November 11, 2014

Handouts on LEA 8 Organized Crime Investigation

Coverage: Week 1
Organized crime is complicated. It so in the sense that the
perpetrators of these activities are respectable and to some
degree, they often are esteemed personality who are
accomplished in their fields. And the fact is these people
may be working in a legitimate atmosphere like in prestigious
corporation, government agencies or a well-known
practitioner of their professions. It is as if we are looking at
people who under ordinary circumstances we believed is not
capable of committing crime.
Outlined below are some explanations why a person
commits a crime:
I. Psychological and Biological Perspective
1. Psychoanalytic Theory advance by Sigmund Freud
(1856 1939). It suggested that criminal behavior
results from overactive conscience (super - ego).
Persons suffering from unbearable guilt committed
crimes in order to be apprehended and punished.
Once punished the feeling of guilt is relieved. On the
same hand Psychoanalytic Theory proposes a
conscience (super - ego) that is too weak or
defective that ego (acting as moderator between
super-ego and id) is unable to control the impulses of
id (the part of personality containing powerful urges
and drive for gratification and satisfaction). The
diagram below simplifies the concept at hand.

Conscience acquired internalized image on attitudes and moral values.

Ego (Self ocontrol

g
e
r
e
up
The Psychoanalytic Theory posit Sthree principles on

criminal behavior:
a. The actions and behavior of an adult are
understood
in
terms
of
childhood
development.
b. Behavior and unconscious motives are inter
twined, and their interaction must be
unraveled it we are to understand
criminality.
c. Criminality is essentially a representation of
psychological conflict.
2. Moral Development Theory pioneered by Lawrence
Kohlberg. Is the gradual and progressive
development of an individuals understanding
grasping of the wrong and right principles, conscious,
ethical and religious values, social attitudes and their
behaviors.
(http://psychologydictionary.org/moraldevelopment/).
Kohlberg postulates the three phases of moral
reasoning:

Drive

a. Pre conventional Level childrens moral

rules and moral values consist of dos and
donts to avoid punishment. A desire to
avoid punishment and belief in the superior
power of authorities is the center for doing
what is right. Children ages 9 - 11 usually
reason at this level.
b. Conventional Level typically starts at
adolescent age. Individual acquired belief
and adopted the values and rules of the
society and seek to uphold these rules. (For
example, It is illegal to steal and therefore I
should
not
steal
under
any
circumstances.).
c. Post Conventional Level at this level
individuals examine customs and social
rules according to their sense of universal
human rights, moral principles and duties.
(For example, they think that, One must
live within the law but human rights and the
dignity of human life supersede the written
law when the two conflict.) This is generally
seen after the age of 20.
Low moral reasoning, which is at Pre conventional
Level results in crime in conjunctions with other
relevant social factors.
3. Maternal Deprivation and Attachment Theory
This theory is proposed by psychologist John Bowlby.
It comes from research demonstration that social
development takes place shortly after the birth of any
mammal: the construction of an emotional bond
between the infant and its mother. The strength of this
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emotional bond, known as attachment will determine

the individuals ability to form social attachments. A
child needs warmth, loving and wholesome
environment.
The studies of attachment resulted in seven important
features:
a. Specificity Attachments are selective,
usually directed to one or more individuals
in some order of preference.
b. Duration Attachments endure and persist,
sometimes throughout the life cycle.
c. Emotional Intense emotions are
associated with attachment relationships.
d. Ontogeny (course of development)
Children form an attachment on one
primary figure in the first nine months of life.
That principal attachment figure is the
person who supplies the most social
interaction of a satisfying kind.
e. Learning Attachments are product of
basic social interaction, not mainly of
rewards and punishment in the course of
learning.
f. Organization Attachment behavior follows
a developmental organization from birth
onward.
g. Biological Attachment behavior has a
biological function survival. This behavior
is found in almost all species of mammals
and in birds.
4. Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura (sounds
like Antonio Banderas), a leading figure in this
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theory. Social Learning Theory focus that delinquent

