Applications of PSCAD® / EMTDC™ Application Guide 2008

Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC
Applications of
PSCAD® / EMTDC™
Manitoba HVDC Research Centre Inc.

244 Cree Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J 3W1 Canada
We would like to acknowledge Dennis Woodford for the contribution
he made to this PSCAD Application Guide
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................1
Where PSCAD Can be Used ............................................................1
Chapter 2: Traditional Transient Studies .....................................5

Sources...........................................................................................5
Thevenin Voltage Sources ...........................................................5
Load Flow Set-up with a Source ..................................................5
Setting the Load Flow with a Generator ......................................6
Multiple Run ...................................................................................7
Energizing Transients ......................................................................8
Breaker Pre-Strike .......................................................................8
Switching Surge Data Requirements ..............................................9
System Equivalents for Switching Surge TOV Studies ...................9
Power Flow Conditions .............................................................10
Transmission Line Data ..............................................................10
Transformer Data ......................................................................11
Circuit Breakers.........................................................................11
Surge Arresters .........................................................................11
Shunt Reactors .........................................................................11
Shunt and Series Capacitors ......................................................12
Fast Front Study Data ....................................................................12
Station Layout ..........................................................................12
Busbar Dimensions ...................................................................13
Transformer Data ......................................................................13
Transformer Winding Capacitances ...........................................13
Switching Surge TOV Studies ........................................................14
Limiting Fundamental Frequency Load Rejection Overvoltags ....14
Line Energizing .........................................................................14
Shunt Capacitor Switching ........................................................14
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)...................................................15
References ....................................................................................17
Exercise ........................................................................................17
Chapter 3: Controls .....................................................................19

CSMF Components.......................................................................19
Use of Slider, Switch, Button and Dial ...........................................20
Applications for CSMF Components .............................................22
Filtering with a Second Order Function......................................22
Timer to Change a Parameter ...................................................22
Controlling an AC Source .........................................................23
Measuring Relative Phase Angle ................................................24
Building an Inverse Time Function .............................................24
Exercises .......................................................................................25
Chapter 4: Surge Arresters .........................................................27

Arrester Model .............................................................................28
Switching Surge TOV ................................................................28
Fast Front Transients .................................................................29
Determining Fast Front Model Parameters .................................30
Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC iii

Table of Contents
Fast Front Studies .........................................................................33

Modeling Transmission Lines and Buswork ................................33
Lightning ..................................................................................34
Transmission Towers..................................................................35
Tower Footing Resistance ..........................................................35
Capacitances of Equipment.......................................................36
Back Flashover ..........................................................................36
Summary of Arrester Selection ......................................................37
References ....................................................................................38
Exercises .......................................................................................39
Chapter 5: Transformers .............................................................41

Transformer Models ......................................................................41
Core Configuration ...................................................................42
Ungrounded Windings ..............................................................43
Saturation ....................................................................................43
Geomagnetically Induced Currents ...............................................44
Remanence...................................................................................45
Harmonic Measurements ..............................................................47
Load Tap Changer.........................................................................47
Phase Shifting Transformers ..........................................................48
References ....................................................................................49
Exercises .......................................................................................49
Chapter 6: DC Transmission .......................................................51

Why Use DC Transmission? ...........................................................51
DC Converter Configurations........................................................52
Twelve Pulse Converters ................................................................52
Thyristor Modules .........................................................................53
Substation equipment...................................................................53
Commutation ...............................................................................54
Converter Bridge Angles ...............................................................55
Steady State DC Converter Equations ...........................................56
Short Circuit Ratio ........................................................................57
Commutation Failure ....................................................................58
Control and Protection..................................................................59
Current Margin.............................................................................61
Voltage Dependent Current Order Limit (VDCOL) ..........................62
AC Voltage Control ......................................................................63
Special Purpose Controls ...............................................................64
Series Compensation of DC Converter ..........................................65
References ....................................................................................67
Exercises .......................................................................................68
Chapter 7: STATCOM Controls ...................................................69

Interpolated Switching ..................................................................69
Use of Pages .................................................................................70
STATCOM Control Strategy ...........................................................70
Components of Controls ..............................................................71
Phase Locked Oscillator .............................................................71
Generating the Firing Pulses ......................................................72
Control of AC Voltage or Reactive Power ..................................72
Control of DC Side Volts ...........................................................73
Multipulse STATCOM ....................................................................73
iv Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC
Three Level STATCOM ...................................................................74

Improved Harmonic Performance ..............................................76
References ....................................................................................77
Exercises .......................................................................................77
Chapter 8: VSC Transmission......................................................79

VSC Transmission Control Strategy................................................79
Components of the Controls ........................................................80
Phase Locked Oscillator .............................................................80
When Receiving End is a Passive AC System ..............................80
Generating the Firing Pulses ......................................................81
Control of AC Voltage or Reactive Power ..................................81
Control of DC Side Volts ...........................................................81
Power Control ..........................................................................82
VSC Transmission with AC Characteristics .....................................82
Phase Angle Measurement........................................................83
Phase Advance of Synthesized Phase Angle...............................84
Controlling Power from Synthesized Phase Angle ......................85
Example Fault Case ...................................................................85
Exercises .......................................................................................86
Chapter 9: Model Verification ....................................................87

EMT Model Verification Methods ..................................................87
Network Compilation ...................................................................88
Example ....................................................................................89
Load Flow .....................................................................................92
Source Control..........................................................................92
Short Circuit .................................................................................94
Frequency Analysis .......................................................................96
Summary ......................................................................................97
References ....................................................................................97
Data Listing ..................................................................................98
Chapter 10: Using PSCAD/EMTDC Waveforms for Real Time

Testing (RTP) .................................................................................101
PSCAD RTP Recorder ..................................................................101
Output File Location ...................................................................101
Multiple Run Capability...............................................................101
RTP Playback Program.................................................................102
Exercises .....................................................................................102
Chapter 11: Transmission Lines..................................................103

PI Line Sections ...........................................................................104
Converting Line Data ..............................................................104
Distributed transmission Lines .....................................................105
Using Line Constants ..............................................................106
Manual Entry of Data for Bergeron Model...............................110
Interpreting Bergeron Output in LineName.tlo File ...................112
Modeling Short Lines/Cables ...................................................113
Comparison of Line Models ........................................................114
References ..................................................................................115
Exercises .....................................................................................115
Index ..............................................................................................117
Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC v
Chapter 1:
Introduction
This Workbook is designed to guide the user of PSCAD/EMTDC
through its use and application. PSCAD/EMTDC (also referred to
as PSCAD) is a simulator of ac power systems, low voltage power
electronics systems, high voltage DC transmission (HVDC), flexible
AC transmission systems (FACTS), distribution systems, and com-
plex controllers.
WHERE PSCAD CAN BE USED

PSCAD can represent electric circuits in detail not available with
conventional network simulation software. For example, trans-
former saturation can be represented accurately on PSCAD and
only superficially, if at all, on Phasor based simulators like power
system stability programs.
A simple classical example of the use of PSCAD is demonstrated

in the following example. A 222 km, 500 kV transmission line is
open circuited at its far end, and it’s C phase at that end is faulted.
The voltage of B phase is plotted:
It is obvious from this example that the instantaneous solution

algorithm of PSCAD and the precision achievable with it opens up
great opportunities for investigation and study.
Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
PSCAD is used by engineers, researchers and students from utili-

ties, manufacturers, consultants, research and academic institutes.
It is used in planning, designing, developing new concepts, test-
ing ideas, understanding what happened when equipment failed,
commissioning, preparation of specification and tender documents,
teaching and research. The following are some of the studies that
can be conducted with PSCAD:
• Insulation coordination of AC and DC equipment.
• Traditional power system studies, including TOV, TRV,

faults, reclosure, and ferroresonance.
• Relay testing (waveforms) and detailed analysis of the

CT/VT/CCVT responses and their impact on operation.
Waveforms generated by PSCAD can be saved using
PSCAD RTP/Comtrade recorder. Then, by using RTP
Playback system, these waveforms can be used to test
physical protection and control equipment.
• Designing power electronic systems and controls including

FACTS devices, active filters, low voltage series and shunt
compensation devices.
• Incorporate the capabilities of MATLAB/Simulink directly

into PSCAD/EMTDC.
• Subsynchronous oscillations, their damping and resonance.
• Effects of DC currents and geomagnetically induced

currents on power systems, inrush effects and
ferroresonance.
• Distribution system design, including transient

overvoltages, with custom power controllers and
distributed generation.
• Power quality analysis and improvement, including

hamonic impedance scans, motor starting sags and swells,
non-linear loads, such as arc furnaces and associated
flicker measurement.
• Design of modern transportation systems (ships, rail,

automotive) using power electronics.
• Design, control coordination and system integration of

wind farms, diesel systems, and energy storage.
• Variable speed drives, their design and control.
• Industrial systems.
• Intelligent multiple-run optimization techniques can be

applied to both control systems and electrical parameters.
2 Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC
Case examples have been prepared for this Applications of

PSCAD/EMTDC workbook and most examples can be used with
the 15 node Student Edition of PSCAD.
The material is prepared to help launch the electric power en-

gineer into useful and essential studies of power systems and
controls. An understanding of the full power of PSCAD can only
come with familiarity and use.
PSCAD/EMTDC is under continual development by a team of

engineers and computer scientists at the Centre. Development
direction is guided by the Technical Review Committee and the
needs of the many users around the world.
Chapter 2:
Traditional Transient Studies

Traditionally, the greatest use of electromagnetic transients pro-
grams has been in the study of switching surges in AC networks
(PSCAD/EMTDC enables the scope of transients studies to be
broadened to include detailed control systems and power electron-
ics).
SOURCES
When transients are being studied, the whole network usually
does not need to be modeled as it does in transient stability studies
(where the transients are much slower and can reach further into
the network). Care is required in selecting the sources representing R-R//L configuration of Thevenin source impedance, selected
to provide the same impedance angle at fundamental
the short circuit impedance and where the source is located. frequency and one low order harmonic (2nd, 3rd of 4th).
Sources representing network equivalents and their short

Thevenin Voltage Sources circuit contributions should include resistive damping to
The simplest Thevenin source representing the AC system and its reflect the effect of loads and losses in the network.
short circuit impedance at the selected busbar is a series R – L. This This is realized in single and three phase source components
can be found accurately for fundamental frequency, particularly if in the Sources page of the Master Library:
the short circuit capacity is known through a separate study. There
are two main types of Thevenin sources in the Sources page of the
Master Library. Sources can be internally or externally controlled in
terms of source voltage magnitude, frequency and phase.
The first source type is the “Three Phase Voltage Source” com-
ponent and the “Single Phase Voltage Source” component. To
recognize that there is frequency dependency in the short circuit
impedance, simple impedance fitting through the low order har-
monics is possible with the series R-R//L impedance configuration.
Zero sequence definition is possible.
Ideal source realizable (R=0.0) through Simple Three Phase
Various sources are available in the Sources page of the Master Source component. Provides chatter removal, but has no
Library. Externally, controllable current and voltage sources provide separate zero sequence impedance definition.
special interface capabilities between controls and the network.
Load Flow Set-up with a Source

When including more than one source or generator in an AC
network model, it is important to ensure the load flow is correct.
Now, the load flow solution of the same network will provide the
voltage magnitude, phase and power and reactive power gener-
ated or absorbed at the terminals of the Thevenin sources.
The voltage behind the Thevenin impedance or that at the bus may
be specified. If the voltage at the bus is specified, the desired P and
Q levels of the source are also required. The model will compute
the internal voltage behind the Thevenin impedance. Special sources including a harmonic current injection
source for measuring harmonic impedance among other
things.
Chapter 2: Transient Studies
Setting the Load Flow with a Generator

P
When one or more synchronous generators are to be connected
I
ES ZT into the network, the load flow process is a little easier (even
if the generator set-up is more complex). Each generator can
Q start the case during initialization (beginning at TIME = 0.0) with
a three phase fundamental frequency voltage source (with no
jQ impedance) connected at its terminals. Its magnitude and phase
I = P - __ is fixed as designated within the machine’s data input sheets.
VT
The general method of initialization and start-up, which is sug-
ES = VT + I * ZT gested be normally used, is based on entering firstly the terminal
voltage magnitude and phase. The start-up sequence is:
Calculation necessary for each fixed network source when
the terminal voltage VT magnitude and phase is known
from the load flow, as well as the power P and reactive 1. At time=0, machine is a fixed source at its terminals,
power Q that the source generates, and knowing short whose voltage magnitude and phase is as entered by
circuit impedance ZT.
the user, which might correspond to the values obtained
from a load flow program solution of the network.
2. The network solution progresses from the start-up with
the voltage source firmly fixed so that the network can
reach its steady state condition. To ensure that the steady
state condition of the network is reached smoothly, the
source voltage magnitude may ramp to its specified value
over a time interval entered by the user.
3. When the steady state of the network has been reached,
the user may choose to convert from the voltage
sources representing each machine to an actual machine
model, rotating at a fixed speed of 1 pu. At the time of
transition from source to machine model, IEEE exciter and
stabilizer models (if used with the machine model) can be
initialized so that the transition from source to machine is
seamless.
4. If for some reason, parts of the system still need to reach
the steady state, the machine in its constant speed state
with the excitation system active can be run until the
user is satisfied. At this point in time, the rotor can be
‘unlocked’ on all machines. When this transition occurs,
any IEEE governor/turbine system, including any torsional
multi-mass model of the turbines, shaft and generator,
can be instantly initialized (if proper initialization
procedures have been followed) and the whole system
will now run free and in steady state. Mechanical torque
Example connection of synchronous generator with an IEEE
Exciter (Type AC1A), a stabilizer, a combined cycle turbine input to the machine can be derived from the governor/
and governor, and a shaft torsional model. It is not always turbine combination, if desired. If for some reason a
necessary to model all these functions. A library of IEEE
standard exciters and power systems stabilizers is available perturbation is evident or the system is not settling
in the Machines page of the Master Library. down to a steady state condition, investigate whether
The reference on the IEEE standard exciters is: initialization procedures have been followed correctly or
“IEEE Recommended Practice for Excitation System Models whether the system is dynamically stable. For example,
for Power System Stability Studies” IEEE Std 421.5-1992.
excitation systems may not be adequately designed and
may contribute to electromechanical instability (this can
be quickly verified by replacing the exciters driven input
to the machine by a fixed constant value). When systems
with many synchronous machines are being modeled,
it is always a good idea to be satisfied the system is
dynamically stable when run on a power system stability

program.
5. At the point in time when the machines are running free
and the excitation and governor systems are stable, a
‘snapshot’ can be taken. Faults and disturbances can be
applied to the system with start-up commencing from
the snapshot.
There are ten examples of synchronous generator connections in
the tutorial available with PSCAD under PSCAD\examples\tuto-
rial\machines.
MULTIPLE RUN A useful component for initializing generation equipment

is Sample and Hold (S/H). Any output from generation
Having the ability in PSCAD/EMTDC to repeatedly run a case is equipment ending in 0 (eg. Tm0) is an initializing function.
a valuable resource to search for best performance of controls, The S/H component will sample and hold its input as an
output at the time the “hold” input signal changes from
maximum switching transient overvoltages, and changing the integer 0 to integer 1 (as “ENAB” does in this case when a
type and application of disturbances. governor is not required).
Multiple Runs can be accomplished by two methods:
1. Using the Multiple Run component with the following

features:
- Up to six variables can be modified with different
values for each successive run. Multiple Run components in the I/O_Devices page of the
- Operate in either sequential or random mode. Master Library.
- Support for real and integer variable types

- Up to six input variables can be recorded for each
run.
- Automatic processing of input variables (min, max,
|max|, Integral Square Error).
- Statistical summary of the recorded data.
2. Manually defining the multiple run variables with these

limited features:
- Set the number of runs in the Case Properties from
the Project Tree.
- Variables for the current run number and the number
Selecting the number of signals output for the Multiple Run
of runs can be used in conjunction with any other component. Sequential or Random mode may be selected.
components to create multiple run variables. Control Note that the multiple run feature can be disabled if only a
blocks or logic functions can then use the current single run is required.
run number and the total number of runs as input to

compute the variables being modified for each run.
If the Multiple Run component is used, it will automatically set

the number of runs depending on the selected variation method.
More than one Multiple Run component can be placed in the
same circuit, but only one of them can be enabled during a
particular run. For Multiple Run components that are disabled,
parameter values should be entered in the “Real” (or “Integer”)
fields of the first data sheet.
If a Multiple Run component is used, the multiple run setting in

Case Properties from the Project Tree must be left set at 0 runs. Data sheet for Multiple Run component defining the
recording channels information.
Open
ENERGIZING TRANSIENTS
Time contacts
Decreasing withstand voltage
The traditional method of representing a circuit breaker for
begin to closing
energizing transmission lines, transformers, capacitor banks, etc.
in transient studies is to assume that the contacts can close on
any part of the cycle. In reality, there is a closing time between
when the contacts start to close and when they finally make.
Prestrike
Somewhere in between, an arc may strike across the contacts as
1.0
they close. This is known as “pre-strike.”
Breaker Pre-Strike
Closed The vertical axis in the figure is a measure of the withstand volt-
0 Tim
age across the circuit breaker contacts. In the open position, the
Time contacts fully close
withstand voltage of the circuit breaker will be a per unit value of
Pre-strike effect in closing circuit breakers with a finite rated voltage. The time varying value of voltage across the open
closing time. contacts is depicted as an absolute function of the alternating
Speed of operation of a 230 kV, SF6 circuit breaker was voltage across the contacts. As the contacts close, the withstand
found to vary with temperature, SF6 pressure, hydraulic voltage reduces as the separation distance between the contacts
energy and dc voltage according to a test undertaken by
the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre as follows: reduces. When the voltage across the contacts exceeds the
reducing withstand voltage of the insulating medium between
Variations in closing speed: 8-10%
them, pre-strike occurs.
Variations in opening speed: 5-6%
One supplier provided the following circuit breaker closing As a result of the pre-strike, there will be a greater tendency for
times: effective closing to occur with rising or maximum voltage across
110 kV 30 +/- 10 msec. the contacts. For slow contact closing, there will even be a
220 kV 65 +/- 8 msec. shadow effect where it will not be possible for effective closing to
220 kV 80 +/- 5 msec.
500 kV 80 +/- 5 msec. occur over a portion of the cycle.
A user-defined component has been developed to model the

pre-strike effect of circuit breaker closing. The closing time is
specified in msec. However, each phase may close with a slightly
different speed, and so a standard deviation is specified in the
component. During a multiple run, each phase of the circuit
breaker closes based on the mean closing time and the variation
on this defined by the standard deviation.
To ensure there is a random initiation of the circuit breaker clos-

ing, the Breaker Pre-strike component has an input designated
TD that is a time delay (in msecs) before the poles actually com-
User defined component for modeling circuit breaker pre- mence to close after the Timed Breaker Logic component (or
strike along with a Multiple Run component to generate other signal) has initiated closing. By randomly changing TD with
a random time over a one cycle spread for the contacts to
commence closing.
the Multiple Run component over a period of one cycle (0 - 20
msec if a 50 Hz system or 0 - 16.667 msec if a 60 Hz system) dur-
The Breaker Pre-strike component has a built-in statistical
function that computes the individual pole closing time
ing successive runs, line energizing studies can be accomplished.
from the standard deviation of closing time. A probability distribution of maximum line energization overvolt-
ages can be obtained as impacted by breaker pre-strike and the
Breaker Pre-strick component. Input Bk is to initiate three
phase circuit breaker closing or opening (0 to close, 1 to random closing period over one cycle.
open), TD is the delay time (msec) before the contacts
actually commence to close after initiated by signal to
Bk. Output signals Bka, Bkb and Bkc are the actual circuit
The record of maximum line energization overvoltages for each
breaker contact make or break indicators. randomly switched closing is preserved in a multiple run output
file designated in the Multiple Run component properties sheet
Edit Parameters Recording Data Config Base Output File Name.
This multiple run output file must have an “.out” extension, and
will record all the output channels of the Multiple Run compo-
nent for each run in one file. The output is statistically processed
for a probability distribution of maximum line overvoltages for

use in transmission line design.
SWITCHING SURGE DATA REQUIREMENTS

AC insulation coordination studies will investigate surge arrester
ratings and insulation levels for substation equipment. The stud-
ies will provide a check for, and the coordination of, the Basic
Impulse Levels (BIL) of existing and new AC substation equip-
ment. For substations with voltages up to 110 kV and 220 kV,
lightning will have the major impact on surge arrester selection.
For substation equipment at 345 kV and higher, transient over-
voltages from switching surges may have greater impact on surge
arrester selection and substation equipment insulation levels.
Data sheet for Circuit Breaker Pre-Strike component
defining essential input parameters for multiple run analysis
System Equivalents for Switching Surge TOV Studies of energization.
A reduced network diagram must be developed which should Note: Contact withstand strength should exceed the peak
include detailed transmission line and transformer data for at transient recovery voltage for the circuit breaker. Based on
IEC Standard 60056, the peak transient recovery voltage is
least two busbars away from the substation busbars under study 1.82 per unit for HV circuit breakers.
(for the network representation beyond the two busbars, a three
Even though switching surges may not have the major
phase equivalent source with positive and zero sequence imped- impact on substation insulation design and coordination
ances can be applied at the second busbar removed from the at voltages below 345 kV where lightning effects could be
busbar under study which serves as an interface busbar). The dominant, transient recovery voltages on circuit breakers
have to be evaluated by studies which utilize switching
value of the source impedances will be based on the short circuit surge level data.
impedances.
Total network to be reduced

for transient overvoltage
studies.
Short circuit impedances for the short circuit capacity

contributed by the portion of the system which is not to
be included in detail in the rest of the system but has been
reduced to provide the same short circuit capacity at busses
A and B as if the total network was represented. Note that
Reduced system for transient the short circuit impedances are representing the reduced
overvoltage studies. equivalent of the network beyond two busses away from
the main busses A and B being studied.
The network example shown below is to have the portion in

thicker lines modeled in detail in PSCAD/EMTDC for study of the
transmission line between Station A and Station B. The net-
work portion shown by thin lines is to be reduced to short circuit
equivalents X1, X2 and X3, as also shown below.
The short circuit impedances X1, X2 and X3 shown in this ex-

ample should be more than just a simple inductance. At the
very least, the sources should represent a resistive portion mod-

eled with the series R-R//L impedance configuration of the Three
Phase Voltage Source component. The zero sequence portion
It may not always be possible to obtain the equivalent short of the short circuit impedances should also be modeled with the
circuit impedances X1, X2 and X3 as described above.
Another way to ensure they are correctly entered if they sources. It is preferable that X1, X2 and X3 should be frequency
are not available, but the total short circuit capacity at dependent network equivalents.
each location is known, is to build the case with estimated
values for X1, X2 and X3. Then, when the model is fully
assembled, apply short circuits at the strategic busses, and The short circuit impedances X1, X2 and X3, as described above
manually vary X1, X2 and X3 until the desired short circuit for each of the Three Phase Voltage Source components, are re-
capacities are measured.
quired both for maximum expected short circuit capacity over the
life of the station equipment, and for minimum expected short
circuit capacity.
Power Flow Conditions

Typically, the investigation should cover the probable/worst
system operating conditions throughout the expected life of the
equipment. The power flow should include fundamental fre-
quency voltage angles and magnitudes so that the internal source
voltages and angles can be determined.
The load flow conditions for maximum expected power flow

through the study system at maximum and minimum short circuit
capacity are typically used in studies. Another load condition
may be a light power flow condition for maximum and minimum
short circuit capacity.
Transmission Line Data

Transmission line and cable data is applied to the line and
For each transmission line represented in the network diagram,
cable constants components of PSCAD to generate the line dimensions and data are required. This can be given at the
and cable models. tower, and should include conductor sag. Shield wire dimensions
and resistance should also be provided. The transmission line
data required includes:
• Transmission line conductor diameter and resistance per

unit length (can also be selected from a user-defined list
for standard/commonly used conductors).
• Total length of each transmission line.
• Phase transformation data and distances between phase
transformations.
• Spacing between conductors in a phase bundle.
• Spacing between phases.
• Shield wire diameter and resistance per unit length.
• Height of each conductor and shield wire at the tower
and sag to midspan, or average height of each conductor
and shield wire above ground.
• Tower dimensions (a diagram of the towers with
dimensions is useful).
• Ground conductivity.
Transformer Data
For each transformer to be represented in detail, the following
information is required for the PSCAD transformer components:
• Transformer MVA rating.

• Winding configuration and winding voltage.
• Transformer tap change ranges and normal setting.
• Leakage reactances between windings (this information
can be obtained from the load flow data used in system
operating studies if not readily available from the name
plate data).
• Knee point of transformer core saturation characteristic
in per unit of rated flux or voltage.
• Estimated saturated air core reactance of transformer
and the winding it is based on (see PSCAD online help
for more details).
Circuit Breakers
The locations of the circuit breakers that will be switched must be
identified on the study system network diagram. Other param-
eters of the circuit breakers should be determined from the study:
• Protection delay or clearing times.

• Maximum fundamental frequency switching voltage.
• Maximum capacitive switching capability.
• Reclosing sequences and whether they will be used.
• Rated transient recovery voltage and maximum rate of
rise of transient recovery voltage.
• Mechanical closing time (msec) and variation in pole
closing times. This is of particular importance if point-
on-wave closing is to be investigated.
• Half cycle closing resistor range of values and the
additional cost for such.
Surge Arresters
The expected location and rating of surge arresters should be
provided. The minimum ratings, and in particular the energy
absorption capability, will be determined from the studies.
Shunt Reactors
The location of shunt reactors should be identified. This will in-
clude whether they are line connected (located on the line side of
the energizing circuit breakers) or bus connected (located on the
station side of the line energizing circuit breakers). Information Configuration of line connected shunt reactors with a
on whether the shunt reactors are switched and if so, the time neutral reactor for compensating long AC lines utilizing
single pole reclosing.
it takes to close its switch to connect it into service and the time
delay to switch it out of service.
The reactor rating should be supplied along with its characteristic

if it is a saturating reactor. If single pole switching is required for
the transmission line, line connected shunt reactors connected to
a neutral reactor may be necessary on long lines to assist in the
reduction of secondary arc current.
Note: A saturable reactor can be implemented in PSCAD using a

suitable transformer model.
Note: The grounding impedance of different equipment will have

an impact on the magnitude and the nature of the transients and
the over-voltages.
Shunt and Series Capacitors

It is important to include shunt and series capacitor data and the
associated equipment, such as switches, circuit breakers, surge
arresters, etc. to ensure their effects are included in the transients
study.
Note: In series capacitor related studies, the bypass protection of

the capacitors may have to be adequately represented.
FAST FRONT STUDY DATA

Lightning effects generally occur over 50 to 100 μsecs
and consequently, line lengths need only be long enough Lightning studies are important for insulation design of stations
to ensure that wave reflections return after they have any at voltages below 345 kV. The system modeled for lightning
impact on surge arrester operation.
studies will largely entail a fast front model of the busbar under
To minimize reflection effects if an overhead transmission study, the transmission lines directly connected to the busbar for
line is modeled for fast fronts with a shorter length, they
can be terminated with resistors representing the surge several kilometers away, and the transformers also connected to
impedance of the line located at the end away from the the busbar.
busbar under study.
Station Layout
A detailed station layout diagram is required which should con-
tain or be accompanied by the following information:
• Physical length of each busbar section between station

equipment.
• Location of each circuit breaker.
• Location of each transformer.
• Location of wound potential transformers and lead
length.
• Location of capacitive divider potential transformers and
lead length.
• Location of current transformers.
• Location of shunt reactors (and shunt capacitors) and
lead lengths.
Calculation time steps for steep front studies of transmission • Location of disconnect switches.
stations is usually in the range of 20 to 50 nanoseconds.
• Location of every transmission line entrance.
• Power line carrier blocking filters and the filter values

(ohm, μF and H).
• Anticipated location of surge arresters and tentative
ratings.
Busbar Dimensions
The fast front surge usually enters the station from a transmis-
sion line as a result of lightning striking a tower top or shield wire
near the station causing a back flashover, or directly onto a phase
conductor. The surge propagates through the station along the
busbar. It is appropriate to represent the overhead busbar as a
transmission line if its length is greater than the length of wave
propagation over two calculation time steps. The data required is
similar to that for transmission lines as follows:
Busbar and transmission line dimensions
• Busbar conductor diameter and resistance per unit
length.
Ground conductivity for the line constants component for
• Spacing between busbar conductors and phases. calculation of transmission lines for busbar sections can
be assumed to be low because of the station ground mat.
Values of 1 to 10 Ù-metre may be suitable.
• Average height (or height at supports and sag) of each
busbar conductor above ground.
• Length of any vertical sections of busbar.
Overhead busbar sections and lead lengths shorter than the H L

wave propagation distance of two time steps can be modeled as
lumped inductance at 1 ¼H/metre.
Transformer Data
Each transformer connected to the station busbar under study
will have a strong influence on fast front surges due to the domi- Equivalent circuit of the capacitance coupling of one phase
nant bushing and winding capacitances. Usually the bushing of a two winding transformer.
and winding capacitances are lumped values determined by test
measurements. The magnetic coupling and winding inductance
are considered to have no effect for fast front surges.
H L
If the transformer is considered open circuited except at the
winding connected to the busbar under study, the winding ca-
pacitances can be lumped into a single value for that bus connec- T
tion.
Transformer Winding Capacitances

