thought that
punctuations were unnecessary in legal documents because they may
mislead, it was expected that the reader should supply them to suit his
needs. This view is supported by Sanford Vs. Raikes (1918) A.C. 337,
where the Master of the Rolls said:
"It is from the words and the context not from the punctuation that
the sense must be collected.
It is true that traditional formal legal documents were without
punctuations but modern legal document departs from this dry style of
writing. It is desirable to use punctuations to achieve elegance, they have
been described as " traffic signals to your readers". It will be absurd to
find a long sentence that is not punctuated.
In Nigeria, the relevance of punctuations in legal documents is settled.
Section 3 (1) of the Interpretation Act provides:
"Punctuations forms part of an enactment and regard shall be had
to it accordingly in construing the enactment".
In Shell- BP Vs. Federal Board of Inland Revenue, a tax case, the
Federal Revenue Court upheld the contention of the appellant that the
commas in the definition are meaningful and must be given their
meanings in accordance with the provision of section 3 (1) of the
Interpretation Act, 1964.
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Legal Methods II
The use of comma (,) colon (:) question mark (?), exclamation mark (!)
and full stop (.) are fairly understood by most writers, but the semi- colon
(;) and ellipsis () are largely abused. While colon is generally used to
introduce a list, a semi colon is used to separate two complete but related
sentences and it is not (subject to limited exceptions) followed by a
capital letter as in the case of a full stop. Ellipsis is used to stand for one
or more omitted words, when the omission occurs at the end of a
sentence, the ellipsis appears together with a full stop. Under no
circumstance should ellipsis be used in a legal document or drafting, in
other words there should be no omission. Another punctuation that is
commonly abused is the hyphen (-), it should be used when it is intended
that two or more words should be read together as a compound word, for
examples, "Barrister at- Law" should be "Barrister- at- Law"
It is not possible in a course guide of this nature to discuss all the
punctuations and the rules governing their usage. What is expected of
you is that you should be careful in the use of punctuations because
punctuations form part of legal document and they are relevant for the
purpose of interpretation.
Self |Assessment Exercise (SAE) 2
Why are the uses of punctuation important in legal document? Support
your answer with case law and statutory provision.
3.3
Uses of Certain Punctuation Marks
1.
Comma (,): It may be used in any of the following situations:a.

b.
c.
d.
2.
To mark off items in a list. For e.g. "remove the tables,

chair, and bed".
To mark off a group of short clauses. For e.g. "I went to
court, filed the appeal, and bought a law report".
To mark off enclosing words. For e.g. "every lawyer, in or
outside the court, must be well behaved".
Used in direct quotation. For e.g. "the Judge said, every
lawyer must be present".
Semi colon (;): It may used in any of the following situations:a.
b.
To mark off independent parts of sentence. For e.g. "I was

called to Bar in 2003; and I have since then paid for my
practicing fees".
To compare two sentences. For e.g. It is better to buy now
than later; though it may cost more".
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LAW 112
3.
Colon (:) It may be used in any of the following situations:a.

b.
4.
Legal Methods II
To introduce a list. For e.g. "every lawyer must buy: a wig,

gown, collar, and tie.
It is used instead of a full stop between two sentences,
where the second sentence gives more explanation to the
first. For e.g. "The lawyer is a good advocate: he masters
the facts of his cases and present them in a logical order".
Full stop (.): It may be used in any of the following situation:a.

b.
To end a complete sentence; except where the sentence is a

question or exclamation.
To mark abbreviations. For e.g. LL.B or Mr.

Briefly discuss in what situations will the following punctuations mark
be used: Colon, Full Stop, Semi Colon, Exclamation and Questions.
4.0
CONCLUSION
Legal writing is part of your work as a student of law in NOUN. It is also

very important in law practice; you are therefore advised to take your
writing skill very seriously. Familiarize yourself with the various types
of punctuation marks and practice how to use them.
5.0
SUMMARY
At the end of this unit, you have learnt:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
About types of essays / letters;

The layout/style in letter/essay writing;
Punctuations marks; and
Uses of certain punctuations mark.
6.0
TUTOR-MARK ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Write a well-punctuated essay of about a page, using where possible all

the punctuations marks you have studied under this unit.
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7.0
Legal Methods II
REFERENCES
S.O. Imhanobe, (2002). Understanding Legal Drafting and Conveyance.

Academy Press PLC: Lagos, Nigeria
Nigeria.
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MODULE 3
UNIT 1
ANALYSIS AND NOTE TAKING IN LEGAL

MATTERS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Analysis and note taking
3.2 Legal writing
3.3 Letter heading papers
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
Analysis and note taking is a kind of instructions given by a client to his

lawyer. The lawyer will have to ask the client questions that will enable
him understand the clients instructions. The lawyer takes down notes as
the client responds to question, after which the lawyer analyses those
instructions to enable him do his legal work properly. You have to learn
about this at the early stage of your studies.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Analyze legal instruction;

Take notes as a law students; and
Scrutinize, edit and check the note you have taken.
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Analysis and Note Taking
Analysis involves the classification of the notes or instructions you have

taken into the proper legal category. It may even involve consulting
another colleague. Ordinarily, the analysis of note taking should be a
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simple process. But in practice or reality, it is not as easy and

straightforward as it appears. Even where the analysis is straight forward,
your note should be properly taken.
A legal practitioner who wants to persuade the court over his case should
be able to cite authorities to buttress his case. An authority in legal
argument simply refers to citing of cases and statutory provisions.
Cases are cited in courts during legal tussle. The judge refers to those
cases cited in his chambers or office in order to determine and write his
judgment. The most convincing cases cited and that are relevant to the
case at hand is most likely to obtain judgment in his favour.
Authorities are also cited in legal writing. Legal writing includes legal
textbooks, legal letters, periodicals, law journals, etc. Case law and
Statutory provisions are used in legal writing in order to support a rule or
a principle of law. This makes it more authoritative and convincing.
For example, the case of Carlill Vs. Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. (1893)
can be used to back up argument on what amounts to offer and
acceptance.
The facts of the case:
Mrs. Carlill made a retail purchase of one of the defendants medicinal
products: the 'Carbolic smoke Ball". It was supposed to prevent people
who used it in a specified way (three times a day for at least two weeks)
from catching influenza. The company was very confident about its
product and placed an advertisement in a paper, the Paul Mall Gazette,
which praised the effectiveness of the smoke ball and promised to pay
100 (a huge sum of money at that time) to:
any person who contracts the increasing epidemic
influenza, colds, or any disease caused by taking cold, having
used the ball three times daily for two weeks according to the
printed directions supplied with each ball.
The advertisement went on to explain that the company had deposited
100 with the Alliance Bank, Regent Street, London as a sign of its
sincerity in the matter. Any proper plaintiffs could get their payment
from that sum. On the faith of the advertisement, Mrs. Carlill bought one
of the balls at the chemists and used it as directed, but still caught the flu.
She claimed 100 from company, but was refused it, so she sued for
breach of contract. The company argued and said there was no contract
for several reasons, but mainly because:
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(i)
The advert was too vague to amount to the basis of a contractthere was no time limit and no way of checking the way the
customer used the ball;
(ii)
The plaintiff did not give any legally recognized value of the
company;
(iii)
One cannot legally make an offer to the whole world, so the

