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KEY FORMULAS
Prem S. Mann Introductory Statistics, Sixth Edition
Chapter 2 Organizing and Graphing Data
Relative frequency of a class ff
Percentage of a class (Relative frequency) 100
Class midpoint or mark (Upper limit Lower limit)2
Class width Upper boundary Lower boundary
Cumulative relative frequency
Cumulative frequency
Total observations in the data set
Q3 Third quartile given by the value of the middle term
among the (ranked) observations that are greater than
the median
Cumulative percentage
(Cumulative relative frequency) 100
Mean for grouped data: mfN and x mfn
where m is the midpoint and f is the frequency of a class
Interquartile range:
The kth percentile:
s2
1x2 2
N
1x2 2
n
n1
x2
and
s2
Standard deviation for ungrouped data:
1x2 2
x
N
s
R
N
2
1x2 2
x
n
s
R
n1
Variance for grouped data:
1 mf 2 2
N
N
m2f
s2
Classical probability rule for a compound event:
Number of outcomes in A
P1A2
Total number of outcomes
Relative frequency as an approximation of probability:
and
s2
m2f
s
P1A2
m2f
Standard deviation for grouped data:
1 mf 2
N
N
1m f 2 2
n
n1
1mf 2
n
n1
and
s
P1A and B2
P1B2
and
P1B 0 A2
P1A and B2
P1A2
Condition for independence of events:
For complementary events: P(A) P( A) 1
Multiplication rule for dependent events:
Multiplication rule for independent events:
Chebyshevs theorem:
For any number k greater than 1, at least (1 1k2) of the
values for any distribution lie within k standard deviations
of the mean.
f
n
Conditional probability of an event:
P1A 0 B2
m2f
1
Total number of outcomes
where and s are the population and sample standard deviations, respectively
Percentile rank of xi
Number of values less than xi
100
Total number of values in the data set
P1Ei 2
and
kn
b th term in a ranked data set
100
Chapter 4 Probability
Classical probability rule for a simple event:
where 2 is the population variance and s 2 is the sample
variance
IQR Q3 Q1
Pk Value of the a
Median for ungrouped data
Value of the middle term in a ranked data set
Range Largest value Smallest value
Variance for ungrouped data:
x2
Q1 First quartile given by the value of the middle term
among the (ranked) observations that are less than the
median
Q2 Second quartile given by the value of the middle term
in a ranked data set
Chapter 3 Numerical Descriptive Measures
Mean for ungrouped data: xN and x x n
Empirical rule:
For a specific bell-shaped distribution, about 68% of the observations fall in the interval ( ) to ( ), about
95% fall in the interval ( 2) to ( 2), and about
99.7% fall in the interval ( 3) to ( 3).
P1A2 P1A 0 B2
and/or P1B2 P1B 0 A2
P1A and B2 P1A2 P1B 0 A2
P1A and B2 P1A2 P1B2
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Joint probability of two mutually exclusive events:
P1A and B2 0
Addition rule for mutually nonexclusive events:
P1A or B2 P1A2 P1B2 P1A and B2
Addition rule for mutually exclusive events:
Chapter 5 Discrete Random Variables and Their
Probability Distributions
Mean of a discrete random variable x: xP(x)
Standard deviation of a discrete random variable x:
n factorial: n! n(n 1)(n 2) . . . 3 2 1
Number of combinations of n items selected x at a time:
n!
nCx
x!1n x2!
Number of permutations of n items selected x at a time:
n!
n Px
1n x2!
Binomial probability formula: P1x2 nCx px q nx
Mean and standard deviation of the binomial distribution:
m np and s 1npq
Hypergeometric probability formula:
r Cx Nr Cnx
P1x2
N Cn
lx el
Poisson probability formula: P1x2
x!
