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CEAPTER

lPsrt2

SUMMARY HAI]LING PRODUCTION AND COST ESTIMATION

Name

Address

Operation
Req'd

Production
Location

Unit Model

Yds.

Heaped Cap

lbs.

Material

Bank

Yd.

Yd.

lbs. Swell

Capacity

Factor

Loose

lbs.

Pay Load per Cycle: Loose Cu.

Cu.Yds

Yds.

Bank

lbs.

Type ofloading Unit

Load

Bucket Size

Loading Conditions
Bank Cu. Yds.{.

No. OfPasses to

Loading Production

Tons or

A. LOADING
TIME

Mn.

Loaded Haul-Total
o

Length

Ft. Elevation

Rolling
Resist.

Section

Per Cent
Grade

Road

Gear

Time
Min.

Speed

Ft.

Rolling
Resist.

Section

Hauling

Speed

Min.

-Total
Length

Max.

Factor

in Ft.

B. TOTAL HAULING TIME

Return

Trans.

Ft.

Per Cent
Grade

Trans.
Gear

Max.

Speed

Average

Speed

Factor

Speed

Return
Time

in Ft.

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C. TOTAL RETURN TIME

Min.

D. Turning and Dumping-Conditions

Time
Min.

Turning and Dumping

E. Spot at Loading Machine-Conditions

Time

Spotting

Mn.

F. TOTAL TIME pER COMPLETE HAULING CYCLE (A+B+C+D+E)

Min.
G. Average Trips per

H. Hour Production
Yds. Per Hour

Hour: :,Yh.,Pr=od.,tr:_
(F) Total Cycle Time

(G) Trips per Hour x Pay Load

Trips per Hour

Tons or Bank

Production Req'd
:
- : _!ur!L
(H) Bank Yds. or Tons per Unit per Hour

J. Number. of Units Req'd

Units
Fleet Production per Hour

Jx

H:
Bank Yds.

Hauling Cost per Bank Yd. Or Ton

Hour Cost of Owning and Operating

Units@_

Hour Cost of Owning Spare

ESTIMATED HAULING COST PER YD. OR

orKReq'd

each:

K. Hour Cost for Fleet of

Units

each:

Total

TON:

Fleet Production

Production

ESTIMATING COSTS
Types of Costs
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Ownership Costs
Those costs which are incidental to the purchase and possession of a piece of equipment before any
use or income may be derived from that unit.

A fixed cost

set up as a sinking fund or reserve

to cover the economic life of equipment.

Operating Costs
Those costs which are incurred in using the unit to perform its designated tasks.

Ownership Costs
Depreciation

A reserve established to offset the effects of wear and obsolescence on a piece of equipment so that,
theoreticall sufficient funds will be available to replace the existing unit when it has lost its value. An
alternate definition is that depreciation is the loss in value of equipment resulting from use or age. The
owner of equipment must recover the loss in value of equipment during its useful life or he will sustain
an equipment loss on those projects where the equipment is used.

In estimates, the straight line method of depreciation is generally used and it is assumed that the
equipment possesses no scrap value at the end of the period.

Total Cost of Equipment: Purchase Price + Cost of Transportation + Cost of Unloading &
Erecting '
Normal Depreciation Schedules:
a. Scrapers - 5 yrs at2,000

hrs/yr: 10,000

hrs

b. 75 ton trucks and smaller - 5 yrs at 4,000 hrs/yr:20,000 hrs

c. 85 ton trucks and larger - 5 yrs at 5,000 hrs/yr:25,000 hs
In practice, the owner will choose a depreciation method and schedule which will benefit him most.
Depreciation value is determined on the delivered price less the cost of tires since tires are considered
an operating expense.

It is convenient to

express costs in an hourly basis. To obtain hourly depreciation rates, divide the
delivered price less tires by the total hourly depreciation schedule.

fnterest, fnsurance and Taxes

These items are generally taken together and considered as a percentage of the average annual
investment.

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Average Annual Investment = Normal Interest Rate + fnsurance + Taxes

(Use interest, insurance and tor rates in effect at the time.)

Average Annual fnvestment

(Where

n:

n+1

2"

Ddived Price

years of depreciation value.)

The formula is derived by taking the average value remaining in the unit at the beginning of each
succeeding year of its useful life (refer to example I and 2).

Hour cost of Interest, fnsurance and Tax Rate

(Idcrest+ Isrznce+ TaxXArg Annral hnestmentxDelivelpd Price)
Hors qreraEd pEr yeat

Operating Costs
Fuel cost per

hour:

(consumption, gals/hr) (fuel, cosUgal)

Lubrication costs per hour are estimated from required service intervals as listed in vehicle
manufacturers service manuals.
Maintenance and repair costs per hour can be estimated by taking a constant times the fuel
consumption.

Tire costs are based on an average discounted price available to most fleet owners divided by tire life.
Operator's hour wage varies locally, and current labor rates should be consulted.
Supervision and overhead costs should be scheduled in this estimate.
Other figures of importance are:
a) Scrapers, cost per yard

b) Trucks, cost per ton

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qlrating cmts
prudwtion,tonsperlnur

hourlJr ownlp +

Each manufacturer has detailed guides for calculating ownership and operating costs.

EXAMPLE
Original cost of equipment: $25,000

life:5

Estimated useful

years

Average annual cost of depreciation: $25,000/5 or $5,000

Beginning of Year Cumulative Depreciation Value of Equipment

$0 $25,000

2 5,000 20,000

3 10,000 15,000

4 15,000 10,000
5 20,000 5,000
6 25,000 0

Averagevalue:

!$$ffi

Average value as % of original cost 6

ry

1l'999 -

fOO

Er7o

25,000

Average yearly investment as

o/o

of purchase price

$$,ooo

It

o/o

EXAMPLE
Original cost of equipment: $12,000
Estimated useful

life:4

years

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Average annual cost of depreciation = $12,000/4 or $3,000

Beginning of Year Cumulative Depreciation Value of Equipment

1 $0 $12,000

2 3,000 9,000
3 6,000 6,000

4 9,000 3,000

5 12,000 0

$?Foo

Average value as % of original

cost:

Average

value:

ryqq

ffi.

tOO

= 625to/o
o+l

Average ygarly investment as

o/o

of purchase price

x looo/o

1*roo =
= 4+l
88 =

frL.ilol

COST ESTIMATION
Haulage Unit (Truck)

A. Ownership Costs
1. Depreciation
a) Purchase Price: estimate as $7650/ton of truck capacity (live load).

b) Salvage Value: recoverable, estimate as l5Yo of purchase price.

c) Freight: estimate truck weight (dead load) as 1400lb/ton of truck capacity (live load). Use freight
charge as $4.00/cwt (cwt: l00lb)
d) Unloading and moving cost: estimate as l}Yo of freight cost.
e) Tire cost: estimate as 5Yo of truck purchase price.