Manitoba Hydro measured lumped winding capacitances on two
Equivalent circuit of the capacitance coupling of one phase
winding single phase distribution transformers with 600 volt of a three winding transformer.
secondary windings. This information is provided as a resource as
follows: Measured winding capacitances one phase of a Y-Y-Ä HVDC
converter transformer, whose three phase rating is 341
Legend: MVA, 138/134/13.8 kV as follows:
CH = 13,000 pF (winding closest to core)

CH = Capacitance H to Ground (pF) CL = 4,000 pF
CT = 10,000 pF
CHL = 4,000 pF
CL = Capacitance L to Ground (pF) CHT = 6,000 pF
CLT = 8,000 pF
CHL = Capacitance H to L (pF) Note: Phase-to-phase capacitances are considered
negligible.
Example of energizing a transmission line with Point- NOTE: IEEE Standard C37.011-1994 lists typical stray capacitance
on-Wave closing.
values of station equipment.
Consider the 500 kV transmission line:
SWITCHING SURGE TOV STUDIES

The objective for switching surge transient overvoltage studies is
to size surge arresters and ensure equipment insulation levels are
Each pole of the circuit breaker must be individually adequate. For EHV lines and stations where switching surges are
controlled. The closing signal “BKA” for the pole on phase
A must be initiated knowing that the closing time of the a deciding factor in this regard, there is incentive to minimize the
pole is fast and consistent. The same applies for the other transient overvoltages to lower new equipment costs or limit the
two breaker poles.
voltage stresses on aging equipment still in service.
Limiting Fundamental Frequency Load Rejection

Overvoltags
It is inevitable that when one end of a heavily loaded and long
transmission line opens up because of a fault in the ac system,
Consider Phase A:
the delay before the protection cross trips the other end to de-
Supply side phase voltage VSA is monitored and the energize the line may result in a large load rejection fundamental
absolute value of the signal is fed into a comparator. This
establishes a common reference time if the closing signal
frequency overvoltage with possible harmonic voltages superim-
BK1 is received to initiate breaker closing. posed. Careful design is required to ensure the overvoltage is not
The Statistical Breaker Close component receives the
greater than the equipment or nearby loads can withstand. The
“close” signal, but it is delayed by manual setting BTDX and circuit breaker to clear the transmission line must be able to break
a random statistical varying signal BTDA (from the Multiple the capacitive current of the open circuited line at the load rejec-
Run Component).
tion overvoltage. This may entail having line reactors or control-
led or rapidly switched compensation in place to assist the circuit
breaker in this duty.
Line Energizing
There are a number of line energizing contingencies that need to
be examined for impact of switching surge TOVs. These include:
Signals VMA, VMB and VMC are line end voltages. Signal
BTD randomly initiates circuit breaker closing over one 1. Energizing or reclosing the transmission line with a single
cycle. Signal BTBA adds a 0.1 msec random variation to line to ground fault on the line.
manual delay adjustment BTDX, which is adjusted by trial
and error for pole closing at voltage zero. Signal BTA is fed
2. Out-of-step closing, or closing with a large angle and
to the Statistical Breaker Close Components on the other voltage across the circuit breaker.
two phases. Signal BK1 from the Timed Breaker Logic 3. Energizing a transformer, or a transformer and a
Component is also fed to the other two phases.
transmission line.
A statistical switching study undertaken for these cases and vari-
ations thereof will determine the maximum switching transients
possible. The accumulated probability of distribution of transient
overvoltages can be determined using the multiple run feature of
PSCAD and the Breaker Pre-Strike component discussed above.
From the most severe conditions, the voltage stresses and arrester
duties can be examined and adjustments made.
Reduced switching surge transient overvoltages can be designed

with closing resistors or point-on-wave closing.
Shunt Capacitor Switching

Shunt capacitors, when switched or when fixed away from where
the switching is occurring, can cause significant transient volt-
ages. The transient overvoltages tests because of capacitor bank
Capacitor switching configurations that can lead to switching are [2]:
overvoltages.
1. Capacitor bank energization. If the system impedance TRV

is inductive and lightly damped, the energization of the
capacitor bank will set up oscillating voltages. E2
2. Resonance with lower voltage capacitors. If a fixed
Rate of rise of TRV for circuit breaker
capacitor bank is removed from the bank being at rated or designated current.
energized through a transformer, the normal oscillations

1.5Em
generated on the main bank being energized can set Em
up sympathetic oscillations with it. The overvoltages on
the fixed bank may be larger than across the bank being
energized.
3. Transformer phase-to-phase overvoltages. Transient
overvoltages generated by capacitor bank energizing
can reflect at a transformer terminal and are limited by
the surge arresters. If the transient overvoltages are of
opposite polarity on two phases, the phase-to-phase tr t2 time
transient overvoltages may be twice the line-to-ground
overvoltages and be very stressful to the transformer. For TRV analysis, the above curves can be defined based on
4. Breaker re-strike. The surge arrester across the capacitor the published capabilities of the circuit breaker:
bank may be stressed if the circuit breaker re-strikes. It is E2 = Maximum TRV published for the breaker. May
usual to size the surge arrester to withstand one re-strike, be a function of load current and power factor.
This is a 1-Cos curve at fundamental frequency.
even when the circuit breaker is designed to be “re-strike
free.” Em = The line-to-ground component of the TRV at
fundamental frequency.
5. Switching capacitor banks back-to-back. To limit the
inrush current due to back-to-back switching, an inductor tr = Time the first reflection is observed.
is placed in series with the capacitor bank. At rated current, the circuit breaker can then be applied if
6. Capacitor discharge into nearby fault. A current limiting the observed TRV lies below the defined envelope. Use the
three phase ungrounded fault for the test.
reactor will limit the peak discharge current from the
capacitor bank into a nearby fault. ANSI standards The concept of Initial TRV (ITRV) is introduced by IEC
Standard 60056 (1987-03). This is due to substation
establish a maximum value of 2 * 107 for the product reflections and may cause initial higher rate-of-rise but to
of the peak magnitude of the discharge current and its a smaller initial amplitude. An ITRV envelope is defined to
accommodate ITRV.
frequency.
ITRV is neglected for metal enclosed switchgear and when
Other overvoltages of concern are generated by load rejection rated short circuit current is less than 25 kA.
overvoltages which in causing nearby transformer saturation may,
through resonances, lead to prolonged harmonic overvoltages on
the terminals of the transformer or other equipment.
Capacitor switching surge overvoltages can be limited by circuit

breaker closing resistors and capacitor bank current limiting reac-
tors. Voltage
UC
TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE (TRV)
Transient recovery voltage of a circuit breaker is the difference
of voltage measured between each side of the circuit breaker to
ground. u1
Initial TRV (ITRV) envelope.
The most severe TRV from an amplitude point of view, follows

the interruption of the first phase to clear an ungrounded three
phase fault. The shift in system neutral results in a high ampli- 0.5u
tude TRV. However, the probability of this fault ever occurring is
low, but it is a basis for rating a circuit breaker’s TRV capability.
2us t1 t2 time
A circuit breaker clearing a capacitor bank is also prone to re-

strike due to the TRV.
The transmission lines and equipment connected to the station

busbar impact the TRV for the three phase ungrounded fault test.
In studying the transient recovery voltage, ensure that all suitable
lines, transformers and bus equipment are represented in the
transient simulation. It is a good idea to include a lumped capaci-
tor to ground on each phase of the station busbar to encompass
all bushing, winding and stray capacitances which might exist at
the station. The value used will be an approximation dependent
upon the number of transformers and other equipment con-
nected to the busbar.
(See IEEE Standard C37.011-1994 for typical stray capacitance

values)
The most severe case for rate of rise of TRV is when the circuit
breaker is fed from only transformers (no other transmission lines)
from its substation side. When the circuit breaker opens to clear
the line fault, it does so at a current zero. But since the fault is
Definition of TRV in IEC 60056 (1987-03)
fed through the transformer, which is inductive, the current zero
U kV u1 kV t1 μsec uc kV t2 μsec for current extinction corresponds to a voltage maximum for the
123 131/151 65/75 183/211 195/225 source voltage behind the transformer. Consequently, there is
145 154/178 77/89 215/249 231/267 a fast rise of voltage on the transformer terminal of the cleared
245 260 130 364 390
300 318 159 446 477
phase, limited only by the capacitances of the transformer wind-
362 384 192 538 576 ings, bushings, buswork, circuit breakers, voltage transformers,
420 446 223 624 669 etc. When there are only one or more transformers feeding the
525 557 279 780 837
fault clearing circuit breaker, these capacitances should be lumped
765 812 406 1137 1218
onto the bus on the substation side of the circuit breaker.
For specifying TRV, u1/t1 and uc may be used. Rate of rise u1/t1 is a
maximum of 2 kV/sec. Many modern circuit breakers have a grading capacitor across
First-pole-to-clear factor = 1.3 or 1.3/1.5 each set of main contacts that helps limit rate-of-rise of TRV. For
modern classes of SF6 circuit breakers, it is typical to have 800 to
Voltage
1600 pF across each set of contacts. 1500 pF is a normal value to
use if a specific circuit breaker is not being studied. 230 kV circuit
Definition of TRV under 100kV
breakers will have two heads in series so that 750 pF can be used.
500 kV circuit breakers have four heads in series resulting in 375
UC
Initial TRV (ITRV) envelope. pF as the equivalent value to use.
The grading capacitor will have negligible effect if there are one
or more transmission lines in operation at the substation bus
0.57UC where the circuit breaker being switched is located. Where the
fault clearing circuit breaker is only connected to transformers at
the substation, the grading capacitor should be included in the
td t3 time
model along with a lumped shunt capacitor for the transformer
windings, bushing, buswork, voltage transformers, etc. Although
TRV under 100 kV in IEC 60056 (1987-03)
fast front modeling is not required, the calculation time step
U kV uc kV t3 μsec td μsec uc/ t3
should be around 10 to 20 sec when adding these capacitors
3.6 6.2 40 6 0.15 rather than the normal 50 sec.
7.2 12.3 52 8 0.24
17.5 30 72 11 0.42 According to IEC 60056 standard, circuit breakers directly con-
24 41 88 13 0.47
36 62 108 16 0.57
nected only to transformers without appreciable additional
52 89 132 7 0.68 capacitance between the circuit breaker and transformer, the
72.5 124 166 8 0.75
standard values for TRV shall be subject to agreement between

manufacturer and user.
Plotting TRV limits. The TRV measurements from each

pole of the circuit breaker (TRVA, TRVB and TRVC) are
summed to trigger a timer (an Integrator whose output is
in seconds) when the circuit breaker commences to open.
The Non-linear Transfer Characteristic component defines
the TRV limits and can be plotted with the measured TRV
for comparison.
REFERENCES
1. D.A. Woodford, L.M. Wedepohl, “Impact of Circuit
Breaker Pre-Strike on Transmission Line Energization
Transients,” IPST’97, International Conference on Power
Systems Transients, Seattle, June 22-26, 1997, pp250-
253.
2. “Modeling and Analysis of System Transients Using
Digital Programs,” IEEE Publication No. TP-133-0, 1998,
Section 4, Switching Transients.
EXERCISE
2.1 Load Lesson2_1 in Section2. This is the transmission
line case studied in Lesson3_1 but with the circuit
breakers added to energize the transmission line. The
user defined component for circuit breaker pre-strike is
included. Run the case and see if it operates correctly.
Replace the slider defining the delay before the contacts
To load Lesson2_1, if you are changing the directory to run
commence closing [TD] with a multiple run component. the case, you must transfer both the case file Example2_
Set it up to initiate random closing over a one cycle 1.psc as well as the FORTRAN file for the Circuit Breaker
Prestrike component Swlib.f into the new directory.
period. Set the case to run with 20 or more multiple
runs and search for the maximum line end voltage. If the case does not run because the component is not in
place correctly, see the course teacher or contact the Centre
Repeat the case with one phase at the open end at [email protected] .
solidly grounded and search for the maximum line end
overvoltage.
Chapter 3:
Controls
Network analysis without controls analysis would be very limiting.
Systems may consist of both, and each may be non-linear. For
example, power electronic controllers, networks with saturating
transformers, and protection systems require simulation methods
of study with both advanced network and controls capability.
Continuous Systems Modelling Functions (CSMF) are assembled

into the Master Library and provide basic linear and non-linear
control components. It is recognized that not all functions are
provided in the CSMF page in the Master Library. PSCAD/EMTDC
provides the capability to construct user defined functions, but this
is covered in a later section, and some guidelines to do this are CSMF page in the Master Library.
When undertaking an important study, it is always best
presented in the PSCAD On-line Help. A simple way to create a if verification of results can be achieved by some method
user defined function as a page component is covered in section 5 other than simulation. Perhaps a mathematical modeling
of the PSCAD User’s Guide, or in the PSCAD on-line help. analysis can be applied by taking suitable approximations
and linearizations.
The simulation analysis can be as precise as the known data

CSMF COMPONENTS allows, but if non-linearities are present, an orderly study
procedure involving trial and error methods with rigorous
testing may be needed.
A number of basic examples are presented to illustrate some of the
applications possible with CSMF. A system of CSMF components,
whether simple or complex, can be linked to an electric network.
Note that CSMF components can be used to simulate dynamic or
logic systems without any electrical network.
Each CSMF component has On-Line Help available. When assem-

bling a dynamic system from CSMF components, it can be formed
as a block diagram using PSCAD. Any interface to a network is
achieved with voltage and current transducers as inputs. Active
power, reactive power, rms voltage and current measurements,
phase angle, measured frequency and harmonic frequencies can
all be used as inputs to a system comprising one or more CSMF
components.
Interface components generating signals from the network
Output from CSMF components may be used to control voltage as inputs to CSMF components.
and current sources, switching signals or firing pulses for thyristors,
GTOs or IGBTs. It is possible to dynamically control the value of
resistors, inductors and capacitors. CSMF components can also be
used for signal analysis and outputs from such may be directed to
on-line plots or meters. It should be noted that interpolation com-
patibility is added to current CSMF components when applicable.
Network components which can receive output signals from

CSMF components.
Chapter 3: Controls
USE OF SLIDER, SWITCH, BUTTON AND DIAL

To cause parameters to be modified on-line by the user while a
case is running or in pause mode requires application of the slider,
switch, button or dial components.
For modification of parameters during a run, each must be ac-

companied by a control panel and be linked to it. They can be
used as follows:
The Slider is like a slide potentiometer and can adjust in

steps of 0.01 of the maximum and minimum range. It is
useful for set points in control systems, such as desired
voltage in a voltage controller. It is also useful for gain
changing, limit changing and new time constant values.
The Switch enables two states to be selected and is

useful for turning a portion of the controls on or off,
changing gains, initiating a switch, creating disturbances
or forcing initial conditions on a controller during start-up
before a snapshot is taken.
Use of a slider as a set point
The Button can be used for initiating a sequence or

disturbance, or forcing a reset.
Example use of a switch for breaker control
Use of a button to initiate a line fault
The Dial allows 3 to 10 user specified parameters to

be selected based on position. When a study requires
similar cases run with different disturbances, each can be
pre-defined and selected by the dial before the case is
run from the snapshot. For example, each dial position
might represent a different magnitude of lightning cur-
rent for a lightning insulation coordination study.
Use of a dial to change fault type
The procedure for linking the slider, switch, button or dial compo-
nent to a control panel is as follows:
1. Place a control panel on the page where it will be

obvious what it is being used for. There are two ways to
place a control panel on the page. The first is to place
the mouse cursor on a blank part of the page near where
the control panel is to be located, hold down the right
mouse button, select Add a Control Panel, lift right
mouse button. The other way is to open up the Master
Library and go to the I/O_Devices page and open it up.
The control panel is copied and pasted on the project Control panel with components linked to it
page. Note that if the control panel is copied from the
A title for the control panel can be placed in the top bar.
Master Library, it may have sliders, meters etc., already This is done by placing the cursor on the control panel
pasted in it. These should be deleted before proceeding. top bar, hold down the right mouse button, select Panel
Properties. A Control Panel Properties panel will open up
2. Now the actual slider, switch, button or dial components which has provision for the title to be added or changed.
already located on your page must be linked to The order in which two or more sliders, switches, buttons
the control panel. Place the mouse cursor on the or dials appear on the control panel can be changed. Place
mouse cursor on the slider, switch, button or dial to be
component, hold down the right mouse button, select repositioned, select Set Control Order and one of Move
Input/Output Reference, Add as Control. Lift right Left, Move Right, Left Most or Right Most.
mouse button. Place mouse cursor on the top bar of NOTE: a meter linked from an output channel can also be
the control panel, hold down right mouse button, select placed on a control panel. This is a similar process to linking
the slider, switch, button or dial components to the control
Paste, lift right mouse button. The controller for the panel.
component should appear on the control panel.
To link a meter to a control panel, place the mouse cursor
3. Place all slider, switch, button or dial components on on the desired output channel, hold down the right mouse
button, select Input/Output Reference, Add as Meter,
this or other control panels. If a component is not lift right mouse button. Place mouse cursor on top bar of
linked to a control panel, it will function at the constant, control panel, hold down right mouse button, select Paste,
lift right mouse button.
uncontrolled level defined by its initial value setting.
Chapter 3: Controls
APPLICATIONS FOR CSMF COMPONENTS

Filtering with a Second Order Function
The first example considers use of a second order function as a
filter. From the Master Library under the CSMF page, a selection
of second order functions is available for use as filters. These are:
High, Mid, Low 2nd order filters from the CSMF library
The On-Line Help available for the second order functions explains
their Laplacian formulation. For this application, a low pass filter
is explained. A low pass filter is the most useful filter as it serves
to attenuate signal noise. Understanding the theory of filters
enables the parameter selection for the second order components
to be chosen wisely. The Laplacian formulation for a low pass
second order filter is:
LP(s) = __________
1
2ξs ___
1 + ___ s2
ω0 + ω 2
0
Where:
ξ = damping ratio = Cos(θ)

ω0 = characteristic frequency (rad/sec)
This component is the same as the second order low pass
s = Laplacian operator
filter.
Any frequencies greater than ω0 will be attenuated providing the
function is optimally damped with ξ selected at approximately 0.7
(θ = 45°).
When entering the parameters for a second order filter com-

ponent (place mouse cursor on the component, hold down
the right button and select Edit Parameters, lift right button.
Alternatively, place mouse cursor on the component and double
click the left button), the characteristic frequency is entered in Hz
rather than radians/second.
An example where second order filters can be used is in the volt-

age feedback signal to a voltage controller. The low pass filter
can effectively inhibit high frequency noise and if specific frequen-
cies are to be blocked, such as fundamental power frequency
or 2nd harmonic, second order blocking filters can be applied.
Blocking filters will in general be more effective if their damping
factor is reduced to a small value. However, if it gets too close to
0.0, the filter will lose effectiveness by being too undamped.
Timer to Change a Parameter

A useful function in the CSMF library is the Single Input Level
Comparator. It is often used to cause an action during a case
start-up sequence. For example, when running up a snapshot for
Entering parameters of second order filter.
a power electronics case, the first requirement is to establish volt-

age, then to deblock the firing pulses to the thyristors, GTOs, etc.
The input signal can be TIME from the Time component. When
TIME exceeds the level set in the Single Input Level Comparator,
its output will change state causing the necessary action.
The above figure is a voltage feedback signal for an

SVC voltage frequency controller. The first filter is a low
pass, the other two filters are blocking any fundamental
frequency or second harmonic component of the measured
voltage.
Dialogue box for Single Level Input Comparator showing settings.
Controlling an AC Source
The Source library within the Master Library contains a number of
single and three phase voltage sources. The voltage sources can
be self-regulating if that option is chosen.
The sources can also be externally regulated. The obvious way

is to control the phase, frequency or magnitude of the voltage
source with sliders. One other option is to use a control circuit
to regulate the controllable parameters. A simple example is to
cause a simple three-phase source to have the characteristics of a Here a slider is used to set a value for the “Tstart” signal.
synchronous generator with electromechanical phase oscillating When it’s exceeded by TIME, the output of the Single Input
Level Comparator changes from 0 to 1, thus deblocking the
properties of a “classical machine model.” firing pulses.
This is simply accomplished by ensuring the three-phase source

used is controlled “externally.” Power is measured at the termi-
nals of the source, and after comparing the measured value of A self-regulating voltage source will attempt to maintain
power with the desired level, it is integrated twice. the rms value of its terminal voltage constant according to a
specified time constant, and/or control the power flow from
its terminals without any external controller.
The output of the first integrator approximates incremental rotor
speed in radians per second. The output of the second integrator
produces rotor (source) phase angle in radians that is fed into the
source model.
The time constant required for the first integrator is:

2· H · MVa
z = _________ Example of creating a simple classical synchronous
2πƒ generator model from an externally controlled three-phase
source. Note that the feedback around the first integrator
Where: is for damping.
Chapter 3: Controls
H = Inertia (MW-Sec/MVA)
MVA = Machine rating (MVA)
ƒ = System Frequency (Hz)
The time constant for the second integrator is 1.0
A damping constant must be included as feedback around the

first integrator. This is adjusted to whatever damping of mechani-
cal swings is desired.If left out, the electromechanical damping
will be negative because of the inherent lag in the power calcula-
tion.
Measuring Relative Phase Angle

If there is ever a need to measure phase angle between two
three-phase busbars, the Phase Difference component located in
the Meters library of the Master Library can be used. However,
with unbalance and harmonic distortion in the phase voltages,
the measured phase angle will be very noisy.
For the case where voltage distortion and phase unbalance exists,
then one procedure to generate voltage phase angle between
two three-phase busbars is based on the Phase-Locked Loop
(PLL) component found in the CSMF library. This component has
superior measurement capabilities in synchronizing to a three-
phase voltage with significant distortion. Therefore, the method
of phase angle measurement simply consists of locating a Phase-
Locked Loop component at each three-phase busbar, re-create a
three-phase voltage from its output, which will be balanced and
almost free of distortion, and then use the Phase Difference com-
The output of the Phase-Locked Loop component is a ramp ponent to measure the resulting phase angle.
function climbing between 0 to 360 degrees once every
cycle of the frequency it is locked into.
Current
Measuring relative voltage phase angle between two three-phase bus bars
Building an Inverse Time Function

Components in the CSMF library can be applied to measurement,
Protective level M.O.
signal processing, protective and control functions. An inverse

time function is useful in overcurrent relaying, or representing the
protective action of a fuse.
The signal representing the quantity to be protected by the

Time inverse time function (such as current) is processed through an
integrator. The protective level is set by subtraction from the

absolute value of the input signal. The speed of response is
determined by the value of the time constant of the integrator.
Whenever the output of the integrator passes a specified level
(say 1.0), it instigates the trip action of the inverse time function.
The minimum internal limit of the integrator is set to 0.0. This

means that with the input signal less than the protective level,
the output of the integrator will remain at zero. The output trip
signal will go from 0 to 1 and lock at 1. A reset on the integrator
component would need to be added if it is required during the
run.
EXERCISES
3.1 A second order component configured as a low pass The Output Trip signal is locked up using the Maximum/
filter is used to filter a 5th harmonic from a signal Minimum Function component as a “select maximum”
with a feedback. A special one-time step delay component
containing a fundamental frequency component (50 Hz) can be inserted at strategic locations in feedback control
and a 5th harmonic (250 Hz). Replace the 2nd order low systems to force a desired sequence of processing. It is not
needed in this instance but has been inserted as shown. It
pass filter with a low pass Butterworth filter. Experiment is found on the main page of the Master Library:
with the Butterworth filter to achieve best blocking
of the 5th harmonic and allowing the fundamental
frequency component of the input signal to pass.
3.2 Build a simple exciter for the classical machine model
created from an externally controlled source as
demonstrated above. The configuration of a simple solid
state exciter is as shown. Enter parameters you might
consider realistic and see if performance is stable.
3.3 Develop a 10 amp rms fuse with a protective level
(minimum operating) of 15 amp rms. If the current
should increase to 20 amps rms, it will open up at the
first current zero after 0.1 seconds. Simple exciter model for classical machine model for use in
Exercise 3.2.
Chapter 4:
Surge Arresters
Metal oxide surge arresters (MOVs), when carefully chosen, provide Voltage in p.u. of rated voltage (crest value)
a compromise between the protective levels, temporary overvolt-

age (TOV) and energy absorption capability. Selecting a higher
rated surge arrester increases its TOV capacity and thus its abil- 2.5
ity to survive system voltage stresses, but reduces the margin of
2.0
protection provided by the arrester for a given protective level. An
Vpu of crest value

Lightning protection level
arrester with a higher energy capability reduces the risk of failure 1.5
Switching protection level
but at increased costs. Rated voltage UR
1.0
Continuous operating voltage UC
Voltage considerations that need to be understood and evaluated 0.5
when selecting an arrester include: 0.0
1. Continuous operating voltage (COV, MCOV or Uca). By 0.00001 0.001 0.1 10 1000 100k
definition, this is “the designated permissible r.m.s. Current (A)
value of power frequency voltage that may be applied Typical voltage - current characteristics of MOV
continuously between the arrester terminals.” Since
harmonics may be present, Uca is taken as the system
voltage crest divided by √2 or if the harmonics are not Definitions
known, divide the system voltage (L_L) crest by √6 for
Rated Arrester Voltage Ur . The rated voltage is the highest
normal phase to ground arresters. If the system voltage r.m.s. power frequency voltage that is applied to the
crest is not known, the highest voltage for equipment Um arrester in the operating duty test for 10 s after being pre-
heated and subjected to an energy injection in accordance
should be used instead. Um is normally 5 – 10% above with clause 2.8 of IEC 60099-4. The TOV capability of
normal system voltage. Uc is always selected higher than the arrester for 10 s has therefore to be minimum with
Uca. reference to rated voltage Ur . Often the real capability is
higher.
If there are uncertainties in surge arrester and equipment Nominal Discharge Current In . The peak value of current of
expose use, there is good incentive for using PSCAD/ an 8/20 ¼sec impulse used to classify an arrester.
EMTDC to determine these exposures for precise For systems with Um 52 kV, In = 5–10 kA.
specification of equipment. For systems with Um 300 kV, In = 10 kA.
For systems with Um > 300 kV, In = 10–20 kA.
2. Temporary Overvoltages. All voltages higher than Uc are The associated arrester discharge voltage Un is sometimes
defined as TOV. TOV can be from a few cycles to several used. For example, U10 is the arrester discharge voltage for
I10 (10 kA).
hours. From IEC 60099-1, a temporary overvoltage is: “An
oscillatory phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase overvoltage Crest voltage (p.u. of BIL)
at a given location of relatively long duration and which
is undamped or only weakly damped. Temporary
overvoltages usually originate from switching operations or
faults (e.g. load rejection, single phase faults) and/or from
non-linearities (ferroresonance effects, harmonics). They
may be characterized by their amplitude, their oscillation
frequencies, their total duration or their decrement.”
Different arresters may have the same Uc but different
rated voltages to meet different overvoltage requirements.
3. Fast front transients. The primary cause of fast front
transients is lightning strikes to transmission lines and
the associated back flashovers. Fast front transient
overvoltages are limited to a higher level than from TOVs
generated from switching surges. To reflect this property Insulation coordination of transformer
Chapter 4: Surge Arresters
More Insulation Coordination Definitions: into the arrester, simulation requires important modeling
Protective Margin PM = (VW – VP)/VP considerations.
Where: Insulation design for distribution arresters is based
VW = Withstand capability of the power components under
protection. largely on fast front transients. Higher voltage arrester
applications may be significantly influenced by TOVs from
VP = Protective level (at the selected current discharge level
through the surge arrester). switching transients.
BSL – (Basic switching impulse insulation level) is the crest
value of a standard switching impulse that the insulation
can withstand. Eg, 250 x 2500 μs.
ARRESTER MODEL
BIL – (Basic lightning impulse insulation level) is the crest The switching surge arrester model available in the Master Library
value of a standard 1.2 x 50 μs impulse that the insulation is modeled as a piece-wise-linear resistance whose volt-amp char-
can withstand.
acteristic is entered by the user (or a default characteristic can be
Chopped Wave – (Chopped wave withstand) is the crest applied). It is suitable for designing switching surge TOV protec-
value of a standard 1.2 x 50 μs impulse “chopped” by
action of a rod gap placed in parallel with the insulation
tion. It can also be developed for fast front transients, as would
after a specified time (2 μs for HV breakers, 3 μs for HV be discussed in a later section.
transformers and reactors).
Switching Surge TOV