behavior is learned through the same psychological
process as any other behavior. Behavior is learned
when it is reinforced or rewarded, not learned if
unrewarded.
Bandura argues that individuals learn violence and
aggression through behavioral modelling. Children
learn how to behave by fashioning their behavior after
that of others. Behavior is socially transmitted through
the family, sub culture and the mass media.
Direct Experience Social Learning Theorist
postulates that we learn from direct experience
determined by what we do and what happens to us.
Actions gaining positive responses rewarded tend to
be learned, thus which are not tend to be rejected.
Bandura described factors that produce behavioral
responses as instigators.
Social Learning Theory describes how aggression is
acquired as learned behavioral response and how it is
instigated.
The following are instigators of aggression:
a. Aversive Instigators physical assaults,
verbal threats and insults. Reductions in
conditions of life that is, impoverishment
and the thwarting of goal directed
behavior.
b. Incentive Instigators praising or giving of
rewards such as money aiming to initiate
aggression. For example, hiring someone
to murder somebody.
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c. Modeling Instigators violent or aggressive

behaviors observed in other persons and
being adopted in a given situation by
another individual.
d. Instructional
Instigators

training
individuals to engage in violence or
aggression
e. Delusional Instigators unfounded or
bizarre beliefs that violence is necessary or
justified.
5. Differential Reinforcement Theory Criminologist
C. Ray Jeffrey in 1965 suggested that learning theory
is useful to explain criminality. Ernest Burgess and
Ronald Akers combined Banduras psychologically
based Learning Theory with Edwin Sutherland socially
based Differential Association Theory. The two
produce the Differential Association Reinforcement
which states persistent of criminal behavior depends
on whether or not it is rewarded or punished. The
most significant rewards and punishments are those
given by those who are important in an individuals
life. (Example: It is more rewarding being praise by
your teacher. It is more meaningful if discipline or
appropriate punishment is rendered by your mother
or father. In fact one tend to question the authority of
another person enforcing something on you.)
6. Personality - an attempt to explain criminal behavior
in terms of personality has been made. Researchers
investigated looked at the personality profile of
criminals and non-criminals. Most of this work has
been carried out in United States prison facilities.
Psychologist
administered
standardized
questionnaires to inmates. These are the Minnesota
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Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the

California Psychological Inventory (CPI). These
studies showed that inmates are typically more
impulsive, hostile, self centered and immature than
non criminals. Further studies, however, revealed
that personality dynamics of criminals are often
similar to those of non criminals. Criminologists
have been doubtful of the strength of relationship of
personality to criminality. In 1942 Milton Metfessel and
Constance Lovell dismissed personality as an
important causal factor in criminal behavior.
Subsequently, in 1950 Karl Schuessler and Donald
Cressey arrived at the same conclusion. Twenty
seven years later Daniel Tennenbaums updated
review agreed with the earlier findings on the weak
relationship between personality structures to
criminality. Tennenbaum found out that personality
testing has not differentiated criminals from noncriminals.
7. Eysencks Conditioning Theory Hans J. Eysenck
was developing and refining a theory of the
relationship between personality and criminality for
over 20 years. His study considers more than just
individual characteristics. Eysencks Theory consist of
two parts:
1. All human personality maybe seen in three
dimensions:
a. Psychoticism aggressive, ego centric
and impulsive
b. Extraversion sensation seeking,
dominant and assertive
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c. Neuroticism low self esteem,

excessive anxiety and wide mood
swings
He designed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
(EPQ) which measures the three dimensions on
human personality based on the above category.
Ensenck found out that criminals score higher on the
above dimensions than non criminals.
2. Humans develop a conscience through
conditioning that is, training behavioral
responses through reward and punishment.
From birth children are rewarded for
acceptable social behavior and punished
for asocial behavior. With this we develop a
conscience for good and acceptable social
behavior. However, individual differences
account for those who are having poor
conditionability
resulting
in
criminal
behavior.
Eysenck
discovered
that
extraverts are difficult to condition and have
greater difficulty in developing a conscience
than
introverts.
Conditionability
is
dependent on certain physiological factors
the most important of which is cortical
arousal or the activation of the cerebral
cortex part of the brain which is responsible
for (thinking, perceiving, processing and
understanding languages and information
processing which are very important to
carry out the thought and reasoning
processes.
Source:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/cerebralcortex-function.html)
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8. Mental Disorders and Crime It is difficult for