advert was not a proper offer;
(iv)
Even, if the advert could be seen as an offer, Mrs. Carlill

had not given a legal acceptance of that offer because she
had not notified the company that she was accepting, and
(iv)
The advert was a mere puff, that is, a piece of insincere

sales talk not meant to be taken seriously
The Court of appeal found that there was a legal enforceable agreement,
a contract, between Mrs. Carlill and the company. The company would
have to pay damages to the plaintiff.
Also statutory provisions, apart from case law can be used to support
legal argument. For instance, sections 33-40 of the 1999 Constitution of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria may be used to support argument on
fundamental human rights depending of course on the right being
enforced.
Analysis and note taking in legal matters are as important as the use of
authorities in legal argument and writing. Discuss.
3.2
Legal writing
You can be engaged in legal writing on a daily basis. This could be in

form of letter writing, drafting of Wills, deed of assignment, quit notice
and negotiation or settlement letters. Writing good legal documents is an
art that cannot be taken for granted? A common erroneous believe is to
assume that legal writing does not require preparation. This is not true.
What is committed to a letter is a permanent record and sometimes
cannot be restated or recalled. A letter reveals a lot about the writer and
the course of a legal transaction may depend on the letter exchanged by
the parties. Apart from letter or legal writing, there are other aspects of
general communication you may wish to know:
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(i)
(ii)
Memorandum
Reports, and
(iii)
Opinions
The difference between a letter and other forms of communication is that

a letter is out of house communication while the other forms of
communication are 'in house' communication. Before writing a letter,
you must first consider whether it is absolutely necessary to do so, this is
because a meeting or a phone call may serve you better. Once you have
decided to write, you must ensure that you communicate the message.
The legal writing or letter writing tells a lot about the relationship
between you and the addressee. You should therefore consider three
basic things before writing any type of letter:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The opinion of the law on the issue to be communicated;

The psychology of the recipient; and
Recent correspondence with the recipient (if any) to bring
yourself up-to- date.
The class of prospective recipients vary, they often include:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Your client
A vendor or purchaser;
Other colleagues or lawyers;
Opponents, and
The bench i.e. judges of courts of law, including the
magistrates.
As the classes of recipients vary, so do their psychology. There are some

issues that may assist you in fashioning your approach to the recipient
and choosing your language:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Recipient's age;
Recipient's educational background;
Recipient's professional interest;
Recipient's taste and preference; and
Recipient's prejudices.
The essence of legal writing is to communicate a message to the recipient

and this involves the various styles. The most effective words should be
used in the most appropriate order so that the choice of words can create
effect. There are no strict rules about styles, the idea is that the style to be
adopted depends on whether the letter is meant to simply convey
information, or persuade the recipient to act or retain from an act.
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Legal writing by a lawyer is different from any form of writing by a
linguist. Why is this so?
3.3
Letter Headed Papers
This is the printed part of the letter sheet, usually A4 or A5 paper. The
design is important hence you may use a skilled graphic designer and
quality paper, preferably the conqueror paper. This portrays a good
image of the person or firm to the recipient of your letters.
Neither the Legal Practitioner Act nor the Rules of Professional conduct
provides for the contents of a legal / letter headed paper, however,
inference may be drawn, from sections 278 (1) and 631 (1) (C) of the
Companies and Allied Matters Act. (CAMA)
Section 278 (1) provides that:
Every company to which this section applies shall, in all business letters
in which the companys name appears state in legible character in
respect to each director, the following particulars.
a.
b.
c.
His present forename;

Any former names and surname; and
His nationality, if not a Nigerian;
Section 631 (1) provides that:

"Every company, after incorporation shall:
Section 631 (1) (c) provides that:
Have its name and registration number mentioned in legible character in
business letter of the company"
Though the above provisions deal with companies, the standard letter
headed paper provides for certain basic information. Generally, it should
contain the firm's name, address, and telephone numbers, Fax, E-mail
and Names of the partners or associates.
Is there any legal requirement for letter headed paper?
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What was the bone of contention in the case between Gani Fawehinmi
Vs. Legal Practitioners Disciplinary Committee (LPDC) (1985), 2,
W.N.L.R. pt 7. P. 300.
Write a letter to a colleague asking for settlement out of court.
4.0
CONCLUSION
This is a very important unit. This is so because one way or the other,
you are engaged in legal/letter writing. A good mastery of legal writing
will assist you in you legal practice and as a student of the NOUN
studying law.
5.0
SUMMARY
At the end of this unit, you have learnt:

(i)
How to analyze note taking in interviewing a client;

(b) About legal writing; and
(c) About the legal requirements for letter headed paper.
6.0
TUTOR MARK ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Write a letter on an improvised letter headed paper to your client

informing him/her that you have concluded negotiations on the piece of
land he instructed you to purchase.
7.0
REFERENCES
S.O. Imhanobe, (2002). Understanding Legal Drafting and Conveyance.

Academy Press PLC: Lagos, Nigeria
Nigeria.
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UNIT 2
AUTHORITATIVE ELEMENTS IN BOOKS AND

JUDICIAL OPINION
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
1.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Authoritative elements in books
3.2 Judicial opinions
3.3 Judicial reasoning
Summary
Conclusion
Reference/Further Readings
INTRODUCTION
Books constitute the stock of a law library and can be regarded as the
most important single entity available for the conduct of legal research
and thereby serve as authorities elements in legal works. Legal textbooks
consists of scholarly views, opinions, commentaries and authoritative
expositions in certain subject areas, such textbooks are categorized by
the audience or the status of people to which they are directed like
undergraduates, postgraduates, academic researchers, practitioners and
other topic issues that are foreign or local.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Identify some legal textbooks as authoritative and persuasive,