Mean, variance, and standard deviation of the Poisson probability distribution:
m l, s2 l, and s 1l
Chapter 6 Continuous Random Variables
and the Normal Distribution
xm
s
Value of x when , , and z are known: x z
z value for an x value:
Margin of error of the estimate for :
E zsx or t sx
Determining sample size for estimating :
n z 2 2E 2
Confidence interval for p for a large sample:
where sp 2p q n
p z sp
Margin of error of the estimate for p:
E z sp
where sp 1p q n
^
Determining sample size for estimating p:
n z 2pqE 2
Chapter 9 Hypothesis Tests about the Mean
and Proportion
Test statistic z for a test of hypothesis about using the
normal distribution when is known:
sx s 1n
x zsx where sx s 1n
Confidence interval for using the t distribution when is
not known:
x tsx where sx s 1n
z
Chapter 7 Sampling Distributions
Mean of x : mx m
Standard deviation of x when nN .05:
xm
z value for x : z
sx
Chapter 8 Estimation of the Mean and Proportion
Point estimate of m x
Confidence interval for using the normal distribution
when is known:
s 2x 2P1x2 m2
P1A or B2 P1A2 P1B2
Population proportion: p XN
Sample proportion: p xn
Mean of p : mp p
Standard deviation of p when n N .05: sp 1pqn
p p
z value for p : z
sp
z
xm
sx
where sx
t
xm
sx
where sx
s
1n
2n
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about using the t distribution when is not known:
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about p for a large
sample:
z
p p
sp
^
where sp
^
pq
An
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Chapter 10 Estimation and Hypothesis Testing:
Two Populations
Mean of the sampling distribution of x1 x2:
mx1x2 m1 m2
s21
s22
n2
B n1
1 x1 x2 2 1m1 m2 2
sx1x2
For two independent samples taken from two populations
with equal but unknown standard deviations:
Pooled standard deviation:
sp
1n1 12s21 1n2 12s22
B
n1 n2 2
Estimate of the standard deviation of x1 x2:
1
1
sx1 x2 sp
n2
A n1
Confidence interval for m1 m2 using the t distribution:
1 x1 x2 2 tsx1 x2
Test statistic using the t distribution:
1 x1 x2 2 1m1 m2 2
t
sx1 x2
1d2 2
n
sd
R
n1
Mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution
of d:
md md and s d sd 1n
Confidence interval for d using the t distribution:
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about 1 2 for two
independent samples using the normal distribution when 1
and 2 are known:
z
where sx1 x2
For two independent samples selected from two populations
with unequal and unknown standard deviations:
s21
s22 2
b
n1
n2
Degrees of freedom: df
s21 2
s22 2
a b
a b
n1
n2
n1 1
n2 1
For two paired or matched samples:
Sample mean for paired differences: d dn
Sample standard deviation for paired differences:
d 2
Confidence interval for 1 2 for two independent
samples using the normal distribution when 1 and 2 are
known:
1 x1 x2 2 zsx1 x2
d ts d where s d sd 1n
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about d using the t
distribution:
d md
t
sd
For two large and independent samples, confidence interval
for p1 p2:
1p 1 p 2 2 z sp1 p2
^
where sp1 p2
^
p 1q 1
p 2q 2
n
n2
B 1
For two large and independent samples, for a test of
hypothesis about p1 p2 with H0: p1 p2 0:
Pooled sample proportion:
n1 p 1 n2 p 2
x1 x2