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f) Delivered price: u_rchase price) + (freight) + (unloading and moving cost) - (salvage value) (tire
-

cost)[a+c+d-b-e].

g) operating Period: assume 200ohr/yr for

8 hrlshift

shifl/day of operation.

x I shifl/day x 5 days/week x 50 weeks/yr :2000 hrlyr

h) Economic life: based on IRS guidelines:

Conditions Truck Life

Favorable 25,000 hrs
Average 20,000 hrs

Unfavorable 15,000 hrs

I) Depreciation: (delivered price) + (economic life).

2. Fixed Charge
a) Rate: interest

* taxes f

other.

b) Average annual investment

rate.

+I
2n

where

n:

the economic life of equipment or unit in years.

c) Average annual investment:

d) Annual fixed charge:

: (delivered price)(average annual investment).

: (average annual investment)(rate).

e) Fixed charge: (annual fixed charge) + (operating period).

3. Total ownership costs: (depreciation) + (fixed charge).

B. Operating Costs
1.

Tire replacement cost: (tire cost) + (tire life)

Use the following guidelines for tire life:

Conditions Truck Tire Life
favorable 4000 hrs.
average 3200 hrs.
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unfavorable 2500 hrs.

2. Tire repair cost

: (tire replacement cost)(tire repair factor)

Use the following guidelines for tire repair factor:

Conditions Tire Repair Factor
favorable l2Yo
average l5Yo

unfavorable lTYo

3. Repairs

& maintennce

: (depreciation)(repair

cost

factor)@conomic life) + 10,000 hrs

Use the following guidelines for repair factor:

Conditions Truck Repair Factor
favorable3TYo
average 45Yo

unfavorable 60Yo
4. Fuel or power

cost: (truck hp)(fuel consumption, galhp-hr)(fuel

cost, $/gal)

Estimate haulage unit power as l0 hp/ton of truck capac.

Select fuel consumption in gallhp-hr based on operating conditions.

Conditions Fuel Consumption Gallhp-hr)

favorable 0.014
average 0.020

unfavorable 0.026

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5.

Lubrication

: (fuel, cost/hn)(lubrication

factor)

Select lubrication factor based on the following:

Conditions Lubrication Factor

favorable l/5
average

l/3

unfavorable %
6. Labor = (wage rate) + (35%wage rate)
Assume one (1) operator per truck and35yo of wage rate as benefits.
7. Total operating costs

+2

+3 + 4 + 5 + 6

C. Total Ownership and Operating Costs: A3 + B7

D. Unit Cost
1. (Cost of owning and operating)(Units in-run)

Dl

: (x truck unitsxA3 + 87)

Dl

: (x truck unit$(C)

2. Cost of owning y spare units

D2:

(y truckunitsxA3)

3. Total cost of owning and operating x units in-run and owning y spare units

D3:Dl +D2
4. Unit

cost:

Hourly production:

=$ton
bN*
shift

NorE: Replace all estimated

shift
# of hosofqeration
values with known varues

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EXAMPLE
Determine the total hourly and unit cost of owning and operating five 85-ton trucks and one spare 85ton truck ifthe trucks operate on an 8-hour shift and the following information is provided.
Operating conditions: average

Truck and tire life: unfavorable

Diesel fuel cost: $1.00/gal
Operator \iage: $ 12.00/hr

Total output per shift: $10,000 tons

Interest

l4%o,

taxes:

2Yo,

other:2Yo

(see cost estimation from on the next page)

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Cost Estimation Form - 85-ton Truck Mining Equipment Unit

A. Ownership Costs
1.

DEPRECIATION

a. Purchase

price:

b. - Salvage value
c.

$650.250

(UZ:

- 97.538

Freht 119,000 lb @ $4.Oq/crrr

d. Unloading and moving

e. Delivered price

4.760

cost:476

:557.948;

say $525.000

f. Operating period 2000 tr/yr - 32,512 tires

g. Economic
h.

life 15,000 tr:7.5 yr (n)

Depreciation: $525.000 (del. price

less

tire cost)

: $_3j.0q /hr

U*88q hr
2. INTEREST, TAXES, INSURANCE AND STORAGE
a. Rate

: interest U% + taxes lYo * other 2%o: lSYo

b. Average annual investment

rate:

c. Average annual investment:$525.000

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d. Annual fixed charge:

e. Fixed

9ry.675x ISyo: $53J82

charge: $5_3J82

2000 hr/yr

: S 26.79 lhr

TOTAL OWNERSHIP COSTS

: $ 61.79 /hr
B. Operating Costs

1. TIRE REPLACEMENT COST

Purchase price

set of tires

W212

Tire life 2500 hr

Tire cost

V2_I2

25OOtrr: $ 13.00 /hr

2. TIRE REPAIR COST: lTYo x $13.0L tire cost
3. REPAIRS

& MAINTENA{CE:

45Yo

$35-QQ

: $ 2.2L {hr
x 15/10 deprec.

: $ 23.63 lht

4. FUEL: 850 x 0.020 gaVlv @ $!-QQ /Sal

ORPOWER:l,r @ $_/la/v-hr: $ 17.00 /1r

LUBRICATION: U3 gaVlv @$l7.OO lgal-hr: $ 5.67

5.