Explain what is meant by judicial opinions;
Describe how courts its opinion on a particular case before it.
List types of legal textbooks that are authoritative
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Authoritative Elements in Books
When a court is unable to locate a precise or analogous precedent, it may

refer to legal textbooks for guidance such books are subdivided
depending on when they were written. In strict terms, only certain works
are actually treated as authoritative. Amongst the most important of these
works are those by Glanville from the 12th century, Bracton from the 13th
century, Coke from the 17th century and Blackstone from the 18th
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century. The courts look at the most eminent works by accepted experts
in particular fields order to help determine what the law is or should be.
For example, the citation of Sherbets Judges on Trial and De Smith,
Wolf and Jewell, Judicial Review of Administrative Action, in Lord
Browne- Wilkinsons statutory Interpretation in Wilson vs. Secretary of
state for Trade and Industry (2003).
The Nigerian local scene can also boast of an impressive array of
distinguished legal text writer whose publications are as authoritative in
every material respect and who have attained international recognition.
Late Honorable Judge T.O. Elias formerly of the world court at The
Hague, Netherlands, was a pace setter. His works cover such areas as
constitutional law, international law, customary law and virtually all
recognized fields of legal devours. Other notable legal writer, whose
works are authoritative are Professor Ben Nwabueze, Dr. A. Aguda, Dr.
Olakunle Orojo, Justice Karibi-Whyte, Professor Nwogugu Professor
Okonkwo, Professor Peter Oluyede, Justice C. Oputa, Professor Itse
Sagay, Professor A.O. Obilade and Justice Kayode Eso.
Apart from citations in various academic papers, the opinions and view
of some of the legal textbooks writers have been referred to with
approval in court proceedings. For instance authoritative texts like
Johnsons History of the Yourbas; Cokers family properly among the
Yourbas, Obis Ibo land law and Ajayis history of West Africa have had
of certain prevailing customary practices in some societies. The same
applies to Elias Nature of African customary law (1956).
Legal textbooks have authoritative elements in them. However, this does
not make them binding. Discuss.
3.2
Judicial Opinion
If, within limits, courts have a choice to decide which way decisions are
to go, what is it, if anything, that governs or controls that choice?
Certainly not ordinary logical dedication or inference in the sense of
syllogistic reasoning, for legal rules, ideas and concepts are expressed in
words, whose uncertain sphere of operating precedes the statement of
legal reasoning in the rigidly defined terms by which conclusions may be
logically deduced from stated premises. Nor id this surprising, for not
only do legal rules and concepts depend for their usefulness on their very
indefinitenesss and flexibility, but as Oliver wended Holmes remarked,
life of the law been not logic but experience.
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Ordinarily language, in which law is necessarily expressed is not an

instrument of mathematical precision but possesses what has been
described as an open texture. Some part of the meaning of words is given
by ordinary usage, but this does not carry one far in those peripheral
problems, which law courts have to solve in applying words, and legal
rules expressed in words. Rules of law are not linguistic or logical rules
but to a great extent rules for deciding.
The essence of legal reasoning is in all essentials, save that the lawyer
engages in a more searching inquiring for precise reasons for his
decisions, comparable to the process of reasoning or practical problems.
Thus, when a court decides that something is good or desirable, beautiful
or ugly, this is judicial opinion or court expressing judgments. This
opinion may be intended as a mere expression of a subjective emotion,
but more after it involves implicitly or explicitly the idea that one can
give reasons in support of that judgment.
Moreover courts, like ordinary people, may and generally do employ
differing criteria, reflecting varying altitudes towards the solution of the
problems with which they are called upon to deal. No analogy is
compelling in a purely logical sense as leading to a necessary conclusion;
but as a practical matter human beings do reason by analogy, and find
this in many instances useful way of arriving of normative or practical
decision. The basis of this approach is primarily human experience of the
efficiency and utility of analogical reasoning. This is judicial opinion.
What do you understand by judicial opinion?
3.3
Judicial Reasoning
You may want to know to what extent judges use logical reasoning in
reaching their decisions in particular cases and to determine which
forms, if any, they make use of.
Some statutory provisions and also some common law rules can be
expressed in the form of a syllogism. For example, the offence of theft
may be reduced into such a formulation.
If A dishonestly appropriates Bs property with the intention of
permanently depriving B of it, then A is guilty of theft.
A has done this,
Therefore, A is guilty of theft.
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This however, represents an over-simplification of the structure of

statute, but more importantly, the effect of concentrating on the logical
form of the offence tends to marginalize the key issues in relation to its
actual application. Obviously, the great majority of cases are decided on
the trust of the premises rather than the formal validity of the argument
used. In other words, argument will concentrate primarily on whether A
actually did the act or not and, secondly, on whether A appropriated the
property either dishonestly or with the intention of permanently
depriving B of it.
In looking for a precedent on which to base a decision, judges are faced
with a large number of cases from which to select. It is extremely
unlikely that judges will find an authority which corresponds precisely to
the facts of the case before them. What they have to do is to find an
analogous case and use its reasoning to decide the case before them. This
use of analogy to decide cases is prone to some shortcomings. The major
difficulty is the need to ensure the validity of the analogy made, if the
conclusion drawn is to be valid.
Thus, the apparent deductive certainty of the use of precedence is
revealed to be on the much less certain use of inductive reasoning and
reasoning by analogy, with even the possibility of personal views of the
judges playing some part in deciding. This latter factor introduces the
possibility that judges do not in fact use any form of logical reasoning to
decide cases, but simply deliver decisions on the basis of an intuitive
response to the parties involved. The suggestion has been made that
judges decide the outcome of the case first of all and only then seek some
post hoc legal justification for their decision; and given the huge number
of precedents from which they are able to choose, they have no great
difficulty in finding such support as they require. The process of logical
reasoning can be compared to the links in a chain, one following the
other, but a more fitting metaphor for judicial reasoning would be to
compare of with the legs of a chair; faced into place to support the
weight of a conclusion reached a prior. Some critics have even gone so
far as to deny the existence of legal reasoning altogether as a method of
determining decisions, and have suggested that references to such are no
more than a means of justifying the social and political decisions that
judges are called upon to make.
In conclusion, however, it is not suggested that legal reasoning does not
employ the use of logic, but neither can it be asserted that it is only a
matter of logic. Perhaps the only conclusion that can be reached is that
legal reasoning as exercised by the judiciary is an amalgam; part
deductive, part inductive, part reasoning by analogy, with an added
mixture of personal intuition, not to say personal prejudice.
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1.
2.
3.
What are the major differences between judicial reasoning and

judicial opinions?
How do courts or judges arrive at a decision by deductive
reasoning?
With good examples, differentiate between deductive, inductive
and analogical types of reasoning.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Legal textbooks form the bulk of a law library and therefore, it can be
said that books by authoritative legal writers are essential for any
successful legal practice. Authoritative books are both foreign and local
and the courts rely on them in situations where there are no pre-existing
rules to decide a particular case before. Although, these authoritative
legal textbook, are not binding on the courts, they are persuasive in
nature.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been exposed to:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
authoritative elements in legal textbooks;

judicial opinion;
judicial reasoning; and
how courts arrive at decisions by amalgamation of the different
types of logical reasoning.
6.0
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT.(TMA)
1.
Why do courts have to rely on legal textbooks that are

authoritative?
Authoritative legal textbooks are not binding on the courts. Why
do you think this is so?
2.
7.0
REFERENCES
Imiera, P.P. Knowing the Law (2005). Fico Nigeria Ltd (FHM): Lagos,
Nigeria
Dada, T.O. General Principles of Law (1994), T.O Dada & Co.: Lagos,
Nigeria.
Slapper & Kelly, (2004). The English Legal System 7th ed. Cavendish
publishing Ltd: London.
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Freeman, M.D.A (1994). Lloyds Introduction to Jurisprudence (1994)