p
or
n1 n2
n1 n2
Estimate of the standard deviation of p 1 p 2:
sp1 p2
^
Test statistic:
z
pqa
1
1
b
n1
n2
1 p 1 p 2 2 1 p1 p2 2
sp1 p2
^
Estimate of the standard deviation of x1 x2:
sx1 x2
s21
s22
n2
B n1
Confidence interval for m1 m2 using the t distribution:
1 x1 x2 2 tsx1 x2
Test statistic using the t distribution:
t
1 x1 x2 2 1m1 m2 2
sx1 x2
Chapter 11 Chi-Square Tests
Expected frequency for a category for a goodness-of-fit
test:
E np
Degrees of freedom for a goodness-of-fit test:
df k 1 where k is the number of categories
Expected frequency for a cell for an independence or homogeneity test:
1Row total21Column total2
E
Sample size
Degrees of freedom for a test of independence or
homogeneity:
df 1R 121C 12
where R and C are the total number of rows and columns,
respectively, in the contingency table
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Test statistic for a goodness-of-fit test and a test of independence or homogeneity:
1O E2 2
x2
E
Confidence interval for the population variance 2:
1n 12s 2
1n 12s 2
to
x 2a2
x 21a2
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about :
2
x2
1n 12s2
b SSxy SSxx and
x 2 the sum of the squares of values in all samples
For the F distribution:
Degrees of freedom for the numerator k 1
Degrees of freedom for the denominator n k
Between-samples sum of squares:
1x2 2
T32
T12
T22
SSB a
# # #b
n1
n2
n3
n
Within-samples sum of squares:
SSW x 2 a
T12
n1
T22
n2
T32
n3
# # #b
Total sum of squares:
1x2 2
SST SSB SSW x
n
2
Variance between samples: MSB SSB 1k 12
Variance within samples: MSW SSW 1n k2
Test statistic for a one-way ANOVA test:
F MSB MSW
Chapter 13 Simple Linear Regression
Simple linear regression model: y A Bx
a bx
Estimated simple linear regression model: y
1x21 y2
n
2
1x2
1y2 2
SSxx x2
and SSyy y2
n
n
Least squares estimates of A and B:
SSxy xy
s2
Chapter 12 Analysis of Variance
Let:
k the number of different samples
(or treatments)
ni the size of sample i
Ti the sum of the values in sample i
n the number of values in all samples
n1 n2 n3 # # #
x the sum of the values in all samples
T1 T2 T3 # # #
Sum of squares of xy, xx, and yy:
a y bx
Standard deviation of the sample errors:
SSyy b SSxy
se
B
n2
Error sum of squares: SSE e2 1y y 2 2
1y2 2
n
Regression sum of squares: SSR SST SSE
Coefficient of determination: r 2 b SSxy SSyy
Confidence interval for B:
b tsb where sb se 1SSxx
Total sum of squares: SST y2
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about B: t
Linear correlation coefficient: r
Test statistic for a test of hypothesis about :
n2
A 1 r2
Confidence interval for y | x:
bB
sb
SSxy
1SSxx SSyy
tr
y t sym where sym se
^
1x0 x 2 2
1
Bn
SSxx
Prediction interval for yp:
y t syp where syp se
^
1
1x0 x 2 2
1
n
SSxx
Chapter 14 Multiple Regression
Formulas for Chapter 14 along with the chapter are on the
Web site for the text.
Chapter 15 Nonparametric Methods
Formulas for Chapter 15 along with the chapter are on the
Web site for the text.
1519T_fgatefold_02-07.qxd 12/8/05 1:00 AM Page 5
Table IV Standard Normal Distribution Table
The entries in this table give the
cumulative area under the standard
normal curve to the left of z with the
values of z equal to 0 or negative.