/lr

6. AIIXILIARY FUEL: $ --7. LABOR:

oiler

operator @$ 12,90

/lr:

$ 12.00 lhr

@lhr: lfu

helper @

lhr:

lhr

Total $12.00 /hr

+ 35Vo benefits $ 4.20

lfu: $ t6.20 lh

TOTAL OPERATING COSTS

: $ 77.71 III

TOTAL OWNERSHIP AND OPERATING COSTS = $139.50/Tr

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TINIT COST $759.29

lt + l25O ton/hr: $0.61 /ton

(Own and Operate) 5 trucks @ $139.50: $697.50 /hr

(Own)

@8 61.79: $ 61.79 llr

standby

5759.29/hr

Cost Estimation Form

b. - Salvage value (_%):

c. Freight lb @ $_/cwt =
d. Unloading and moving cost =
e. Delivered

price:

f. Operating period hrlyr _

g. Economic life
h.

hr:

Depreciation:

tires

yr (n)

$_(del. price less

tire cost)

: $_/hr

hr
2. INTEREST, TAXES, INSURA}ICE A}{D STORAGE

: interest Yo + taxesYo * other Yo:

a. Rate

%o

r+l
b. Average annual investment

rate:

c. Average annual investment:$_x

2n

oZ: $

d. Annual fixed charge: $_x Yo: $

e. Fixed

hrlyr:

charge:

$_/hr

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TOTAL OWNERSHIP COSTS

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: $ /hr
B. Operating Costs

1. TIRE

REPLACEMENT COST

Purchase price 1 set of

tires:

Tire life hr
Tire

cost:

hr: $ /tr
2, TIRE REPAIR COST:
3. REPAIRS

o/o

$_tire

& MAINTENAIICE:

cost:

o/o

$_/hr

x $_x_deprec. : $_/hr

4. FUEL: xgaVlv @$_/gal

OR POWER: lov @ $_/kw-hr

: $_/hr

5.

LUBRICATION: gal/hr @$_/gal-ltr:

6.

AIIXLIARY FUEL:

7. LABOR: operator

oiler @

llv:

helper @

$_/hr

@$_/ltr:

$_/hr

llv

ltv: llr

Total $ /h
+ 35yo benefits $

/lr:

$ /hr

TOTAL OPERATING COSTS

: $ /hf

TOTAL OWNERSHIP AlllD OPERATING COSTS

: $ /hr

UNIT COST $_/hr + tonlhr: $_/ton

(Own and Operate)_trucks @ $_: $_/hr

(Own)standby@$:$_/hr

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:$/hr
E. The discussion on trucks would also apply to:
1. Shuttle cars:
Selpropelled rubber-tired haulage vehicle designed for underground mining, primarily in coal mines.

Drive mechanism is located on the sides of the vehicle and the load is carried in the center.

A chain and flight conveyor distributes the load when the car is being loaded by a loading machine or
continuous miner and also discharges the load onto a conveyor belt or into a mine car.
As the name implies, shuttle car shuttles back and forth between the working face and the unloading
point and is not required to turn round.

2.LHD, Scoop Trans:

Combines certain characteristics of conventional front end loaders and dump trucks.
Design intent is to provide one vehicle with one man, with the vehicle loading itself, hauling the load
over level or inclined haulageways and dumping the load.
3. Mine Trucks:

Cost Estimation
Haulage Unit (Truck)

A. OWNERSHIP COSTS
1. Depreciation
a. Purchase Price: estimate as $7650/ton of

truck capacity (live load)

b. Salvage value: recoverable, estimate as l5Yo of purchase price

c. Freight: estimate truck weight (dead load) as 1400 lb/ton of

Use freight charge as $4.00/cwt

(cwt:

truck capacity (live

loadO

1001b)

d. Unloading and moving cost: estimate as

l0% of freight cost

e. Tire cost: estimate as 5% Oftruck purchase price

f. Delivered price: a

* c*

d-b-e

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g. Operating period: assume 2000hr/yr for

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shift/day

h. Economic life: should be based on IRS guidelines

i. Depreciation: delivered price / economic life

2. Fixed Charge
a.

Rate: interest *

t<es

* insurance

b. Average annual investment

f other

rate: n+l/2n

where n is the economic life of equipment or unit in years

c. Average annual investment: (delivered price) (average annual investment rate)
d. Annual fixed charge: (average annual investment) (rate)
e. fixed

charge: annual fixed charge / operating period

3. Total Ownership Cost: Depreciation / Fixed Charge

B. OPERATING COSTS
1. Tire replacement cost

tire cost / tire life

: (tire replacement cost) (tire repair factor)

2. Tire repair cost

3. Repairs'and maintenance: (depreciation) (truck repair factorO

(truck economic lifeO / 10,000 hs

4. Fuel or power cost: estimate haulage unit power as 10 hp/ton of truck capacity

Cost: (truck hp) (fuel consumption) ( fuel cost)

5.

Lubrication: (fuel cost/hr) (lubrication factor)

6. Labor: assume

operator/ truck and 35Yo of wage rate as benefits

Labor :'wage raet

f 35Yo wage rate

7. Total operating

cost: Bl + B2 + ... + B6

C. TOTAL O\ilNERSHIP + OPERATING COST: A3 + B7

D. UNIT COST

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1. Cost of owning and operating x

units-in-run: (x) (A3 + 87)

: (*) (c)
2. Cost of owning y spare

tires: (y) (43)

3. Total hour cost of owning and operating x units-in-run and owning y spare

units: Dl + D2
4. Unit

cost: D3 / hourly production

NOTE: Replace all estimated values with known values if possible.