6th ed; Sweet & Maxwell: London
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UNIT 3
APPLICATION OF LEGAL RULES IN SOCIAL
MATTERS
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1 Application of legal rules in social matters
3.2 Division of topics into chapters; sections and subsections
3.3 The legal profession
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
One of the most characteristic features of 20th century jurisprudence has

been the development of sociological approaches to law. The social
sciences have an influence this century almost comparable to that of
religions in earlier periods. Legal thought has tended to reflect the trends
to be found in sociology. More recently conflict theories have tended to
dominate the sociological stage and these have been reflected in legal
thinking.
2.0
OBJECTIVE
By the end of this unit you should be able to know:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Explain how legal rules are applied to social or societal problems;

Explain the Roscoe pond social engineering doctrine; and
Describe the role of law in reconciling conflicts in society.
3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
Application of Legal Rules in Social Matters
For Roscoe Pound, jurisprudence or the theory of law is not so much a

social science as a technology and the analogy of engineering is applied
to social problems. Pound was concerned primarily with the effect of law
upon society and only to a lesser extent with questions about the social
determination flaw. Little attention is paid to conceptual thinking. The
creative role of the judiciary is in the forefront, as is the need for a new
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legal technique directed to social needs. The call is for a new functional
approach to law.
Pounds view of the law is that law is a reconciler of conflicting interest
in the application of legal rules to social matters. So for Roscoe Pound,
the law is an ordering of conduct so as to make the goods of existence
and the means of satisfying claims go round as is possible with the least
friction and waste. Pound regards these claims as interests which existing
for recognition and security. The law recognizes some of these interests,
giving them effects within defined interests. Pound attempted to expound
and classify the categories of interests, which are thus acknowledged in a
modern democratic society. In this approach, Pound rather recalls the
methods of Aristotles distributive justice. This seems to ignore the
extent to which existing law is based on giving effect to vested rights.
Pounds own approach to the application of legal rules to social matter
was somewhat infertile. He looks to actual assertions of claims in a
particular society, especially as manifested in legal proceeding and
legislative proposals; whether accepted or rejected very much on the
state of the law discourages litigation on doubtful new points. The failure
of English law to develop more than a rudimentary corpus of social
security case- law is an example. It must be stated therefore that there are
interests not only in the sense of what people want but in the sense of
what may be good for them regardless of their actual desires.
Pound sees law or legal rules as adjusting and reconciling conflicting
interests. It is an instrument, which controls interest according to the
requirements of the social order. It therefore follows that law represents
the consciousness of the whole society. Ultimately, it only serves those
interests that contribute to the good of the whole society. So Pound
identifies the task of the good of the whole society. So Pound identifies
the task of the lawyer as that of a social engineer; (who) formulates a
programme of action, attempts to gear individual and social needs to the
valves of western democratic society. Law should be placed in its social
context, of using these methods, of recognizing that many traditional
jurisprudential questions are empirical in nature and not purely
conceptual.
Roberto Unger in his law in modern society claims that each society
reveals through its law the innermost secrets of the manner in which it
holds men together. Ungers study of the legal order is directed towards
showing why citizens of liberal society find it both necessary to
subscribe to the rule of law and impossible to achieve it by applying it to
social matters. The disintegration of traditional types of legality and legal
thought reveals far- reaching changes in society and culture.
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What do you understand by Roscoe Pounds social Engineering
3.2
Division of
Subsections
Topics
into
Chapters,
Sections
and
In Essay or project writing, a topic is chosen as the title of the project.

The length of the project determines the number of chapters to be
written. For example project topic title: the law relating to job security
in Nigeria may consist of the following chapterisation:
Chapter one:
two:
Chapter three:
Chapter four:
Chapter five:
Introduction Chapter
Literature review
Job security in Nigeria
Comparative studies of job security in Nigeria and other
jurisdictions
Conclusion/suggestion/ recommendation.
Each of the chapter above may also consist of sections and subsections
e.g. chapter one above:
1.1
1.2
(i)
(ii)
Introduction
Objective of study
Background of job security
Unfair dismissal of employee
All other chapters can be subdivided into sections and subsection. The
method and approach adopted is purely subjective. This entirely depends
on the choice of the project writer.
Also, statutes can be divided into chapters and subsections. A good
example is the Nigeria 1999 constitution. It contains chapters, sections,
and subsections. For example, parts of a statute may consist of the
following parts;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
60
Short title
Long title
The preamble
Commencement or extent clause
The Enacting clause
The operative section
Proviso
Marginal notes
Interpretation clause
Explanatory notes
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Consequential provisions
Schedules or tables
Transitional provisions
Signature or assent
Topics are divided into chapters, sections and subsections for easy
reading and understanding. When essays or projects are two lengthy in
nature, it becomes boring and verbose. A reader may easily loose interest
in studying or reading the work; to this end, it becomes necessary and in
line with modern educational trends to divide topics into chapters,
sections and subsections, with proper academic references or footnoting.
Why it necessary or important to divide projects into chapters?
3.3
The Legal Profession
The legal profession in Nigeria is over a hundred years old. The

profession has also had a somewhat chequered development. Law is no
doubt, one of the earliest professions in the world. Legal profession is
made up of law officers as well as judicial officers. The law officers are
the practicing lawyers who are at the bar and the judicial officers are
those who presided over the courts as judges and magistrates. These are
known as members of the Bench.
The Bench consists of judges of the High court appointed through special
procedure laid down in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. Judges are appointed by the president on the recommendation if
the Advisory Judicial Committee with the approval of the law- making
body. The Chief Justice of Nigeria is appointed by the president in
Consultation with the approval of the National Assembly. He must be a
legal practitioner of not less than fifteen years experience and must be of
good character.
Justices of the Court of Appeal are expected to possess minimum of
twelve years experience while judges of High court shall have ten- year
experience. Judges are expected to retire at the age of 70 years and earn
their salaries for life. When judges retire, they cannot appear in any court
as legal practitioners. They could also be removed only through specially
laid down procedure, e.g. due to a serious misconduct unbecoming of a
person of that status or due to ill health or unsound mind.
Unlike a judge however, magistrates are regarded as members of the
lower Bench and they are appointed by the Public Service Commission
on the advise of the Chief Judge of a state. Upon retirement or
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resignation magistrates can still practice as legal practitioners, unlike a