.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
.0003
.0005
.0007
.0010
.0013
.0003
.0005
.0007
.0009
.0013
.0003
.0005
.0006
.0009
.0013
.0003
.0004
.0006
.0009
.0012
.0003
.0004
.0006
.0008
.0012
.0003
.0004
.0006
.0008
.0011
.0003
.0004
.0006
.0008
.0011
.0003
.0004
.0005
.0008
.0011
.0003
.0004
.0005
.0007
.0010
.0002
.0003
.0005
.0007
.0010
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
.0019
.0026
.0035
.0047
.0062
.0018
.0025
.0034
.0045
.0060
.0018
.0024
.0033
.0044
.0059
.0017
.0023
.0032
.0043
.0057
.0016
.0023
.0031
.0041
.0055
.0016
.0022
.0030
.0040
.0054
.0015
.0021
.0029
.0039
.0052
.0015
.0021
.0028
.0038
.0051
.0014
.0020
.0027
.0037
.0049
.0014
.0019
.0026
.0036
.0048
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
.0082
.0107
.0139
.0179
.0228
.0080
.0104
.0136
.0174
.0222
.0078
.0102
.0132
.0170
.0217
.0075
.0099
.0129
.0166
.0212
.0073
.0096
.0125
.0162
.0207
.0071
.0094
.0122
.0158
.0202
.0069
.0091
.0119
.0154
.0197
.0068
.0089
.0116
.0150
.0192
.0066
.0087
.0113
.0146
.0188
.0064
.0084
.0110
.0143
.0183
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
.0287
.0359
.0446
.0548
.0668
.0281
.0351
.0436
.0537
.0655
.0274
.0344
.0427
.0526
.0643
.0268
.0336
.0418
.0516
.0630
.0262
.0329
.0409
.0505
.0618
.0256
.0322
.0401
.0495
.0606
.0250
.0314
.0392
.0485
.0594
.0244
.0307
.0384
.0475
.0582
.0239
.0301
.0375
.0465
.0571
.0233
.0294
.0367
.0455
.0559
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
.0808
.0968
.1151
.1357
.1587
.0793
.0951
.1131
.1335
.1562
.0778
.0934
.1112
.1314
.1539
.0764
.0918
.1093
.1292
.1515
.0749
.0901
.1075
.1271
.1492
.0735
.0885
.1056
.1251
.1469
.0721
.0869
.1038
.1230
.1446
.0708
.0853
.1020
.1210
.1423
.0694
.0838
.1003
.1190
.1401
.0681
.0823
.0985
.1170
.1379
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
.1841
.2119
.2420
.2743
.3085
.1814
.2090
.2389
.2709
.3050
.1788
.2061
.2358
.2676
.3015
.1762
.2033
.2327
.2643
.2981
.1736
.2005
.2296
.2611
.2946
.1711
.1977
.2266
.2578
.2912
.1685
.1949
.2236
.2546
.2877
.1660
.1922
.2206
.2514
.2843
.1635
.1894
.2177
.2483
.2810
.1611
.1867
.2148
.2451
.2776
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
.3446
.3821
.4207
.4602
.3409
.3783
.4168
.4562
.3372
.3745
.4129
.4522
.3336
.3707
.4090
.4483
.3300
.3669
.4052
.4443
.3264
.3632
.4013
.4404
.3228
.3594
.3974
.4364
.3192
.3557
.3936
.4325
.3156
.3520
.3897
.4286
.3121
.3483
.3859
.4247
0.0
.5000
.4960
.4920
.4880
.4840
.4801
.4761
.4721
.4681
.4641
(continued on next page)
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Table IV Standard Normal Distribution Table (continued from previous page)
The entries in this table give the
cumulative area under the standard
normal curve to the left of z with the
values of z equal to 0 or positive.