EXAMPLE:
Determinethe total hourly and unit cost of owning and operating five 85-ton trucks and one spare 85ton truck if the trucks operate on an 8-hour shift and the following information is provided.
Operating conditions: average

Truck and tire life: unfavorable

Diesel fuel costs: $1.00/gal
Operator wage:

12.00/hr

Total output per shift: $10,000 tons

Interest

l4%o, taxes

2Yo, other

:2Yo

Cost Estimation Form

85-ton-Truck Mining Equipment Unit

A. Ownership Costs

I. DEPRECIATION
a. Purchase

price:

$650,250

b. Salvage value (15%): - 97.538

c. Freight 810.000 lb @ $4.00/cwt
d. Unloading and moving

4.760

cost:476

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e. Delivered

price:557.948

f. Operating period

20OA

g. Economic live 15.000

h.

ir

of+z

say $525.000

fulyr - 32,512 tires

hr:7.:L yr(n)

Depreciation: $525.000 (del. Prices less tire cost) :$ 35.00 /hr

15.000 hr
2. INTEREST, TAXES,INSURA}ICE, A}ID STORAGE
a. Rate

interest l4Yo + taxes2Yo

b. Average annual investment

* other 2Yo: l9yo

rate: (n+l)/2n:

c. Average annual investment: $525.000

8.5/15

:$

56.7 yo

x 56.7yo: $297.5g2

d. Annual fixed charge: $297.582x18Yo: $53.582

e. Fixed charge

: $53.582 :$ 26.79 lhr 2000 tr/yr

TOTAL OWNERSHIP COSTS :$ 61.79 /lr

B. Operating Costs
1.

TIRE REPLACEMENT COST

Purchase price

set of tires

: $ 32.512

Tire life 25001r

Tire cost

$ 32.512:$13.0_O

/lr

2500 hr

2. TIRE REPAIR COST: n_%X $ 13.00 tire cost:$ 2.21

3. REPATRS,

/tr

MAINTENANCE: 45% X $35.00 x l5/10 deprec. :$23.63 lhr

4. FUEL: 850 x 0.020 galltu @ $_!.OQ/gal

OR POWER: kW @ $ /k\ry-hr
5.

:$

17.00 /hr

LUBRICATION: l/3 gaVtv @ $ 1700 ltu:S 5.67 ltu

6. AIDLIARY FUEL:

:$ - /hr

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7.

LABOR: I operator @S t2.00

/hr:

$ IZ.OO lItI

oiler@$/hr:$/tr
helper

@g_ltu:

Total $ 12.00

$ /hr

lly

+ 35Yo benefits $ 4.20

/lr:$

16.20 lhr

TOTAL OPERATING COSTS :$ 77.71 ltr

TOTAL OWNERSHIP At{D OPERATING COSTS
UNIT COST

S 759.29

ltv +

1250

tonftr

(Own and Operate) 5 trucks @ $139.50

(Own)

:$

139.50 /h

: $ 0.61 /ton

697.501tr

standvy @561.79:61.79

S759.2glltr

desired.

,.,,2.

,,'Determin
'.'.loader
,,.,CyCle

, time
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load time t- maneuver time

.

travel time + Dump time

return time + delays

b) cycles per hour @

lxo%efficiency

fl min
total clule time min'

NOTES: i. Travel time is not included in wheel loaders

ii. Load time is dependent on the type of material

iii. Correction in cycles per hour has to be made using efficiency factors for the loader
3. Determine payload per cycle in tons, pounds, and loose cubic yards.

_ hourly pruduction
a) Required production per

# of cycles/hr

cycle

rcquird uaylnad/cwle
b) volume or loose cubic yards per

4. Determine bucket

cycle

matrial specifrc weigt (tons' Ih/Lyd)

_ vrlume rcquired per clule

buclct fill fator

size

5. Make machine selection using bucket size and payload as criteria to meet production
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requirements.
6. Compare the cycle times of the loader, used in calculations, to the cycle time of the selected
If there is a difference, rework the process beginning at step 2.

machine.

7. a) The required operating capacity ofthe machine

: (bucket size, yd3)(density or specific weight of the material)

b) When the material is loose, as in stockpile loading, the bucket load is estimated in loose yd3 by a
bucket factor.

Bucket Payload, Lyd3

: (Rated bucket capacity)@ucket

fill factor)

c) When material is in bank state, as in excavation, productivity is measure in bank yd3

Bucket Payload, Byd3

8. Loader

: (Rated bucket capacity)(material

production assuming lO0% efficiency and availability

p, =
'
Where: P,
C,

Fr:
F.

swell factor)(bucket fill factor)

60

can be determined as

xClxFfxFt
tar"

loader production, byd3/tr

loader rated capacity, yd,

loader bucket fill factor
material swell factor

T,l":

loader cycle time for load and carry, min

load + travel + dump

return

maneuver + delays

9. I)ozer production assuming l00yo efficiency and/or availability can be calculated as:

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Where:

Po:

dozer production rate, bydr/hr

Lu:

blade loading,

F.:

material swell factor

t,u:

dozer cycle time in minutes

Lyd,

Dozer production is in bank volume of material excavated, but the blade loading and volume
material spread, dumped or piled, is in loose volume.
10.

Ripper production assuming l00yo efficiency and/or availability is calculated

of

as

.' _ 60xLx'!VxP
'
tt,
Where:

Pr:

ripper production rated, byd3/hr.

L: rip distance, length of ripped areao yd

\M

rip spacing, distance between ripper passes, yd

to: ripper total cycle time, minutes.

11. Scraper Production assuming 100% availability and/or efficiency is calculated as

,, = oI:r,=
Where: P,

L.:
t,,

ry

scraper production rate, byd3/hr or ton/hr

scraper actual payload, byd3 or tons

: scraper total cycle time, minutes

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Lr=CrxF,
Where:

Lr:

scraper actual payload, byd3

C.: scraper rated heaped capacity (l:l), yd3

F.:

material swell

EXCAVATING AND LfffnVG - Transitional Excavators

Our discuSsion on trucks would not be complete without considering front-end loaders or shovels or
draglines which are commonly used to load materials into trucks.

A.Introduction
The major types of excavators used in earthmoving operations include:
1. Members

of the crane-shovel family or transitional excavators

(shovels, draglines, hoes, clamshells, etc.)

2. Mobile excavators (dozers, front-end loaders, tractor scrapers, etc.)

B. Production of Earth Moving Equipment

The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving equipment is:

Production = (Volume per cycle) x (Cycles per hour)

For estimating the production of an excavator, it is necessary to know the volume of material actually
contained in one bucket load, such as:
1. Plate line capacity - Bucket volume contained within the bucket when
bucket sides.

following the outline of the

2. Struck Capacity - Bucket capacity when the load is struck offflush with the bucket sides.
3. Water Line Capacity - Assumes a level of material flush with the lowest edge of the bucket (i.e. the

material level corresponds to the water level that would result if the bucket were filled with water.
4. Heaped Volume, expressed in Lcy - maximum volume that can be placed in the bucket without
spillage based one specified angle of repose for the material in the bucket.