judge of the higher Bench.
All members of the Bench are given wide powers to enable them perform
their duties without fear or favour e.g. the contempt powers which enable
them to deal firmly with any act of indiscipline outside or inside their
courts.
The Bar consists of the legal practitioners. The Attorney General of the
Federation is the official leader of Nigerian Bar. Any legal practitioner is
entitled to practice as a barrister and as solicitor. This means that the
profession is fused in Nigeria unlike England where one is either a
qualified Barrister or a solicitor.
A Barrister goes to court to do advocacy or conduct litigation. A solicitor
does not go to court; he merely renders advisory services and prepares
legal documents. When a legal practitioner has acquired a wide range of
experience, he could be appointed as a Senior Advocate of Nigeria
(SAN) as a mark of honour and respect. This status entitles him to certain
rights and privileges in the field of legal practice. For instance, there are
minimum limits to the briefs he could take in terms of value. His cases
shall be mentioned or called first before appearing in court and be must
always be accompanied by a Junior.
The Licensing of lawyers is done by the council of legal education and
the Body of Benchers both of which are established by law, while the
Body of Benchers does the call and admits lawyers into the legal
profession.
The council of legal Education was established by the Council of legal
Education Act 1962. Its main function is to arrange for the education of
persons seeking to become members of the legal profession. The council
established the Nigerian law school for this purpose and essentially
offers professional course for the award of B.L (Barrister at law). The
council is also charged with the responsibility of continuing education
for members of the legal profession in Nigeria.
The Nigerian law school offers courses in specialized areas of the
Barristers and Solicitors functions. To be admitted into the school, the
person must have obtained a pass degree in law from an approved
university. The NLS has absolute right to admit and recommend to the
Body of benchers persons whom it deems fit and proper to be member of
the legal profession in Nigeria. The locus classicus is the case of Dr.
Okonjo vs. Council Of Legal Education (1979) Digest of Appeal
Cases 28.
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Legal Methods II
The council also accredits institutions or facilities of law preparing

students wishing to become lawyers with regards to their facilities like
lecture rooms, staffing, library and other vital educational materials.
The Body of Benchers consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The Chief Justice of Nigeria and all the Justices of Supreme

Court;
The Attorney- General of the Federation;
The President of the Court of Appeal;
The President of the Federal High Court;
Chairman of Council of Legal Education;
The Attorneys General of all the states;
The President of the NBA;
Members of the NBA of not less than fifteen years post call
experiences.
The Chief Registrar of the Supreme Court of Nigeria keeps and

maintains a registrar-containing roll of legal practitioners. Only those
called to the Bar and produce certificate of all to the Registrar are
enrolled on the same day when the seniority ranks start to run.
The legal profession is regulated by strict rules of consult and attitude
contained in the legal practitioners Act 1975 (as amended). It is
important that a legal practitioner should pay his practicing fees before
he can appear in any law court. Law also regulates the fees charged by
lawyers on their clients.
Legal practitioners are also entitled to certain privileges like being
appointed notaries public and SAN. The signature of a notary public is
recognized allover the world. A senior Advocate Nigeria is to have taken
the silk upon appointment. It is the equivalent of the Queens counsel
(Q.C) in England. He leads the court. He must appear with a junior
always. His matters are accorded priority attention on the courts cause
list.
1.
2.
3.
What is the difference between the Bench and the Bar?

What are the major functions of the council of legal education and
the body of Benchers?
Read the case of Dr. Okonjo vs. council of legal education, state
the fact of the case, the issues and the decision of the court.
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4.0
Legal Methods II
CONCLUSION
Indeed, this is a very important unit. The unit enables you to know how
legal rules are applied to social matters and the doctrine of social
engineering as propounded by Roscoe Pound. A brief study of the legal
profession in Nigeria was also discussed. Our suggestion is that you
study more on this unit on your own in the recommended texts below.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt about the following:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
the application of legal rules in social matters;

division of topics, into chapters, sections and subsections;
the legal profession;
the council of legal education;
the Bench; and
the Bar and constitution of the Body of Benchers.
6.0
List in the order of hierarchy the constitution of the Body of Benchers.
7.0
REFERENCES
Nigeria
Dada, T.O. General Principles of Law (1994), T.O Dada & Co.: Lagos,
Nigeria.
Freeman, M.D.A (1994). Lloyds Introduction to Jurisprudence (1994)
6th ed; Sweet & Maxwell: London
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UNIT 4
Legal Methods II
THE STRUCTURE OF COURTS IN THE

CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM.
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
Conclusion
Summary
Tutor Marked assignment
References
1.0
INTRODUCTION
A working knowledge of the English court structure in required for the

understanding of the location of adjudication, the types of dispute
handled and the interaction of culture and personnel. This is important
because Nigeria inherited her legal system from the English system. You
should learn the jurisdiction of each type of the English court just like
Nigerian courts, how it fits into the hierarchy of courts, how it compares
with other courts in terms of workload and how it is organized. The
relevant English courts are, beginning with the lowest:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Magistrates Courts;
County courts;
the High courts;
the Court of Appeal;
the House of Lord;
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council; and
T he European Court of Justice
2.0
OBJECTIVES

1.
2.
3.
Explain the essential nature of an English court and the particular

kind of decision-making;
Identify the main types of court currently used in the English legal
system and outline the nature of their jurisdiction; and
Highlight the distinguishing feature in the operation of a court
from arbitration and mediation.
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3.0
Legal Methods II
MAIN BODY
Structure of English Court

1.
Magistrates Courts
Magistrates courts in the English system have a wide and varied

jurisdiction. They are involved in some way in virtually all criminal
prosecutions, magistrates hear cases concerning young persons when
constituted as a youth courts, family or domestic proceedings, as well as
enforcement of income tax or local tax.
Magistrates courts are therefore of enormous importance in the English
system in the criminal justice decision-making process. They also grant
or refuse licenses for the sale of alcoholic liquor, betting, etc. Aside from
their breadth of jurisdiction, the most important feature of the English
magistrate courts is the extensive involvement of lay people (non professionals) as judges.
There are approximately 26,000 magistrates who sit as unpaid, part-time
lay judges, in Inner London, by contrast, there are Professional
Stipendiary Magistrates, who are also called judges and Magistrates
Court, who are advised by a professionally qualified clerk.
2.
The County Courts
There are almost 250 County Courts in England and Wales. As a result
most medium sized and large towns contain this court of first instance in
the civil justice process. The bulk of cases heard before them are routine
attempts at debt collection. The modern county courts date from 1846.
Their jurisdiction has always been subject to both financial and
geographical limits, but within those limits, jurisdiction has generally
been concurrent with that of the High Court.
As of January 1999, while actions for certain sums may begin in the
county court and more on the High court, the county court will normally
hear cases in contract and torts to a limit of 25,000, and certain property
and other matters to a limit of 30,000. Claims in contract or tort
between 25,000 and 50,000 can either be heard in the county court or
High Court, while claims over 50,000 will be heard in the High Court.
Most of the work in the county courts is conducted by District Judges of
whom there are around 370 in England and Wales.
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Legal Methods II

Discuss briefly the jurisdiction of the Magistrates and county courts
under the English Legal System.
3.
The Crown Court
Although predominantly a court of first instance, for the trial of the more
serious criminal offences, the Crown Court also has significant appellate
and civil business. The most controversial aspect of the crown courts
jurisdiction concerns the extent to which an accused person should have
the right to insist upon trial by jury.
4.
The High Court
The High Court is based in London, with various provincial branches.

The High Court has three branches:
1.
The Chancery
The court of chancery mainly deals with trust matters, conveyances,

mortgages, contested probate, intellectual property other than that
covered by the Patent Court, bankruptcy and appeals from decisions of
commissioners of Inland Revenue.
2.
3.
The Queens Bench

This court deals mainly with personal injury, contract and tort
claims.
The family Division
This court hears divorce cases and ancillary matters, and children
Act cases.