.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
0.0
.5000
.5040
.5080
.5120
.5160
.5199
.5239
.5279
.5319
.5359
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
.5398
.5793
.6179
.6554
.6915
.5438
.5832
.6217
.6591
.6950
.5478
.5871
.6255
.6628
.6985
.5517
.5910
.6293
.6664
.7019
.5557
.5948
.6331
.6700
.7054
.5596
.5987
.6368
.6736
.7088
.5636
.6026
.6406
.6772
.7123
.5675
.6064
.6443
.6808
.7157
.5714
.6103
.6480
.6844
.7190
.5753
.6141
.6517
.6879
.7224
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
.7257
.7580
.7881
.8159
.8413
.7291
.7611
.7910
.8186
.8438
.7324
.7642
.7939
.8212
.8461
.7357
.7673
.7967
.8238
.8485
.7389
.7704
.7995
.8264
.8508
.7422
.7734
.8023
.8289
.8531
.7454
.7764
.8051
.8315
.8554
.7486
.7794
.8078
.8340
.8577
.7517
.7823
.8106
.8365
.8599
.7549
.7852
.8133
.8389
.8621
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
.8643
.8849
.9032
.9192
.9332
.8665
.8869
.9049
.9207
.9345
.8686
.8888
.9066
.9222
.9357
.8708
.8907
.9082
.9236
.9370
.8729
.8925
.9099
.9251
.9382
.8749
.8944
.9115
.9265
.9394
.8770
.8962
.9131
.9279
.9406
.8790
.8980
.9147
.9292
.9418
.8810
.8997
.9162
.9306
.9429
.8830
.9015
.9177
.9319
.9441
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
.9452
.9554
.9641
.9713
.9772
.9463
.9564
.9649
.9719
.9778
.9474
.9573
.9656
.9726
.9783
.9484
.9582
.9664
.9732
.9788
.9495
.9591
.9671
.9738
.9793
.9505
.9599
.9678
.9744
.9798
.9515
.9608
.9686
.9750
.9803
.9525
.9616
.9693
.9756
.9808
.9535
.9625
.9699
.9761
.9812
.9545
.9633
.9706
.9767
.9817
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
.9821
.9861
.9893
.9918
.9938
.9826
.9864
.9896
.9920
.9940
.9830
.9868
.9898
.9922
.9941
.9834
.9871
.9901
.9925
.9943
.9838
.9875
.9904
.9927
.9945
.9842
.9878
.9906
.9929
.9946
.9846
.9881
.9909
.9931
.9948
.9850
.9884
.9911
.9932
.9949
.9854
.9887
.9913
.9934
.9951
.9857
.9890
.9916
.9936
.9952
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
.9953
.9965
.9974
.9981
.9987
.9955
.9966
.9975
.9982
.9987
.9956
.9967
.9976
.9982
.9987
.9957
.9968
.9977
.9983
.9988
.9959
.9969
.9977
.9984
.9988
.9960
.9970
.9978
.9984
.9989
.9961
.9971
.9979
.9985
.9989
.9962
.9972
.9979
.9985
.9989
.9963
.9973
.9980
.9986
.9990
.9964
.9974
.9981
.9986
.9990
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
.9990
.9993
.9995
.9997
.9991
.9993
.9995
.9997
.9991
.9994
.9995
.9997
.9991
.9994
.9996
.9997
.9992
.9994
.9996
.9997
.9992
.9994
.9996
.9997
.9992
.9994
.9996
.9997
.9992
.9995
.9996
.9997
.9993
.9995
.9996
.9997
.9993
.9995
.9997
.9998
This is Table IV of Appendix C.
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Table V The t Distribution Table
The entries in this table give the critical values
of t for the specified number of degrees
of freedom and areas in the right tail.
Area in the Right Tail under the t Distribution Curve
df
.10
.05
.025
.01
.005
.001
1
2
3
4
5
3.078
1.886
1.638
1.533
1.476
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.132
2.015
12.706
4.303
3.182
2.776
2.571
31.821
6.965
4.541
3.747
3.365
63.657
9.925
5.841
4.604
4.032
318.309
22.327
10.215
7.173
5.893
6