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EXAMPLE
Estimate the actual bucket load in bcy for a loader bucket with heaped capacity of 5 yd3.
Soils bucket

fill factor is 0.9

Load factor is 0.8

Bucket Load: 5 x 0.9 x 0.8

:3.

bcy

Bucket - Capacity Rating Method

Machine Rated Bucket Capacity
Backhoe Struck volume
Clamshell Plate line capacity or water line capacity

Dragline 90% of struckvolume

Loader Heaped capacity

at2:l

angle of repose

Shovel Struck volume

C. Crane - Shovel Family - Consists ofthree major assemblies:

1. Carrier or Mounting Carriers
a) Crawler mounting
Can operate on surfaces which are too soft for wheel or truck mounted equipment.
Excellent for on-site mobility.

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Speeds are

too low.

b) Truck mounting
capable of higher speeds of 30 mph

to 50 mph.

c) Wheel mounting
Speed is intermediate between crawler and truck mounting.

Truck and wheel mountings provide greater mobility between job sites, but are less stable than crawler
mountings and require better surfaces over which to operate.
2. Revolving Deck or Turntable

Revolving superstructure containing the power and control units.

3. Front-end Attchment
The name for the particular member for the crane-shovel family is determined by the front end
attachment used. Thus, a crane-shovel with a shovel attachment is referred to as simply a shovel etc.

D. Shovels
(The figure shows members of the crane-shovel family according to the US Dept. of the Army).

Whelher dbsigned primarily for stripping or loading, has its greatest application in handling tight or
poorly fractured overburden because of its crowding action, which allows a higher breakout force to
be applied.
Can handle loose material as well as rock and block-like material and

will have less overall effect on its

ability to load efficiently.

Since it is designed with a solid connector between dipper and drive mechanism, positive control is
always possible and generally a higher loading factor will result.

Cycle times are lower because most of the material loaded is confined to an area directly
in front ofthe unit and dumped within a relatively short radius of the loading point.

Ordinarily a shovel works from a position directly on top of a coal deposit, eliminating the need for
preparation of a working bench.
Relatively thin overburden, which permits low stripping ratio.
Combinations of shovel and truck move the overburden quickly and farther than any stripping capacity
dragline.

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Limiting factors of a shovel include:

a. Less

flexibility and maneuverabil.

b. Slow tramming rates.

c. Bank or spoil slides and water seepage into the pit

will tend to impair the operation of a shovel.

1. Two Types of Shovels:

a) Stripping shovels
Strip overburden to expose minerals such as coal, phosphate, bauxite, gJsum, iron, stone, etc.
Remove overburden and waste by a dry excavation process.
Remove overburden in long nanow cuts from the pay material and deposit it by a simple overcasting
process in an adjoining mined out pit.
Simple overcasting.
Tandem operations with other machines to remove overburden. Tandem operations can note the use
of two or more machines, each removing and spoiling overburden with one machine following
another.
Shovel-pull-back, a shovel in connection with a dragline operating "pull back".
Generally offers lower overall operating costs than draglines or bucket wheel excavators
comparable size. This is a consequence of a number of factors including:
a.

of

Lower power requirement costs.

b. Lower wire rope costs/yd3 of dipper.

c. Higher availability factor.
d. Lower level of bank preparation (e.g. blasting).
e.

Lower labor requirement.

f. Shorter distance for moving the overburden.

to 180 yd3 with boom lengths of up to 235 ft.and can handle lengths of up to 43 m
(140 ft) of available stripping.

Range from 25 yd3

Price of a stripping shovel with 100 yd3 dipper and200ft boom including shipment and erection costs
12.0 x 106.

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b) Ouarry mine shovels

Excavate materials already prepared for digging.
Used in open pit mining.
Capacity - normally struck volume.
Used to excavate earth and load into trucks or tractor pulled wagons or onto conveyors.
Capable of excavating all kinds of earth except solid rock without prior loosening.
Can be crawler, truck, or wheel mounted.

2. Shovel Size:
The size of the shovel is indicated by the size of the dipper, expressed in yd3.
The earth is struck even with the contour of the dipper. This is referred to as struck volume,
distinguished from heaped volume which the dipper may pick up in loose soil.
Due to the swelling of a soil when it is loosened, the bank measure volume of a dipper will be less than
its loose volume. It is possible that a dipper may be heaped sufficiently to give a bank measure volume
equal to the rated size of the d ipper. This condition will not occur except for in easy digging soils.

A cable-operated shovel digs with

a combination of crowd action and hoist action. The dipper is

forced out (crowded) or pulled back (retracted) by the turning of the dipper shaft. Dumping is
accomplished by releasing the dipper door latch, a llowing the dipper door to swing open.
In the digging action, if the depth of the face is just right, considering the type of soil and the size of
the dipper, the dipper will be filled as it reaches the top of the face.

If the depth ofthe

face, referred to as the depth of cut, is too shallow,

dipper completely without excessive crowding and hoisting.

it will not be possible to fill the

3. Selecting the Type and Size of a Power Shovel

In selecting the size of a shovel, the two primary factors which should be considered are the cost per
cubic yard of material excavated and the job conditions under which the shovel will operate. A
crawler-mounted shovel usually is less expensive than the rubber tired mounted unit and can operate
on ground surfaces which are not firm enough to support the latter type unit.
Thc follswing onditions should be considered in selecting the size of a shovel;
a. High lifts

to deposit earth from

a basement or trench

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b. If blasted rock is to be excavated, the large size dipper will handle bigger rocks.
c. Ifthe material to be excavated is hard and tough, the dipper of the large shovel which exerts higher
digging pressures will handle the material more easily.

d. If the time allotted to the completion of the job requires a high hourly output, alarge shovel must
be used.
e. The size of available hauling units must be considered in selecting the size of the shovel.