psychiatrists to determine criteria which would decide
if an offender is mentally ill. Seymour L. Halleck
pointed out the conceptualization of mental illness as
an absolute condition leads to a rigid dichotomies
(meaning contrasts) between the sick criminal and
the normal criminal There is a gradation of in mental
health and mental illness in a continuum from health
towards illness. Hence the proof of sanity or insanity
generally does not allow gradations in mental
functioning. Thus, it is extremely difficult to acquire
reliable data to conclude mental disorders relates to
crime.
However, French physician Philippe Pinel described a
variable estimate between 20 to 60 percent state
correctional populations suffering with a type of
mental disorder being manie sans delire (madness
without confusion). An English physician James C.
Prichard described them as moral insanity. By Gina
Lombroso Ferrero as irresistible atavistic impulses.
Today such illness is known as psychopathy,
sociopathy or anti social personality meaning, a
personality characterized by inability to learn from
experience, lack of warmth and absence of guilt.
Psychiatrist Hervey Cleckley views psychopathy as
serious illness, patients may not appear to be ill.
Psychopaths enjoy excellent mental health, which is
only a mask of sanity. Psychopaths initially appear to
be free from any kind of mental disorder, that is, it
looks they are honest and reliable. After some time, it
becomes clear that they have no sense of
responsibility whatsoever. They disregard truth,
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insincere, and feel no sense of shame, guilt or

humiliation. Psychopaths lie and cheat without
hesitation and engaged in verbal as well as physical
abuse without any thought.
9. Biology and Criminality Biologist look into genetic
predisposition to criminal behavior. This has roots in
the tradition of Cesare Lombroso, Rafael Garofalo
and Charles Goring. Other biologist known as
biocriminologist attempts to explain criminal
behavior investigating brain damage, inadequate
nutrition could result in criminal behavior. Others are
interested in influence of hormones, chromosomal
abnormalities and allergies to criminal behavior.
Some modern biocriminologist studies:
a. Genetics and Criminality human beings
are products of an interaction between
environmental and genetic factors. Nurture
and nature both shape us. The XYY
Syndrome, humans has 23 pairs of
chromosomes inherited from both parents.
Chromosomes are the basic structures
containing genes biological material
making individuals unique. Females has XX
chromosome, males has XY chromosome.
However, a defect in the production of
sperm or egg cell results in genetic
abnormalities. One type of this is the XYY
male having an extra Y chromosome
received from the father.
In a study of inmates it was found out that
XYY inmates tended to be tall, physically
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aggressive
and
frequently
violent.
Approximately 1 in 1000 babies in the
general population has this genetic
structure.
However, this study was later dismissed
considering the data is not representative.
And XYY chromosome alone cannot
determine criminal behavior tendency
without isolating other external factors
which affect behavior.
b. Twin Studies Monozygotic Twins also
known as identical twins (twins which
develop from one single fertilized egg that
divides into two embryos forming two
identical individuals). These type of twins
share all their genes.
Dizygotic Twins or fraternal twins
developed from two separate eggs fertilized
at the same time, share about half of their
genes.
A study was conducted with twins as
subject. They are separated and raised with
different family in order to determine
whether criminal predisposition is inherent
in the genetic structure. German physician
Johannes Lange found 30 pairs of same
sex twins. Thirteen of these are identical
and 17 fraternal pairs. Lange found out that
10 of 13 pairs of identical twins, both were
criminals even though raise by different
family and different environment. Two of the
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17 pairs of fraternal twins both were