7
8
9
10
1.440
1.415
1.397
1.383
1.372
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
1.812
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
2.228
3.143
2.998
2.896
2.821
2.764
3.707
3.499
3.355
3.250
3.169
5.208
4.785
4.501
4.297
4.144
11
12
13
14
15
1.363
1.356
1.350
1.345
1.341
1.796
1.782
1.771
1.761
1.753
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
2.131
2.718
2.681
2.650
2.624
2.602
3.106
3.055
3.012
2.977
2.947
4.025
3.930
3.852
3.787
3.733
16
17
18
19
20
1.337
1.333
1.330
1.328
1.325
1.746
1.740
1.734
1.729
1.725
2.120
2.110
2.101
2.093
2.086
2.583
2.567
2.552
2.539
2.528
2.921
2.898
2.878
2.861
2.845
3.686
3.646
3.610
3.579
3.552
21
22
23
24
25
1.323
1.321
1.319
1.318
1.316
1.721
1.717
1.714
1.711
1.708
2.080
2.074
2.069
2.064
2.060
2.518
2.508
2.500
2.492
2.485
2.831
2.819
2.807
2.797
2.787
3.527
3.505
3.485
3.467
3.450
26
27
28
29
30
1.315
1.314
1.313
1.311
1.310
1.706
1.703
1.701
1.699
1.697
2.056
2.052
2.048
2.045
2.042
2.479
2.473
2.467
2.462
2.457
2.779
2.771
2.763
2.756
2.750
3.435
3.421
3.408
3.396
3.385
31
32
33
34
35
1.309
1.309
1.308
1.307
1.306
1.696
1.694
1.692
1.691
1.690
2.040
2.037
2.035
2.032
2.030
2.453
2.449
2.445
2.441
2.438
2.744
2.738
2.733
2.728
2.724
3.375
3.365
3.356
3.348
3.340
(continued on next page)
1519T_fgatefold_01,08.qxd 12/8/05 1:35 AM Page 8
Table V The t Distribution Table (continued from previous page)
Area in the Right Tail under the t Distribution Curve
df
.10
.05
.025
.01
.005
.001
36
37
38
39
40
1.306
1.305
1.304
1.304
1.303
1.688
1.687
1.686
1.685
1.684
2.028
2.026
2.024
2.023
2.021
2.434
2.431
2.429
2.426
2.423
2.719
2.715
2.712
2.708
2.704
3.333
3.326
3.319
3.313
3.307
41
42
43
44
45
1.303
1.302
1.302
1.301
1.301
1.683
1.682
1.681
1.680
1.679
2.020
2.018
2.017
2.015
2.014
2.421
2.418
2.416
2.414
2.412
2.701
2.698
2.695
2.692
2.690
3.301
3.296
3.291
3.286
3.281
46
47
48
49
50
1.300
1.300
1.299
1.299
1.299
1.679
1.678
1.677
1.677
1.676
2.013
2.012
2.011
2.010
2.009
2.410
2.408
2.407
2.405
2.403
2.687
2.685
2.682
2.680
2.678
3.277
3.273
3.269
3.265
3.261
51
52
53
54
55
1.298
1.298
1.298
1.297
1.297
1.675
1.675
1.674
1.674
1.673
2.008
2.007
2.006
2.005
2.004
2.402
2.400
2.399
2.397
2.396
2.676
2.674
2.672
2.670
2.668
3.258
3.255
3.251
3.248
3.245
56
57
58
59
60
1.297
1.297
1.296
1.296
1.296
1.673
1.672
1.672
1.671
1.671
2.003
2.002
2.002
2.001
2.000
2.395
2.394
2.392
2.391
2.390
2.667
2.665
2.663
2.662
2.660
3.242
3.239
3.237
3.234
3.232
61
62
63
64
65
1.296
1.295
1.295
1.295
1.295
1.670
1.670
1.669
1.669
1.669
2.000
1.999
1.998
1.998
1.997
2.389
2.388
2.387
2.386
2.385
2.659
2.657
2.656
2.655
2.654
3.229
3.227
3.225
3.223
3.220
66
67
68
69
70
1.295
1.294
1.294
1.294
1.294
1.668
1.668
1.668
1.667
1.667
1.997
1.996
1.995
1.995
1.994
2.384
2.383
2.382
2.382
2.381
2.652
2.651
2.650
2.649
2.648
3.218
3.216
3.214
3.213
3.211
71
72
73
74
75
1.294
1.293
1.293
1.293
1.293
1.282
1.667
1.666
1.666
1.666
1.665
1.645
1.994
1.993
1.993
1.993
1.992
1.960
2.380
2.379
2.379
2.378
2.377
2.326
2.647
2.646
2.645
2.644
2.643
2.576
3.209
3.207
3.206
3.204
3.202
3.090
This is Table V of Appendix C.