Weight limitations imposed by most states for hauling on highways may restrict the size of a shovel
if it is to be hauled over state highways.
4. Optimum Depth of Cut
The optimum depth of cut is that depth which produces the greatest output and atwhich the dipper
comes up with a full load without undue crowding, The depth varies with the class of soil and the size
of the dipper.
5. Output of Power Shovels - Depends on:
a.) Class of material
b.) Depth of Cut

If the depth of the face from which a shovel is working is too shallow, it vvill be difficult or impossible
to fill the dipper in one pass up the face.
If the depth of the face is greater than the minimum required to fill the dipper, the operator may do
one of three things:

i. Reduce the depth of penetration of the dipper into the face in order to fill the dipper in one full
stroke - results in an increase in cycle time.

ii. Dig above the base and remove the lower portion for the face later. iii. Run dipper up the full height
of the face and let the excess earth spill,
c.) Angle of Swing

Angle of swing of a power shovel is the horizontal angle expressed in degrees between the position
the dipper when it is excavating and the position when it is discharging the load.

of

Total time in a cycle includes:

i. Digging.

ii. Swinging to the dumping position.

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iii. Returning to the digging position.

If

angle of swing increases, time for a cycle increases and vice versa.

d.) Job Conditions

No two excavating jobs are alike. There are certain conditions at every job over which the owner of
the shovel has no control. These conditions are considered in estimating the probable output of a
shovel. Consequently job conditions may be classified as excellent, goo, faii, and poor.

Ajob having

excellent job conditions would include:

i. A shovel operates in a large, open pit with a firm well drained floor, where trucks can be spotted on
either side ofthe shovel to eliminate lost time. ii. Terrain of the natural ground is uniformly level so
that the depth of cut is always an o ptimum.

iii. Haul road is not affected by climatic conditions such as rain or snow.
hauling units.

Ajob having poorjob conditions would include:

i. Another shovel may be used to excavate material for a highway cut through a hill. Depth of cut may
vary from zero to considerably more than the optimum depth.

ii. The sides of the cut must be carefully sloped. The sides ofthe cut may be so narrow that a loaded
truck must move out before an empty truck can back onto loading positions. As the truck must be
spotted behind the shovel, the angle of swing will approximate 180o.
iii. The floor of the cutmay be muddy which will delay the movement of trucks. Light rains may delay
operations for several days.
e) Management Conditions

The attitude of the owner of a shovel will also affect productivity. While the owner may not improve
job conditions, he or she can improve management conditions. The following are just u f.* goa
things he or she can do:
a. Provide a competent supervisor.

b. Pay bonuses to crews.

c. Provide and maintain adequate trucks.
d. Provide and maintain adequate shovels.

f) Skill of the operator

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g) Ph)sical conditions of the shovel

EXAMPLE

Consider a3/4 cu-yd shovel excavating earth with 90 swing and with a 2l
sec. cycle time.
Assume dipper & truck are operated at their heaped capacities.
Assume that the number of dippers required to

fill a truck:

capacity

oftruck + size ofthe dipper.

Assume that the travel cycle which includes traveling to the dump, dumping
and returning to
6 minutes.

shovel:

If3 cu-yd trucks re used.

+
3t{

Number of dippers required:

Cycle time for the shovel =

2l seconds

Time required to fill a truck

: 2l x 4 :

Minimum round trip cycle for a truck

4 rlpers

g4 seconds

1.4 minutes

: 6 + 1.4 : 7.4 minutes

Minimum number of trucks required to keep shovel busy: 7.4 +

1.4:

5.3

Thus, 6 trucks will be necessary to keep the shovel busy or else permit the
shovel to idle between
trucks.
Time to load six

trucks:6 x

Lost time per truck

1.4

: 8.4 min.

: 8.4 - 7.4: I nnn.

This produces an operating factor of 7.4 + g.4

ff6

: gg% for the trucks.

cu-yd trucks are used.

Number of dippers required

6 - 8.
3t4

Cycle time for a shovel:21 seconds

Time required to fill a truck: 8 x 2r seconds

Minimum round trip cycle for a truck: + 2.g

16g

seconds:2.g minutes

: g.g seconds

Minimum number oftrucks required to keep shovel busy: g.g + 2.g

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age

Time required to load 3

trucks:

3 x 2.8

This produces an operating factor

3t

o+2

: 8.4 minutes

: 8.4 + 8.8 :

.95

:95yotruck time,

or loss of (8.8 - 8.4y8.8 :SYo

: 4 x2.B: ll.2 minutes

This produces an operating factor : 8.8 + ll.2: 79yo trucktime
Time required to load 4 trucks

or a loss of (11.2-8.8)/11.2:2tYo
Assume shovel is operating80%o efliciency.
# of cycles per minute
# of cycles per

hour:

Ideal output per hour

60/21:2.86

60 x

171.6

:3/4 x 176.6: 128 cu-yd

Output @80% efficiency

Travel cycle time per

2.86:

128 x 0.80

truck:

:102

cu-yd

6 minutes

Assume that 6 cu-yd trucks are used.

The ideal number will be 3.15 as previously determined
3.15 trucks needed for 102 cu-yd / hr
3 trucks need for 3/3.15

x 102:97 cv-ydper

hour.

Consequently, if three trucks are used, the output

Cost per hour for a truck &

cu-ydper hour.

driver: $14.70

Total cost per hour for trucks (3 x 14.70)

Truck cost while loading, (2.8

: $44.10

14.70)/60 = $0.66

Truck cost per cu-yd of earth loaded $0.6616

Haulingcostpercu-yd:

:97

: $0.11

ffi

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EXAMPLE

Number of units required:3.3

Units

in-run:4

In run utilization :3.3/4:83Yo

Assume 807o avilability
Units required

:4/.8:5

Number purchased:

Acceptable availability
Capital Utilization

units

415

80Yo

: 3.3/5 : 66Yo

Check shovel capacity per hour and compare to truck capacity per hour.
Check body size.

p.lJL4 =
,
.
" volume:demsity
(bcy)

Body

Jd3 rrquired in body ar

J'

2:I heq

ffi=2sesr=26y:
Actual Payload

'48 tons/pass x 6 passes- x 200f1 D/tnn

2?t0 b/yd3

2gg Jd 3

Body size is adequate.