What do you think is the basic difference between the English High
Court and the Nigerian High Court?
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Legal Methods II
HOUSE OF LORDS
Head: Lord Chancellor
Lord of Appeal in Ordinary (12)

EUROPEAN
COURT OF
JUSTICE
COURT OF APPEAL
Lords Justice of Appeal (36)

Civil Division
Criminal Division
Judges (15)
Master of the Roll sHIGH COURT

Lord Chi ef Justi ce
Puisn Judges (107)

Queens Bench
Division
73 judges
assigned
Family
Division
Head:
President
17 judges
in post
Chancery
Division
Head: vicechancellor
17 judges
assigned
CROWN
COURT
Puisn Judges
& Recorders
(1,415
full-time)
Plus
AdvocatesGeneral (8)
Note: Puisn Judge: any

ordinary judge of the High
Court.
MAGISTRATES COURTS
COUNTY COURTS
Circuit Judges (622) & District
Judges (410 full-time)
Head:
President
Lay Magistrates (JPs, around

30,000) & 105 District Judges
(Magistrates Court)
A COURT OF
REFERENCE,
NOT APPEAL
REFERENCE
MAY BE
MADE
FROM ANY
COURT IN
THE SYSTEM
The contemporary court structure (adapted from Holland and

Webb (2003), P. 13
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5.
Legal Methods II
The Court of Appeal
The court of Appeal was established by the Judicature Act (JDA) 1873.
Together with the High Court of Justice, the court of Appeal forms the
Supreme Court of Justice.
Senior judges, serve the court of Appeal currently 35, termed Lords
Justices of Appeal. Additionally, the Lord Chancellor, the President of
the family Division of the High Court, the Vice Chancellor of the
chancery Division and High Court Judges can sit. The court hears
appeals from the three divisions of the High Court, the Divisional Courts,
the county courts, the Employment Appeal Tribunal, the Lands Tribunal
and the transport Tribunal. The most senior judge is the Master of the
Rolls. Usually, three judges will sit to hear an appeal, although for every
important case five may sit. In the interests of business efficiency, two
judges can hear some matters. These include:
1.
2.
3.
Applications for leave to appeal;

An appeal where all parties have consented to the matter being
heard by just two judges; and
Any appeal against an interim order or judgment.
6.
The House of Lords
Acting in its judicial capacity, as opposed to its legislative one, the

House of Lords is the final court of appeal in civil as well as criminal
law. Its judgments govern the courts in England, Wales and Northern
Ireland. They can also govern civil law in Scotland. Most appeals
reaching the House of Lords come from English civil cases.
The appeals are heard by Lords of Appeal in ordinary, of which there are
currently 12. Two of these must be from Scotland and one from Northern
Ireland. Other senior judges like the Lord Chancellor sometimes sit to
hear appeals. It is customary only for peers with distinguished legal and
judicial careers to become Law Lords. For most cases, five Law Lords
will sit to hear the appeal, but seven are sometimes convened to hear
very important cases.
7.
The European Court of Justice
The European Court of Justice (ECJ) sits in Luxembourg. Its function is

to ensure that in the interpretation and application of this treaty (The
EEC Treaty 1957) the law is observed. The ECJ is the ultimate authority
on European law. As the Treaty is widely composed in general terms, the
court is often called upon to provide the necessary detail for European
law to operate. By virtue of the European Communities Act 1972,
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Legal Methods II
European law has been enacted into English law, so the decisions of the
court have direct authority in the English jurisdiction.
The ECJ hear disputes between nation and between nations and
European institutions like the European Commission. An individual,
however, can only bring an action if he is challenging a decision that
affects him.
The treaty states in Article 234 that any to the ECJ if it considers that a
decision in that question is necessary to enable t any judicial or quasijudicial body however low ranking, may refer a question it to give
judgment and that such a reference must be made where any such
question is raised in a case before a national court from which there is no
further appeal.
Lord Denning MR formulated guidelines in Bulmer Vs. Bollinger
(1974) as to when an inferior court should refer a case to the ECJ for a
preliminary ruling. He offered four guidelines to determine whether the
reference was necessary within the meaning of Article 234:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The decision on the point of European law must be conclusive of

the case;
The national court may choose to follow a previous ruling of the
ECJ on the same point of community law, but it may, choose to
refer the same point of law to the court again in the hope that it
will give a different ruling;
The national court may not make a reference in the grounds of
acte clair where the point is reasonably clear and free from doubt;
and
In general, it is best to decide the facts first before determining
whether it is necessary to refer the point to community law.
The ECJ is a court of reference, the ruling the court makes is
preliminary, in the sense that the case is then remitted to the
national court for it to apply the law to the facts. The court only
addresses itself to points from actual cases; it will not consider
hypothetical problems.
Lord Diplock in R Vs Henn (1981) has characterized the ECJs work in

the following way:
The Courts, applies teleological European court, in contrast to
English rather than historical methods to the interpretation of the
Treaties and other community legislation. It seeks to give effect to
what it conceives to be the spirit rather than the letter of the
Treaties, sometimes, indeed, to English judge, it may seem to the
exclusion of the letter. It views the communities as living and
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Legal Methods II
expanding organisms and the interpretation of the provisions of the

Treaties as changing to match their growth.
The ECJ is made up from senior judges from each member state (15) and
a President of The Court assisted by nine Advocates General. The
Advocates General are persons whose independence is beyond doubt and
their task is to give to the court a detailed analysis of all the relevant
legal and factual issues along with recommendation. The court does not
necessarily follow the recommendations, but they can be used on later
occasions as persuasive precedent. The court attempts to ensure
consistency in its decisions, but is not bound by precedent to the same
extent as a court in England.
8.
The European Court of Human Rights
The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) does not arise from the
EU, but arises from the 1950 European Convention on Human Rights,
signed by 21 European States including, the U.K. It deals with matters
relating to human and political rights. The ECHR sit in Strasbourg and
consists of judges from each member state. The signatory states
undertook to guarantee a range of human and political rights to the
citizens within their jurisdictions.
9.
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was created by the Judicial

Committee Act 1833. Under the Act, a special committee of the privy
council was set up to hear appeals from the Dominions. The cases are
heard by the judges (without wigs or robes) in a committee room in
London. The committees decision is not a judgment but an advice to the
monarch, who is counseled that the appeal be allowed or dismissed.
The committee is the final court of appeal for certain common wealth
countries that have retained this option, and from some independent
members and associate members of the common wealth. The committee
comprises privy counselors who hold or have held high judicial office. In
most cases, which come from places such as the Cayman Islands and
Damaica, the committee comprises five Lords of Appeal in ordinary,
sometimes assisted by a judge from the country concerned. The decisions
of the privy council are very influential in English courts because they
concern points of law that are applicable in this jurisdiction and they are
pronounced upon by Lords of Appeal in ordinary in a way which is thus
tantamount to a House of Lords ruling. These decisions however, are
technically of persuasive precedent only, although English courts
normally follow them.
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Legal Methods II