criminal.
A subsequent study was conducted by Karl
Christiansen and Sarnoff A. Mednick
involving twins born between 1881 and
1910 of Denmark, with a total of 3,586
pairs. Reviewing serious offenses only, the
researcher found that the chance of being a
criminal when the other twin was criminal
was 50% for identical twins and 20% for
same sex fraternal twins.
However, the validity of the study is
weakened by environmental factors and
other variables.
c. Adoption Studies another way to
determine if indeed genetic predisposition
exist in criminal behavior is to study infants
separated after birth from their natural
parents such in the case of adoption. It
would determine whether the childs
behavior would be that of his/her natural
parents or the adoptive parents. Mednick
and his associates reported the following
findings:
1. Boys whose adoptive and biological
parents had no criminal record
13.5% were convicted of crimes.
2. Boys who had criminal adoptive
parents and non - criminal natural or
biological parents 14.7% were
convicted of crimes.
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3. Boys who had non criminal

adoptive parents and criminal
biological parents 20% convicted of
crimes
4. Boy having both criminal adoptive
and natural parents 24.5% convicted
of crimes.
Research so far, by hugeness of
environmental variables, failed to shed light
on the nature of biological link to criminal
behavior tendency between criminality of
parents and that of their children. Identifying
children with higher than average
probability of committing criminal offenses
as adults on the basis of their parents
behavior, would have unclear actions on
what can be taken to prevent them from
becoming criminals.
10. IQ and Criminality the first IQ Test to gain
acceptance was devised by French psychologist
Alfred Binet, the test measures the capacity of
individual children to perform tasks or solve problems
in relation to the average capacity of their peers.
Psychologist Hugo Munsterberg administered this test
to criminals and estimated that 68% of the subject
were of low IQ. Edwin Sutherland commented on
these tests being poor and having too many variations
among the versions administered.
Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang evaluated
existing literature on IQ and crime, they cited three
studies as important:
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a. Hirschi on the basis of 3,600 California

students demonstrated that low IQ on
delinquent behavior is more significant than
that of the fathers education.
b. Marvin Wolfgang and associates studying
8,700 Philadelphia boys found a strong
relation between low IQ and delinquency
independent of social class.
c. Albert Reiss and Albert L. Rhodes
examining 9,200 Tennessee school boys
found IQ more closely related to
delinquency than social class.
Hirschi and Hindelang asserted that IQ is an even
more important factor in predicting criminal behavior
than race or social class.
However, Deborah Denno investigated 899 children
from birth to age 17 the result failed to confirm direct
relationship between Low IQ and criminal behavior.
11. Biochemical Factors this is another interesting
aspect of criminal behavior investigation on biological
perspective. The study investigates the effect of
hormones and neurophysical (brain) factors resulting
in criminal behavior. Some this reported cases
includes:
a. Food Allergies Researchers have
investigated the relation between food
allergies and anti social behavior. Results
of this study indicated various foods can
cause reactions as irritability, hyperactivity,
seizures, agitation, and behavior that is out
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of
character.
The
following
food
components have been reported to cause
severe allergic reactions associated with
behavioral disorders, including criminality:
Phenylethylamine (found in chocolate)
Tyramine (found in aged cheese and
wine)
Monosodium glutamate (commonly
known as Betsin, used as flavor
enhancer in many foods)
Aspartame (artificial sweeteners can be
found in litro pack juice)
Xanthines (found in caffeine)
b. Diets junk foods high in sugar may trigger
uncontrollable behavior. In1979 San
Francisco City Dan White murdered his
fellow worker. White defended himself with
testimony that when he is depressed he
consumed high sugar junk food which
makes his behavior uncontrollable. This
was known as Dan Whites defense or
Twinkie defense. Subsequent attempt to
use the junk food defense have failed
before the court.
Other researchers have found out that
deficiency in vitamin B6 and B3 have been
noted in criminal population samples.
Benjamin Feingold relates hyperactivity in
children was due to food additives food
coloring.