Surge arrester component as
found in the Main Library
The network model for application of the surge arrester is devel-
oped. For high voltage applications above 220 kV, the switching
surge TOV should be taken into account.
Equipment suppliers can be contacted for the characteristics of

the latest range of surge arresters available. Care has to be taken
in interpreting their data. One supplier may define their per unit
characteristic such that 1.0 p.u. is the crest value of rated voltage
Ur as shown above. Another supplier may define their per unit
characteristic such that 1.0 p.u. is the crest value of continuous
operating voltage Uc.
The component Configuration is first entered. The Arrester Name

should reflect the supplier and model name of the arrester being
represented so that it is easy to identify. There is a default I-V
Characteristic available but it is best if the actual arrester char-
acteristic is entered by selecting “User.” There is also the feature
of adding identical arrester stacks in parallel. This is useful when
energy capability is being selected. If two or more stacks are
selected for “# of Parallel Arrester Stacks,” then the discharge
current is increased proportionally and hence its energy absorp-
tion capability. Sometimes it is useful to effectively take the
arrester out of service. The “Enable Non-linear Characteristic”
entry when changed to “0” from “1” will leave the arrester in the
model but inactive.
The volt-amp characteristic for the Surge Arrester Component is

entered in per unit for voltage for the vertical [Y] axis and kA for
the horizontal [X] axis under “I-V Characteristic.” Some points to
consider in entering an I-V Characteristic:
The user defined I-V Characteristic shown entered here
reflects the 20°C characteristic shown on page 5-1. Note
that the p.u. values entered for the Y-axis are “2 times • The points X1,Y1 should not be entered as (0.0,0.0). This
greater to reflect the crest value of rated voltage. will cause it to use the default characteristic.
Note: if Arrester Voltage Rating is entered in kV, r.m.s., then
the X-axis currents should be entered in kA. • Enter all 11 sets of points with the X-axis representing
current for a single arrester/stack.
For arresters of similar class and type, the I-V Characteristic
entered is directly scaleable by the Arrester Voltage Rating.
• Enter the Y-axis representing crest voltage in per-unit

of the arrester rating (which is usually an rms value).
Care must be exercised here to correctly interpret the
supplier’s published data as mentioned above.
Output for arrester absorbed energy and current is entered as
“Internal Output Variables” by designating appropriate signal
names. Energy is in kJoules and current in kA if the arrester
is operating under conditions of kV and kA. Often, absorbed
energy is desired in kJoules/kV based on the “Arrester Voltage
Rating.” If the arrester rating is 192 kV, this is achieved through
scaling the output component by 1.0/192.
Note: The PSCAD model (V4.2.1) does not account for the energy
dissipation to the surrounding medium during its normal steady
state operation nor during transient events.
Scaled by
Fast Front Transients 1/192 for
kloules/kV
When fast front transients, such as from lightning, are to be
investigated, the MOV surge arrester (behavior) representation is
significantly different. The voltage across the arrester increases as The value entered for “Arrester Voltage Rating” under
“Configuration” directly scales the per unit voltage
the time to crest of the arrester current decreases and the arrester accordingly. So for this switching example, if the impact of
voltage reaches its peak before the arrester current reaches its a 228 kV rating of a similar arrester is to be investigated,
peak. change the 192 kV rating previously entered to 228 kV and
re-run the case.
The time to crest for lightning surges can range from 0.5 sec to Typical specific single impulse energy absorption capabilities
of various classes of surge arresters in kJ/kV based on rating
several sec. The frequency dependent model proposed will give Ur : 2.5, 4.5, 7.0, 10.0, 13.0
good results for current surges with time to crest from 0.5 sec to
40 sec.
Dan Durback of PTI first proposed the fast front model
in a presentation to the IEEE Surge Protective Devices
For the fast front model, there are two sections of non-linear Committee WG 3.4.11 on Surge Arrester Modeling
resistance designated A0 and A1; each comprised of the surge Techniques, September 29, 1983 at a meeting of the
arrester model used for switching surge transients above. The Working Group in Memphis, Tennessee.
two sections are separated by an R-L filter. For slow front surges, The model was refined and presented in a paper by the IEEE
this R-L filter has very little impedance, but is significant for fast Working Group 3.4.11, “Modeling of Metal Oxide Surge
Arresters,” IEEE Transactions of Power Delivery, Vol. 7, No.
front surges. 1, January 1992, pp 302-309 and is now adopted into IEEE
Standard C62.22-1997, Annex G.
Characteristic A0 has a higher voltage for a given current than
A1, but when the two are considered in parallel when the R-L fil-
ter is not acting significantly, their combined characteristic is that
for slow front (switching surges).
The RLC elements are initially determined by the following formu-

lae:
L1 = 15d/n microhenries
R1 = 65d/n ohms Fast Front surge arrester model
Where:
Lead inductance is usually estimated at 1.0 microhenries
d = is the estimated height of the arrester in metres (use per metre.
the overall dimension from the catalog data).
n = number of parallel columns of metal oxide in the ar-
rester.
Relative IR (based on U10 = 1.6) The inductance L0 represents the inductance from the magnetic
fields in the immediate vicinity of the arrester. The capacitance C
A0
2.5
represents the terminal-to-terminal capacitance of the arrester.
2.0
Vpu of crest value
1.5 A1 L0 = 0.2d/n microhenries

1.0
C = 100n/d picofarads
0.5
Any lead inductance or stray capacitance is extra. This would
0.0
apply particularly to L0 where the lead inductance to the arrester
must be added. When it is known that arrester discharge will not
0.00001 0.001 0.1 10 1000 100k
Current (A) occur, just the representation of L0 and C is adequate (blocks A0
V-I relationships for non-linear resistor part of model based and A1 are not needed).
on a characteristic where U10 = 1.6
The individual characteristics of each non-linear section A0 and

Voltage-current relationships for the two non-linear sections
of the fast front arreter model. A1 are determined from Figure 2 in [3] which is reproduced here.
The best way to model A0 and A1 for scaling is to enter each

characteristic into the “I-V Characteristic” of two separate Surge
Arrester Components.
The fast front models are based on a surge arrester having its 10
kA discharge voltage (U10) at 1.6 per unit (crest value). The cor-
rect scaling is achieved by replacing the “Arrester Voltage Rating”
under “Configuration” with the following factor for both A0 and
A1:
Arrester Voltage Rating = U10/1.6
Where U10 is 10 kA discharge voltage in kV for the actual

I-V Characteristic for A0
arrester under consideration.
For example, if the discharge voltage U10 is 470.0 kV for the ar-
rester rated at 192 kV, then in both fast front arrester sections A0
and A1 under “Arrester Voltage Rating” enter 470/1.6 = 293.75
[kV] instead of 192. This must only be done provided that the “I-
V Characteristics” for both A0 and A1 are entered as indicated.
Determining Fast Front Model Parameters

In addition to knowing the arrester length “d” and the number of
metal oxide stacks “n,” also required is the U10 discharge voltage
in kV for the standard 8/20 μsec nominal discharge current im-
pulse and the switching surge discharge voltage for an associated
switching surge current impulse.
Consider a one column surge arrester rated at 192 kV with an

I-V Characteristic for A1
overall length of d = 2.6 metre. The U10 discharge voltage for
this arrester is 470 kV and the switching surge discharge voltage
Uss for a 3 kA, 300/1000 μsec switching surge current impulse
is 403.9 kV. The fast front model parameters are determined
through the following steps:
Step 1: Determine the initial parameters for L0, C, L1 and R1

when d = 2.6 metres and n = 1.
Initial Fast Front Arrester
L0 = 0.2d/n = 0.52 μH
C = 100n/d = 38.5 pF A0 Y-axis A1 Y-axis volts

X-axis current [kA]
L1 = 15d/n = 39.0 μH volts [p.u.] [p.u.]
1.0E-7 1.1 0.72
R1 = 65d/n = 169 ohm
1.0E-6 1.28 1.0
1.0E-5 1.33 1.08
Step 2: Evaluate the scaling factor U10/1.6 to apply to the surge 1.0E-4 1.37 1.11
arrester component for both sections A0 and A1 under “Arrester 0.001 1.39 1.15
Voltage Rating.” 0.01 1.42 1.18
0.1 1.52 1.22
U10/1.6 = 470/1.6 = 293.75 kV 1.0 1.65 1.32
3.816 1.75 1.40
10.0 1.9 1.55
Step 3: Ensure the relative IR “I-V Characteristic” for both A0
100.0 3.8 1.95
and A1 sections are entered into the surge arrester component.
I-V Characteristic for both A0 and A1 sections for entry in
Step 4: Adjustment of the U10/1.6 scaling factor for the A1 non- the surge arrester components based on U10 = 1.6 per unit.
These characteristics can be used initially for all ratings of
linear resistance section to match the switching surge discharge MOV surge arresters.
voltage. This is done by trial and error until there is a good match
between the manufacturer’s switching surge discharge voltage Uss
and current and the model test results.
The current injected into the surge arrester should be the same
magnitude and waveshape as the current used by the manufac-
turer to determine the switching surge discharge voltage. Inject
the switching surge test current and examine the resulting peak
voltage.
In order to undertake this step, a surge test is done on PSCAD.

The current impulse ITEST is approximated by two exponential func-
tions:
ITEST = I(e-at - e-bt)
The values of I, a and b of the above equation may be deter- Impulse wave shape expressed as sum of two exponential
functions.
mined for the impulse wave if the crest value I1 and the time
to crest t1 and time to half settle on the tail t2 are known. This
relationship is approximated through use of curves.
I
t2/t1
50
1.0
0.9
40
30
0.5 20
0.3 10
1.0 4 10 40 100 400 1000

t1 b/a
t2
Determining parameters for impulse wave expressed by ITEST
= I(e-at - e-bt). For known t1 and t2, find b/a.
Impulse wave specification
Consider synthesizing an 8/20 μsec impulse. t2/t1 = 2.5. This is

outside the range of the charts. From a mathematic assessment,
at1 b/a ≈2, at1 ≈0.7 and I1/I ≈0.25. The current impulse for the 8/20
0.7 μsec test is:
0.6
0.5 I8/20 ≈4I1(e-0.866E5t – e-1.732E5t)
0.4
The switching discharge test current for this example is a
0.3
300/1000 μsec impulse which can be determined from the charts.
0.2
t2/t1 = 3.33. From the chart, b/a ≈5.5. at1 ≈ 0.37 and I1/I ≈ 0.57.
0.1 With t1 = 300 μsec, a = 0.37/300E-6 = 1233. b = 5.5a = 6781.5.
The current impulse for the 300/1000 μsec switching discharge
1.0 4 10 40 100 400 1000 test is:
b/a
For b/a, find at1 and then a knowing t1. I300/1000 = 1.75I1(e-1233.0t – e-6781.5t)
I1/I
1.0
This designated current impulse for the switching surge discharge
0.9
is injected into the arrester model with the initial parameters for a
0.8
match with the switching surge discharge voltage Uss of 403.9 kV.
0.7 The resulting peak voltage is examined, and minor adjustments
0.6 are made to the U10/1.6 scaling factor for the A1 non-linear resist-
0.5 ance section to provide a close match. For this example, negligi-
0.4 ble adjustment is required.
1.0 4 10 40 100 400 1000

b/a
For b/a, find I1/I and then determine I knowing crest
surge current I1.
The test circuit on PSCAD/EMTDC for the fast front surge

arrester model shows the 300/1000 μsec switching surge
impulse current is injected and the arrester discharge volts
observed to be 403.947 kV (403.9 kV is desired).
Note: Filter inductance L1 is variable through a slider. In this

case it is set at the initial value of 3.9e-05 H.
For this example with the 8/20μsec impulse test current, the
value of L1 was adjusted by trial and error. L1 = 3.05E-5 H
was selected as follows:
L [H] U10 [kV]

3.9E-5 482 Step 5: The arrester model now has correct non-linear resist-
3.0E-5 469.2 ances for the A0 and A1 sections for switching surges. It is now
3.05E-5 469.95
(470 is desired) tested to obtain a good match for the discharge voltage with the
8/20 μsec injected current. The filter inductance L1 in the model

is adjusted until the test produces a good match with the manu-
facturer’s U10 discharge voltage.
Step 6: As an optional final check, Step 5 could be repeated

with the standard 1.2/50 μsec lightning impulse test. This result
can be compared with any information provided by the supplier
to increase confidence in the precision of the fast front arrester
model. Final fast front arrester model
FAST FRONT STUDIES

A good reference on this subject is a report prepared by the Fast
Front Transients Task Force of the IEEE Modeling and Analysis of
System Transients Working Group [4]. Selection of calculation
time step is an important consideration in fast front overvolt-
age studies. One concern is the physical length of conductors,
leads, busbars and bus ducts that compose the network under
study. Waves travel at near the speed of light at 0.3 metres per
nano-second. In other words, a wave will propagate 3 metres
along a lead in 10 nano-seconds. Consequently, lightning studies
involving transmission and outdoor stations may be undertaken
with calculation time steps of 5 to 20 nanoseconds for 50 to 100
μseconds. A good rule of thumb is to use a calculation time step
of one half the propagation time along the shortest of the main
conductors under study. The calculation time step for gas insu-
lated substations (GIS) might be 0.1 to 1 nano-second and the
computation might be for 1 or 2 μseconds.
Modeling Transmission Lines and Buswork Representing the ground strap to GIS ducting as a single
conductor Bergeron distributed line model can use the
Overhead lines and busbars in the main surge propagation path following calculation for surge impedance:
should be modeled with frequency dependent transmission lines
Z0 = 60 ln (2√2 h/r)
even if the length is only a few metres. If the overhead line is
outside a substation, the normal known ground resistivity should Where h is the average height of the conductor and r is the
equivalent strap radius. Use speed of light to determine the
be entered into the Edit Parameters field of the Tline interface propagation time.
component. If the overhead line or buswork is above a ground-
ing mat in a substation, a nominal low ground resistivity should
be entered (say 1 to 10 ohm-metre). Shorter sections can be
modeled with the Coupled Pi Section component. Short leads
are modeled as a lumped inductance of approximately 1 μH/m.
GIS bus ducting is best modeled with a coaxial cable distrib-

uted cable model. The Underground Coaxial Cable Constants
Interface (see Cables page in the Master Library) can be used
with C1-I1-C2 configuration selected. Enter a very large resistivity
value (1E6 ohm-metre) for the ground model to reflect the duct’s
positioning in air. However, grounding straps to the outer con-
ductor are important to represent as either lumped inductance
if the strap’s length is less than the propagation distance of one
calculation time step, or by a single conductor Bergeron distrib-
uted line model, if longer. Modeling grounding grids for GIS is an
inexact science at this stage. Simplified modeling represents the
GIS grounding grid as a low value constant resistor.
Probability of Exceeding Lightning

Stroke Current The magnitude of a current impulse due to a lightning discharge
1.0 is a probability function. Low discharge levels between 5 to 20
kA may result in a higher tendency for the lightning strike to pass
0.8 by any shield wires and directly hit a phase conductor. The larger
lightning impulse currents may tend to strike the tower top and
0.6 lead to a back flashover. This requires that the tower be modeled
as a vertical distributed transmission line. The surge impedance
0.4 of the tower and the propagation velocity down the tower are
estimated and applied in a Bergeron distributed line model.
0.2
In deciding the amplitude of lightning stroke currents to apply to
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 a transmission tower or conductor, probability of distribution of
Crest Amplitude of Stroke Current kA the crest values and front times can be considered. Knowing the
nature of lightning surge impact on system components is impor-
Probability of distribution of lightning stroke current
amplitudes based on combined field data [5]. tant. This is particularly so considering back flashovers on towers
and severity on the surge arrester and their discharge duties and
protective levels.
Probability of Exceeding
Time-to-Crest A lightning strike of 40,000 amps peak direct to a phase conduc-
1.0 tor on a transmission line entering a substation is considered a
severe condition. Transmission shielding failures tend to occur
0.8 for low current levels in the lightning strike, in the range 10,000
amps to 20,000 amps. In addition, over half the lightning strikes
0.6 contain more than one strike. The mean number of strikes per
lightning flash is three, typically separated by 20 to 50 millisec-
0.4 onds of time. The current in the strikes can vary and subsequent
strikes may have higher or lower current than the first strike.
0.2
The time between strikes is sufficiently long that the fast front
transient effects will have dissipated before the next strike arrives,
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lightning Stroke Current Time-to-Crest sec
but the energy in the surge arresters will not have reduced, and
will add with each strike. Consequently, a worst case for study
Probability of distribution of lightning stroke front times
based on combined field data [5]. purposes is to consider a transmission shielding failure at the sub-
station entrance, with five direct strikes to a line phase conductor
of 25,000 amps per strike. The arrester energy for one such strike
is multiplied five times to determine its total energy absorption
requirement due to lightning.
A second study consideration is to have a lightning strike to a

tower top at the station entrance that causes a back flashover. In
Transmission tower surge impedances:
this case, a severe condition is 150,000 amps. To accommodate
For a vertical cylindrical conductor multiple strikes, five strikes of around 80,000 amps each may be
Zo = 132.8 log10(2h/d) + 45 d/h - 60 (ohms) a worst case condition. If an 80,000 amp lightning strike to the
Where:
tower or shield wire causes a back-flashover, then the sum of
arrester energies is an estimate of the total energy absorption re-
h = vertical length (m)
d = diameter of conductor (m)
quirement for the station arresters. Ensure that for such a study,
all arresters in the station are represented, at least for the phase
For a horizontal cylindrical conductor, the high frequency
surge impedance is approximated:
effected by the lightning.
Zo = (377/2p)*ln(2h/r) (ohms) Transmission Towers
Where: Transmission towers should be modeled as a vertical, single con-
h = height of conductor above ground (m)
ductor Bergeron distributed line model. The surge impedance of
r = radius of conductor (m)
the transmission line tower or pole and the travel time of wave
propagation down the tower are required.
Experimental studies have shown tower surge impedance reduces

from 300-400 ohms at the shield wire to less than 100 ohms
near the base [6]. Tower crossarms are open circuit stub trans-
mission lines extending propagation time down the tower. If a
back flashover is to be simulated, the associated crossarm can be
modeled as a Bergeron line with a representative surge imped-
ance applied. Published values for average surge impedance for
various tower structures are presented.
Surge Impedance O
Wave propagation velocity down a smooth conductor, such as 200
Surge impedance profile of
a grounding wire or tubular steel structure, is close to the speed 500 kV single circuit V-Type
of light. Lattice structures impede the velocity of propagation tower
and along with the crossarm effects, effective wave propagation 100
velocity may be 80% to 85% the speed of light.
Tower Footing Resistance

0
The tower footing resistance for fast front surges is not well un- Tower Top Tower Bottom
derstood. An R,L,C equivalent circuit [4] can be used for known

counterpoise grounding configurations extending beyond 30 me-
tres from the tower base. Within 30 metres of the tower base,
a variable grounding resistance approximation can be applied
which is surge current dependent. Conical Tower:
h
Zo = 30 In [2(h2 + r2)/r2] (ohms)
Rg
RT = ______
_____
1 + _I
√ Ig
2r
Where:
RT = Tower footing resistance (ohm)
Rg = Tower footing resistance at low current and low

frequency (ohm) h Zo = 60 [In (2√2h/r) - 1]
I = Surge current into ground (kA)
Ig = Limiting current initiating soil ionization (kA)

2r
Eoρ
Ig = _1 • ___ (kA if Eo is in kV/m)
2 Rg
Where: r1
ρ = Soil resistivity (ohm-metre) h2

r1h2 + r2(h1+h2) + r3h1
K = _________________
(h1+h2)2
Eo = Soil ionization gradient (about 300 kV/m) r2
h1
The variable resistance can be modeled in PSCAD/EMTDC with Zo = 60 In cot 0.5 tan -1(K)
r3
the variable resistor component. To restrict resistance changes
occurring at every calculation time step, use can be made of the 2r
sampling component in the CSMF page of the Master Library
with internal frequency triggering.
Capacitances of Equipment
Stray and winding capacitances have an impact on fast front
surge propagation and should be modeled wherever possible. If
values are not known, the following can be used as very rough
approximations [4]:
Equipment Capacitance-to-Ground
115 kV 400 kV 765 kV
Disconnector Switch 100 pF 200 pF 160 pF

Circuit Breaker (Dead Tank) 100 pF 150 pF 600 pF
Bus Support Insulator 80 pF 120 pF 150 pF
Capacitive Potential Transformer 8000 pF 5000 pF 4000 pF
Magnetic Potential Transformer 500 pF 550 pF 600 pF
Current Transformer 250 pF 680 pF 800 pF
Auto Transformer 3500 pF 2700 pF 5000 pF
Suspension Insulators (per unit) 10 pF 10 pF 10 pF
Pin Insulators (per unit) 100 pF - -
Back Flashover
Line insulators from tower to conductor can be represented as a
Modeling variable tower footing resistance with variable
resistance component and sampler component. Sampler
capacitor if their capacitance is known. Where a back flashover
frequency = 107 Hz. Ig = 47 kA so that 1.0/Ig = 0.021. Low might occur, a parallel switch is applied. If the voltage across
frequency footing resistance = 10 ohm. the insulator exceeds the insulator voltage withstand capability,
the back flashover occurs and is simulated by closing the parallel
switch. The arc can form in around 20 nanoseconds and in most
studies a detailed arc model is not required as the switch will suf-
fice.
Breakdown of air as an insulator is very much a function of en-

vironmental conditions in addition to the fast front voltage build
up. A very simplified expression for the insulator voltage with-
stand capability is proposed [7]:
Vfo = K1 + K2/t 0.75
Where: CSMF circuit to initiate a back flashover arc across an

insulator string. The Integrator ramps time (Tstart) when
the surge is detected by the Comparator component. A
Vfo = Flashover voltage (kV) Non-Linear Transfer Characteristic component models the
elapsed time factor 1/t 0.75. A slider sets insulator string
K1 = 400L length L and another Comparator component compares
K2 = 710L the computed flashover voltage Vfo with the voltage across
the string Vstring and initiates the switch shorting the
L = Insulator length (m) conductor to the tower.
t 0.75 = Elapsed time after the lightning strike (μsec)
The settings in the Non-Linear Transfer Characteristic
component modeling 1/t 0.75 are:
It is a challenge to be precise when modeling fast front transients.
However, when the simulation and study are undertaken with
care, a very valid insulation coordination study is possible. The
other option is to use the guidelines in the standards that are
more general in nature but can serve as a check to the refine-
ment possible with a judicious simulation study. The inclusion of
corona on conductors can be added, but the lowering of ob-
served overvoltages that results, may remove some of the safety
factor built into the models. Usually corona is not considered in
studies for this reason.
SUMMARY OF ARRESTER SELECTION

A selection procedure for determining suitable arrester character-
istics is summarized based on continuous operating voltage Uc,
rated voltage Ur and energy capability [1], [2].
1. Select r.m.s. continuous operating voltage Uca which

is always equal to or greater than actual applied crest
voltage divided by 2. If harmonic effects are not known,
Uca should be taken as the system voltage crest divided
by 6 for normal phase-ground arresters. If the system
The Monostable components in the back flashover model
voltage crest is not known, the highest voltage for are included to hold the Comparator output to 1 for the
equipment Um should be used instead. duration of interest.
2. Select rated voltage Ur through evaluating TOV

capability. Calculations and switching surge studies
are required to select Uca. Note that different arresters
may have the same Uca but different Ur. IEC standards
require a TOV capability for 10 seconds equal to or
greater than the rated voltage after being pre-heated
to 60OC and dissipating a required energy. For 5 kA
arresters (class 1) and 10 kA arresters (classes 2 and 3),
the energy is taken by 1 current impulse. For 20 kA
lightning arresters, classes 4 and 5, the energy is taken by
three high current impulses.
3. Select nominal discharge current. For systems with Um
52 kV, use a nominal discharge current In = 5 – 10 kA.
For systems with Um 300 kV, use a nominal discharge
current In = 10 kA. For systems with Um > 300 kV, use a
nominal discharge current In = 10 – 20 kA.
4. Select protection level for insulation coordination. Take
into account:
(i) prospective amplitude and steepness of overvoltage;
(ii) distance between arrester and protected equipment;

(iii) insulation level, surge impedance and/or capacitance
of protected equipment;
(iv) safety margin for station and equipment insulation
(typically 20% as given by IEC 60099);
(v) acceptable risk, i.e. the importance of the station;
and
(vi) the number and positioning of arresters.
5. Selection of energy capability. Usually at higher
voltages, switching surges may define energy capability.
Switching-in against a trapped charge on a transmission
line is generally considered to be the decisive case for
an arrester installed at the open far end of the line,
particularly if closing onto a single phase bolted fault is
also considered. Lightning discharge tests must be made
taking into account the probabilities associated with strike
amplitude and waveshape. Switching of capacitor banks
can impose heavy duties on surge arresters, especially if
the decisive case takes into account single or two phase
re-strikes of the breaker.
REFERENCES
1. L. Stenström, “Metal Oxide Surge Arresters in AC
Systems, Part VI: Selection of Metal Oxide Arresters from
the Standards,” Electra, December 1990, No.133, 146-
165.
2. IEC 60099 Series of Standards, Parts 1 to 5.
3. IEEE WG 3.4.11, “Modeling of Metal Oxide Surge
Arresters,” IEEE Transactions of Power Delivery, Vol. 7,
No. 1, January 1992, pp 302-307.
4. IEEE PES Special Publication edited by A.M. Gole, J.
Martinez-Valesco, A.J.F. Keri, “Modeling and Analysis of
System Transients,” IEEE Working Group 15.08.09, IEEE
Publication No. 99TP133-0.
5. IEEE Tutorial Course, “Surge Protection in Power
Systems,” 79 EHO144-6-PWR. 1978.
6. W.A. Chisholm, Y.L. Chow, “Travel Time of Transmission
Towers,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. PAS-104, No. 10, October 1985, pp 2922-
2928.
7. Transmission Line Reference Book, 345 kV and Above,
Second Edition, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo
Alto, California, 1982.
EXERCISES
4.1 Load example case Example4-1.psc. This is the test
circuit to develop the fast front surge arrester model
parameters. Check that the surge arrester U10 discharge
voltage with an 8/20 sec standard impulse is 470 kV.