EXAMPLE

Consider a I cu-yd power shovel for excavating hard clay with a depth of cut of 7.5 ft. An analysis of
the project indicates an average angle of swing of 75, job conditions will be fair, management will be
good. Determine the probably output in cubic yards per hour bank measure.

Solution
From Table: ideal output

:145 cu-yd/hr

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optimum depth:9 ft.

average depth of

cut:7.5

Percent of optimum depth of cut

Job management

factor:

: 7.5/9 :

83.3Yo

0.69

Swing-depth factor = 1.04

The probable output/hr

145

1.04

x 0.69: 104 cu-yd

For a 50 minute hour @fficiency: 50 min), the probable output:0.83 x 104 : 86 yd3
6. Production

Output is expressed in:

Struck bucket capacity
Heaped bucket capacity
The measure employed customarily is bank (solid) measure, the volume of material in place. In
contrast, when dealing with haulage units (truck), output is measured in loose (broken) measure.
a) Output is obtained by using tables compiled by the PCSA' output is based on the following
assumptions:

100% efficiency
90% (90 degree) angle of swing

optimum depth of cut.

working time of 60 minutes/hr
bucket factor of 1.0
job-management factor of l00Yo
material loaded into haul units at grade level

Power shovels are rated by their ideal output (yd3llv or -3/hr. The output is a function of:
bucket size
type ofmaterial

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working time
difficulty in digging
type of haulage unit

working conditions (ob & management factors)

Output must be modified for "real life" conditions. Corrections must be made for:
working time
depth of cut if less than or greater than optimum.
angle of swing

bucket factor (% of bucket capacity utilized)

b) Calculation:
Cycle

time:

+ dumping

digging time + swinging to dumping position

returning to digging position

shovel capacity (yd3): (bucket size, yd3)(swell factor)(fill factor)

shovel capacity (tons)

: (bucket size, yd3)(swell factor)(fill factor)

(weight of material bank measure, tons/yd3)

Dipper fill

factor:

+lcr ir

yd

t Oanlc mmrurc)

(Can be greater than 1.0 for materials that heap well.)

Bucket fill factor

: Yo of bucket capacity utilized.

EXAMPLE
Based on the following information determine the expected shovel production in
bank cubic yards per

hour.

Shovel size:2yd3
Swing angle:120

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Average depth of

cut:8.2 ft

Material: common earth

Job efficiency:0.75

Solution
Ideal output

: 300 bcy/hr

Optimum depth of cut

Average depth of

:10.2ft

cut:8.2 ft

A.Ettrl dqtJr/optimrmr

Swing depth factor

rl+th

8.2 x t0t

t0.2

= 80o/o

: 0.86

Estimated production: 300 x .75 x .86

193.5 bcy/hr

E. Draglines
Draglines are used to excavate earth and load it into hauling units, such as trucks or tractor-pulled
wagons, or to deposit it in levees, dams, and spoil banks near the pits from which is excavated. In
general, a power shovel up to a capacity of 2.5 yd3 can be converted into a dragline by replacing the
boom of the shovel with a crane boom and substituting a dragline bucket for the shovel dper.

For some projects either a pou/er shovel or a dragline may be used to excavate materials, but for
others the dragline will have a distinct advantageiompard with a shovel. A dragline usually does not
have to go into a pit or hole in order to excavate. It may operate on natural ground while excavating
material from a pit with its bucket. This will be very advantageous when earth is removed from a
ditch, canal, or pit containing water. If the earth is hauled with trucks, they do not have to go into the
pit and contend with mud. If the earth can be deposited along a canal or ditch or near a pit, it
frequently is possible to use a dragline with a boom long enough to dispose ofthe earth in one
operation, eliminating the need for hauling units, which will reduce the cost of handling the earth.
Draglines are excellent units for excavating trenches when the sides are permitted to establish their
angles of repose, without shoring.

One disadvantage in using a dragline compared with a power shovel is the reduced output of the
dragline. A comparison ofthe ideal output of various sizes of draglines with the output of power
shovels shows that a dragline will excavate approximately 75 to 80 percent as much earth as a shovel

ofthe

same size.

Some other limitations of draglines are:

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a. Does not have the positive digging action or lateral control of the shovel.

b. Bucket may bounce of move sideways during hard digging.

c. More spillage expected in loading operations.
Some assets of draglines are:
a. A greater reach and dumping radius which enable a deeper overburden to be removed.

b. Ease of maneuverability.

c. Since the dragline operates on top of the overburden, certain problems such
runoffand seepage are reduced or eliminated.

as bank slides,

water

d. Compensation for pitches and rolls in the mineral deposit can be made and if necessary, the dragline
to chop down a small portion of the overburden to prepare it a working bench.

may be used

e. Reduced maintenance (walking dragline)

Pressure exerted on the ground range from 19 psi for large machines to bearing pressures of 9.5 psi
for smaller machines making them extremely suitable for soft or wet formations.

g. Can operate on the tops of spoil either as a primary stripping tool or for reclamation purposes.
h. Ideal for producing the initial or box cut in a stripping operation, a procedure that is almost
impossible for a shovel.

i. Can be effective in operations such as building roads and ditches in addition to being able to clean
rough coal seam for direct loading into transportation vehicles.

j. Bucket loading requires a higher

degree of operator skill due to the design of the dragline.

k. Cycle times are high and small amounts of spillage occur.

l. A dragline will excavate approximately 75Yo to 80% as much earth as a shovel of the same size.
m. Dippers shovels
Buckets Draglines
Draglines have reached their physical limitations the largest one being built has a220 yd3 bucket.
However because of its newer design and introduction of new components, it has not had the
reliability and performance necessary to encourage others to be built. The largest draglines built today
have capacities from 100

to

150 yd3.

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1. Types of Draglines

crawler mounted

truck mounted
wheel mounted (wagon mounted & walking draglines)

2. Size of Draglines
Size is indicated by the size of the bucket expressed in yd3 which in general is the same size as the
dipper of the shovel into which it may be converted.