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c. Hypoglycemia low sugar in the blood. The

brain being susceptible to lower than
acceptable range of blood sugar results in
impaired functioning. The condition may
cause anxiety, headache, confusion, fatigue
and even aggressive behavior.
d. Neurophysiological Factors this relates to
brain physiological condition for example
brain tumors, minimal brain dysfunction,
lesions which may led to violent outburst.
II. Sociological Perspectives
A. Strain and Cultural Deviance Theories
A Brief Historical Background
Between 1840 and 1924 United States
experienced swell in population growth from the
influx of migrants. The State of Chicago has
particularly remarkable expansion. Teeming with
migrants and rapidly increasing crime rate,
Chicago soon become a bustling urban laboratory
for criminologist. Many of these criminologists
were associated with University of Chicago
which has the oldest sociology program in the
United States begun in 1892, as yet, the course
criminology was part of sociology. Starting 1920s
the criminologists measured scientifically the
amount of criminal behavior and its relation to the
social turmoil Chicago is undergoing.
Strain and Cultural Deviance Theory focus on the
social forces that pushes people to commit crimes.
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This divided into three general categories: Strain,

Cultural Deviance and Social Control.
1. Strain Theory by Robert Merton, he argues
that members of society affirm to one set of
cultural values of the middle class which is
economic success. Since lower class do
not have legitimate means to reach this
goal they turn to illegitimate means in
desperation to achieve what the middle
class has economic success. The social
structure holds out the same goals
(economic success) to all its members but it
does not provide equal opportunity for the
lower class.
Merton outlined five ways by which people
adapt to societys goals and means. These
are individual responses or modes of
adaptation.
a. Conformity most common mode of
adjustment. Individual accept both the
culturally defined goals and the
acceptable means for achieving these
goals. Meaning, an individual observed
the norms of the middle class in
achieving these goals, that is, this
particular
individual
is
observing
legitimate paths.
b. Innovation individual in this category,
accept the societys goal, but having few
legitimate means of achieving these
goals, he designs its own means of
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getting ahead with this goals. This

means may be in the form of burglary,
robbery, theft, embezzlement or a host
of various crimes.
c. Ritualism an adaptation which an
individual abandon the goals he once
believed to be achievable and stay still
with his routine present lifestyle. They
follow legitimate ways but no longer
aspiring for getting ahead. (Live within
your means for 20 years)
d. Retreatism is the adaptation of people
who give up goals and said to himself
that he cant make it, why even bother
trying. Many of this kind retreat into the
world of drugs and alcoholism, gone into
a non productive, non-striving lifestyle.
(just like standby sa kanto)
e. Rebellion this is an adaptation which a
person rejected the cultural goals and
the ways to achieve these goals. They
want to have an alternate social
structure no matter how ill defined.
2. Cultural Deviance Theory claims that
lower class people have a different set of
values that tend to contradict with values of
the middle class. Because lower class
people conform to their own value system
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they may be violating conventional or

middle class norms.
There are three major cultural deviance
theory:
a. Social Disorganization Theory
(develop by Chicago School, actually
it refers to University of Chicago
sociology department, from which
later emerged the distinct study of
criminology)
focuses
on
the
development of high crime areas in
which disintegration of conventional
values takes place caused by rapid
industrialization,
increased
immigration and urbanization.
Robert Park and Ernest Burgess
advanced the study of Social
Disorganization
by
introducing
ecological analysis that is human
ecology which investigates the
interrelationships of people and their
environment.
The work of Shaw and McKay
determined a phenomenon known as
cultural transmission which relates to
socially learned behavior, transmitted
from one generation to the next in
disorganized urban areas.