Check also that the switching surge discharge voltage
Uss is 403.9 kV for a 3 kA, 300/1000 sec test impulse.
Develop a fast front surge arrester model for a one
column arrester of length 1.45 metre. Its U10 discharge
voltage with an 8/20 sec standard impulse is 248 kV and
the switching surge discharge voltage Uss is 225 kV for a
3 kA, 300/1000 sec test impulse.
4.2 Load example case Example4-2.psc. This is where a 10
kA lightning strike hits a phase conductor at a 230 kV
station entrance. The lightning is modeled by a 1.2/50
sec standard impulse. The surge arrester is located
at the transformer terminals. Observe the maximum
overvoltage at the transformer terminal. Increase the
amplitude of the lightning surge to 20 kA and observe
the transformer terminal over-voltages. Move the surge
arrester 10 metres away from the transformer terminal
and repeat the tests.
Chapter 5:
Transformers
Simulation of transformers requires an understanding of some of
their basic properties involving both core and winding configura-
tions. This is complicated by the fact that transformer cores are
prone to saturation given the non-linear characteristics of their
#1 #2
materials. This leads to different phenomena like inrush currents,
remanence, geomagnetic current effects and ferroresonance,
among others. Three phase Component of General Transformer
model
The main emphasis of this chapter is placed on the simulation
of the transformers’ magnetic properties. The effects of winding
capacitances are generally minimal at lower frequencies and for
most studies where the frequencies of interest are below 2000
Hz might not need be modeled. The study of switching transients
could require a simple representation of the winding capacitances.
Inter-winding and winding to ground capacitances become impor-
tant when fast front studies are to be performed. In these cases,
the core’s magnetic effects can usually be neglected.
The transformer models are in the Transformers Library Group in

the Master Library of PSCAD.
TRANSFORMER MODELS
There are two basic types of transformer models available in
PSCAD. The original ‘General Transformer Model’ constructed with
single phase units and the UMEC model which has provision for
specifying the configuration of the core in single and three phase
units.
When using the General Transformer Model with the “non-ideal

option” selected, the unsaturated magnetizing current of the trans-
former at rated volts is directly incorporated into the transformer
Transformer Properties
impedance matrix. Usually, the unsaturated magnetizing current at
rated volts is less than 1% for most power transformers.
When the ‘Saturation enabled’ option is selected as ‘yes’ (see

below), a saturation branch is included in the model and the
For users using the GNU FORTRAN compiler, there are
magnetizing current effects are also modeled as part of this satura- dimensioning limits on the number of transformers that can
tion branch. Therefore, it is not recommended to select ‘non-ideal be applied in a model.
transformer’ and ‘saturation’ at the same time. It will cause duplic- If this limit is reached, convert three-phase transformers to
ity in the calculation of the magnetization, and can lead to errone- the UMEC models as these are counted as one transformer
only. Regular three-phase transformers are counted as three
ous results when working at voltages close to the nominal value. units, since they use a single phase transformer for each of
their phases.
The p.u. no-load and load losses can be specified for the base MVA
of the transformer. These losses will be evenly allocated to each
voltage rating of the transformer by means of shunt resistors (for
no-load) and series resistors (for load losses). If a non-even distribu-
tion of losses between voltage ratings is desired, it is recommended
Chapter 5: Transformers
to setup the losses to 0.0 p.u. and to add the respective external
resistances. For many studies, the effect of winding resistance is
negligible, especially if the system losses are dominant.
Core Configuration
The positive and zero sequence leakage impedances of three
phase transformers are dependent upon both core configuration
and winding configuration. If the core is three-limb, then the
effect is to have a zero sequence impedance voltage relatively
similar in value to the positive sequence impedance voltage. This
is because when the transformer is subjected to zero sequence
voltages, there isn’t a closed core path for zero sequence flux to
Modeling three-limb core transformers with single-phase flow. Consequently, the zero sequence flux passes through air,
units is an accepted procedure. The reason for this is that yoke and tank, causing the zero sequence impedance voltage to
there is a direct relationship between transformer sequence
impedances and mutually coupled impedances:
be slightly lower. In the General Transformer Model, this effect
can be approximated by adding a fictitious delta winding and fine
ZS = 1/3 (ZO + 2Z1)
tuning the impedances from the existing windings to the added
ZM = 1/3 (ZO - Z1) delta winding. Note that there is no need to do this when using
Where: ZS = Transformer Self impedance the three-phase UMEC model, since its magnetic circuit configura-
ZM = Transformer Mutual impedance tion accounts for the zero sequence flux path.
ZO = Transformer Zero Sequence impedance
Z1 = Transformer Positive Sequence impedance.
Some three phase transformers have their zero sequence imped-
The windings of the transformer will be correctly ance larger than their positive sequence impedance. A compen-
represented as mutually coupled by the impedance coupling
matrix, which for a three phase transformer looks like this: sating neutral reactance XN can be added at the star point to
[ ]
ZS ZM ZM
ground. If the positive sequence leakage reactance is XH-L, then
ZM ZS ZM the zero sequence reactance XO of the transformer from its star
ZM ZM ZS winding is:
With a Y-Y three-phase three-limb transformer, or for that XO = XH-L + 3∙XN

matter any three phase transformer, the procedure to
represent it in simulation out of single phase banks is to
add a fictitious delta winding so that the zero sequence and From which;
positive sequence impedances match correctly.
XN = [ XO – XH-L ]/3
The neutral reactance is patched into the network model as an

inductance. Its value is:
LN = XN * MVA / (ω * VH2)
Where:
XN = Neutral reactance in per unit on the transformer

base MVA and the star winding voltage rating.
In order to use the UMEC model, some core construction
parameters (aspect ratios) such as:
MVA = Transformer base MVA rating.
VH = Rated line-to-line rms volts of the star winding.
Yoke - winding limb length ratio,
Yoke – winding limb cross-sectional area ratio,
ω = System frequency in radians per second.
Yoke – outer limb length ratio, and
Yoke – outer limb cross-sectional area ratio The three phase UMEC transformer model provides the option of
are needed in addition to name plate data. They may selecting either a three-limb core or a five-limb core configuration
have to be estimated if not known. In most situations, the which is inherent to the model. A simple short circuit test can be
Core Cross-sectional Area ratio can be set to 1.0. Leakage
reactances are not affected by these ratios. They mainly undertaken by simulation to determine if the positive and zero se-
affect the distribution of flux among the limbs. quence impedances are as expected. If additional zero sequence
impedance is required, the above method can be applied.
Ungrounded Windings
Sometimes a transformer has an ungrounded winding without
any load connected to it. When the case is run, a warning mes- VH IS VL
sage may appear or the case may stop with numerical instabil-
ity. This is because the winding has no way to keep itself from
accumulating voltage and it will drift until the problem manifests Saturation in a General transformer model represented
by a current source
itself in some way compromising the precision of the simulation.
Delta windings on three phase transformers are often at risk in
Flux
this way. linkages
Air core reactance
The solution is to simply ground one terminal of the wind-
ing through a very large resistance. A suitable resistance value
should add shunt losses no higher than 0.1% of the MVA rat- φk
ing of the winding. If it is a three phase winding, apply such a ΦM
resistor on at least one phase, but if on all three, then balanced
winding terminal voltages should result.
SATURATION IM
Magnetizing Current
The General Transformer model represents saturation with a
current source placed across a selected winding. The winding ωk = Knee flux (p.u.)
ωM = Flux at rated volts (p.u.)
wound closest to the core is the winding usually selected as it is IM = Magnetizing current at rated volts
closest to where the magnetic effects are occurring. This is often (taken from the value entered in the
Windings Property Sheet)
the lowest voltage winding or the tertiary winding if there is one.
In a HVDC converter transformer, the HV winding is usually clos-
est to the core.
The saturation characteristic is represented in PSCAD with a sin-

gle valued continuous function that converges to the vertical flux
axis at low currents, and asymptotically to the air core reactance
line at high currents. Although it is modeled in a simple man-
ner, as seen in the Saturation Properties Sheet, it is a reasonable
modeling technique, since the true saturation characteristic of a
transformer is rarely known with any degree of precision.
The Saturation Property Sheet includes the Inrush decay time con-
stant parameter. The decay of the inrush current in a transformer
is given by the resistance in the transformer’s primary circuit (or Saturation Property Sheet for the General Transformer
transformer winding being energized). If the resistance in such component
circuit is very low, the Inrush current will take several seconds to
decay. PSCAD offers the possibility of forcing a fast decay of the
inrush current by artificially introducing damping in the circuit.
The smaller the inrush decay time constant (in seconds), the Air core reactance is often not known with accuracy. A rule-
of-thumb is twice the leakage reactance, but consideration
faster the inrush current will decay. However, if a value of 0.0 must be given to which winding this is observed from, and
is entered, PSCAD will not introduce any artificial damping in the leakage reactance too.
the circuit and the inrush damping will be dictated solely by the
network. Care has to be taken in studying power electronic cases
where converters are connected to transformers. If controls
and conditions are not properly designed, the transformers
Time to release flux clipping is also an important parameter may drift into saturation. This is a real condition which can
exist. The classical example is at a HVDC converter. If the
to consider. When a case is starting up initially, for calculation DC side current has a power frequency component, it can
TIMES less than the value entered here, the flux is inhibited or saturate the converter transformer. In some HVDC converter
stations, a fundamental frequency blocking filter is added to
clipped and can’t pass into saturation. This has the effect of the neutral side of the converter bridge to prevent power
centering the flux. This feature allows the network to initial- frequency currents from flowing through the converter.
STATCOMs.
ize with the transformers being in saturation. If 0.0 seconds is
entered, sustained inrush currents during start-up may inhibit

an effective steady state condition for the snapshot. This effect
is lessened if the ac voltage sources are ramped up slowly over
many cycles.
After the calculation TIME has exceeded the Time to release

flux clipping, the clipping is removed and the flux may migrate
into saturation if network conditions dictate so.
The UMEC transformer model has a distributed saturation char-

acteristic defined in straight line segments by ten pairs of entered
points. It is not necessary to place the saturation across a specific
winding because the saturation is distributed to all windings.
GEOMAGNETICALLY INDUCED CURRENTS

Geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) as they effect transform-
ers, are the slow varying components of induced currents which
may flow in transmission networks during a geomagnetic storm.
GIC are more severe the closer the transmission network is to one
Data entry for saturation characteristic of UMEC transformer of the Earth’s magnetic poles. GIC are zero sequence, quasi direct
for 0.24 p.u. air core reactance and 1.26 p.u. knee point.
current and if they flow through a grounded transformer winding,
I1 I2 may cause the transformer to saturate.
Three-phase bank
P = 2.115 P = 1.343
Q = 63.98 Q = -21.4
A
#1
umec
#2
A
#1
umec
#2 The same effect occurs if some DC ground return current from
V V 0.01 [ohm] an HVDC transmission system spills into the nearby AC system
through substation grounds. The consequence of saturation
Igic0
V_gic
due to such DC or quasi DC currents is that the transformer will

0.1 [ohm]
Main: C... demand AC reactive power from the system and place a strain on
GICcontrol [kA]
V
1
the AC voltage. In addition, the saturated transformer will gener-
ate an increased amount of harmonics causing the AC system
0
0.5 voltage to become distorted.
P
IgicOrd D + - V dc
To examine the DC saturation effect on a particular transformer, a
I
F test circuit is created in PSCAD/EMTDC.
RMS
Igic
Test circuit to evaluate the effect of saturation due to zero The zero sequence DC current flowing through the star winding
sequence DC currents flowing through the grounded star
winding.
is achieved by means of a DC voltage source in the transformer
neutral. The DC current level in this neutral source is achieved by
Note: The measured dc component of the neutral current
Igm is filtered using a RMS component in order to take out
a simple feedback control. The desired DC neutral current is set
the harmonics in the neutral connections: by the Slider Component and is compared with the measured DC
current in the neutral. The difference is then passed through a PI
Note:
For this method to work effectively with the general
controller that adjusts the DC voltage accordingly.
transformer model, the Inrush decay time constant in the
Saturation Property Sheet should be set to 0.0. Something that should be taken into consideration when using
In the UMEC transformer model, there is no inrush decay the General Transformer Model to model GIC is that the DC cur-
time constant. rent will mathematically transform between the ideally coupled
windings. In steady state, this DC current will divert through the
inductive magnetizing branch, being forced out of the other
windings by the secondary winding resistances. Therefore, in or-
der to effect the correct level of saturation due to the DC current,
the test circuit must have some winding resistance inserted in the
secondary winding. If the UMEC model is used, copper loss must
also be introduced in order to obtain correct results.
Three-phase banks and five-limb core type transformers are the

most prone to saturate due to geomagnetically induced currents.
Three-limb transformers require comparatively larger Igic in order
to saturate.
Primary AC current (I1) in a transformer affected by GIC. Note that the magnetizing current
has an amplitude of 320 A when affected by GIC phenomena, compared with 7.0 A peak
magnetizing current under normal conditions (no GIC).
REMANENCE
At times it is important to investigate energizing events of trans-
formers. There is usually residual magnetism in the core. This
phenomenon is commonly known as “remanence.” The degree
of magnetizing inrush current during energizing is a function of:
1. The position on the supply voltage wave shape that each

phase of the closing circuit breaker actually closes on.
2. The remanence existing in each of the main legs of the
transformer core.
The level of remanence in the core is determined by the condi-
tions associated with the de-energizing event of the transformer.
Even though such conditions are usually unknown, it is useful
to anticipate the worst scenario that might be expected on any
random energization. The maximum remanence that might exist
in any leg of the core is around 80% of the peak flux generated
at rated volts. This is determined from the rated RMS voltage Vr
of the winding that is being referenced for remanence. Peak flux
linkage M referenced to winding at rated Vr is:
M = Vr/ 4.44 fr [1]
Where fr is rated power frequency in Hz Setup used to plot the flux linkage in kWebbers·turns vs.
magnetizing curve of a transformer
The core’s magnetic non-linearity is modeled in PSCAD through
Note: Since the saturation option in the transformer
a single valued curve (see figure); therefore, the core’s magnetic component is selected for this type of study, it is
hysteretic behavior is not directly represented. Because of this, it recommended to select the ‘ideal transformer’ option as
‘yes’ when working with the ‘General transformer
is necessary to resort to alternative methods in order to simulate model,’ as it was explained in the ‘Transformer models’
the effects of remnant flux in the core. section.
Adjustment of RemanenceFlux
PhaseA PhaseB PhaseC
One way to simulate remanence in a de-energized transformer is
I1
I2
DC currents for
80% & 40%
remanent flux
0.1 0.1 0.1
by introducing controlled DC current sources. The case is run with
I3 -0.1
0.0029196 -0.1
-0.0006198 -0.1
-0.0006198
the circuit breaker open and the current sources in each phase
I1 adjusted to generate the required remanence. The current sources
BRK I2
#1 #2
can remain in the circuit at their remanence setting during the run
RRL
1.0e7 [ohm]
I3
as they do not impact the results.

DC current
injectionsource
The application of this method is better explained through an
Timed
BRK
Breaker
Logic
Open@t0
example case. Let’s have a three-phase transformer with wye-
delta connection. It will be assumed that when the breaker de-
I1
| X|
C
1
Ch. 1 .
Meas-Enab
.
V1
energized the transformer, it opened all the phases at the same
| X| Max
I2
I3
| X|
D
E
.
STime Multiple Run used to find
closing point of wave that
produces the highest inrush
instant of time, and that one of the phases (phase A) was opened
Multiple
Run when its voltage was at its peak leaving an 80% remanence, and
I1 I2
Untitled
I3
a -40% remanence in each of the other two phases.
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
In order to find out how much direct current should be injected, it
kA
0.0
-2.0
is necessary to plot the flux linkage vs current curve for the given
-4.0
-6.0
Flux linkageA Flux linkageB Flux linkage C
transformer winding. The flux linkage can be obtained directly
1.25
1.00
0.75
from one of the outputs in the transformer component or by in-
KWebbers-turns
0.50
0.25 tegrating the voltage over the primary winding. This curve should
0.00
-0.25
-0.50
be plotted with the voltage set to 80% and to 40%. The current
-0.75
-1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
peak values should be read for both cases. These two currents
are the magnitude of the DC currents to be injected in the inrush
The current sources controlled by the sliders inject DC test circuit. (+)Im80% for one phase and (-)Im40% for the other two
current through each primary winding phase before the phases.
transformer is energized and while the circuit breaker is
open. The remanence in each leg is adjustable by setting
the sliders and the resulting flux linkages can be observed. Note: A method that can be used to check if the simulation is
When the energizing circuit breaker is closed at 0.1
seconds, the resulting transformer inrush current is evident.
properly setup and is measuring the fluxes before the energization
of the transformer. The fluxes should approximately match the
100% Voltage
values read in the flux linkage vs magnetizing current plot.
BRK_2 Curr
RRL #1 #2
80% Voltage at
180 degrees
V 1.0e7 [ohm]
In a transformer with its primary circuit connected in delta, there
RRL
BRK_1 is no direct access to the terminals of each winding, therefore
BRK_1 with option 'open
at anypossible current'
making it difficult if not impossible to control how much of the
B1a selected
B2a I1 DC injected current goes to each of the winding phases. In this
B1b
B2b
B2c
I2
I3
kind of case, a second method can be used for simulating inrush
BRK_2
Timed
Breaker
like currents.
BRK_1 Logic
Closed@t0
B1c
This logic ensures that BRK_2

closes once all the phases in
In this method, two sources 180 degrees apart are connected in
BRK_1 have opened
Curr 1
|X| 1
parallel through a couple of breakers. One of the sources is used
I1 Meas-Enab
2
I2 |X|
C
D Max
Ch. 1 .
.
V1
STime
to obtain the required remanence flux in the core during the pre-
3 .
I3 |X| E
Multiple
energization period, while the other one represents the system
Run
Untitled
the transformer is going to be energized from.
I1 I2 I3
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
Here, the results will depend greatly on the moment at which the
breaker is setup to be opened, at 0.0 kA or at some value higher
y
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
Flux linkageA Flux linkageB Flux linkage C
than this. In the case illustrated in the figure, BRK_1 was set to
1.25
1.00
0.75
open at any current value in order to comply with the assumption
0.50
0.25
0.00
that all the phases were de-energized at the same instant of time.
y
-0.25
-0.50
-0.75
Even though this method is mostly intended for transformers with
-1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 primary windings connected in delta, the example was run using
Note: Both methods were implemented using multirun the same wye connected transformer given in the first example in
components in order to find the point of wave or switching
time that led to the maximum inrush current.
order to show that both methods lead to similar results.
HARMONIC MEASUREMENTS
With transformer saturation effects being of interest, on-line
measurement of current and voltage harmonics is sometimes
required in a study. The On-Line Frequency Scanner component
(FFT) is most useful for this purpose. It can read in 1, 2 or 3
phase signals of current or voltage, and measure phase or se-
quence (if 3 phase) harmonics, as desired. It generates from 7
to 255 harmonics on-line which can be plotted or observed on On-Line Frequency Scan component measuring three
meters. phase currents and generating sequence harmonic
currents up to the 7th harmonic.
The On-Line Frequency Scanner component is most useful for

studying effects of GIC on transformers by running the case in
saturated steady state. The option to produce harmonic cur- Components from the Master Library when assembled,
enable a harmonic magnitude or phase to be measured.
rents in sequence components will indicate that the 1st harmonic
is dominantly +ve sequence, the 2nd harmonic is dominantly –ve
sequence, the 3rd harmonic is dominantly 0 sequence, the 4th
harmonic is dominantly +ve sequence, and so it cycles around. The key component to differentiate the harmonic
from the signal array named in this instance as
The on-line measurement enables a quick assessment of the har- “Ihpve” is the Datatap Connection component or
Data Signal Array Tap Connection which is:
monics being generated. The other option is to write the input
signals from the On-Line Frequency Scan component into an out-
put file. PSCAD/EMTDC output files can be read by a post-proc- The Datatap Connection component can be edited in order
essor, such as Z Systems’ LiveWire plotting package from which a to select the particular harmonic out of the array signal:
Fourier analysis can be performed.
LOAD TAP CHANGER

Most of the transformer components have provision for a tap
changer adjustable on-line. The transformer component data
entry sheet has an entry “Tap changer on winding” to define
the number of the winding on which the tap changer is applied.
General Transformer models bring out a signal wire when the tap
changer is requested. A signal in per unit of winding rated volt-
age must be generated and fed to the signal wire controlling the
tap position.
UMEC transformer models have an internal input request when Tap

the tap changer is requested. In this model, the per unit tap
value is entered into the data entry sheet. Tap
#1 #2
The on-line tap change is not affected the way a tap change oc-
curs on an actual transformer. Instead, when the change in tap is
detected, the network solution is adjusted. It is possible to have
Tap changer on general models
a continuous change of tap but this would require re-ordering
the network solution every calculation time step. It is practical
to change taps in steps, either from manual adjustment using a
slider or rotary switch component, or from a controller with ap-
propriate delays and steps built in (To build steps into a continu-
ous signal, use the “datafile” component from the CSMF page of
the Master Library. When used in Sample and Hold output mode,
a continuous signal can be broken up into discrete steps).
The winding connections for each transformer are shown.

PHASE SHIFTING TRANSFORMERS
The winding turns for each winding and is proportional to
the number indicated (kV rating of the winding). The core on Phase shifting transformers can be assembled in PSCAD using
which each winding is wound is defined by the angle of multi-winding single phase transformers. This requires that the
alignment depicted in the diagram.
winding connections be known. Tap changers can be applied to
The AC side windings are wound to provide a 7.5o phase effect a variable phase shift. If core modeling is a requirement,
shift.
the advantage of the UMEC three phase transformer with its core
modeling capability is of limited benefit because each winding
end cannot be brought out for connections. If the actual phase
shifter is constructed with a three limb core, a fictitious delta
winding may need to be added in the model built from single
phase units to obtain the correct zero sequence effects.
As an example, converters with 24 pulse or higher employ phase

shift transformers. Consider a 24 pulse converter transformer
comprised of two similar 12 pulse converter transformers, one
phase shifted +7.5° and the other phase shifter –7.5°.
Each 12 pulse transformer is assembled in single-phase units from

the UMEC four winding model in the Transformers Page in the
Master Library. The connections are made as shown above with
the star primary windings in series.
0.6
0.16
0.16 0.16
3.649
3.649 3.649 0.278
0.278 0.278
0.6 0.6
0.6 0.16
0.16 0.16
3.649
0.278
3.649 0.6
3.649 0 278 0 278
0.6
Leakage reactance is best checked by undertaking a simulated

short circuit test. Apply a short circuit to the secondary wind-
ings with small resistances and determine the p.u. transformer
More complex winding arrangements might short circuit reactance as calculated from the measured voltages.
require more than four coupled windings, which Adjust the transformer leakage reactance until the desired short
is not available in the Master Library. Contact
[email protected] if you have a need for more circuit reactance is observed by short circuit test.
coupled windings.
Other types of complex transformers, such as 6-phase and zig-zag
transformers, can also be built by assembling single-phase units.
REFERENCES
1. Hermann W. Dommel, “Transformer Models in the
Simulation of Electromagnetic Transients,” 5th Power
Systems Computation Conference, Cambridge, England,
Sept 1-5, 1975.
2. W. Enright, O.B. Nayak, G.D. Irwin, J. Arrillaga, “An
Electromagnetic Transients Model of Multi-limb
Transformers Using Normalized Core Concept,”
Proceedings of IPST’97 – International Conference on
Power System Transients, Seattle, June 22-26, 1997, pp
93-98.
EXERCISES
5.1 Load example case Example5.1.psc which is the case
of a DC current saturation test with a Y-Y winding
configuration and a UMEC three limbed core. Start
the case with 0.1 kA of DC current in the neutral and
confirm the transformer does not saturate. Change to a
5 limbed core and repeat the test. Build the transformer
from single phase units for a Y-Y winding configuration
of the same 3 phase rating as the UMEC model using the
general transformer model. Repeat the test with 0.1 kA
in the transformer neutral showing saturation. Design a
third delta winding to represent a 3 limb core and repeat
the test and compare with the UMEC test with a 3 limb
core.
5.2 With example case Example5.1.psc studied above for
the Y-Y winding configuration, observe the harmonics
detected in the primary windings of the transformer
(winding #1). Make note of the 3rd harmonic level.
Change the secondary winding to a Δ winding and
repeat the test with all other parameters remaining
equal. Was any 3rd harmonic detected and why?
5.3 Load example case Example5.3.psc which is a case to
energize a transformer with remanence setting. With the
circuit breaker initially closed, and the remanence at zero
in each phase, ramp the source volts up slowly (change
the Three Phase Source parameter Voltage Input Time
Constant on the data entry sheet) and observe what the
peak flux linkages are in reference to the 230 kV winding
(#1). Is this level expected? Return the breaker to close
at 0.5 second, and the Voltage Input Time Constant
to 0.05 seconds, and adjust the remanence initializing
current sources until a maximum inrush current on one
of the phases is observed. Do not take the remanence
above 0.8 p.u. of rated flux. Adjust the In rush decay Connection of six four-winding single-phase UMEC
transformers for 24 pulse converter application.
time constant in the saturation data sheet of the
transformer model to 0.0, thus removing any artificial
inrush current damping, and observe response.
Chapter 6:
DC Transmission
Electric power transmission was originally developed with direct
current. The availability of transformers and the development and
improvement of induction motors at the beginning of the 20th
Century, led to greater appeal and use of AC transmission.
DC transmission became practical when long distances were to

be covered or where cables were required. Originally, mercury
arc valves were used in the converters. Thyristors were applied in
the late 1960s and solid state valves became a reality. In 1969, a
contract for the Eel River DC link in Canada was awarded as the
first application of solid state valves for HVDC transmission. Today,
the highest functional DC voltage for DC transmission is +/- 600 kV
for the 785 km transmission line of the Itaipu scheme in Brazil. DC
transmission is now an integral part of the delivery of electricity in
many countries throughout the world.
WHY USE DC TRANSMISSION?

The question is often asked, “Why use DC transmission?” One
response is that losses are lower, but this is not correct. The level
of losses is designed into a transmission system and is regulated by
the size of conductor selected. DC and AC conductors, either as
overhead transmission lines or submarine cables, can have lower
losses but at higher expense since the larger cross-sectional area
will generally result in lower losses but cost more.
When converters are used for DC transmission in preference to AC

transmission, it is generally by economic choice driven by one of
the following reasons:
1. An overhead DC transmission line with its towers can

be designed to be less costly per unit of length than an
equivalent AC line designed to transmit the same level
of electric power. However, the DC converter stations at
each end are more costly than the terminating stations
of an AC line and so there is a breakeven distance above
which the total cost of DC transmission is less than its AC
transmission alternative. The DC transmission line can have
a lower visual profile than an equivalent AC line and so
contributes to a lower environmental impact. There are
other environmental advantages to a DC transmission line
through the electric and magnetic fields being DC instead
of AC.
2. If transmission is by submarine or underground cable,
the breakeven distance is much less than overhead
transmission. It is not practical to consider AC cable
systems exceeding approximately 60 km but DC cable
Chapter 6: DC Transmission
6 pulse transmission systems are in service whose length is in the

Converter valve group
transformer hundreds of kilometers and even distances of 600 km or
Ac greater have been considered feasible.
side
a Dc 3. Some AC electric power systems are not synchronized to
side neighboring networks even though the physical distances
b between them is quite small. This occurs in Japan where
half the country is a 60 Hz network and the other is a
c 50 Hz system. It is physically impossible to connect the
two together by direct AC methods in order to exchange
6 Pulse convertor
electric power between them. However, if a DC converter
graphical symbol station is located in each system with an interconnecting
DC link between them, it is possible to transfer the
Electric circuit configuration of the basic six pulse valve required power flow even though the AC systems so
group with its converter transformer in star-star connection. connected remain asynchronous.
DC CONVERTER CONFIGURATIONS
The integral part of an HVDC power converter is the valve or
valve arm. It may be non-controllable if constructed from one or
more power diodes in series or controllable if constructed from
one or more thyristors in series. The standard bridge or converter
connection is defined as a double-way connection comprising six
3 Q uadrivalves
valves or valve arms (six pulse) that are connected as illustrated
Ac above. Electric power flowing between the HVDC valve group
Side
and the AC system is three phase. When electric power flows
a into the DC valve group from the AC system, then it is considered
a rectifier. If power flows from the DC valve group into the AC
b system, it is an inverter. Each valve consists of many series con-
nected thyristors in thyristor modules. The six pulse valve group
Dc
Side was usual when the valves were mercury arc.
c
a
TWELVE PULSE CONVERTERS
b
Nearly all HVDC power converters with thyristor valves are as-
sembled in a converter bridge of twelve pulse configuration. The
c most common twelve pulse configuration is the use of two three
phase converter transformers with one DC side winding as an
The twelve pulse valve group configuration with two ungrounded star connection and the other a delta configuration.
converter transformers. One in star-star connection and the
other in star-delta connection. Consequently, the AC voltages applied to each six pulse valve
group which make up the twelve pulse valve group have a phase
difference of 30 degrees which is utilized to cancel the AC side
5th and 7th harmonic currents and DC side 6th harmonic voltage,
thus resulting in a significant saving in harmonic filters. A group
of four valves in a single vertical stack is known as a “quadri-
valve” and is assembled as one valve structure by stacking four
valves in series. Since the voltage rating of thyristors is several kV,
a 500 kV quadrivalve may have hundreds of individual thyristors
connected in series groups of valve or thyristor modules. A quad-
The twelve pulse converter unit graphical symbol. rivalve for a high voltage converter is mechanically quite tall and
may be suspended from the ceiling of the valve hall, especially in
locations susceptible to earthquakes.
THYRISTOR MODULES
A thyristor or valve module is that part of a valve in a mechanical Saturable
reactor
assembly of series connected thyristors and their immediate aux-
iliaries include heat sinks cooled by air, water or glycol, damping
V alve
circuits (also known as “snubber” circuits) and valve firing elec- electronics
tronics. A thyristor module is usually interchangeable for mainte-
nance.
D amping V oltage Firing
circuits dividers circuits
SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT
V alve
The central equipment of a DC substation is the thyristor con- electronics
verter and converter transformer. They may be configured into
poles and bipoles. Some DC cable systems only have one pole
or “monopole” configuration and may either use the ground as Components of the thyristor modules that make up a valve
or quadrivalve.
a return path when permitted or use an additional cable to avoid
earth currents.
Harmonic filters are required on the AC side and usually on the

DC side. The characteristic AC side current harmonics generated
by 6 pulse converters are 6n +/- 1 and 12n +/- 1 for 12 pulse
converters where n equals all positive integers. AC filters are typi-
cally tuned to 11th, 13th, 23rd and 25th harmonics for 12 pulse
converters. Tuning to the 5th and 7th harmonics is required if
the converters can be configured into 6 pulse operation. AC side
harmonic filters may be switched with circuit breakers or circuit
switches to accommodate reactive power requirement strate-
(a) Monopolar
gies since these filters generate reactive power at fundamental
frequency. A parallel resonance is naturally created between the
capacitance of the AC filters and the inductive impedance of
the AC system. For the special case where such a resonance is
lightly damped and tuned to a frequency between the 2nd and
4th harmonic, then a low order harmonic filter at the 2nd or 3rd
harmonic may be required, even for 12 pulse converter operation.
(b) Bipolar
Layout of an HVDC substation
Characteristic DC side voltage harmonics generated by a 6 pulse

converter are of the order 6n and when generated by a 12 pulse
Back-to-back system converter, are of the order 12n. DC side filters reduce harmonic
current flow on DC transmission lines to minimize coupling and
interference to adjacent voice frequency communication circuits.
Where there is no DC line, such as in the back-to-back configura-
tion, DC side filters may not be required.
DC reactors are usually included in each pole of a converter sta-

tion. They assist the DC filters in filtering harmonic currents and
smooth the DC side current so that a discontinuous current mode
Two terminal system
is not reached at low load current operation. Because rate of
change of DC side current is limited by the DC reactor, the com-
mutation process of the DC converter is made more robust.
Surge arresters across each valve in the converter bridge, across

each converter bridge and in the DC and AC switchyard are coor-
dinated to protect the equipment from all overvoltages regardless
Parallel multiterminal system of their source. They may be used in non-standard applications,
such as filter protection. Modern HVDC substations use metal-
oxide arresters and their rating and selection is made with careful
insulation coordination design.
COMMUTATION
Rectification or inversion for HVDC converters is accomplished
Series multiterminal system
through a process known as line or natural commutation. The
valves act as switches so that the AC voltage is sequentially
switched to always provide a DC voltage. With line commutation,
the AC voltage at both the rectifier and inverter must be provided
by the AC networks at each end and should be three phase and
relatively free of harmonics. As each valve switches on, it will
Hydro or wind turbine and Unit connection begin to conduct current while the current begins to fall to zero in
generator feeding into
rectifier the next valve to turn off. Commutation is the process of transfer
of current between any two converter valves with both valves car-
rying current simultaneously during this process.
HVDC converter bridge arrangements
Consider the rectification process. Each valve will switch on when

it receives a firing pulse to its gate and its forward bias voltage
becomes more positive than the forward bias voltage of the con-
ducting valve. The current flow through a conducting valve does
not change instantaneously as it commutates to another valve be-
cause the transfer is through transformer windings. The leakage
reactance of the transformer windings is also the commutation re-
actance so long as the AC filters are located on the primary or AC
side of the converter transformer. The commutation reactance at
the rectifier and inverter is shown as an equivalent reactance XC
in the figure below. The sum of all the valve currents transferred
to the DC side and through the DC reactor is the direct current
and it is relatively flat because of the inductance of the d. reactor
and converter transformer.
Rectifier Inverter
Id
Ivr Ivi
Udr Udi
XC XC
ULr Uvr Uvi
ULi
α μ
α
β
γ
μ γ Commutation Voltage at
Commutation voltage at
rectifier β inverter
Dc voltage and current waveshapes associated with dc converter bridges.
At the inverter, the three phase AC voltage supplied by the AC

system provides the forward and reverse bias conditions of each
valve in the converter bridge to allow commutation of current
between valves the same as in the rectifier. The inverter valve can
only turn on and conduct when the positive direct voltage from
the DC line is greater than the back negative voltage derived
from the AC commutation voltage of the AC system at the
inverter.
Reversal of power flow in a line commutated DC link is not possi-

ble by reversing the direction of the direct current. The valves will
allow conduction in one direction only. Power flow can only be
reversed in line commutated DC converter bridges by changing
the polarity of the direct voltage. The dual operation of the con-
verter bridges as either a rectifier or inverter is achieved through
firing control of the grid pulses.
CONVERTER BRIDGE ANGLES