3. Operation
Excavating is started by swinging the empty bucket to the digging position, at the same time stacking
offthe drag and hoist cables.
Excavating is accomplished by pulling the bucket toward the machine while regulating the digging
depth by means of the tension maintained in the hoist cable.
The cycle is made up

of

a. Digging

b. Hoisting
c. Swinging
d. Dumping

It

is more difficult to control the accuracy of dumping from a dragline as compared with a power
shovel; it is desirable to use larger hauling units for dragline loading in order t reduce the spillage.

4. Optimum Depth of Cut

A dragline will produce its greatest output if

the

job is planned to permit the earth to be excavated at

the optimum depth where possible.

5. Output of Draglines
The output of a dragline will vary with the following factors:
class of material

Depth of cut

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angle of swing
size and type of bucket

length of boon

job conditions
managemeil conditions
rnethod

ffud,

si

dllanig

skM

dqer-aor

orstillg, orloading trucks

ws

psicd condition of the rnachine

6. Buckets for draglines are available in three types:

LiU[ duty buckets - used for excavating materials which are easily dug such as sand, or sand clay.
Medium duty buckets - used for general excavating service
gravel.

as digging clay, soft shale or loose

Heavy duty buckets - used for mine stripping, handling blasted rock, excavating hardpan and highly
abrasive materials.

Buckets are sometimes perforated to permit excess water to drain from the loads. In selecting the
most suitable size of bucket to use for use with a given dragline, it is desirable to know the w:eight of
the loosened material to be handled, expressed in lb/ft3. Combined weight of the bucket and load
should not exceed the safe load recommended by the dragline.
The production of a dragline can be estimated using the tables based on PCSA data or by calculation.
The procedure using the PCSA data to determine the production of a dragline is similar io that for a
power shovel. The table for a dragline with short booms is given on the next page. The procedure for
calculation production for a dragline is similar to that for a power shovel.

EXAMPLE
Determine the expected dragline production in bank cubic yards
informaton.

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Dragline bucket

size:2

yd3

Swing angle:720
Average depth of cut

:7.9 ft.

Material: common earth

Job efficiency: 50 min/hr

Solution
Ideal output

230 bcylhr

Optimum depth of

cut:9.9 ft.

Actual deptlr/optimum depth

Swing depth

Efficiency

:7.919.9:

0.80

factor:0.9

factor:

50/60

Estimated production

: 0.833

: (230 x 0.9 x 0.833) bcy: 172.4bcy

F. Bucket Wheel Excavators

The largest, most complicated, and under favorable conditions, the most productive excavating

machines used in surface mining.

Remove very effectively unconsolidated overburden such as earth glacial till, clay and soft shale that
does not require blasting.

Will excavate material from a highwall on one side of a mine and deposit it
to 2000 yd3lfu up to 426'away on the opposite side of the pit.

as spoil at the rate

of 1500

Largest unit in the world produces 12,000 yd3lhr, operates in a German brown coal seam.

Long stacker allows a much greater discharge radius to be achieved while consuming less powerd3
of materials removed compared to other equipment.
Advantages
a.

A bucket excavator is actually smaller than a dragline or shovel for

a given output.

b. It is a continuous excavator and has not cycle times.

c. Lower instantaneous porer requirements and no shock roading
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d. Larger discharge radius and can be designed to operate above or below the active mine level.
e. Can load mined material efficiently onto a variety of haulage modes, including truc haulage, or
belt conveyor.

fl

Can be designed to operate efficiently

tkough

wide range of mining heights.

g. Produces a smaller size consistency of material

h- Ground bearing pressures as low as I
slopes and wider benches

i' Close control of selective

horizons is possible.

psi and as high as 20 psi. Its wheels produce more stable

mining of interbedded coal and mall partings such as high and low sulfur

j. Has flexibility to deliver the mines material

above or below the working level.

k. There is little or now dead weight structure required as counterweight because the stacker and drive
are used.

Disadvantages
a. Machinery is highly complicated and therefore has reduced

availabil.

b. Less flexibility due to lack of mobility.

c. Can't handle consolidated hard materials
d. Require large maintenance force and has high initial cost for a given production rate.

Unit restricted to mining thick coal seams only. Thickness of coal seam would at least be 0.7 times
the wheel diameter. This is because bucket configuration and wheel diameter can cause problems in
tryrng to follow the bottom of the coal seam.
e.

Wheels are designed with either celled or cell-less construction. Most modern wheels are cell-less. In
the cellJess type, the buckets in the digging position can continuously empty into an annular ring.

EXAMPLE

A wheel loader must produce (230m3lhr) :00 yd3ltr in a truck loading application. Estimated cycle
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time is 0.6 min. and job efficiency is75% (or working 45min/hr). Bucket fill factor is95Yo and
material density is (1780 kglrn3) 3000 lb/yd3.
Determine bucket size and machine model:

Solution

#ofcycteslhr=

fffi

o.?s

= 75 cycles/hr
Let bucket size be x yd3
Volume of material
Production/hr

: 0.95x

: (75 cycles/hr)(0.

95 x yd3lcycle)

:7l.25xyd3/nr.
Required production
7

: 300 yd3 /nr.

1.25x yd3 /hr: 300 yd3 hr

x:4.2
Useg66fwith 4yd3bucket dependent on material dens and bucket capacity. Refer to pg.
Caterpillaf.

EXAMPLE

12-40 in

A wheel loader is required to produce 496 tons/lr for 3/8" gravel in 20 ft high stockpile. The density
of material is 28001b/yd3. Cycle time is 0.5 min. with actual working time of 50 midhr. The bucket fill
factor is 0.95. Trucker are in 8-12 yd3 . Determine the required rated bucket capacity.
Solution

#ofcycles/hr=
.5=.0.!s..
0.5mircpb

Volume ofmaterial

required:

looclrles/lu.

ffiffi

l.4ton/yd3

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Required

production:

Volumepercycle:

Rated bucket

ffi

3s4 yd3ihr

ss4yd3/cycb
==l54slll0 culeeiluur =

capacity:

354 yd3/cfle
fill fator

0.95

:3.72 yd3l cycle

The bucket size required and material density lead to a machine model of 950G series IL
Required operation capacity

:3.75

yd x 2800 lb/yd3

10,500lbs.

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