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B. Anomie the breakdown of social order as a

result of the loss of standards and values, a theory
by Emile Durkheim. He argues that the
explanation of human conduct, including
criminality, lies not in the individual but in the group
and social organization. An organized society is
like a clock working smoothly with all its part
functioning as it should. Such society is marked by
cohesion, cooperation and consensus. However, if
one of this component breaks, it threatens social
order and the society is said to be dysfunctional.
Anomie falls within the structural functionalist
perspective.
Anomic Suicide described by Durkheim
happening during sudden economic change
whether prosperity or poverty, as people as thrown
into unfamiliar conditions, rules which guided
behavior are suddenly changed. The society has
not yet achieved new set of norms to deal with the
changing social landscape so that people are
confused.
C. Differential Association Theory
This theory is proposed by Edwin Sutherland,
(often called the Dean of Criminology) who gives
the fundamental definition of organized crime. It
simply states that crime is learned through social
interaction. Sutherland based his formulation of
this theory on Shaw and McKays findings that
delinquent behavior are transmitted within the
community or group from one generation to the
next.
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People come into regular contact with definitions,

favorable to violations of law (person thinks that a
violation of law is justifiable) and the definitions
unfavorable to violations of law (person thinks
that law must be observed). The ratio of these
definitions criminal to non criminal determines
if a person will engage in criminal behavior. Simply
stated, a person associates with criminals or non
criminals. Predominant (many definitions favorable
to violation of law, not just merely associating with
criminals) results in learning of delinquent
behavior.
Sutherland advances nine propositions explaining
the process by which transmission of values
(including criminal behavior) takes place:
1. Criminal behavior is learned.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction
with other persons in a process of
communication. That is, crime is learned by
participation with others in verbal and nonverbal communications, not necessarily by
living in a criminal environment.
3. Intimate personal group forms principal part
of learning criminal behavior. Families and
friends have the most influence on the
learning of deviant behavior far more than
mass media communication.
4. When criminal behavior is learned, the
learning includes:
a. Techniques of committing the crime; and
b. Specific direction of motives, drives and
rationalization.
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5. Specific direction of motives and drives is

learned from definitions of legal codes as
favorable or unfavorable. Some people see
law as important codes to be followed
(unfavorable definition to violation of legal
codes), others see law may be violated as
these are not very important (favorable
definition to violation of law).
6. A person becomes delinquent having
excess definitions favorable to violation of
law over definitions unfavorable to violation
of law. This is the key principle of
Differential Association Theory. Learning
criminal behavior is not just associating with
criminal companions. Instead learning
criminal behavior depends on how many
definitions we learned that are favorable to
law violation as opposed to which are
unfavorable to law violation.
7. Differential Association vary in frequency,
duration, priority and intensity. The extent to
which associations and definitions results in
criminal behavior being learned is related to
frequency of contact, duration and its
meaning to the person.
8. Learning criminal behavior pattern is
identical to learning non-criminal behavior,
not just a matter of observation and
imitation.
9. Criminal behavior is an expression of
general needs and values. However,
criminal behavior is not explained by
general needs and values. (For example a
shoplifter steal to get what it want. Others
work to get what it want. Both behavior is
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an expression of general need. On this

case, general need cannot explain why a
shoplifter steal a criminal act; whilst the
other work legitimately to achieve what it
want, obviously a non-criminal act.)
D. Culture Conflict Theory
Culture Conflict Theory focused on the source of
criminal norms and attitudes. Thorsten Sellin
proposed this theory. He proposed that conduct
norms norms that regulate our daily lives are
rules that reflect the attitudes of the groups to
which we belong respectively. Conduct Norms
define for us what is considered appropriate or
normal behavior and what is inappropriate or
abnormal behavior.
Sellin argues that different groups have different
conduct norms which may conflict with another
group.
Primary Conflict occurs when norms of two
cultures clash. Collision of culture occur at
neighboring cultural areas, when law of one
cultural group is extended to cover territory of
another; or when members of one group cross to
another culture.
Secondary Conflict arises when a single culture
evolves into a variety of cultures, each having
distinct set of conduct norms. This type of conflict
occurs when homogenous (mixed) society of
simpler culture evolving into complex relations and
redefine conduct norms.
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III. The Formation of Subcultures