These converter bridge angles are measured on the three phase
valve side voltages and are based upon steady state conditions
with a harmonic free and idealized three phase commutation
voltage. They apply to both inverters and rectifiers.
Delay angle α. The time expressed in electrical angular measure

from the zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating
voltage to the starting instant of forward current conduction.
This angle is controlled by the gate firing pulse and if less than
90 degrees, the converter bridge is a rectifier and if greater than
Converter bridge in PSCAD/EMTDC. The valve firing
90 degrees, it is an inverter. This angle is often referred to as the controls are internally set up with a phase locked oscillator.
firing angle. The input control signals are firing angle α (in radians) and
pulse blocking signal KB (0 or 1, 0 to block, 1 to deblock).
Advance angle ß. The time expressed in electrical angular

measure from the starting instant of forward current conduction
β = 180.0 - α
to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating
voltage. The angle of advance ß is related in degrees to the angle
of delay α.
Overlap angle μ. The duration of commutation between two

converter valve arms expressed in electrical angular measure.
Extinction angle γ. The time expressed in electrical angular

measure from the end of current conduction to the next zero
γ=β-μ crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage. γ de-
pends on the angle of advance ß and the angle of overlap μ.
STEADY STATE DC CONVERTER EQUATIONS

It is useful to express the commutation reactance of a 6 pulse
converter bridge in per-unit of the converter transformer rating
SN.
__ IdN is the rated direct current and UVN is the rated phase-to-phase
SN = √2 UVN IdN voltage on the valve or secondary side of the converter trans-
former. Usually the DC converter bridge power rating is known
from its rated DC current IdN and rated DC voltage UdN. The valve
and converter bridge design is very dependent upon the com-
mutation reactance XC and so consequently its value is established
and known. In modern HVDC converter bridges, it is usually in
At a rectifier: the range 0.1<XC<0.15 in per unit where 1.0 per unit is (UVN)2/SN
Power Factor ohms.
= Cos(q)
= Cos(a) - 0.5 XC(Id/IdN)
A reasonably good approximation for the power factor of a
and at an inverter:
Power Factor
converter bridge at the AC commutating bus is given. Note that
= Cos(q) the delay angle α is usually known or determined. For example,
= Cos(g)- 0.5 XC(Id/IdN)
the normal steady state range of delay angle for a rectifier may be
where Id is the dc load current and IdN is rated dc current 10° < α < 18° and the lowest normal operating power factor will
and q is the power factor angle. For the inverter, the normal
rated extinction angle is established in the converter bridge
be when α = 18°.
design, usually at g = 18°.
Power flow Pd through a converter bridge is determined by as-
Pd = Id Ud
suming zero losses. Reactive power requirements for a converter
where Id is the operating direct current through the bridge Qd is always inductive and is readily derived from the
converter bridge and Ud is the operating direct voltage
across the converter bridge. power factor angle θ and power Pd.
Qd = Pd Tan(θ)
It may be that the rated phase-to-phase voltage on the valve or
UVN = UdN/[1.35 Cos(θ)] secondary side of the converter transformer UVN is not known. It is
possible to compute what it should be if the power factor Cos(θ)
is known at the converter bridge rating and whose rated DC volt-
age is UdN. Then a good estimate of UVN can be determined.
Once UVN is known, it is possible to find the converter transformer

rating SN.
During the operation of a converter bridge, the converter trans-

former on-line tap changer will adjust to keep the delay angle α
at a rectifier at its desired normal operating range. Similarly, at
the inverter, the on-line tap changer will adjust to maintain the At a rectifier:
Cos(α+μ) = Cos(α) - XC Id /IdN
inverter operation at its desired level of DC voltage Ud or extinc-
tion angle γ. Knowing the desired levels of DC voltage (Ud), DC
current Id, the nominal turns ratio TRN of the converter transform- At an inverter:
er, the operating level of the primary side AC voltage UL, and the Cos(γ+μ) = Cos(γ) - XC Id /IdN
extinction angle γ (if an inverter) or delay angle α (if a rectifier),
the per-unit turns ratio TR of the converter transformer can be
and
determined. α = 180° - (γ + μ)
It may be necessary to determine the overlap angle μ. At the

rectifier, an approximate expression can be applied when delay
angle α, per-unit commutating reactance XC and DC load current Transformer turns ratio:
Id are known.
TRN = Valve side rated line voltage
Ac side rated line voltage
Similarly at the inverter, the extinction angle γ is usually known
= UVN/ULN
for steady state operation and a similar expression involving μ can
be determined.
Id ___________
XC
UD + UdN __ ⋅
The delay angle α at the inverter may not be inherently known, IdN (2Cos(ϕ) - XC)
_____________________
TR =
but once extinction angle γ and overlap angle μ have been deter- 1.35 ⋅ TRN · UL · Cos(ϕ)
mined, α can easily be derived.
where XC is the commutating reactance for the converter
It is also possible to determine the nominal turns ratio of the bridge in per-unit and ϕ = α for a rectifier and ϕ = γ if an
inverter. IdN is the rated dc current for the converter bridge
converter transformer once the rated secondary (DC valve side) and UdN is its rated dc voltage.
voltage UVN is known and if the primary side rated phase-to-phase
The above equations are useful in setting up the operating
AC bus voltage ULN is also known. Based on phase-to-phase volt- conditions of the converter. When operating parameters
ages, the nominal turns ratio of the converter transformer TRN is are unknown, these equations can be used to determine
determined. the converter transformer rating, the converter transformer
tap setting and the operating range for firing angle α or
extinction angle γ.
These equations are the steady state and reasonably accurate
Usually the commutating reactance of a converter
expressions defining the state of a 6 pulse converter bridge under transformer is around 10 to 12% based on the transformer
ideal conditions. Defining the performance and operation of a rating for more recent dc transmission systems, and 16 to
20% for older dc systems.
converter bridge under dynamic or transient conditions requires
the use of PSCAD/EMTDC that has the capability of modeling the
valves, converter transformer, control system, the firing pulses to Short circuit ratio
the valves, and the associated AC and DC networks.
Strong systems: -ESCR > 3.0
Systems with Low SCR: -3.0 > ESCR > 2.0

SHORT CIRCUIT RATIO Weak systems with very low SCR: -ESCR < 2.0
The strength of the AC network at the bus of the HVDC substa-
tion can be expressed by the short circuit ratio (SCR), defined as
the relation between the short circuit level in MVA at the HVDC
substation bus at 1.0 per-unit AC voltage and the DC power in
MW.
Shunt capacitors and AC filters connected to the AC bus reduce

the short circuit level. The expression “effective short circuit
ratio (ESCR)” is used for the ratio between the short circuit level
reduced by the reactive power of the shunt capacitor banks and
AC filters connected to the AC bus at 1.0 per-unit voltage and
the rated DC power.
Lower ESCR or SCR means more pronounced interaction between

the HVDC substation and the AC. AC networks can be classified
in the following categories according to strength.
In the case of high ESCR systems, changes in the active/reac-

tive power from the HVDC substation lead to small or moderate
AC voltage changes. Therefore, the additional transient voltage
control at the busbar is not normally required. The reactive power
balance between the AC network and the HVDC substation can
be achieved by switched reactive power elements.
In the case of low and very low ESCR systems, the changes in
the AC network or in the HVDC transmission power could lead
to voltage oscillations and a need for special control strategies.
Dynamic reactive power control at the AC bus at or near the
HVDC substation by some form of power electronic reactive
power controller, such as a static var compensator (SVC) or static
synchronous compensator (STATCOM), may be necessary. In
earlier times, dynamic reactive power control was achieved with
synchronous compensators.
COMMUTATION FAILURE
When a converter bridge is operating as an inverter as represent-
ed at the receiving end of the DC link, a valve will turn off when
its forward current commutates to zero and the voltage across the
valve remains negative. The period for which the valve stays nega-
tively biased is the extinction angle γ, the duration beyond which
the valve then becomes forward biased. Without a firing pulse,
the valve will ideally stay non-conductive or blocked, even though
it experiences a forward bias.
All DC valves require removal of the internal stored charges pro-

duced during the forward conducting period (defined by period α
+ μ at the inverter) before the valve can successfully establish its
ability to block a forward bias. The DC inverter therefore requires
a minimum period of negative bias or minimum extinction angle
γ for forward blocking to be successful. If forward blocking fails
and conduction is initiated without a firing pulse, commutation
failure occurs. This also results in an immediate failure to maintain
current in the succeeding converter arm as the DC line current
returns to the valve which was previously conducting and which
has failed to sustain forward blocking.
Commutation failure at a converter bridge operating as an in-

verter is caused by any of the following reasons:
1. When the DC current entering the inverter experiences

an increase in magnitude that causes the overlap angle
μ to increase, the extinction angle γ is reduced and may
reach the point where the valve is unable to maintain
forward blocking. Increasing the inductance of the DC
current path through the converter by means of the DC
Effect of a commutation failure on dc voltage and current
smoothing reactor and commutating reactance reduces
the rate of change of DC current. This has the greatest

effect on commutation failure onset.
2. When the magnitude of the AC side voltage on one
or more phases reduces or is distorted causing the
extinction angle to be inadequate as commutation is
attempted.
3. A phase angle shift in the AC commutating voltage can
cause commutation failure. However, the AC voltage
magnitude reduction and not the corresponding phase
shift is the most dominant factor determining the onset
of commutation failures for single phase faults.
4. The value of the pre-disturbance steady state extinction
angle γ also affects the sensitivity of the inverter to
commutation failure. A value of γ = 18° is usual for most
inverters. Increasing γ to values of 25°, 30° or higher
will reduce the possibility of commutation failure (at the
expense of increasing the reactive power demand of the
inverter).
5. The value of valve current prior to the commutation
failure also affects the conditions at which a
commutation failure may occur. A commutation failure
may more readily happen if the pre-disturbance current is
at full load compared to light load current operation.
In general, the more rigid the AC voltage to which the inverter
feeds into and with an absence of AC system disturbances, the
less likelihood there will be commutation failures.
CONTROL AND PROTECTION

HVDC transmission systems must transport very large amounts of
electric power that can only be accomplished under tightly con-
trolled conditions. DC current and voltage is precisely controlled
to affect the desired power transfer. It is necessary therefore to
continuously and precisely measure system quantities that include
at each converter bridge, the DC current, its DC side voltage, the
delay angle α and for an inverter, its extinction angle γ.
Two terminal DC transmission systems are the more usual and

they have in common a preferred mode of control during normal
operation. Under steady state conditions, the inverter is assigned
the task of controlling the DC voltage. This it may do by main-
taining a constant extinction angle γ causing the DC voltage Ud
to droop with increasing DC current Id, as shown in the minimum
constant extinction angle γ characteristic A-B-C-D. The weaker
the AC system at the inverter, the steeper the droop.
Alternatively, the inverter may normally operate in a DC voltage

controlling mode which is the constant Ud characteristic B-H-E.
Steady state Ud-Id characteristics for a two terminal HVDC
This means that the extinction angle γ must increase beyond its system
minimum setting of 18°.
If the inverter is operating in a minimum constant γ or constant

Ud characteristic, the rectifier must control the DC current Id. This
it can do so long as the delay angle α is not at its minimum limit
(usually 5°). The steady state constant current characteristic of
the rectifier is the vertical section Q-C-H-R. Where the rectifier
and inverter characteristic intersect, either at points C or H, is the
operating point of the HVDC system.
The operating point is reached by action of the on-line tap chang-

ers of the converter transformers. The inverter must establish the
DC voltage Ud by adjusting its on-line tap changer to achieve the
desired operating level if it is in constant minimum γ control. If in
constant Ud control, the on-line tap changer must adjust its tap
to allow the controlled level of Ud be achieved with an extinction
angle equal to or slightly larger than its minimum setting of 18° in
this case.
The on-line tap changers on the converter transformers of the

rectifier are controlled to adjust their tap settings so that the delay
angle α has a working range at a level between approximately
10° and 15° for maintaining the constant current setting Iorder. If
the inverter is operating in constant DC voltage control at the
operating point H, and if the DC current order Iorder is increased so
that the operating point H moves towards and beyond point B,
Dc Current controller using a Proportional - Integral
controller to generate a firing angle that regulates the the inverter mode of control will revert to constant extinction an-
instant of valve firing of each valve. gle γ control and operate on characteristic A-B. DC voltage Ud will
be less than the desired value, and so the converter transformer
on-line tap changer at the inverter will boost its DC side voltage
until DC voltage control is resumed.
Not all HVDC transmission system controls have a constant DC

voltage control, such as is depicted by the horizontal character-
istic B-H-E. Instead, the constant extinction angle γ control of
characteristic A-B-C-D and the tap changer will provide the DC
voltage control.
CURRENT MARGIN
The DC current order Iorder is sent to both the rectifier and in-
verter. It is usual to subtract a small value of current order from
the Iorder sent to the inverter. This is known as the current margin
Imargin. The inverter also has a current controller and it attempts to
control the DC current Id to the value Iorder - Imargin but the current
controller at the rectifier normally overrides it to maintain the
DC current at Iorder. This discrepancy is resolved at the inverter in
normal steady state operation as its current controller is not able
to keep the DC current to the desired value of Iorder - Imargin and is
forced out of action. The current control at the inverter becomes
active only when the current control at the rectifier ceases when
its delay angle α is pegged against its minimum delay angle limit.
This is readily observed in the operating characteristics where the
minimum delay angle limit at the rectifier is characteristic P-Q. If
for some reason or other, such as a low AC commutating volt-
age at the rectifier end, the P-Q characteristic falls below points
D or E, the operating point will shift from point H to somewhere
on the vertical characteristic D-E-F where it is intersected by the
lowered P-Q characteristic. The inverter reverts to current control,
controlling the DC current Id to the value Iorder - Imargin and the recti-
fier is effectively controlling DC voltage so long as it is operating
at its minimum delay angle characteristic P-Q. The controls can
be designed such that the transition from the rectifier control-
ling current to the inverter controlling current is automatic and
smooth.
VOLTAGE DEPENDENT CURRENT ORDER LIMIT

(VDCOL)
Modifying the current order with a voltage dependent
current order control During disturbances where the AC voltage at the rectifier or
inverter is depressed, it will not be helpful to a weak AC system
if the HVDC transmission system attempts to maintain full load
current. A sag in AC voltage at either end will result in a lowered
DC voltage too. The DC control characteristics shown previously
indicate the DC current order is reduced if the DC voltage is
lowered. This can be observed in the rectifier characteristic R-S-T
and in the inverter characteristic F-G. The controller that reduces
the maximum current order is known as a voltage dependent
current order limit or VDCOL (sometimes referred to as a VDCL).
The VDCOL control, if invoked by an AC system disturbance will
keep the DC current Id to the lowered limit during recovery which
aids the corresponding recovery of the DC system. Only when DC
voltage Ud has recovered sufficiently will the DC current return to
its original Iorder level.
AC VOLTAGE CONTROL
It is desirable to rigidly maintain the AC system and commutating
bus voltage to a constant value for best operation of the HVDC
The dc and ac voltage controls can be proportional
transmission system. This is more easily achieved when the short – integral controllers. The measured voltage (dc or ac) is
circuit ratio is high. With low or very low short circuit ratio sys- compared with a desired value, and if it exceeds the desired
tems, difficulties may arise following load changes. With fast load value, will become active on controlling the firing angle.
Dc voltage control is usually only applied at one converter
variation, there can be an excess or deficiency of reactive power and all other converters in the same pole control dc current.
at the AC commutating bus which results in over and undervolt- Usually only one of dc current control, dc voltage control,
ac voltage control or extinction angle control is active at any
ages respectively. When the AC system is weak, the changes in instant.
converter AC bus voltage following a disturbance may be be-
To minimize occurrence of commutation failure, the
yond permissible limits. In such cases, an AC voltage controller is extinction angle control will become active if the measured
required for the following reasons: extinction angle falls below the set value of 15 to 18
degrees.
1. To limit dynamic and transient overvoltage to within The control angle selector is usually a “Select Maximum”
permissible limits defined by substation equipment or “Select Minimum” depending on whether the signal is
for α or β.
specifications and standards.
2. To prevent AC voltage flicker and commutation failure
due to AC voltage fluctuations when load and filter
switching occurs.
3. To enhance HVDC transmission system recovery
following severe AC system disturbances.
4. To avoid control system instability, particularly when
operating in the extinction angle control mode at the
inverter.
The synchronous compensator has been the preferred means of
AC voltage control as it increases the short circuit ratio and serves
as a variable reactive power source. Its disadvantages include high
losses and maintenance that add to its overall cost. Additional AC
voltage controllers are available and include:
1. Static compensators that utilize thyristors to control

current through inductors and switch in or out various
levels of capacitors. By this means, fast control of reactive
power is possible to maintain AC voltage within desired

limits. The main disadvantage is that it does not add to
the short circuit ratio.
2. Converter control through delay angle control is possible
to regulate the reactive power demand of the converter
bridges. This requires that the measured AC voltage be
used as a feedback signal in the DC controls, and delay
angle a is transiently modulated to regulate the AC
commutating bus voltage. This form of control is limited
in its effectiveness, particularly when there is little or
no DC current in the converter when voltage control is
required.
3. Use of specially cooled metal oxide varistors together
with fast mechanical switching of shunt reactors,
capacitors and filters. The metal oxide varistors will
protect the HVDC substation equipment against the
transient overvoltages, and the switchings of reactive
power components will achieve the reactive power
balance. Its disadvantage is that voltage control is not
continuous, reactive power control is delayed by the
slowness of mechanical switching, and short circuit ratio
is not increased.
4. Saturated reactors have been applied to limit overvoltages
and achieve reactive power balance. Shunt capacitors and
filters are required to maintain the reactors in saturation.
AC voltage control is achieved without controls on a
droop characteristic. Short circuit ratio is not increased.
5. Series capacitors in the form of CCC or CSCC can
increase the short circuit ratio and improve the regulation
of AC commutating bus voltage.
6. The static compensator or STATCOM makes use of gate
turn-off thyristors in the configuration of the voltage
source converter bridge. This is the fastest responding
voltage controller available and may offer limited
capability for increased short circuit ratio.
Since each AC system with its HVDC application is unique, the
voltage control method applied is subject to study and design.
SPECIAL PURPOSE CONTROLS

There are a number of special purpose controllers that can be
added to HVDC controls to take advantage of the fast response
of a DC link and help the performance of the AC system. These
include:
AC system damping controls. An AC system is subject to

power swings due to electromechanical oscillations. A control-
ler can be added to modulate the DC power order or DC current
order to add damping. The frequency or voltage phase angle of
the AC system is measured at one or both ends of the DC link,
and the controller is designed to adjust the power of the DC link

accordingly.
AC system frequency control. A slow responding controller

can also adjust the power of the DC link to help regulate power
system frequency. If the rectifier and inverter are in asynchronous
power systems, the DC controller can draw power from one sys-
tem to the other to assist in frequency stabilization of each.
Step change power adjustment. A non-continuous power

adjustment can be implemented to take advantage of the abil-
ity of a HVDC transmission system to rapidly reduce or increase
power. If AC system protection determines that a generator or
AC transmission line is to be tripped, a signal can be sent to the
DC controls to change its power or current order by an amount
that will compensate the loss. This feature is useful in helping
maintain AC system stability and to ease the shock of a distur-
bance over a wider area.
AC undervoltage compensation. Some portions of an electric

power system are prone to AC voltage collapse. If a HVDC trans-
mission system is in such an area, a control can be implemented
which on detecting the AC voltage drop and the rate at which
it is dropping, a fast power or current order reduction of the DC
link can be affected. The reduction in power and reactive power
can remove the undervoltage stress on the AC system and restore
its voltage to normal.
Subsynchronous oscillation damping. A steam turbine and

electric generator can have mechanical subsynchronous oscil-
lation modes between the various turbine stages and the gen-
erator. If such a generator feeds into the rectifier of a DC link,
supplementary control may be required on the DC link to ensure
the subsynchronous oscillation modes of concern are positively
damped to limit torsional stresses on the turbine shaft.
SERIES COMPENSATION OF DC CONVERTER

There are two ways series capacitors can be applied to compen-
sate a DC converter. The capacitor compensated converter (CCC)
applies a series capacitor between the converter transformer and
the DC bridge. The controlled series capacitor converter (CSCC)
places the series capacitor between the AC commutating bus and
the AC system.
The unique aspect of the CSCC configuration is that the con- CCC dc transmission inverter
verter transformers may be subject to ferroresonance. This might
happen following a disturbance or during recovery from a fault.
The ferroresonance is remedied by protection causing the series
capacitor to be bypassed either in part or entirely when it is de-
tected. A thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC) is effective
in damping out any ferroresonance. Conventional DC controls
are used for a DC link with an inverter in CSCC configuration.
The reactance of the series capacitor is selected at about 0.3 to
CSCC dc transmission inverter
0.4 per unit (based on transformer rating). The value chosen

should not cause 100% compensation of the AC system, a condi-
tion not to be tolerated.
The CCC configuration is not prone to ferroresonance. The DC

link controls with CCC are also basically the same as conven-
tional DC transmission except for the extinction angle controller.
Extinction angle γ is modified and an effective value γ is defined.
This is because the commutation voltage of a CCC is the sum of
the AC line voltage and the voltage charge on the series capaci-
tor. Therefore, the maximum firing angle γ is larger than that of a
conventional DC inverter. A CCC inverter can operate at a higher
power factor than a conventional DC converter.
With both CCC and CSCC configurations, minimum ac
filtering can be applied. The filter MVAR ratings can be In both CCC and CSCC configurations, the converter is less prone
selected to small values (10 to 15% of rating) which result to commutation failure caused from any fault in the AC power
in a very narrow passband.
system. The inverters with series capacitor compensation can also
Harmonics are a little higher with CCC and CSC effectively operate into much lower short circuit ratio.
configurations compared to the conventional configuration.
Determining γ for the CCC configuration for a specific The great benefit of CCC and CSCC configurations is when DC
extinction angle is not straightforward. Use trial and error
until acceptable performance is realized. Otherwise, refer cable transmission is used. If AC voltage at the inverter reduces
to References 14 and 16 below. for one reason or another, there is a tendency for the DC side
voltage to reduce also. The cable with its large capacitance will
discharge current into the inverter. When this happens with a
conventional DC configuration, there is a good chance commu-
tation failure will result causing total discharge of the DC cable.
However, with CCC or CSCC configurations, the cable discharge
current must flow through the series capacitor building up a back
voltage to counteract it. Commutation failure is less likely to oc-
cur.
The control system for CCC and CSCC configurations can essen-
tially remain the same as for the conventional configuration. The
incentive is to apply the series capacitor at the inverter where low
short circuit ratio and cable discharge effects are a challenge. It
is suggested the phase locked oscillator derive its AC signals from
the AC commutating busbar. For the CCC configuration, the
series reactance of the capacitor can be 0.3 to 0.4 per unit based
on the converter transformer rating. Note that also with the CCC
configuration, the extinction angle order can be reduced to 2° to
5° instead of the normal 15° to 18°. The actual extinction angle
setting to use depends upon the value for the series reactance
used, as well as the degree of utilization of ratings of the trans-
former, series capacitor and valve group.
When either CCC or CSCC configurations are used, tests of tran-

sient overvoltages on the DC side volts, valves, the series capaci-
tor, the converter transformer and AC busbar should be under-
taken for various disturbances and protection sequences.
Connection of the phase locked loop for the CCC
configuration
REFERENCES
1. IEC Committee SC22F, “Terminology for high-voltage
direct current transmission,” IEC reference number
22F/37/CDV.
2. “Physical Layout of Recent HVDC Transmission Projects
in North America,” IEEE Special Publication 87TH0177-6-
PWR, September 1986.
3. R.L. Hauth, P.J. Tatro, B.D. Railing, B.K. Johnson, J.R.
Stewart and J.L. Fink, “HVDC Power Transmission
Technology Assessment Report,” ORNL/Sub/95-SR893/1,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, April 1997.
4. C. Adamson, N.G. Hingorani, “High Voltage Direct
Current Power Transmission,” Garraway Limited, London,
1960.
5. W.H. Bailey, D.E. Weil and J.R. Stewart, “HVDC Power
Transmission Environmental Issues Review,” Report
ORNL/Sub/95-SR893/2, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
April 1997.
6. E.W. Kimbark, “Direct Current Transmission, Volume 1,”
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971.
7. E. Uhlman, “Power Transmission by Direct Current,” New
York: Springer-Verlag, 1975.
8. J. Arrillaga, “High Voltage Direct Current Transmission,”
London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd., 1983.
9. K.R. Padiyar, “HVDC Transmission - Technology and
System Interactions,” New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1990.
10. “Guide for Planning DC Links Terminating at AC
Locations Having Low Short Circuit Capacities, Part 1: AC/
DC Interaction Phenomena,” CIGRE Technical Brochure
No. 68, 1992.
11. “High-Voltage Direct Current Handbook,” First Edition,
Palo Alto: Electric Power Research Institute, 1994.
12. “FACTS Overview,” IEEE and CIGRE joint publication 95
TP 108, April 1995.
13. CIGRE Working Group 14-05, “Commutation failures
- causes and consequences,” ELECTRA, No. 165, April
1996.
14. J. Reeve, J.A. Baron and G.A. Hanley, “A Technical
Assessment of Artificial Commutation of HVDC
Converters,” IEEE Trans. PAS, Vol. PAS-87, No. 10, 1830-
1840, October 1968.
15. D.A. Woodford, “Solving the Ferroresonance Problem
when Compensating a DC Converter Station with a Series
Capacitor,” IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 3, No. 2,

1325-1331, August 1996.
16. T. Jonnson and P. Bjorklund, “Capacitor Commutated
Converters for HVdc,” Stockholm Power Tech, June 1995,
Proceedings; Power Electronics, pp 44-51.
17. K. Sadek, M. Pereira, D.P. Brandt, A.M. Gole, A.
Daneshpooy, “Capacitor Commutated Circuit
Configurations for DC Transmission,” IEEE Transactions of
Power Delivery, Vol 13, No.4, October 1998, pp 1257 –
1264.
EXERCISES
6.1 Load Lessson6_1.psc in Lesson 6_1. A simple monopole
DC link is modeled rated at + 500 kV, 2 kA and 50 Hz.
Based on the model parameters for transformer leakage
reactance, determine the reactive power demand at both
the inverter and rectifier when operating at rated DC
voltage and current. The desired extinction angle γ at the
inverter is 15 degrees and the desired firing angle α at
the rectifier is also 15 degrees.
6.2 With the same DC model as Exercise 6.1, calculate the
converter transformer secondary voltage required to
operate the DC link at 450 kV and 2.222 kA and with
both α and γ in steady state at 15 degrees.
6.3 Run case Lesson6_1.psc and take a snapshot at TIME
= 0.5 seconds. Run from snapshot in steady state for
0.1 seconds and observe the AC voltage waveshapes
at both the rectifier and inverter commutating busbars.
How would you improve the waveshape? See if you are
successful in doing so.
6.4 Apply a single phase to ground fault at the inverter bus
at TIME = 0.51 for a duration of 0.08 seconds. Run from
snapshot and observe the resulting commutation failure.
Observe the magnitude of any AC and DC temporary
overvoltages. Increase the impedance of the receiving
end AC equivalent system by 50%. Is the case stable and
is it possible to reach steady state at rated current? Why
does a commutation failure occur? How can a start-up
be accomplished and steady state operation be reached
without a commutation failure occurring? If not, reduce
the current order and re-take a snapshot at 0.5 seconds.
What are the AC and DC temporary overvoltages
observed during and after the AC fault and commutation
failure? Are they acceptable? What is the Effective Short
Circuit Ratio of the DC system?
Chapter 7:
STATCOM Controls
A STATCOM is a power electronic controller constructed from 2
Voltage Sourced Converters (VSCs). The solid state switches of D T
VSCs, unlike the thyristor, can force current off against forward
Diode Thyristor
voltage through application of a negative gate pulse. Insulated
Gate Bipolar junction Transistors (IGBTs) and Gate Turn-Off thyris-
tors (GTOs) are two solid state switching devices being applied. 2 2
New devices are under development and it is likely VSC technology G I
will revolutionize distribution and transmission systems.
GTO IGBT
There are many possible configurations of VSCs and consequently Switching device components in the Master Library. Note
the 2 dimensional array for gate signal.
many different configurations of STATCOMs and Distribution
STATCOMs. The terms often applied to configurations are:
V
A
1 3 5
• Six and twelve pulse
2 2 2
g1 g3 g5
• Two level 100.0 [MVA]

115[kV] / 25.0 [kV]
300.0 [uF]
#1 #2
• Multilevel
2.0 [uF]
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
4 6 2
For understanding how to simulate, control and apply STATCOMs, g4

2
g6
2
g2
2
simpler configurations will be covered in this section.