1.
2.
3.
4.0
Using a well-labeled diagram, show the hierarchy of court in the

English legal system.
Discuss the role of the European court of Justice and the European
court of Human Right on the administration of Justice.
Is there any similarity between the English court system and
Nigeria court system?
CONCLUSION
Court can only decide questions of law, and its decision in each case is
based on the Generally, the appellate record made during the trial.
Appellate courts do not receive new testimony or decide questions of
fact, and in a lot of jurisdictions the appellate courts only issues written
opinions. All jurisdictions in the English legal system have a final court
of appeal.
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that the different courts are arranged in a
hierarchical framework on the basis of seniority. The higher the level of
seniority, the greater the courts authority. This is essential for the nature
of precedent. In general there is trial courts and appellate courts. The
former are the courts where the trial is heard sometimes referred to as
courts of first instance. Where the parties appear, witnesses testify, and
the evidence is presented. The trial court usually determines any
questions of fact in dispute and then applies the relevant point of law.
Usually, once the trial court reaches a decision, the losing part has a right
to appeal to an appellate court.
6.0
What are the differences if any, in the system of adjudication between

the Supreme Court of Nigeria and the House of Lords in England?
7.0
REFERENCES
Nigeria
Slapper & Kelly, (2004). The English Legal System 7th ed. Cavendish
publishing Ltd: London.
Morrison, W.J., A. Gearey and K. Malleson, (2004). Common Law
Reasoning and Institutions, University of London Press: U.K.
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UNIT 5
Legal Methods II
THE HIERARCHY OF THE JUDICIARY IN THE

ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Introduction
Objectives
Main Body
3.1
The hierarchy of the judiciary
3.2
Overview of the different ranks of Judges
3.3
Judges Functions
Conclusion
Summary
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The role and function of the judiciary in England and Wales has changed
considerably in recent years. It has become larger, more professional and
better trained, while its increasing role in interpreting and applying
human rights law and scrutinizing official decision-making has drawn it
into more politically sensitive areas.
One impact that these changes have had on the English judiciary is that
the judicial appointment process has attracted more public attention. In
particular, the continuing lack of diversity in the composition of the
judiciary, the risks of politicization and the lack of accountability in the
selection process have become more pressing issues in the light of the
expanding role of the judges. For instance, in 2004, these concerns led to
the introduction of fundaments changes to the judicial appointments
process.
2.0
OBJECTIVES

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
List the main functions performed by the judges;

Explain the way the system of precedent works;
Describe the process by which English judges are appointed; and
List the possible means by which the English judicial
independence and
judicial accountability are protected and promoted.
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3.0
MAIN BODY
3.1
The hierarchy of the English Judiciary
Legal Methods II
In the 1970s, there were around 300 judges in England and Wales, by
2002 this figure had grown to over 3,500 of which approximately one
-third are practicing lawyers who sit as part-time judges. Almost all fulltime judges are appointed after a period of part-time service, which is
seen as a way of testing out the competence of those who seek judicial
office. There is a wide range of judicial officers in England and Wales
and most judges hear both criminal and civil cases at trial and appeal
level.
Before 2004 the England judiciary was headed by the Lord Chancellor.
He was also the speaker of the House of Lords (legislative) and a
member of the cabinet (government). These overlapping constitutional
roles became increasingly controversial as they breached the principle
that there should be a separation of powers between the judiciary, the
legislative and the executive. In 2003, the English Government
announced that the office of the Lord Chancellor was to be abolished.
This change was included in the Constitutional Reform Bill introduced in
2004, which established the Lord Chief Justice as the Head of the
Judiciary. The proposed abolition of the office of Lord Chancellor has
attracted some strong opposition and it is likely possible that there will
be amendments to the Bill, which will result in the office of Lord
Chancellor being retained in some more limited form. One outcome
which seems clear, however, is that the Lord Chief Justice will have a
much more extensive role than in the past.
In addition to being the most senior sitting judge, the Lord Chief Justice
is also the Head of the Court of Appeal (criminal Division). Under the
provisions of the Constitutional Reform Bill, he is also now formally the
Head of criminal justice. The other most senior judges are the Master of
the Rolls (MR) Head of the civil Division of the Court of Appeal and
Head of Civil Justice, the President of the Family Division (Head of the
family Division of the High Court and from 2004 Head of family
Justice), and the chancellor (Head of the chancery Division of the High
Court). Until 2004, the Chancellor was known as the Vice Chancellor but
has been re-titled in anticipation of the abolition of the office of Lord
Chancellor.
Highlight and discuss the main characteristics and features of the English
judiciary between 1970 to 2004.
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3.2
OVERVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT

JUDGES SUPREME COURT JUDGES
Legal Methods II
RANKS OF
At the time of writing this course guide, the highest court in the U.K is
the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. Its members are known
as the Law Lords (the upper chambers of parliament). They are full-time
judges. Under the provision of the Constitutional Reform Bill 2004, the
Laws Lords will be removed from the House of Lords and reformed into
an independent Supreme Court so as to ensure a clear separation between
the judiciary and the legislature. It is not clear exactly when this change
will be implemented. Once the new system is up and running, it is
envisaged that the current and future judges in the Supreme Court will
fulfill essentially the role and functions as the Law Lords have done. The
judges will continue to be appointed from the Court of Appeal, though
they may occasionally be appointed directly from practice or from
amongst leading academics. The courts role will continue to be hearing
both civil and criminal appeals of general public importance.
(a)
Lords and Ladies Justice of Appeal
Judges in the court of Appeal are usually appointed from the High court.
They hear both civil and criminal appeals. The civil division sits in
panels of twos or threes while the criminal division sits in threes, usually
made up of one Lord Justice with two High Court judges or with one
High court judge and one circuit judge.
(b)
High Court Judges
High Court Judges (or puisne judges) are usually appointed from the
ranks of Recorders or Deputy High Court Judges, or occasionally from
the circuit Bench. They are appointed to one of the three Divisions of the
High Court (Queens Bench family and chancery) and regularly travel
around England hearing the most important civil and criminal cases.
(C)
Deputy High Court Judges
These judges are also senior practising lawyers who sit as part-time High
Court Judges. They do not have security of tenure and are appointed
when the workload of the court requires more temporary judges. Some,
however, still go on to be appointed to be full-time High Court Bench.
(d)
Circuit Judges
Usually appointed from among Recorders or district judges, circuit

judges hear middle-ranking and more serious criminal cases in the
Crown Court and civil cases in the County Court.
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(e)
Legal Methods II
District Judges
The District Judges are appointed from Deputy District judges. Most
district judges are former solicitors. They handle the bulk of less serious
judicial work in the County Court. They carry out a wide range of
different work such as family cases, breaches of contract and negligence
claims.
(f)
District Judges (Magistrates Courts)
These are professional magistrates who are lawyers (unlike the majority
of about 30,000 magistrates, who are lay people). They sit in the
Magistrates Courts hearing mostly the more serious criminal cases.
They also hear some civil work such as family cases.
(g)
Recorders
These are part-time judges. They are practicing lawyers (barristers or