Strain theorist explain criminal behavior as a result of the
frustrations suffered by lower class deprived of legitimate
means to achieve goals. Cultural Deviance theorist assume
criminal behavior is learned with the group to which a person
belongs. These persons being strongly attached to their
culture break the laws (commit crime) of dominant culture.
These two views are the foundation of Subcultural Theory.
A subculture is a subdivision within dominant culture that
has its own norms, beliefs and values. It emerged when
people of identical circumstances find themselves isolated
from the mainstream so that they band together for mutual
support essentially forming subcultural characteristics.
A. Subcultural Theory of Crime and Delinquency
Albert Cohen - It assumes that subculture emerged in
response to special problems that members of the
dominant culture do not face or not interested with.
B. Differential Opportunity Theory
This school of thought is developed by Richard
Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin. It combines Differential
Association, Strain and Social Disorganization
concepts. The theory starts its assumption that
criminal behavior results from being that conventional
means to conventional success are bit equally
distributed among the socio-economic classes. This
lack of means causes frustrations for lower class
youths resulting in criminal behavior which is then
learned through cultural transmission.
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Cloward and Ohlin states that delinquent subcultures

flourished in lower class areas and take the particular
forms because opportunities for illegitimate success
are also unequally distributed just like the legitimate
success opportunity. This resulted in the emergence
of criminal gangs.
C. Focal Concern Theory
This is by Walter Miller. He argued that gang and
delinquency cannot be a result of so called lower
class subculture He asserts that lower class
community itself is a long established, distinctively
patterned tradition with an integrity of its own. For
Miller, juvenile delinquency is a result from lower class
value system which is not per se, a subculture, but in
response to living in slums. Gangs norms and
criminal behavior in lower class is simply the
adolescent expression of the lower class culture
which the boys have grown up with.
Miller in his Focal Concern Theory identified six Focal
Concerns to which lower class males give persistent
attention (thus, criminal behavior tendency):
1. Trouble staying away from it or being in it is a
daily pre-occupation. The greater the
involvement, the extreme the performance, the
higher the prestige from it. (Basagulero)
2. Toughness display of physical strength, show
of
masculinity, denial of sentiments is the
code. (Astig or tigas)
3. Smartness the ability to gain something
conning other persons. (Diskarte)
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4. Excitement Risks, danger, and thrills breaksup monotony in life. (Bibo syndrome: nay
tinigbasay)
5. Luck many lower class life believed in luck, a
quick favorable change in life. (Swerte sa
buhay or Swertres sa buhay.)
6. Autonomy this stems from lower class
persons resistance to external control, from
parents, teachers or police. (Kaya kung
mabuhay mag-isa.)
For Miller this six focal status defines what life is in the
lower class. By engaging with behavior which define
social status in that criteria readily gives the lower class
the criminal behavior tendency.
IV. Social Control Theory
The Social Control Theory was developed by was
developed by Ivan Nye it focuses on techniques and
strategies that regulate human behavior and lead to
conformity, or obedience to societys rules (law). The
theory emerged from one of the founders American
Sociology, the scholar E.A. Ross. According to Ross
belief system rather than specific laws guide what people
do and universally serve to control social behavior.
There are two aspects by which Social Control is
examined:
1. Macrosociological Studies explore the formal
system for the control of groups, it includes:
a. Legal system, laws and particularly law
enforcement;
b. Power groups in the society; and
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c. Social and economic directives

governmental or private entities.

of

2. Microsociological Studies focuses on informal

systems, on individuals and group on they
respond to external control both on macro and
micro sociological perspectives.
A. Microsociological Perspective
Individual Social Control as examined by Travis
Hirschi to determine its relationship with delinquency.
Hirschi claimed that social control theory at individual
level seeks to explain conformity and adherence to
rules not deviant behavior. It is thus not a crime
causation theory but a prosocial behavior used by
criminologists to explain deviant behavior.
Hirschi posited four social bonds at individual
persons that promote socialization and conformity
or adherence to social control at individual level.
These are:
1. Attachment this is the first social bond
formed by affection between parent and
child, thus, becomes primary deterrent to
deviant or criminal behavior. There are
three basic attachments according to
Hirschi:
a. Parents
b. Teachers
c. Peers
2. Commitment investment in conventional
lines of action. This means support and
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participation in social activities that tie the