Basic configuration of a two level STATCOM. It may
operate as a six pulse VSC and require significant filtering
INTERPOLATED SWITCHING on the AC system side of the transformer, or with PWM; in
which case only high frequency harmonics need be filtered,
To avoid waiting until the end of a calculation time step before which can be achieved easily with a simple high pass filter
initiating the switching action of a solid state device, such as a or small capacitor bank. This is the “two level” converter
configuration.
thyristor or IGBT, interpolated switching is used in PSCAD/EMTDC.
In many situations, such as a breaker tripping, a delay of one cal- The converter transformer of a STATCOM or VSC is not
culation time step (about 10 to 50 ¼sec) is of little consequence. subjected to the onerous duty of a DC transmission
converter transformer. There is no short circuiting
However, in power electronic circuit simulation, such a delay can commutation process and mechanical stresses are no
produce inaccurate results (50 ¼sec at 50 or 60Hz is approximately different than any other AC transformer application. In
fact, in some VSC configurations, an air cored reactor is
1 degree phase angle). For example, simulation of VSC circuits used instead of a converter transformer.
involving GTO’s with back diodes may be impossible without in-
The DC side capacitor can be very large in microfarads.
terpolation, very small calculation time steps or oversized snubber Being a DC capacitor (its polarity cannot be reversed), it is
circuits. possible to achieve low cost and size because the dielectric
can be thinner because there is no residual space charge
when polarity reverses. Designing the value of the capacitor
EMTDC interpolates the solution between two time steps to find is one of the challenges of STATCOM design.
the solution at the exact instant of the event. This is much faster
and just as accurate as reducing the time step.
H
Interpolated Firing Pulse components are located in the CSMF page

L
of the Master Library that generate the two dimensional firing
pulse array as output for switching solid state devices. These com-
ponents return the firing pulse and the interpolation time required Thyristor gate connection
with Interpolated Firing Pulse
for switching on and switching off for the GTO and IGBT. In other Component.
words, the output signal is a two element real array, first element 2
is the firing pulse and the second is the time between the current
T
Thyristor
Chapter 7: STATCOM Controls
computing instant and the firing pulse transition for interpolated

H
turn-on of the thyristors/GTOs.
OFF GTO (or IGBT) gate
connection with
L Interpolated Firing Pulse The Interpolated Firing Pulse component returns the firing pulse
Component, and the option
to use a Wire Label instead
and the interpolation time required for interpolated switching. It
H
of a direct connection. also uses a zero-crossing detector to detect when the signal HIGH
ON
goes above the signal LOW. The turn-on transition of the firing
L
pulses is synchronized to the input ON signal (HIGH-LOW) while
the turn-off transition is synchronized to the input OFF signal
(HIGH-LOW). The transition of the pulse happens in the time step
following the zero-crossing of the corresponding signal.
2
GY1 GY1
G USE OF PAGES
Since VSC configurations and controls can appear visually com-
plex, there is provision in PSCAD to embed them in their own
Page Modules, which for controls, is not unlike grouping func-
tions onto one printed circuit card. The procedure for doing this is
covered in section 5 of the PSCAD User’s Guide, or in the PSCAD
on-line help.
STATCOM CONTROL STRATEGY

There is advantage to using pulse width modulation at VSC
converters as two parameters can be independently controlled.
These are the magnitude and the phase of the ac voltage gener-
ated on the VSC side of the interfacing reactor or transformer to
the AC system.
Data entry sheet for Interpolated Firing Pulse
Component. This component is expandable and can
provide the gating pulse from one switching device to six
Any voltage sourced converter, such as a STATCOM with PWM,
switching devices in two level bridge formation. has two independent parameters it can control. These are:
1. The magnitude of the fundamental frequency component

of the AC voltage on the converter side of the converter
transformer or reactor.
2. The phase angle of the fundamental frequency

component of the AC voltage on the converter side of
Professor Ani Gole at the University of Manitoba has this the converter transformer or reactor.
interesting way to help understand how a STATCOM
operates: With a STATCOM, there are many ways to control the magnitude
Consider a warehouse with three loading docks and trucks
and phase quantities. In simple terms, the magnitude control can
bringing loads into and out of the warehouse. If the trucks be used to control the voltage of the AC system, and the phase
are coming and going on an evenly based schedule, as one
truck unloads, it may be able to load directly into another
angle control can be applied to control the DC capacitor volts. It
truck without storing goods in the warehouse. Under such is straight forward to understand how the magnitude control can
balanced conditions, the warehouse is not needed, but the effect AC system voltage. Phase angle control is less easy to un-
loading docks are.
derstand. As the phase angle of the voltage on the converter side
If the schedule is uneven and poor, the warehouse storage of the converter transformer or reactor is changed with respect to
facilities are required until the correct truck arrives to take
the goods out. the phase of the AC system volts, it will attempt to generate or
absorb real power from the AC system. If real power is brought
A STATCOM operates similarly. The DC side storage
capacitor serves as the warehouse. With a nicely balanced in from the AC system, it has to go somewhere, and it ends up
AC system, the capacitor is theoretically not required. charging up the DC side capacitor. Likewise, if the STATCOM
As the voltage is unbalanced for one reason or another,
the capacitor storage is required to continue satisfactory
sends power to the AC system, it can only come from the DC side
operation of the compensating function of the STATCOM. capacitor, and so it discharges. In this way, phase angle control
is the means to regulate the DC capacitor voltage. This is the

1
“direct” control used in Exercise 7.3 below.
2
3
The “indirect” control approach, applied in Exercise 7.2 below
4
is to leave the DC side capacitor voltage uncontrolled, and apply
Modulo 5
just phase angle control for AC voltage control. * 6
360.0
Just control of reactive power is accomplished in Exercise 7.1 TrgRon
below. PWM is not applied. 1

2
There is a wide range of control strategies that can be applied to 3
a STATCOM in terms of adjusting the effective magnitude and 4
phase of the voltage created on the converter side of the convert- 5
er transformer or reactor. These may contain considerations for: 6
TrgRoff
• Use of q-axis current as a controlled parameter
Phase A 0-360° ramp converted to PWM frequency,
triangular signal between -1 to +1 and allocated to each
• Multi-pulse converters valve for both interpolated switching turn-on and turn-off.
• Multi-level converters
The detailed assessment of all control and configurations possible TrgOn_1

PWMControl,Gate Pulse : Graphs
RefSgnOn_1
is outside the scope of this introductory course. 2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
COMPONENTS OF CONTROLS -0.50

-1.00
-1.50
PWM applied to the valves of the VSC causes the valves to switch -2.00
RefSgnOn_1 g1
at high frequency, which practically may reach 2000 Hz or even 2.00
1.50
greater. 1.00
0.50
0.00
Phase Locked Oscillator -0.50
-1.00
The phase locked oscillator (PLL) plays a key role in synchronizing -1.50
the valve switching to AC system volts. In the STATCOM example t (s) 0.1480 0.1500 0.1520 0.1540 0.1560 0.1580 0.1600 0.1620 ...
...
case provided with Example 7.3 below, there are two PLL func- ...
tions.
First, there is a PLL with a single 0-360 degrees ramp locked to

phase A at fundamental frequency that is used to generate the
PWM triangular carrier signal. Its frequency is multiplied to the
PWM switching frequency, and converted to a triangular signal
Modulo
whose amplitude is fixed between –1 to +1. If the PWM frequen- *
cy is divisible by three, it can be applied to each IGBT valve in the 360.0
two level converter.
Secondly, the 0-360 degrees ramp signals generated by the six

A B C
pulse PLL are applied to generate Sin curves at the designated
fundamental frequency. The two degrees of freedom for “direct” Carrier signal generation:
control are achieved by:
A. Increase PLL ramp slope to that required by carrier
frequency.
1. Phase shifting the ramp signals which in turn phase shift B. Restrains ramps to between 0 and 360° at carrier
the Sin curves (signal “Shft”), and frequency.
C. Converts carrier ramps to carrier signals.
2. Varying the magnitude of the Sine Curves (signal “mr” or

“mi”).
Shift: It is the control of signals “Shft” and “mr” (or “mi”) that define
in(in-sh)
6
sh
6 the performance of a voltage sourced converter connected to an
active AC system.
Shift - the angle

order from control
Generating the Firing Pulses
voltage loop The PWM technique requires the mixing of the carrier signal with
30.0 the fundamental frequency signal defining AC wave shape. In
-
B
+ D this example, a Sin wave is used being the simplest signal to

Shift apply. In reality, more efficient switching for optimum harmonic
The input ramp array signals from the PLL are phase cancellation can be used but requires increased complexity in
shifted 30 (for the star-delta phase shift of the interface defining times to switch gate pulses and is not included here.
transformer), as well as by control input signal “Shft.”
With GTO or IGBT valves, gate pulses are applied to switch off
as well as switch on. In PSCAD/EMTDC, it is preferable to model
both switch-on and switch-off pulses with interpolated firing so
that the exact instance of switching between calculation steps is
achieved. Greater precision is therefore possible without resorting
to very short calculation time steps (and long simulation times).
The PWM carrier signal is compared with the Sin wave signals and
both turn-on and turn-off pulses are generated for interpolated
switching. Care is required to ensure pulsing and sequencing of
the turn-on and turn-off pulses are correct.
Control of AC Voltage or Reactive Power

A simple proportional-integral (PI) controller can be applied to
regulate AC side voltage or alternatively, reactive power into or
out of the voltage sourced converter. The output of the PI con-
troller adjusts the “mr” signal to achieve this controlling function.
The signal “mr” or “mi” is known as the “modulation index.”
3% Droop
Calculation
Filters:
low pass and
notch
Measured Reactive N N *
Qm N/D N/D +
Power 0.03 D +
D D F
Rated Reactive
300.0
Power (MVAR)
The output of PI controller is

Measured Voltage the angle order, it
Vpu Max represents the required shift
(pu) D
between system voltage and
E voltage generated by
0.1
STATCOM; the shift
determines the direction
Voltage Reference (pu) Vpu_filter and amount of real power
flow
F
Verr
Vref
- P
D 1 + sT1 *
TIME * + G
1 + sT2 57.29578 AngleOrder
I
Vref
1.5 Shft
Conversion to
pu
Ramping of Vref at Degrees

the beginning of
0
1 simulation
Pgain Tconst
PI parameters
AC voltage direct control (adjusting mr)
Tconst Pgain
1 2
Parameters of PI
controller (their values
are not optimal, find
better ones)
0 0
0.1 1.14
Control of DC Side Volts mr
Maintaining the DC side volts of a STATCOM for “direct” control

is achieved by controlling charge on the large storage capaci- Sin
RefRon
Multip
Array
tor located on the DC side of the voltage sourced converters. A 6 6 6 6
simple PI controller can control power flow by adjusting phase
shift angle “Shft.” This is demonstrated from the example case The ramps are converted to Sine waves and their
magnitudes are controlled by “mr” input signal.
in Exercise 7.3 below.
DC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
Measured DC volts and DC

voltage setpoint in kV.
dcVltg
F
DC V... D - DC voltage control of STATCOM DC side capacitor

+ G
39.0 * + +
DcGain 1 + sT D + D - Shft
Dc Volts Set Point
10
F F
30.0
Gain
1 30 degree phase shift due

DcGain sT to Wye-Delta transformer
-10 *
1.1 BlkI
MULTIPULSE STATCOM
The model studied above has the converter configured in the
basic 6 pulse bridge arrangement. Two 6 pulse bridges can be
configured in the classical 12 pulse arrangement similar to what
is done in 12 pulse HVDC converters. However, the DC side is
connected in parallel rather than series to keep the voltage on
the DC side as low as possible and to improve utilization of the
DC side capacitor. The 5th and 7th harmonic currents are can-
celled but do circulate in the windings adding to the winding and Conventional 12 pulse configuration
converter valve ratings. If PWM is also applied, the number of
switchings per quarter cycle (chops) can be approximately halved
for the same harmonic effect into the AC system.
To eliminate the 5th and 7th harmonics on the transformer

primary side and hence a reduced rating for the valve equipment,
the primary side star windings are connected in series.
The transformer is used to create the necessary phase shifts of

the 6 pulse converter bridges to eliminate harmonics. A “quasi
multi-pulse arrangement” can approximate the phase shift by 12 pulse transformer configuration with primary star
windings connected in series to cancel 5th and 7th
delaying the firing pulses to one of the 6 pulse units by the ap- harmonics and preventing them from circulating in the
propriate delay angle. This does not completely eliminate the AC secondary side and valves.
side harmonics but can considerably reduce them.
Transformer connections are simplified for the quasi multi-pulse

arrangement. The concept can be expanded for 24 and 48 pulse
configurations. The higher the pulse configuration, the lower the
frequency in PWM needed. Indeed for 48 pulse and possibly 24
pulse as well, PWM may not be required at all for acceptable AC
side harmonic performance. This saves in valve switching losses
but increases the complexity of the transformers (magnetics).
Quasi 12 pulse arrangement
THREE LEVEL STATCOM

In the multi-level converter, the DC bus is split into intermediate
levels. The three level voltage sourced converter arrangement is a
practical configuration. Harmonic reduction is achieved without
any special transformer connections. However, not all valves see
the same duty and some are underutilized.
Three level converters can also be configured in multi-pulse

arrangement to minimize the PWM switching frequency for
equivalent harmonic cancellation. For comparison, a two level, 6
pulse converter with PWM will require about twice the switching
frequency to achieve the same level of harmonic effect as a three
level converter.
Three level voltage sourced converter for a STATCOM.

Interpolated firing pulses are also shown.
For the case where the PWM switching frequency is at the 21st
harmonic, some minimal filtering at that harmonic and twice
that harmonic may be required to achieve an acceptable level of
performance. The step up transformer can be located between
the valves and the filters, but the filters would then be connected
at a higher voltage. The transformer may or may not be applied
to replace the air cored inductor also located between the valves
and the filters.
It is important to note that for the multi-level configuration, the

secondary side transformer winding cannot be grounded (as can
the two level converter in some instances). An undesired circulat-
ing current between the valves and the converter may result.
In a practical three level converter, the DC side capacitors are

grounded at the mid-point. It is important to implement controls
that balance the voltage on each capacitor. This is accomplished
by a judicious valve firing arrangement. The valve firing logic is a
difficult exercise to set up.
Phase locked loop, harmonic injection PWM and

capacitance voltage balancing control for three level voltage
sourced converter. Inputs include modulation index signals
mir and mr135, phase shift signal Shftr and the three phase
voltages of the phase locked oscillator.
Auxilliary control to balance DC side capacitors
Interpolated firing pulse coordination. Input signal ThetaA

is derived from the phase locked loop. The triangular wave
carrier signal is generated to formulate the TrgOn, TrgOff,
RsgnOn and RsgnOff triangular wave signals, modified by
the DC capacitor balancing signals V1, V3 and V5.
Pulse firing logic for three level voltage sourced converter.
Improved Harmonic Performance

It is possible to improve the efficiency of pulse width modulation
by optimally ordering the valve switching to minimize the number
of switchings for maximum harmonic elimination. A number of
different methods are available. A simple method is the Third
Harmonic Injection PWM. This is the injection of a 17% third
harmonic component into the original fundamental frequency sin
reference waveform. The analytical expression for the reference
waveform is:
Y = 1.15 Sin(ωt) + 0.19 Sin(3ωt)
Another method is the Harmonic Injection PWM Technique which

is very similar to the third harmonic injection technique. The
analytical expression is:
Y = 1.15 Sin(ωt) + 0.27 Sin(3ωt) – 0.029 Sin(9ωt)
Both these methods although easy to implement, do generate DC

side third harmonic currents.
A more complex method is to determine the exact instant of

switching for each chop. This is a complex process requiring ad-
vanced calculations and interpolated look-up tables to implement
practically.
REFERENCES
1. N.G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding FACTS
– Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC Transmission
Systems,” IEEE Press, New York, 2000.
2. A.M. Gole, M. Reformat, “Topology and Control of
STATCOM Devices in Power Systems,” (Contact A. Gole
at [email protected]).
3. Boost and Ziogas, “State of the Art Carrier PWM
Techniques: A Critical Evaluation,” IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications,Vol 24, No. 2, March/April 1988.
EXERCISES
7.1 Load Lessson7_1.psc in Lesson 7_1 which a 12 pulse
STATCOM example. It has a balanced 3 phase fault
applied at 1.5 seconds which lasts for 0.5 seconds. This
case maintains constant reactive power. Determine that
it is operating without PWM. Examine the waveshape of
the terminal voltage. Add the on-line Fourier component
and measure the harmonics of the terminal voltage while
running in steady state. Are the observed harmonics as
expected?
7.2 Load Lesson7_2.psc in Lesson 7_2 which is a 6 pulse
STATCOM operating with PWM with the same fault
as Exercise 7.1 above. Run the case and observe the
terminal voltage waveshape and compare with the
terminal voltage waveshape from Lesson7_1.psc. Note
the differences. Observe the response of the AC
voltage control. Observe the maximum DC voltage
when the fault is cleared. Apply a low impedance 1L-
G fault instead of the three phase fault and observe
performance. What happens if the DC side capacitor is
increased 5 times?
7.3 Load Lesson7_3.psc in Lesson 7_3 which is similar to
Lesson7_2.psc but there is DC voltage control added.
Adjust some of the gains and time constants in the
controls by trial and error and see if improved voltage
control performance of both the AC and DC voltages can
be achieved. Can the peak DC voltage on clearing of the
three phase fault be improved?
Chapter 8:
VSC Transmission
Voltage Sourced Converter Transmission (VSC Transmission) be-
came a reality when ABB introduced their “HVDC Light” transmis-
sion concept. IEEE and CIGRE have designated that the generic
term VSC Transmission be applied. It can be used in back-to back G. Asplund, G. Ericksoon, K. Svensson, “DC Transmission
based on Voltage Source Converters,” CIGRE SC14
configuration (the Eagle Pass 36 MW interconnection between Colloquium in South Africa, 1997.
Mexico and Texas) or point-to-point 180 MW transmission (the
“DirectLink” interconnection between Queensland and New
South Wales). Siemens have now introduced HVDCPLUS as a VSC
Transmission product.
The benefits of VSC Transmission are indeed significant. Each

converter can independently control AC voltage, and there is no
need for any existing short circuit capacity in the receiving end AC
network. The DC side voltage can never reverse polarity and so
significant benefits are achieved if the underground or undersea
cables are used since the cable size can be quite small, and hence
lower cost, comparatively speaking. Point of phase and magnitude control of AC volts
VSC TRANSMISSION CONTROL STRATEGY

Voltage Sourced
Converter
Interface Reactor
There is advantage to using pulse width modulation at VSC con-
verters that have two parameters to be independently controlled. Simplified diagram of VSC Transmission
These are the magnitude and the phase of the AC voltage gener-
ated on the VSC side of the interfacing reactor or transformer to
the AC system. One successful control strategy for VSC transmis-
sion when located in a system with AC voltage at each terminal is
proposed by controlling the VSC side AC voltage at each converter
as follows:
At one VSC with pulse width modulation (PWM):
• DC link power is controlled by phase shift control.

• AC system voltage is controlled by magnitude control.
C
Cable2
Voltage sourced converter for VSC Transmission. Six-pulse,

two level bridge with PWM
SE RE
At the other VSC with PWM:
• DC link voltage is controlled by phase shift control.

• AC system voltage is controlled by magnitude control.
Chapter 8: VSC Transmission
COMPONENTS OF THE CONTROLS

The key factor with any VSC is the control of the magnitude and
phase of the AC voltage on its AC terminals. PWM applied to the
valves of the VSC causes the valves to switch at high frequency,
which practically may reach 2000 Hz or even greater. The PSCAD
example cases low_vltg_hvdc.psc and VSCTran.psc are used for
demonstration.
Note: Case low_vltg_hvdc.psc feeds to a dead load and its receiv-

ing end converter has to provide frequency and voltage to that
load which could be an isolated load with no operating source of
generation. Case VSCTran.psc transmits electric power between
two active AC systems, such as an interconncection.
Phase Locked Oscillator

The phase locked oscillator (PLL) plays a key role in synchroniz-
ing the valve switching to AC system voltage. For the controls
applied to the example case VSCTran.psc, two PLLs are applied at
each converter.
The PLL with the single 0-360 degrees ramp locked to phase A at
fundamental frequency is used to generate the PWM triangular
carrier signal. First, its frequency is multiplied to the PWM switch-
ing frequency, and converted to a triangular signal whose am-
plitude varies between –1 to +1. If the PWM frequency is divis-
ible by three, it can be applied to each IGBT valve in the 6-pulse
converter.
The ramp signals generated by the 6-pulse PLL are applied to gen-
erate Sin curves at the designated fundamental frequency. Two
degrees of freedom in control are achieved by:
1. Phase shifting the ramp signals which in turn phase shift

the Sin curves (signal “Shft”), and
2. Varying the magnitude of the Sine Curves (signal “mr”).
It is the control of signals “Shft” and “mr” that define the per-
formance of a voltage sourced converter connected to an active
AC system.
When Receiving End is a Passive AC System

When the receiving end AC system is passive with no genera-
tors defining voltage and frequency, these functions must be
performed by the Voltage Sourced Converter. The phase locked
loop must be synchronized to an oscillator defining fundamental
frequency instead of from the AC bus voltage. It is meaningless
to change the phase of the load AC voltage through the “Shft”
signal, so it is not used. However, the “mr” magnitude signal can
be used to control the magnitude of the AC load voltage.
The sending end voltage sourced converter for this case functions
as a rectifier. Here, the “mr” signal can be used to control AC
bus volts at the rectifier, and the “Shft” signal to control DC side
volts (see example case low_vltg_hvdc.psc).
Generating the Firing Pulses

The PWM technique requires the mixing of the carrier signal with
the fundamental frequency signal defining AC wave shape. In
this example a Sin wave is used being the simplest signal to apply.
In reality, more efficient switching for optimum harmonic cancel-
lation can be used but requires increased complexity in defining
times to switch gate pulses and is not included here.
With GTO or IGBT valves, gate pulses are applied to switch off,
as well as switch on. In PSCAD/EMTDC, it is preferable to model
both turn-on and turn-off pulses with interpolated firing so that
the exact instance of switching between calculation steps is
achieved. Greater precision is therefore possible without resort-
ing to very short calculation time steps (and long simulation
times).
The PWM carrier signal is compared with the Sin wave signals
and both turn-on and turn-off pulses are generated for interpo-
lated switching. Care is required to ensure pulsing and sequenc-
ing of the turn-on and turn-off pulses are correct.
Control of AC Voltage or Reactive Power

A simple proportional-integral (PI) controller can be applied to
regulate AC side voltage or alternatively, reactive power into or
out of the voltage sourced converter. The output of the PI con-
troller adjusts the “mr” signal to achieve its controlling function.
SE Q... Reac.Pwr Cntrl
Qrefse QTconst QGain
1.5 1 10
-1.5 0 0
0.1 0.1 1
SE REACTIVE POWER Ac reactive power control for the sending end.
CONTROLLER Signal "mr" modulates magnitude of PWM sin
TconstQ PgainQ reference signal for sending end PWM control
P-I controller
Qrefse: Qvsc gains
Sending end reactive Qvsc
power order (pu)
1
F Rg1 In this example, the PI controller is responding to measured
P
D
+
+
G mr 2 reactive power and is adjusting the “mr” signal to achieve
1 + sT V Rg2
I
ModIndex(mr)
VRec
the set reactive power. Such a control might be used
3
MI Rg3 where AC voltage is being controlled by other means (eg, a
Qrefr QerrR mr 4 voltage regulator).
P Controls Rg4
Pdc 5
Rg5
6
Rg6
G
dcVltg 1 + sT
Prec
dcVoltage Rec
*
dclineRec Pdc
DCCurrent G
dcCur 1 + sT dcCurrent Rec
Sending end (rectifier) dc voltage,

current and power measurement.
Control of DC Side Volts

Maintaining the DC side volts of VSC Transmission is achieved
by controlling charge on the large capacitors which are located
on each side of the voltage sourced converters. At one of the
converters, power flow into or out of the converter can be regu-
lated to keep DC voltage constant on the capacitors. A simple PI
controller can control power flow by adjusting phase shift angle
“Shft” which for the inverter is renamed “Shfti.” This is demon-

strated from example case VSCTran.psc as follows:
DC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER
Measured dc volts "dcVltgl" and dc

voltage set point at receiving end (in
kV).
dcVltgI F
dcVltgI
D -
+ G
118.0 * +
1 + sT D + Shfti AngleVdc
Dc Volts Set Point
F
DC V... 1
DcGain BlkI sT
*
10
-10 The gain of the dc controls is readily adjustable

2.5 by the "DcGain" slider. The control is active
when converters are deblocked. The control
acts to adjust the phase of the ac side of the
receiving end converter. When dc volts are too
high, the phase angle is adjusted to push
power into the receiving end ac system. If
more power is thus extracted from the dc
system than is ordered by the sending end
power controller, the cable and capacitors will
discharge, and dc volts will lower.
Power Control
If the “Shfti” phase shift signal is used to control DC voltage by
controlling power into or out of the receiving end inverter, the
Note: If the VSC Transmission line is bi-directional, there is other available “Shft” signal at the sending end VSC can be ap-
no need to change the various control functions from one
end to the other. plied to control total power flow. Each of these controls varies
the phase difference of the AC voltage across the interface trans-
former using the AC system side voltage as the reference through
its PLL.
The receiving end phase shift control maintains charge on the DC

Po = Power order to DC controls side capacitors by adding to or subtracting from the power or-
dered through the VSC Transmission from the sending end phase
θset = Phase angle setting
shift control.
θdc = AC phase angle across DC line
θ set If the receiving end VSC feeds a passive load, the load itself
determines the power flow through the VSC Transmission. This
θ dc
Phase
P
P is accomplished simply by applying the DC voltage control at the
Advance θ sending end converter. Then, any load demanded at the receiving
end will automatically be available.
Concept of DC transmission synchronizing controls. Power
flow control through VSC Transmission is achieved through
adjustment of phase angle setting θset.
VSC TRANSMISSION WITH AC CHARACTERISTICS
DC tansmission systems usually operate asynchronously. By add-
ing an enhancement to controls, power through VSC Transmission
can be made to respond to AC system phase angle, thereby emu-
lating an AC transmission line.
The relative phase angle of the AC voltage at each end of the References on DC transmission with AC characteristics:
VSC Transmission must be measured and the effective angle • D.A. Woodford, Wang X., M. Reformat, A.
across the line θdc must be computed. Modern telecommunica- Gole, “Enhancement of Power System Stability
with Synchronous DC Links,” Paper 230-6,
tion systems are required to compare the AC voltage phase an- Proceedings of CIGRE Symposium Kuala
gles at each end. It is beneficial to have high speed telecommu- Lumpur 1999.
nications with minimum transmission delay to reduce the degree • Wang, X., D.A. Woodford, “Long Distance
of phase advance needed. DC Transmission with AC Transmission
Characteristics,” Proceedings of the
International Conference on Power System
Example case VSCTran.psc incorporates controls to emulate AC Technology, October 18-21, 1994, Beijing.
transmission characteristics. • D.A. Woodford, Wang, X., “Synchronous
Operation of Adjacent Power Systems,”
Phase Angle Measurement Proceedings of the International Conference on
Power System Technology pp 914-917, August
To effect power control as a function of AC phase difference 18-21, 1998, Beijing.
across the VSC Transmission, the first step is to measure and com-
pare the difference in phase angles.
The phase angle with respect to phase A is derived from the

-sT
PLL at each end. Now the power controller would be physically e REPh
Va
located at one end, so there would be a transmission delay to Vainv Receiving end ac voltage phase
receive the phase angle signal measured from the other end. In Vb
PLL
theta angle as determined by the phase
locked loop - telecommunicated to
Vbinv
this example, a ten millisecond transmission delay is assumed. Vc
the sending end with a 10 ms
transmission delay.
Vcinv
AC phase angle measurement undertaken similarly at the

A component in the main library of PSCAD measures phase angle sending end.
between two sets of three phase signals. Its limitation is that
once the range of ±180º is exceeded, the measured phase is
discontinuous. For a more rugged controller, continuous meas-
urement beyond ±180º is needed.
Open Loop Power Flow Controller
SEPh is sending end phase Phase difference between REPh is receiving end
angle through delay to emulate sending and receiving ends. phase angle via
transmission delay from telecommunication from
receiving end. receiving end PLL
A1
A2
Sin Sin
B B
Difference
B1
B2
Phase
SEPh - - REPh
[RECtrl] REph
- -
C1
C2
Sin F F
+ Sin +
D + + D
F 120.0 120.0 F
PhDiff
Measuring phase angle difference of AC voltages at sending and receiving ends.
To achieve a stable phase angle to use for power control, the

measured phase angle difference is supplemented by an estimate
of the extended phase angle taking into account the power flow
out of and into the AC systems at each end.
Measured DC power (MW) at the sending end is multiplied by a

factor of the approximate short circuit impedance summed from
AC systems at sending and receiving ends divided by AC voltage
squared (Ω/kV2). When added to the measured phase difference,
an approximate synthesized phase angle from which to generate
AC line characteristics is derived.
Synthesized phase angle in radians