solicitors) who sit as judges for approximately 20 days per year. They
hear both criminal and civil cases sitting in the Crown Court and County
Court.
Identify and explain the major difference and similarities between the
English Judiciary and Nigerian Judiciary in the category of persons
appointed as judges.
3.3
Judges Function
Dispute Settlement
Most judges spend most of their time in work relating to dispute

settlement in the civil and criminal courts. In civil courts, this involves
determining procedure, deciding which facts are proved, applying settled
law to those facts, reaching a decision, writing a judgment setting out the
reasons for that decision and deciding on costs. In criminal cases, factfinding is carried out by lay magistrates and juries. Professional judges
sit in the Crown Court with a jury and decide questions of law and
procedure, costs and sentencing. Since most defendants either plead
guilty or are found guilty, sentencing is a major function of a criminal
judge. The sentencing system in England and Wales, in contrast to that of
other jurisdictions such as many U.S. States, offers a wider measure of
judicial discretion.
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(a)
Legal Methods II
Case Management
Since 1999, when the major reforms were introduced to the civil justice
system in English legal system following the Wolf report, judges have
spent much more of their time actively managing cases before and during
trial. Previously, judges usually came to court knowing very little about a
case and were expected to fulfill a limited reference role, leaving much
of the management of the case to the lawyers. Presently, they must read
the papers before the trial and participate in decisions about matters such
as which expert witnesses are to be called.
(b)
Training
Changes such as the growth of case management, the introduction of the

Human Right Act 1998 and the expansion in the range of sentencing
options available to judges, have all increased the need for the English
judiciary to receive appropriate training. Traditionally, however, judges
did not consider that training was necessary and indeed, regarded it as a
potential threat to their independence. The establishment in 1979 of the
Judicial Studies Board, which provides training to judges, was only
considered acceptable because judges ran it and the training provided
was largely voluntary. Since then, however, the range and amount of
training have increased and judges now generally welcome all the
training they can get although this still amount to only a few days a year
in average.
(c )
Extra-judicial Activities
In addition to the diverse range of judicial work, which judges carry out,
many also fulfill a number of different responsibilities not directly
related to their caseload. Many senior judges are involved in decisions
about staffing resources and deciding which cases will be heard by which
judges and when. Almost all judges are involved in the consultation
process for the appointment to judicial office. Some judge spend time
dealing with the media advising on the use of information technology in
the courts, consulting with court users groups, receiving and giving
judicial training, delivering lectures and public speeches, writing
personal articles, and giving evidence to or heading government inquires.
(d)
Judicial Review
Senior judges also play an important role in placing a check on official

action. Over the last 40 years in the English legal system judges have
developed the law of judicial review which gives them the power to
quash decisions that are illegal because they go beyond the decision-
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Legal Methods II
makers powers or have been arrived at through an unfair or irregular

procedure.
(e)
Interpreting Statutes
Legislation has increased in quantity and scope in the English

jurisdiction. As a result, many cases decided in the courts now involve
the consideration of statutory provisions. Three rules have traditionally
been used to assist judges in deciding how to interpret legislation that is
unclear or has more than one possible meaning. The traditional approach
to statutory interpretation is to respect the authority of the words in the
statutes drafted and to seek to apply their plain and obvious meaning,
whether or not this reading leads to a sensible outcome (the literal
approach). A modification of this approach is the golden rule which
states that where the application of the literal rule lead to a manifest
absurdity, the judges are required to interpret and if necessary adapt the
language of the statute in order to produce a sensible outcome. More
recently, judges have increasingly preferred a third approach the
mischief rule which seeks to identify accurately, the need to
understand why parliament wished to pass the law in the first place. This
is sometimes called a purposive or purposeful approach.
1.
2.
3.
4.0
Discuss briefly any three traditional functions of the judges.

Describe the ways judges approach the task of interpreting
statutes.
What is judicial review? Why do you think judicial review is
necessary in any legal system?
CONCLUSION
The literal rule, golden rule and mischief rule are guidelines developed
by the courts to help the judges approach the task of statutory
interpretation. Increasingly, judges apply a purposive approach, which
requires them to look for the underlying intention of parliament in
passing the statute
5.0
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that the judiciary in England and Wales is
organized in a clear hierarchy of ranks with relatively low levels of
specialization. Most judges hear both civil and criminal cases at first
instance and at appeal. Throughout the system there is a heavy reliance
or the use of part-time judges, many of whom go on to be appointed to
full-time post.
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6.0
Legal Methods II
TUTOR-MARKET ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of the traditional

reliance on the use of part-time judges in the English legal system.
7.0
REFERENCES
Nigeria
Morrison, W.J., A. Gearey and K. Malleson, (2004). Common Law
Reasoning and Institutions, University of London Press: U.K.
79

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LAW 112 Legal Methods II PDF

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF

COURSE CODE: 112

COURSE TITLE: LEGAL METHODS II

Mr. Pius Imiera University of

Mr. Pius Imiera University of

Mr. Ayodeji E. O. Ige Esq.

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE ... 2

COURSE MATERIALS . 2-3

ASSIGNMENT FILE ....4

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT 4-6

10.0 HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE .. 6-8

Legal Methods I and II is a two-semester course. You would have taken

What you will learn in this course

Introduce you to the basic sources of law;

Explain the various sources of law;

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

Major components of the course are:

These are 12 study units in this course, as follows:

Analysis and note taking in legal matters

Each unit contains a number of self-tests. In general, these self-tests

There are some books you should purchase for yourself:

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAS)

units. However, it is desirable in all degree level education to

Table 2-Course organizer

How to Get the Most From this Course

Read this course guide thoroughly

Tutors and tutorials

You have a question or problem with an assignment or with your

Mr. Pius Imiera University of

Mr. Pius Imiera University of

Mr. Ayodeji E. O. Ige Esq.

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria

Sources of Law 1-4

Secondary Sources of Law .. 5-11

Uses of Source Materials .12-18

Legal Research .. 19-27

Indexing and Identification of Library

Cases, Citation of Cases and Reports . 34-38

Methods and Approaches in Essay Writing 39-45

Analysis and Note Taking in Legal Matters 46-51

Authoritative Elements in Books and

Application of Legal Rules in Social

The Structure of Courts in the

The Hierarchy of the Judiciary in the

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define the term source of law.

legislations or statutory instruments and are usually entrusted to

Statutory materials as source of laws include statutes like Sale of Goods

Judicial precedent is a source of law. Judicial precedent or case law

Self Assessment Exercise (SAE) 3

3.4 Reasons For Studying Sources of Law

It affords an understanding of the various means by which the law

2. It affords the means by which authoritative written materials are

The historical fact that it is difficult, if not really impracticable to