individual to societys moral or ethical code.
3. Involvement this is preoccupation of
activities which promotes the interests of
society. This bond is derived from
involvement with group related activities
such as in school.
4. Belief it consists of assent to the societys
value system. This entails respect for social
laws, for the people and the institutions that
enforce these value system.
B. Drift Theory
David Matza developed this perspective on criminal
behavior known as Drift Theory. A bind between a
person and the law, something that creates
responsibility and control remains in place most of the
time. In the absence of it a person may enter into a
state of drift or a period between convention and
crime. An individual respond to this situation in terms
of demand of each circumstances, flirting now with
one and now with the other. Thus, a person drifts
between criminal and conventional actions.
Persons developed techniques to justify their actions
defense mechanism to free them from moral order.
These includes:
-

28

Denial of responsibility (saying, It was not my

fault. Circumstances drive me to commit the acts.

Denial of injury (no one was hurt, so whats the

problem?)
Denial of the victim (I did what I have to do given
that situation, anybody could have did the same
thing)
Condemnation of the condemner (I bet even
police officers commit crime just like I did.)

C. Stake in Conformity
Jackson Toby discussed the complementary role of
neighborhood social disorganization and an
individuals own stake in conformity. Meaning when an
individual remains within the conformity of social
norms offers more benefits to him than to go against it
seeing that the chances of achieving illegitimate
success is poor individual level explanations (stake
in conformity).
D. Multiple Factors
Ivan Nye developed this concept to explain criminal
behavior. He argued internalized control or selfregulation prevents an individual from committing antisocial behavior. Internalized control is a product of
guilt aroused in the conscience when social norms
have been internalized. Indirect control on the other
hand Nye argues comes from an individuals
identification with non-criminals and a desire not to
embarrass parents and friends. Finally, Nye argued
about the direct control which is a purely external
control, depends on rules, restrictions and
punishments (formal law, in the context).
E. Containment Theory
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It assumes that for every individual there exists a

containing external structures and a protective
internal structure, both provide protection, defense
and insulation against delinquency. This theory is
presented by Walter Reckless.
According to Reckless, outer containment or
structural buffer holds a person in bounds from
committing an anti-social behavior, these can be in
the form of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A role that guide for a persons conduct;

A set of reasonable limits and responsibilities;
An opportunity for individual to achieve status;
Cohesion among members of the group;
A sense of belongingness, identification with the
group; and
6. Provisions for alternative ways to achieve goals.
Whereas,
Reckless
also
enumerates
containment or personal control:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

A good self-concept;
Self-control
A strong ego
A well-developed conscience
A high frustration tolerance
A sense of responsibility

V. Alternative Explanations of Crime

30

inner

A. Labelling Theory
Is the theory of how the self-identity and behavior
of individuals may be determined or influenced by
the terms used to describe or classify them. It is
associated with the concepts of self-fulfilling
prophecy and stereotyping. Labeling theory holds
that deviance is not inherent to an act, but instead
focuses on the tendency of majorities to negatively
label minorities or those seen as deviant from
standard
cultural
norms.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labeling_theory)
The intellectual roots of Labelling Theory can be
traced to post WW 1 work by Charles Horton
Cooleyy, William I. Thomas and George Herbert
Mead who viewed the human self as formed
through process of social interaction. Edwin
Lemert in 1940 formulated the basic assumptions
of this theory.
B. Conflict Theory
Has its roots in rebellion and the questioning of
values. Karl Marx advance this theory and argued that
laws do not exists for collective good; they represent
the interests of specific groups that have the power to
get them enacted the people in political control or
those that can influence political control to keep the
powerless at a disadvantage. Laws have their origin
in the interest of the few.
This theory directly opposes the consensus model
which asserts that members of the society by and
large agree on what is right and wrong and that the
law is the codification of these agreed social values.
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In Durkheims words clearly states, We can say

that an act is criminal when it offends strong and
defined states of the collective conscience. (End).

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