PhDiff
B
* +
P +
0.00225 D +
PhaseShift
F
Pdc - Dc power into sending

end cables multiplied by Aux ...
Summation of measured phase angle difference plus the
approximate short circuit PhaseShift
extension approximated by the product of measured DC
impedance summed from 1
power and AC short circuit capacity, plus any desired
ac systems at sending and
manual phase shift adjustment. receiving ends. When added
rad
to the measured phase The synthesized phase angle across the
difference, an approximated transmission line is filtered, then phase
-1
extended phase angle from 0 advanced to cause ac system damping. Gain is
which to generate ac automatically reduced if high frequency control
line characteristics is derived. oscillations are detected.
Phase Advance of Synthesized Phase Angle

B It is necessary to add phase advance to the synthesized phase
+
+
angle difference to compensate measurement and transmission
D +
delays. If phase advance is not added, electromechanical system
PhaseShift
F
swings will become unstable.
F DerivP dF
Since it is the relatively slow electromechanical swings (0.1 to 2

Synthesized phase angle difference is first filtered with a low Hz) that must be damped, a special phase advance component
pass 2nd order filter, then phase advanced once or twice was designed to do this. It is represented by PSCAD page compo-
with the DerivP page component.
nents DerivP. If the DerivP page component is opened, the phase
advance can be observed:
+
D - Z5_Z4 B
+ *
F F
+
+ D + 0.5
F F
-sT
B e
+
+ -
D - Z3_Z4 D
B B
F
+ + *
+ - +
D - Z3_Z2 D D + 0.333333
B
F F
+
+ -
D - Z2_Z1D
-sT F
e Z1
Phase advance achieved by averaged slope
computation as determined by the user
e
-sT defined DerivP page component.
Z2
-sT Delay functions (t-0.05) sec

e Z3
-sT
e Z4
One problem evident with the phase advance, is that nega-

tive damping may be exhibited at higher frequencies (10 Hz or * *
DeltaA
greater). A control is devised which detects such oscillations and
Damping
applies an automatic gain reduction. The user defined page com-
Dam...
ponent Freq Dep Gain Control is used. Damping
Freq Dep 1
X1 Gain
O1
For very low electromechanical frequencies (less than 2 Hz), the Control GRed
frequency dependent gain control multiplier is 1 or near 1. For

0
the higher less damped frequencies, the frequency dependent 0.15
gain control multiplier approaches or equals 0.0.
Automatic gain reduction if frequency of input signal
becomes large and exhibits negative system damping.
Controlling Power from Synthesized Phase Angle
Power flow through the VSC Transmission is generated from the
synthesized phase angle if AC transmission characteristics are
desired. To achieve fastest power order response, an open loop
control is used where phase angle “Shft” is varied proportion-
ally with the synthesized phase angle. A suitable gain is needed,
which in this example is selected at 0.135. This means that for
every radian change in synthesized phase angle, the voltage
phase angle across the interface transformer at the sending end
converter “Shft” changes 0.135 radian. This gain can be set by
trial and error to reflect the rating of the VSC Transmission and
the AC line characteristic desired.
Output power control signal "Shft" is

used to phase shift the ac side volts
of the sending end voltage sourced
converter (in degrees).
Synthesized phase angle in radians
PhDiff
B
Ao
* + * * Shft
P + +
0.00225 D + 0.135 D + 57.2958 AngleOrder
F F
PhaseShift
F DerivP dF DeltaA
* *
Pdc - Dc power into sending
end cables multiplied by Aux ...
Damping
approximate short circuit PhaseShift DA

impedance summed from 1 Dam...
ac systems at sending and
Damping
receiving ends. When added
rad
Freq Dep 1
to the measured phase The synthesized phase angle across the X1 Gain O1
difference, an approximated transmission line is filtered, then phase GRed
-1 Control
extended phase angle from 0 advanced to cause ac system damping. Gain is
which to generate ac automatically reduced if high frequency control
line characteristics is derived. oscillations are detected. 0
0.15
VSC Transmission control to emulate AC line characteristics

Ch8-Fig14
M/CAngle
66.0
65.0
Example Fault Case 64.0
Rotor Angle (deg)
63.0
A single line-to-ground fault is applied in the receiving end AC 62.0
61.0
system near the VSC inverter for example case VSCTran.psc. 60.0
59.0
58.0
DA
Note: Two DerivP page components instead of one will increase 33.00
32.50
32.00
damping of electromechanical oscillations.
TL Angle (deg)
31.50
31.00
30.50
30.00
29.50
29.00
t(s) 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00
EXERCISES
8.1 For the single-line-to-ground fault applied in the receiving
end AC system for example case VSCTran.psc, explain
why the sending end generator rotor angle first swings
negative on application of the fault.
8.2 For example case VSCTran.psc, delete the VSC
Transmission controller used to emulate AC transmission
Example case VSCTran.psc is selected to take a snapshot
line characteristics. Add a manual power controller
at two seconds. Restart from the snapshot in steady state. to control power. This can be done using a “Slider”
Note,the receiving end single line-to-ground fault is applied component from the CSMF functions in the Main library
at 2.1 seconds (or 0.1 second after the snapshot). This can
be changed if desired. of PSCAD. An appropriate gain must be calibrated so
that the power ordered by the “Slider” adjusts the “Shft”
signal to provide approximately the same power flow as
ordered. Observe how effectively and quickly power can
be reversed from full one way to full the other way.
8.3 For example case low_vltg_hvdc.psc, there is no provision
for DC voltage control. Determine how this can be
achieved and add it in and test it. Apply a single-line-
to-ground fault at the receiving end load and determine
how effective the added DC voltage controller is.
8.4 Design a protection system against a fault to ground
on one phase of the valve side terminal of the interface
transformer.
Chapter 9:
Model Verification
By Chris Van Dyk
Power System Dynamics (Pty) Ltd., South Africa
Even if the best simulation software is adopted in a study, simula-

tion results are only as good as the data that was used. This chap-
ter is an extension of the PSCAD Sources section in Chapter 2, and
addresses methods to verify correctness of the data used to com-
pile a network model for an Electromagnetic Transient (EMT) study.
Normally, network studies are performed in the following order:
As a start, a load flow study is done to solve a network’s steady

state requirements. The load flow models and solutions are veri-
fied against measured load flow data typically available from the
utility.
Secondly, a short circuit analysis of the network is performed to

determine the equipment’s current withstand and control require-
ments. Some utilities have transient fault recordings available that
can be used to verify the results of short circuit analysis.
When required, a frequency analysis of the network is conducted

to determine the power quality, harmonic stresses on equipment,
or possible resonance conditions. Harmonic voltage and current
measurements in the network can be performed to verify the fre-
quency analysis results.
Lastly, EMT studies are performed to calculate possible switching

and lightning stresses that the network can impose on equipment
and visa versa.
Utilities spend a lot of effort verifying their system load flow and
short circuit data, as this is an important consideration for plan-
ning, operation and protection of the system.
EMT MODEL VERIFICATION METHODS

For an EMT study, it is usually not necessary to model the complete
network. For lightning transients, only the substation busbar and
a few spans of the connecting power lines are required. When
performing switching transient studies, only the portion between
the point of interest and say one or two busbars away need to be
modeled, since the transient will propagate for only short distances
into the network. In contrast with switching transients, slow
transients and power swings can propagate far into the network.
Furthermore, it is important to understand the effect that network
loading has on transient simulation results. For example, if voltage
stresses on a surge arrester are calculated, load flow conditions do
Chapter 9: Model Verification
not have a material impact. On the other hand, if the Transient

Recovery Voltage stresses on a breaker are calculated, the current
flowing through the breaker is very important. The type of study
that is to be performed and the required accuracy level deter-
mine the minimum information that needs to be included in the
network model.
The following steps are suggested in building and verifying a

network in PSCAD:
• Determine the composition of the network that will

be simulated in PSCAD and calculate parameters of
the equivalent Thevenin sources that will represent
‘extraneous’ parts of the network not explicitly included
in the network model.
• Compile the network in PSCAD and check for healthy
network voltages at various busbars to avoid short
circuits, open circuits and gross parameter errors.
• Run PSCAD to steady state condition and compare the
results with measured load flow, voltage magnitude and
angle values and/or simulation results obtained with
other load flow programs.
• Determine the three-phase as well as single-phase short
circuit currents at various busbars in the network and
compare them with existing values.
Alternatively, a frequency scan at different busbars of the net-
work can be done to determine the corresponding impedances
(driving-point impedances). The fundamental frequency values
can then be compared to existing short circuit values. Note that
in a weak network the impedances do not always correspond
100% with short circuit values.
If your network passed the above verification tests, it is ready for

EMT simulations.
The following sections elaborate on how to build a network and

perform all the above tests. The advantage of using one network
for all the tests is that it reduces testing time and the possibility of
introducing data errors.
NETWORK COMPILATION
The reader is recommended to follow a section-by-section ap-
proach while building the network and to regularly test (run) the
network to ensure that the network solves and that the data is
entered correctly. There is nothing more frustrating than building
a big interconnected network in one-step and finding at the end
that something is incorrect or not working. The frustration is that
it is very difficult to locate a problem or to distinguish between a
decimal error in the data entered. Similarly, it is very difficult to
find a line transposition error, which can cause voltage collapse on
one or all phases. By using the section-by-section approach, the
reader can not only resolve problems as soon as they arise, but
can also get a good feel for the characteristics and behavior of
different parts of the network.
Most of the study cases found in handbooks consist of only one

or two sources and loads that are inter-connected with minimum
number of power lines. This is a good approach when trying
to convey a specific concept or simulation technique. However,
a simple network as the one described above is in reality quite
rare, since most networks are heavily interconnected on various
voltage levels and/or along different corridors. It is therefore
important to establish the correct cut-off, or equivalence points
in the network in order to produce results that accurately reflect
behavior of the real network. For example, when studying power
swings that result in over voltages on series capacitor banks, it is
important to model both the series compensated power line and
any parallel path(s) that might exist in order to get the correct
flow of power. The reason for this is that the voltage across the
series capacitor is directly related to the power flowing through
the bank. If the parallel paths are not modeled, the simulations
could give unrealistic results, i.e. the results can be either too high
or too low.
As a rule of thumb, it is a good approach to terminate the net-

work at a single generator, at a bus where there is a pool of gen-
erators, or at a busbar that acts as a node in the network without
any parallel path. When terminating the network at a generator,
the approach is easy and the actual generator and generator
transformer data can be entered in the PSCAD case file. When
the network is terminated in such a fashion that an equivalent
source is required, two methods can be used to determine the
equivalent Thevenin impedance:
1) Use a Load Flow program (the equivalencing

function) to automatically calculate network
impedance and interconnected impedance values
between different termination points, or
2) In the load flow, switch out all those lines that will
be modeled explicitly in PSCAD, i.e. all the lines
that will be retained in PSCAD. Then, obtain the
short-circuit currents at all the termination points in
the network and calculate the equivalent Thevenin
impedance values from the short-circuit currents
that were obtained. Note that this option does not
accurately represent any interconnections that may
exist between different termination points, however,
in most cases it gives a good, adequate equivalent
network.
Example
From the network shown in Figure 1, consider the line between
BUS2 and BUS4 to be series compensated (see also Figure 2
below). The study to be conducted includes both switching and
fault analysis. The data of the complete network is listed in Table
2 at the end of this chapter.
Step 1: Determine the points where the network will be termi-

nated (equivalanced). To perform switching studies, we need to
include frequency dependant models for the lines up to at least
one busbar position away from the line of interest. Therefore,
BUS1, BUS2, BUS4 and BUS7 (see Figure 1) must be included as
a minimum. When considering the strong parallel path through
BUS5, BUS5 should also be included together with the associated
lines that comprise the parallel path, i.e. the lines to BUS1 and
BUS7. We select the network termination points to be BUS1,
BUS5 and BUS7. The generator at BUS1 will therefore have to
be modeled explicitly while equivalent Thevinin sources are to be
connected at BUS1, BUS5 and BUS7.
Termination bus
BUS1 BUS2 Line of interest BUS4
741 367.1J 364.1J 267.1J 264.4J 210.6I

-171 50.7 I 1J 23.3I 88.8J 67.4I
148.9 I 225.4J 97.0 475.0

74 J 46.5I 24.3 156.1
1.000 0.99903 0.97243

0.0 -6.0924 -13.5184
Termination bus Termination bus

BUS3 BUS5 BUS7
900.0 192 223.9J 331.3J 329.6J 212.0J

-22.09 56 54.1J 16.3I 21.2J 30.8I
204.8 I 503.2J 499.4J 392 262.3J 380.0

76.4 J 1.7 I 9.2J 79.599 72.9J 124.9
1.000 0.99173 0.98625

0.6152 -4.9745 -8.7074
BUS6 BUS8
450.0 49.0 147.0

-27.951 9.95 29.9
263.4I 137.6J 137.3J 9.7I

27.3I 65.2I 8.4I 38.3I
1.000 1.00507
-5.8058 -7.3482
BUS11 BUS10 BUS9
204.1J 302.4J 302.3J 206.3J 205.7J 9.7J

24.1 I 30 J 8.2I 36.2I 17 J 22.8I
148.6J 49.0 96.0 196.0

17.8 I 9.9 28.0 39.8
1.00665 1.00792 1.00671

-1.6716 -4.9976 -7.249
Figure 1 - Complete network
Step 2: Determine the equivalent network impedances at BUS1,

BUS5 and BUS7. PSSE has an equivalencing routine (SCEQ) that
can be used to calculate the equivalent generator, load, shunt
impedance and interconnected line values at the various busbars
where the network is to be terminated (equivalenced), as shown
in Figure 2. At BUS1, the original generator and the equivalent
generator can be represented with one generator by calculating
the parallel impedance. Table 3 lists the network data after apply-
ing the SCEQ equivalencing routine in PSSE.
BUS1 BUS2 BUS4
BUS5 BUS7
Figure 2 - Equivalent network
If the SCEQ equivalencing routine is not available, a simple

equivalent network, as shown in Figure 3, can be manually
approximated from the short circuit data. Using the load flow
program, the user can switch out all the lines and generators
that will be explicitly modeled in PSCAD; for example, LINE12,
LINE15, LINE24, LINE47 and LINE57 and perform the short cir-
cuits at buses BUS1, BUS5 and BUS7. The short-circuit values
at these busbars will represent the fault current contributions
from the equivalence parts of the network, and are represented
as Thevenin generators with corresponding source impedance
values in the PSCAD case. This approach does not always pro-
duce 100% correct results in PSCAD as short-circuit currents are
limited to individual sources and might need some adjustment of
the source impedance values.
BUS1 BUS2 BUS4
BUS5 BUS7
Figure 3 - Simple equivalent network
LOAD FLOW
It is easy to build a network using the section-by-section approach
and to test it with a load flow simulation. The section-by-sec-
tion approach involves construction of the network by starting
at a source and adding small sections of the network at a time.
After a small section is added each time, the network should
be compiled and solved to ensure that voltage waveforms and
power flows are correct. If the voltage on one or more phases is
depressed outside normal line coupling unbalance, the network
should be investigated for a short circuit analysis. To simplify
the building of networks in PSCAD, a custom Model Verification
library is provided, including components like Source Controllers,
Voltage magnitude and angle displays, Power Flow displays and
Loads. As shown in Figure 4, a load component can be connected
at the end of a line, and the real and reactive power flowing
through the line can be monitored and compared to pre-set tar-
get values during the run. This is achieved through application of
the source controllers that adjust voltage magnitude and angle of
each source.
Main: GGraphs
Main: raphs
Global Source Control V1
Mode = 2 Load Flow SourceCtrl 400
6 300
Frequency = 50 [Hz]
Voltage = 1 [pu] 200
Time to enable = 0.2 [s] 100
Time to lock = 0.8 [s] 0
y
-100
Vref = 1.0 pu -200
Aref = 0.0 deg Bus1 -300
Vm
Individual 400.0 [kV] -400
Source 1
Pm Control ctrl -0.01869 0.2000 0.2050 0.2100 0.2150 0.2200
bus
Target
396.6[kV] V F Ph 4.571[deg] 367.9 367 [MW]
-50.69 -51 [MVAr] T
RL RRL Line12 364.1 [MW]
224.2 225 [MW] 1 [MVAR]
-47.78 -47 [MVAr] T
Line15 223.9 [MW]
54.1 [MVAR]
V1 Test load
V1
Figure 4 - Section-by-section network building
Source Control
The Individual Source Control manipulates voltage magnitude and
angle of a standard source. It has the same function as the built-
in automatic voltage control of a source, but offers more control
modes. After a simulation run, voltage and angle values that are
displayed can be copied and used as the initial values for the next
run. This allows the source to start with correct magnitude and
angle.
The Global Source Control block manipulates the outputs of the

Individual Source Control blocks. If the Global Source Control is
set to Frequency Scan, the magnitude and angle of all the sources
are set to zero. In this way, only the source impedance remains in
circuit and a harmonic current injection simulation can be done.
The Fault level mode sets voltage magnitude of all the sources to
1.0 pu and the angle to 0 deg. This is suitable to perform short-
circuit current calculations. When the Global Source Control is
set to Solve Load Flow, all the sources will automatically match
the magnitude and angle from the load flow (e.g. done before-
hand in PSSE) that is entered in the Individual Source Control.
The automatic calculation utilizes an integrator that requires time
to reach a solution. While the sources ramp-up, the integrators
are locked and are only released when the network reaches the
steady-state condition. In most cases, a time of 0.2 s is sufficient.
Depending on the network configurations, the integrators can be
locked once they match the load flow magnitude and angle val-
ues. A network event like a fault must be performed with locked
integrators. A voltage-scaling variable can be used to change
the voltage magnitude of all the sources simultaneously. The
Fixed Value Set allows the voltage magnitude and angle of up to
three different load flows stored in the Individual Source Control
blocks. By selecting a fixed value of 1 to 3, the sources can be
set to the corresponding voltage magnitude and angle.
The Busbar label component has the functionality to measure and

display RMS values of voltage and angle at a busbar.
The Power Flow display incorporates a target value and a margin

together with color coding index to identify problem areas in a
network. If the measured real or reactive power is outside the Bus1
400.0 [kV]
specified margin, it will be highlighted as follows: red, if it is too 1
-0.01869
high and green if it is too low.

367.9 200 [MW]
-50.69 100 [MVAr]
The fixed load component consists of a series connected resistor
together with an inductor or a capacitor. The component pa- 223.9 [MW]
54.1 [MVAR]
rameters are calculated from the power flow values entered. The
fixed load can be switched out of circuit while it is still displayed
on the graphical interface. The direct scaling function can be
used to easily change the rating of the load on a percentage ba-
sis. The load can also be scaled according to voltage level where
the load rating is available at the actual voltage; for example,
1.02 p.u.
Figure 5 shows how the Model verification components are incor-

porated into the network (also see Figure 3).
Vref = 1.0 pu
Aref = 0.0 deg Bus1 Bus2 Bus4
Vm 0.99903 0.97243
Individual 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV]
Source 1 1 0.9753
Pm Control ctrl -0.1771 -5.862 -12.78
bus
396.3[kV] V F Ph 4.575[deg] 363.9 367 [MW] -364.1 [MW] -359 262 267.1 [MW] -264.4 [MW] -256.5 -195.1 -210.6 [MW]
-55.76 -51 [MVAr] T -1 [MVAr] 3.188 -27.5 -23.3 [MVAr] T -88.8 [MVAr] -86.78 -61.65 -67.4 [MVAr]
RL RRL Line12 Line24
227.1 225 [MW]
-46.24 -47 [MVAr]
100.0 [MVA] 500.0 [MVA]
0.97 [pu] 0.95 [pu]
T
T Bus5 Bus7 Line47
Line15 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV]
0.9918 0.99173 0.9862 0.98625
-5.008 -8.578
V1
V1
-223.9 [MW] -223.2 335.1 331.3 [MW] -329.6 [MW] -332.2 198.7 212 [MW]
-54.1 [MVAr] -54.33 -16.54 -16.3 [MVAr] T -21.2 [MVAr] -20.46 -39.02 -30.8 [MVAr]
Line57
Global Source Control 400.0 [MVA] 400.0 [MVA]

Mode = 2 Load Flow SourceCtrl 0.98 [pu] 0.95 [pu]
6 Vref = 0.9917 pu
Frequency = 50 [Hz]
Aref = -4.97 deg 441 [MW] 221 [MW]
Voltage = 1 [pu] Vm -78.9 [MVAR] -153 [MVAR]
Time to enable = 0.2 [s] Individual
Time to lock = 0.8 [s]
Source Vref = 0.98625 pu
Pm Control ctrl
Aref = -8.71 deg
bus Vm
432.1[kV] V F Ph 19.62[deg]
Individual
Source
ctrl Control Pm
RL RRL
bus
9.71[deg] Ph F V 397.1[kV]
RRL RL
Figure 5 - Simplified network in PSCAD
SHORT CIRCUIT
Care should be taken when comparing the short-circuit data
of different simulation software programs as there are different
initial states for the network. As an example, PSSE offers two
options when calculating fault currents: (1) fault current calcula-
tions take into consideration the pre-fault voltage conditions in
the network, and (2) FLAT START function can be used where all
the sources are set to 1 p.u. voltage and zero deg angle and the
transformers are on nominal tap position. For comparison pur-
poses, the author prefers the FLAT START method, as this method
eliminates the differences that can be observed in load flow
results. It should be noted that the FLAT START in PSSE ignores
phase shift across a transformer.
The Model verification library offers a custom component that

measures fault currents through the application of three breakers
Fault Current
to ground according to its control variables. Individual phase cur-
5
ID 5 rents or three phase values can be measured and displayed. The
F5
current through the breakers is measured and the On-Line FFT
7.751 [kA] 3
function is used to calculate RMS values of fault currents. When
-90 [deg]
a three-phase fault is applied, the positive sequence current is cal-
ABC
culated. When the Fault Current component is used in a multiple
run application shown in Figure 6, the single-phase and three-
phase short-circuit currents can be determined at any number of
locations, up to a maximum value of 10.
Vref = 1.0 pu
Aref = 0.0 deg
Vm Bus1 Bus2 0.99903 Bus4 0.97243
Individual 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV]
Source 0.7144 0.6096 0.417
Pm Control ctrl -2.156 -5.662 -11.89
bus
400[kV] V F Ph 0[deg] 127.8 367 [MW] -364.1 [MW] -123 86.99 267.1 [MW] -264.4 [MW] -78.92 -3.166 -210.6 [MW]
233 -51 [MVAr] T -1 [MVAr] -226.9 217.9 -23.3 [MVAr] T -88.8 [MVAr] -172.4 145.3 -67.4 [MVAr]
RL RRL Line12 Line24
108.3 225 [MW] Fault Current Fault Current
1304 -47 [MVAr] 2 4
100.0 [MVA] 500.0 [MVA]
F2 ID 2 0.97 [pu] F4 ID 4 0.95 [pu]
Fault Current
1 3 3
ID 1 F1
Global Source Control
3 T
Mode = 1 Fault level SourceCtrl Line47
T Bus5 Bus7
Frequency = 50 [Hz] 6
Line15 400.0 [kV] 400.0 [kV]
Voltage = 1pu, 0 deg 3.362e-005 0.276
-89.72 0.99173 -8.947 0.98625
V1
V1
-223.9 [MW] -0.08496 -0.06062 331.3 [MW] -329.6 [MW] 30.6 8.239 212 [MW]
-54.1 [MVAr] 0.002129 -0.005146 -16.3 [MVAr] T -21.2 [MVAr] 390.2 -107.5 -30.8 [MVAr]
Line57
1 Fault Current
Select Meas-Enab 7
1 . 400.0 [MVA] 400.0 [MVA]
F1 3 1 Location Ch. 1 . V1 F_location 0.98 [pu] F3 ID 3 0.95 [pu]
Vref = 0.9917 pu 3
2 . Aref = -4.97 deg 441 [MW] 221 [MW]
F2 2 Current Ch. 2 V2 F_type Vm -78.9 [MVAR]
Individual -153 [MVAR]
3 Source
F3 3 Angle Ch. 3 Multiple Pm Control ctrl Vref = 0.98625 pu
Fault Current Aref = -8.71 deg
Run bus 5 Vm
4
F4 400[kV] V F Ph 0[deg] ID 5 F5 Individual
Source
7.751 [kA] 3 ctrl Control Pm
5 RL RRL -90 [deg]
F5 bus
ABC 0[deg] Ph F V 400[kV]
_Fault_Levels.out F
RRL RL
Figure 6 - Short circuit analysis
For the sample case, the fault currents are obtained with different
simulation tools and listed in Table 1 for comparison:
• Currents for the complete network shown in Figure 1 as

calculated with PSSE
• Currents for the SCEQ network equivalent shown in
Figure 2 as calculated by PSCAD.
• Currents for the Simple network equivalent shown in
Figure 3 as calculated by PSCAD.
• Currents for the Simple network equivalent shown
in Figure 3 with adjusted source impedance values as
calculated by PSCAD.
In most cases, the source impedance can be scaled through a
manual iteration process. The X/R ratio of the source impedance
is kept constant and the magnitude of the impedance is scaled
according to the ratio by which the fault current obtained in
PSCAD compared to PSSE is too big or too small. Care should be
taken when short-circuit data is compared for networks that em-
ploy series compensation. The Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) that is
normally installed across the terminals of a Series Capacitor Bank
reduces the magnitude of the short-circuit current through the
bank and, consequently, the short-circuit current flowing through
the line it is connected to is also reduced. Although PSCAD can
model the Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) across a Series Capacitor,
it is not safe to assume that other software programs have the
same modeling capability.
Table 1 - Short circuit data
Busbar PSSE PSSE PSCAD PSCAD PSCAD PSCAD PSCAD Simple PSCAD Simple
complete complete SCEQ net- SCEQ net- Simple Simple adjusted adjusted
network network work 3-ph work 1-ph network network network 3-ph network 1-ph
3-ph cur- 1-ph cur- current current 3-ph cur- 1-ph cur- current [kA] current [kA]
rent [A] rent [A] [kA] [kA] rent [kA] rent [kA]
1 13374.9 12619.4 13.288 12.506 14.917 13.53 13.301 12.369
2 4555.5 2915.9 4.518 3.007 4.802 3.108 4.610 3.034
3 9548.8 8372.1
4 3592.1 2237.9 3.625 2.666 3.865 2.767 3.700 2.684
5 7584.1 5399.7 7.576 5.636 8.855 6.172 7.750 5.500
6 6020.8 4965.3
7 6151 4333.6 6.175 4.693 6.984 5.045 6.254 4.53
8 4488 3083.8
9 4269.3 2776.3
10 4991.8 3243.8
11 8257.3 5934.4
FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
The first check to be done on the frequency analysis results is to
compare the fundamental frequency impedance value with the
fault current values obtained from PSCAD, PSSE or field measure-
ments.
Weak
As shown in Figure 7, in a strong network, the impedance back to
Z
network the source is much lower than the shunt impedance at the busbar
of concern. In this case, the shunt impedance does not have an
impact on the short circuit impedance and a good correlation will
Strong exist between the impedance at fundamental frequency (blue
network
curve) and the fault current (black circle). In a weak network, this
Impedance calculated will not always be the case, since the fault current represents the
from fault current
system impedance back to the sources, and it excludes shunt de-
1 2 Freq [h] vices to ground that may be connected to the faulted busbar. In
those instances where the shunt devices, connected to the busbar
Figure 7 - Network impendance
of interest, cause a low order parallel resonance with the source
impedance, the network impedance from the frequency scan (red
curve) will give a higher value than the value obtained from the
short circuit analysis.
In PSCAD, both the current injection and the frequency scan

component determine the network impedance independent of
the voltage across the shunt devices. While, when the network
impedance at fundamental frequency is calculated from the fault
current, the effect from shunt devices close to the short circuit is
eliminated.
As a rule of thumb, the harmonic number of the frequency of a

low order parallel resonance between shunt capacitors and the
source impedance can be calculated as:
___
S
√
h = __sc
Q
where Ssc is the Short Circuit capacity in MW and Q is the shunt
capacitor rating in MVAr at the busbar. Example: A 100MVAr
shunt capacitor will resonate at the 5th harmonic in a network
with a short circuit level of 2500MVA.
When the frequency analysis results are compared with field

measurements, note that the measurement obtained from a CVT
(Capacitive coupled Voltage Transformer) should not be consid-
ered as accurate because of inevitable voltage distortions. CVTs
are tuned with a resonant-burden circuit to only give accurate
measurements at fundamental frequency. CVTs are often in-
stalled at EHV voltage levels to reduce cost.
SUMMARY
There is nothing as good as your engineering gut-feel to verify
results. The reader is urged to gain as much practical experience
as possible to get a feel for what results to expect before doing a
simulation. If the reader is modeling a network for the first time,
it is encouraged to “play around” with the network once it is
completed and ready for simulations to get familiar with the net-
work behavior. Open breakers, create faults and change the set
points of dynamic devices like SVCs or HVDC systems. Observe
the changes that occur in the flow of power, voltage magnitudes
and the current flows. This should assist the reader in setting
up the simulation and to evaluate the results that he needs to
investigate.
REFERENCES
PSS/E-29 PROGRAM APPLICATION GUIDE: VOLUME I, Network
Reduction for Fault Analysis, Activity SCEQ.
DATA LISTING
Table 2: PSSE data for the complete network
Busbars
Busbar Voltage [kV] Load [MW] Load [MVAr]
1 400 - -
2 400 97.0 24.3
3 400 192.0 56.0
4 400 475.0 156.1
5 400 392.0 79.6
6 400 49.0 9.95
7 400 380.0 124.9
8 400 147.0 29.9
9 400 196.0 39.8
10 400 96.0 28.0
11 400 49.0 9.9
Generators
Busbar Voltage [kV] Sbase R pos X pos R zero X zero
[MVA] [pu] [pu] [pu] [pu]
1 400 2000 0.003 0.3 0.003 0.3
3 400 1000 0.003 0.3 0.003 0.3
6 400 500 0.003 0.3 0.003 0.3
Lines
From To bus R pos [pu] X pos [pu] B pos [pu] R zero [pu] X zero [pu] B zero Length
bus [pu] [km]
1 2 0.00222 0.02885 0.90702 0.02978 0.09425 0.61452 150
1 5 0.00294 0.03834 1.21140 0.03907 0.12483 0.82239 200
1 11 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
2 4 0.00363 0.04772 1.51754 0.04783 0.15472 1.03290 250
3 5 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
3 11 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
4 7 0.00294 0.03834 1.21140 0.03907 0.12483 0.82239 200
5 7 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
6 7 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
6 8 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
8 9 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
9 10 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
10 11 0.00149 0.01928 0.60396 0.02008 0.063126 0.40861 100
Table 3: PSSE SCEQ network data

Generators
Busbar Voltage Sbase R pos [pu] X pos [pu] R zero [pu] X zero [pu]
[kV] [MVA]
1 400 100 0.000144 0.01333 0.000149 0.01395
5 400 100 0.00192 0.06342 0.02044 0.10701
7 400 100 0.00217 0.08381 0.02095 0.12849
Lines
From To bus R pos [pu] X pos [pu] R zero X zero [pu]
bus [pu]
1 5 0.00908 0.09321 0.25535 0.48443
1 7 0.02103 0.22172 0.55318 1.0934
5 7 0.06517 0.58513 2.98271 4.13603
Table 4: PSSE network data for simple equivalent

Generators
[kV] [MVA]
1 400 100 0.00022 0.01181 0.00047 0.01358
5 400 100 0.00203 0.03756 0.02156 0.08762
7 400 100 0.00271 0.05643 0.02293 0.11356
Table 5: Adjusted network data for simple equivalent

Generators
[kV] [MVA]
1 400 100 0.000246 0.000246 0.000483 0.000483
5 400 100 0.002615 0.002615 0.026741 0.026741
7 400 100 0.003314 0.003314 0.030927 0.030927
Chapter 10:
Using PSCAD/EMTDC Waveforms

for Real Time Testing (RTP)
Any waveform that is generated by PSCAD/EMTDC can be con-
verted into an analog or digital signal, and used for testing real
equipment in both laboratory and field. The Real Time Playback or
RTP system developed by Manitoba HVDC Research Centre Inc. is a
powerful open-loop real time playback system specially designed to
take full advantage of PSCAD software. The following describes the
procedure for using PSCAD to prepare a data file for RTP playback.
More information on the RTP system can be found at our website
http://www.hvdc.ca.
PSCAD RTP RECORDER • Friendly graphical user interface.

• Easy set-up and calibration.
Any data signal available in PSCAD/EMTDC can be recorded and • Playback 12 analog channels in real time.
• 16 logic inputs and outputs.
saved as a RTP playback data file. The RTP Recorder Component • Ethernet connectivity for high speed data transfer.
is located in the External Data Recorders & Readers section of the • Batch mode for automated processing.
• GPS feature and master/slave mode to synchronize
Master Library. The user can configure the START and STOP times multiple RTP units.
for the playback record, as well as define analog and digital signals • View and adjust signal levels from simulation to final
for future RTP playback. Each recorder can save up to 12 analog output.
• Intrinsic connectors for ensured safety.
channels and 16 digital outputs to match the RTP hardware. If
more signals are required, then multiple RTP Recorders can be used
in the simulation. The RTP Recorder has options to record signals in
COMTRADE format, as well.
PT or CT models can be used in a PSCAD simulation to more accu-

rately simulate the effect that these devices will have on waveforms
seen by protection relays. Optionally, inside the recorder properties,
simple PT or CT ratios can be programmed. The CT/PT ratios are
transferred to the RTP Playback program to assist the user in track-
ing signal levels during real time testing. The digital outputs are
useful during real time testing to function as trigger signals.
OUTPUT FILE LOCATION

Once a simulation case is compiled, PSCAD/EMTDC will automati-
cally create a subdirectory with the case name appended by *.emt.
This directory holds the temporary files created by PSCAD, includ-
ing any output file. The RTP recorder file *.pbk will also be created
in this subdirectory.
If the same case is repeated and the playback file name in the RTP
Recorder is not changed, the RTP playback file *.pbk will be over-
written.
MULTIPLE RUN CAPABILITY

In order to perform repeated cases where parameters vary from run
to run, a multiple run component is typically used. It is possible to

Chapter 10: Using PSCAD/EMTDC Waveforms for Real Time Testing (RTP)
create multiple playback files using the multiple run component

of PSCAD, as described in Section 2. The playback file names
generated with RTP Recorder are automatically truncated to the
first 8 characters and then appended with the run number. The
*.pbk data files can now be used in the RTP PLAYBACK program,
which is available for download from our website or any PSCAD
installation CD.
RTP PLAYBACK PROGRAM

Predefined waveforms from either PSCAD or COMTRADE files can
be viewed, scaled, measured and played with RTP Playback pro-
gram. The first and last cycles of the waveforms can be used to
create PRE and POST fault waveforms with their duration defined
by the user. When the playback file is first loaded, the signals
RTP Application: will be opened in separate windows in PLAYBACK with Digital,
Relay Protection
Current, Voltage and Others signals each in their own windows.
• Verify relay settings with accurate transient Inside PLAYBACK, the signals displayed in any window can be
waveforms. changed by Setup>Change dialogue.
• Use GPS feature for end-to-end testing of protection
systems.
• Increase confidence by thoroughly testing algorithms In addition to the ability to play PSCAD/EMTDC waveforms, RTP
and relay settings with comprehensive simulation
runs.
program can also play COMTRADE waveforms and generate
HVDC/Power Electronics/AC Filters STATE waveforms with individual signal magnitude, frequency,
• Test protection and controls using realistic and duration, offset and harmonics. Multiple End-to-End testing can
complex waveforms found in power electronic
circuits. be performed using GPS Synchronization.
• Test all possible contingencies with simulated
waveforms.
Power Quality Measurement Devices
• Calibrate PQ measurement systems using known EXERCISES
waveforms.
• Confirm the results of PQ system with known sags, 10.1 Load the example case. Assign a playback file name in
swells and transients. the RTP recorder. Disable the Multiple Run Component
• Verify measurement set-up and understand limitations
of PQ test equipment. and run the simulation case. Observe the fault waveforms
and generated RTP playback file. Enable the multiple
run components and re-run the case. Verify that multiple
playback files are generated. Repeat the above test with
the COMTRADE format selected in the RTP Recorder.
10.2 Start the RTP PLAYBACK program and Load the playback
file you created (RTP software is available at www.
hvdc.ca or any PSCAD installation CDROM). Verify
the waveform in RTP Playback program is the same as
generated by PSCAD.

Chapter 11:
Transmission Lines
Transmission lines and cables in power systems are nonlinear in na-
ture, due mainly to the frequency dependency of conductors (skin
effect), as well as the ground or earth return path. The ability to
represent these systems accurately and efficiently plays an essential
part in the electromagnetic transient simulation of power systems
as a whole.
The two methods for modeling transmission lines in the time do-
main are:
1. Use of Pi line sections. Although for frequency domain Pi Section components in Pi-section library page. They are
studies, transmission lines modeled with Pi lines can be the same component and the option is provided to choose
between either.
precise, in the time domain, particularly for long lines (where
propagation travel time spans many time steps), precision
suffers. Pi line sections are most useful for very short
transmission lines where the propagation travel time is less
than one time step.
2. Use of distributed parameter representations. The distributed
transmission line models operate on the principle of
traveling waves. A voltage disturbance will travel along a Distributed line modeling is applied for both overhead
conductor at its propagation velocity (near the speed of transmission lines and cables. The line and cable constant
programs for setting up the distributed line models are
light along overhead lines) until it is reflected at the end of found as pages in the Main Library.
the line. In a sense, a transmission line or cable is a delay
function. Whatever is fed into one end will appear at the
other end after some delay, perhaps slightly distorted. The
The Nominal Pi line section has a provision for representing
calculation time step of the simulation should be less than the a local ground.\, hence the ground connections at both its
propagation time. sending end and receiving end. To cascade the Nominal
Pi line sections, the ground connections must also be
There is provision in PSCAD/EMTDC to model both Pi line sections connected in cascade the same as the main conductors.
The concept is derived from the technique used in Transient
and distributed line models. Distributed transmission line mod- Network Analyzers where only one point is truly grounded
els are further sub-divided into single-frequency and frequency- and all other grounds are local grounds.
dependent representations. The constants required to represent It is very inconvenient to use the Nominal Pi line section as
distributed systems are calculated by a separate program called the there is only one true ground in the model. If Pi sections
must be used, it is better to use the Coupled Pi Section
Line Constants Program or LCP in PSCAD/EMTDC. where all grounds in the simulation can be true ground.
M odeling
Techniques
Distributed
Π-Section
Parameter
Single Frequency Frequency

Bergeron Model Dependent
M odal Domain Phase Domain

Frequency Dependent Frequency Dependent
(Mode) Model (Phase) Model
Increasing Accuracy
Transmission System Modeling Techniques in PSCAD/EMTDC.

Chapter 11: Transmission Lines
PI LINE SECTIONS
There are three Pi line section components found in the Pi-section
libraries page. They are the Nominal Pi Section component,
Coupled Pi Section component, and Double Circuit Pi section.
The Coupled Pi Section component is preferred over the Nominal

Pi Section. The conductor voltages on the Coupled Pi Section
Cascading Nominal Pi Section components and measuring component are always measured to true ground or earth. The
conductor voltage to local ground.
conductor voltages on the Nominal Pi Section must always be
measured to local ground.
In transient studies with Pi sections, it is important to consider

whether a line should be represented by one or several sections.
This is dependent upon:
1. The calculation time step DELT or ∆t.

Cascading Coupled Pi Section components and measuring
conductor voltage to true ground.
2. The length of the line.
Coupled Pi Section components are useful for modeling
distribution networks where the line sections are usually 3. The frequency of response required from the simulation
quite short. model.
If switching surge frequencies are being studied perhaps up to
2000 Hz, then a 50 sec calculation time step (∆t) is adequate. At
the speed of light, a wave may travel 15 km over 50 μsec. If the
length of the transmission line is less than 15 km when ∆t = 50
μsec, then one Pi section is adequate to represent the line. If the
line is longer than the 15 km, then two or more Pi sections should
Transmission line for the load flow program. be cascaded in series. If Pi sections have to be used for some
reason on long lines, then based on the old Transient Network
Analyzer techniques, a maximum of 10 Pi sections for a long line
is adequate.
If steep front surges (lightning studies) are being studied and the
calculation step is 10 nanoseconds, a wave may travel 3 meters,
and for lines or buswork of this length or shorter, a single Pi sec-
tion is adequate.
Converting Line Data

Often network data is only available in load flow program format.
A transmission line is represented with positive sequence parame-
ters in per unit (usually on 100 MVA base). The line is represented
by the parameters:
Entering parameters for Main Configuration in dialogue Box R + jX (B)

for Coupled Pi Section transmission line
Where:
R = series resistance (pu)

X = series reactance (pu)
B = susceptance (pu)
The load flow line model data can be transferred into the Coupled
Pi Section component. The steps in doing this are as follows:

1. Decide how many Coupled Pi Sections are to be When the only available transmission line or cable data is in
load flow format and no zero sequence line impedance is
cascaded for the line to be modeled. If the line length is readily available, very approximate values are used instead.
not available, assume a length of 1.0 metre for each line The series impedance R + jX for a transmission line due to
ground return effect is dependent on ground resistivity and
section. Edit the component with mouse cursor on the shield wire parameters.
component either by double clicking on the component
Precise transmission line modeling is achieved with the
with the left mouse button or, hold down right mouse distributed transmission line models.
button -> Edit Parameters (lift right mouse button) and
Consider a short length, 230 kV transmission line in a 60 Hz
Main Configuration should be displayed. Select P.U. for system. The load flow line parameters in per unit are:
Enter Imped./Admit. Data in: enter 1.0 for Line Length
R = 0.0010 pu
and Estimate for Enter 0 Seq Data, or Estimate. Ensure X = 0.0072 pu
the rated frequency is correct. B = 0.0138 pu
2. Select Zero Sequence Estimation Parameters and enter With the line length entered as 1.0, the dialogue Box for
Per Unit Data for a single Pi section is shown below:
estimated increased values for zero sequence parameters
as a proportion of positive sequence parameters. If not
known (as is usually the case unless the load flow data
base has zero sequence parameters available), use the
default of 1.5 for all three. If zero sequence parameters
are available, then select instead Main Configuration ->
Enter 0 Seq Data, or Estimate -> Enter.
3. Select Per Unit Data and enter the requested information
starting with Rated Voltage L-L and MVA for All Phases
that is the three phase per unit base MVA base (usually
100 MVA). If there is only one Pi line section and its
length was arbitrarily entered as 1 metre (1. above),
then enter the positive sequence parameters in per unit
directly. If the line is to be cascaded into “n” identical Pi
sections, and with the length of each Pi section entered Note: The +ve Seq Capacitive Reactance is entered as 1/B.
as 1 metre, then enter R/n, X/n and n*B for each.
The Coupled Pi Section component is for a balanced three phase
line which is similar to being continually transposed so that its
positive sequence impedance is the same as its negative sequence
impedance.
DISTRIBUTED TRANSMISSION LINES

There are three distributed transmission line models available in
the T-lines and Cables pages of the Master Library. These are in
order of increasing precision:
1. Bergeron model
2. Frequency Dependent (Mode) model
3. Frequency Dependent (Phase) model The distributed line and its interface to the circuit.
In order to appreciate the concept of a distributed transmission

line model, a single conductor overhead transmission line is pre- Reference; H.W. Dommel, “Digital Computer Solution
of Electromagnetic Transients in Single and Multiphase
sented as an example. The principle of traveling waves is present- Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
ed in simplified form as the basis of each of the three line models. Systems, Vol. PAS -88, No. 4, April 1969.
The travel time of wave propagation along the transmission line is

shown here as τ seconds.

τ = _____ l·L
l = ___
_____
√ L · C Zo
Where:
l = length of line
L = Series inductance in H / unit length
C = Capacitance in Farads / unit length
Zo = Characteristic impedance in ohms
Z = Zo + R/4
The Norton resistance Z shown above consists of:
Ik(t - τ) = (1 + h) · [-em(t - τ)/Z - Im,k(t - τ)]/2

+ (1 – h) · [-ek(t - τ)/Z - Ik,m(t - τ)]/2
Where: h = (Z – R/4) / (Z + R/4)

Im(t - τ) can be determined from the above expression for Ik(t - τ)
by interchanging the values from those from the other end of the
line.
The three distributed transmission lines available in the Tlines

The transmission line to be used as the example is a 500 and Cables pages of the Master Library expand on the concept
kV AC line of the Bonneville Power Administration: Lower
Monumental to John Day Dam. The information for this described above to include frequency dependency.
line is published in EH Transmission Line Reference Book
published by the Edison Electric Institute, 1968, p25.
Using Line Constants
The Bergeron line model is the simplest with minimum frequency
dependency. To prepare and run a case with one or moretransmis-
sion lines, the Tlines page of the Master Library must be opened.
The steps to be followed when the line data is available are laid
Each Tline interface component representing the sending
end and receiving end of the transmission line is copied to out in the Overhead Transmission Line Constants Interface found
the working page and named. on opening the Tlines page. The steps are summarized as follows:
Step 1: Copy this Tline interface component into your circuit.
• Enter a Line Name and # of Conductors by double-clicking

on it or, place mouse cursor over the Tline interface
component on the working page, hold down the right
mouse button and select Edit Parameters, then lift right
mouse button to bring up the dialogue box.
• This name must be unique for each circuit. In this case,
the circuit name “Monumtl-Day” is entered. The graphical
Transmission Line Properties dialogue box for Tline interface
display can be either single line diagram or three-phase.
component.
• Copy this component to the other end of the line. To do
this, place mouse cursor on Tline interface component, hold
down right button on mouse, select Copy, lift right button.
Move mouse cursor to location for pasting, hold down right
button, select Paste, lift right mouse button. To rotate the
component with mouse cursor on the component, hold

down right button, select Rotate, Flip or Mirror and lift right
mouse button.
Step 2: Copy Tline Configuration component into your circuit on
the working page. For consistency, locate the Tline Configuration
component close to or between the Tline interface components.
• Double-click on the component and enter the same name as

in Step 1 or, place mouse cursor over the Tline Configuration
component on the working page, hold down the right
mouse button and select Properties, and then lift right
mouse button to bring up the dialogue box.
• Enter Line length (km), steady state frequency and # of
Conductors. The “Remote ends” was used for the option of Transmission Line Properties dialogue box for Tline
Termination Style in this case. If “direct” is selected, then the Configuration component.
Tline interface components are not required.
Step 3: Open the Tline Configuration sub-page by clicking on the
Edit box in the Transmission Line Parameters dialogue box or, with
the mouse cursor in the Tline Configuration component, hold
down the right mouse button and select Edit Parameters.
• Copy desired Line Constants Components onto this sub-

page as outlined in Steps 4 – 5 below.
Step 4: Select a line model and options. There are three distrib-
uted line models available as labeled boxes of which only one can Tline Configuration sub-page will appear similar to this. The
properties of the Tline interface component edited in Step 2
be applied for each transmission line. This is where the choice has are displayed. One of the three Line Constants Components
to be made as to which one to select. ( in this case the “Frequency Dependent (Mode)”
line) appears by default. Also displayed is a graphical
representation of the ground plane.
• Only one of the distributed line models must be copied to
the edit sub-page opened in Step 3 above. There may be Note: Each of these three components can be moved,
edited, copied, pasted, etc. on this sub-page dialogue box
one labeled box already in the edit sub-page by default. for Tline Configuration component.
If not the desired one, then delete it and copy the chosen
distributed Line Constants Component to replace it.
In choosing which Line Constants Component to apply, the fol-

lowing points should be considered:
1. Bergeron Model The Bergeron Model is a very simple,

constant frequency model based on travelling waves. This
model represents system L and C in a distributed manner (as
opposed to lumped elements in Pi-sections), while the total
system resistance R is lumped (½ in the middle of the line
and ¼ at each end).
The Bergeron model is useful for studies where it is most
important to get the correct steady state impedance/
admittance of the line or cable at fundamental frequency,
but should not be used where precision in the transient or The Line Constants Components for the three distributed
harmonic behavior is important. It is also useful in fast front line models available in the Master Library Tlines library of
surge studies to model the propagation of a wave down a which one is copied to the “Tline Configuration sub-page”
of the transmission line under construction.
transmission tower.

Where the Bergeron model can be applied is when the line

data available is in the usual load flow format. There is provi-
sion in the Bergeron Line Constants component to apply a
best estimate line model, which at fundamental frequency
should provide the same positive sequence impedances
represented by the line parameters of the load flow data,
particularly for lines long enough to have a propagation time
greater than one calculation time step.
The Line Constants Component has an option to allow an

approximation of frequency dependency. This is accom-
plished by clicking “Yes” for the dialogue request “Use
Editing the Line Constants Component for the Bergeron Damping Approximation?” This feature allows the user to
Model Options opens this dialogue box. specify a frequency higher than fundamental frequency at
The “Frequency for Loss Approximation” can be which the additional attenuation can be approximated con-
approximated by determining the wave propagation time sidering the higher conductor (metallic) and ground resist-
along the total transmission line by 1.0/4τ, where τ is the
travel time at the speed of light (3*108 metre/sec) for the ances.
transmission line. If necessary, τ can be extended beyond
the actual line travel time to approximate the effect of the
terminating systems
When the “Use Damping Approximation” is also applied, ad-
ditional damping of wave propagation for both the ground
The model can also be selected as Reflection-less Line (i.e.
Infinite Length). An example where this option can be used
mode (0 Seq. Mode) and metallic modes is possible. These
is for lightning overvoltage studies, where it is desired that are trial and error constants for serious use of the Bergeron
a strike divide using the correct surge impedance, but the model if it is known what its transient response should look
stroke will never reflect from the far end. That is, the travel
time of the line is longer than the period over which you like. The only advantage of doing this is to take advantage
want to study. of the very fast computational speed of the Bergeron model
compared to the frequency dependent models.
2. Frequency Dependent (Mode) Model The Frequency-

Dependent (Mode) Model uses curve fitting to duplicate
the frequency response of a line or cable. This model
approximates the phase to mode transformation as a
constant. It is useful for studies wherever the transient
or harmonic behavior of the line or cable is important. It
works very well for single conductor line, two horizontal
conductors, or for a three phase line with ideally transposed
line geometry. It should not be used for untransposed lines
Editing the Line Constants Component for both the or when multiple towers are modeled and coupled on the
Frequency Dependent (Mode) Model Options and the same right of way.
Frequency Dependent (Phase) Model Options opens this
dialogue box, which is similar to both. The Frequency Dependent (Mode) Model is similar to the J.
The Line Constants Component for both Frequency
Marti line model of EMTP.
Dependent Model options provides entry of ranges and
constants to improve the precision of the least squares Frequency Dependent (Mode) model is carried over from
curve fitting of the non-linear functions over the frequency
range specified. Attention should be paid to weighting PSCAD V2 to allow for compatibility with older projects. The
factors with the higher weighting factor near the frequency Frequency Dependent (Phase) model, as described below,
where the greatest precision is required. F0 is Steady State
frequency (entered in the Transmission Line Properties
should normally be the model of choice for most studies.
dialogue box in Step 2).
3. Frequency Dependent (Phase) Model The Frequency-
Usually a better curve fit is achieved with a higher number
of poles, but at the expense of calculation time. If the Dependent (Phase) Model uses curve fitting to duplicate
“Maximum Fitting Errors” are increased from say 2% to the frequency response of a line or cable. It is the most
5%, a lesser number of poles may be required to achieve
the fitting accuracy specified. advanced time domain model available on any simulator
as it represents the full frequency dependence of all line
“Interpolate Travel Times” allows the wave propagation
time to be properly reflected when it falls between parameters. It is useful for studies wherever the transient or
calculation time steps. harmonic behavior of the line or cable is important.

Step 5: Select a data entry method. The previous steps have

led to the selection of the line and how it is to be modeled. The
parameters must now be entered for the line itself and which are
required for solving the Line Constants for the line model chosen.
The tower and conductor geometry is required to calculate the

line constants for distributed transmission line models.
From the Tlines page in the Master Library under Step 5 there
are a number of transmission line configurations to choose
from. The configuration closest to the overhead transmission
line being modeled can be selected, copied to the edited Tline
Configuration sub-page, and modified as needed. Important Editing the Line Constants Component for both the
considerations are: Frequency Dependent Models: components transferred
from the Tlines page in the Master Library, and located
above the ground plane.
• Remember to enter conductor phasing information.
Note: Both the tower and conductor geometry component
• The numbering of the conductor graphics (C1-Cn) and the ground component can be edited and modified.
To edit, place the mouse cursor on either the tower or
corresponds to the numbering in the connections to the conductor geometry component of the ground component,
electrical circuit. either double click the left button or hold down the right
button and select Edit Parameters and lift the right button.
• The conductor numbering can be altered by modifying Use Close Window button to complete and close the Tline
configuration sub-page.
the phasing information in each tower component.
• If Ground Wires are not eliminated, then the phasing
information for them must also be entered.
• When multiple towers are used on the same line,
remember to enter the relative X-distance of the tower
centre on the right of way.
Additional tower geometries can be constructed by copying the
component definition of a tower closely resembling the one re-
quired, and then pasting the definition (under a new name) into
your own library or case.
If more than one tower is located as shown and indicated to
Parameters (and Graphics) can be customized to suit your require- be a 6 conductors (or 6-bundle) line, then each conductor/
bundle will be mutually coupled and they will all be
ments. The output format for the conductor positions must also included as one equivalent transmission line.
be modified.
The ground plane component can also be copied to the
Tline Configuration sub-page if it is not there already. It
Step 6: Execute the Line Constants Program. When the Tline con- provides for homogeneous resistivity for any ground path
figuration sub-page is completed with all towers, conductors and currents that might flow through it (e.g. zero sequence
currents).
ground plane parameters entered for the chosen Line Constants
Component, the Line Constants Program can now be run. This is
accomplished by placing the mouse cursor in any blank area, hold
down the right mouse button, select Solve Constants, lift right
mouse button.
The Line Constants Program executes “tline.exe” generating the

“LineName.tli,” “LineName.log” and “LineName.tlo” files. These
output files for the transmission line model selected are located in
the corresponding case folder. The tline.exe program will also be
executed when the user compiles the case in PSCAD.
The output files can be viewed in the Tline Configuration sub-

Tower dimension and conductor parameters of physical
page by selecting the individual window tabs: Editor, Input, transmission lines can be entered and edited in the above
Constants, Log and Output. Graphical displays of the Tline dialogue window.

outputs (Magnitude and phase of the Y, Z matrix, Eigenvalue and

Eigenvectors) are available by first enabling the “Outputs of de-
tailed output files’ in the frequency dependent modes, then select
“View Detailed outputs.”
If any error occurs during execution of the Line Constants, PSCAD

will open a file called LineName.log to show the error. You can
view this file at any time to see Line Constants messages.
Tower and conductor geometry components located in the

Tlines page in the Master Library. The selected component
can be copied to the Tline Configuration sub-page, and
edited as required.
Manual Entry of Data for Bergeron Model

There is an option to insert data manually for the Bergeron Model
Options instead of using the tower and conductor geometry com-
ponent described above. This feature is very useful in either of the
following two situations:
1. The line data available is in positive sequence load flow

format R + jX, (B) in per unit, without any details of the
tower and conductor geometry. A “best fit” distributed line
model is desirable over using Coupled Pi Sections.
2. Surge impedance and propagation time is available, such as
for the steep front surge model of a transmission line tower.
To enter data manually for the Bergeron Model, at Step 5 of the
data entry process described above, transfer the “Manual Entry
of Y,Z” component from the Tlines page in the Master Library to
the Tline configuration sub-page of the transmission line being
added to the simulation model under construction. Do not copy
and transfer the tower and conductor geometry component or
the ground component to the Tline configuration sub-page. If the
ground component is already located there, then delete it.
Consider the 500 kV, 222.07 km transmission line in its load flow/
stability data format in per unit on 100 MVA base:
R + jX (B) = 0.001525 + j0.034 (2.355)

If the line length is known, and it exceeds 100 km, the long line
correction factor should be applied in converting the per unit line
data for manual entry into a Bergeron line model. The line data
with the long line correction removed enables parameters to be
determined in terms of 1 metre sections for the Bergeron line
model.
+ve Sequence Resistance

= R/(0.976*222070) [p.u./m]
= 0.007036E-06 [p.u./m]
+ve Sequence Inductive Reactance

= X/(0.987*222070) [p.u./m]
= 0.1551E-06 [p.u./m]
+ve Sequence Capacitive Reactance*

Manual data entry for Bergeron Model. The zero sequence
= 1.006*222070/B [p.u.*m] parameters here are assumed to be not known and are
= 0.09486E6 [p.u.*m] entered as estimated or default ratios of the positive
sequence values.
Note: Charging capacitance is entered into the Bergeron manual

data page in terms of per unit capacitive reactance (1/B), not the
more familiar per unit admittance.
Although the Bergeron line model provides a good impedance

match at steady state frequency, the lack of frequency depend-
ency in the model will result in less damped transients at higher
frequencies. Manual data entry for the Bergeron line model is
also possible in actual ohms/metre for the positive sequence
parameters, as well as in terms of surge impedance and wave
propagation times. This latter entry method is most useful for fast
front and lightning surge studies.
Consider a vertical transmission tower 40 metre high, with a

calculated surge impedance of 146 ohm:
The lattice steel construction of the tower slows the vertical

propagation of a fast front due to a lightning strike on the tower
top to approximately 85% the speed of light. The propagation
time over 1 metre is 1/(0.85c), where c is the speed of light.
The Bergeron line model is selected in Step 4 as a single conduc-

tor transmission line and “Manual Entry of Y,Z” is selected in Step
5.
Transmission Line Properites Sheet for the fast front

Bergeron line model of a transmission tower represented as
a traveling wave transmission line. Selection of the “Steady
State Frequency [Hz]” at 1 MHz is arbitrary.

Tline sub-page with “Manual Entry of Y,Z” selected.
“Manual Entry of Y,Z” data sheets

for the single conductor Bergeron
line model where surge impedance
(Zsurge) and Travel Time are entered
to define the wave propagation model
of tower.
“+ve Seq. Resistance” is entered as an

arbitrary number. In general, the tower
footing resistance will dominate over
the tower resistance. The total tower
resistance should be less than the
tower footing resistance.
Interpreting Bergeron Output in LineName.tlo File

The 500 kV, 222 km transmission line example (Monumtl-Day)
when modeled as a continuously transposed Bergeron model
generates a data file called “Monumtl-Day.tlo” located in the case
folder after execution of the Line Constants Program.

The conditions required in the construction of the Bergeron Line

model are Steps 1 to 6 above with the Bergeron model inserted
in Tline configuration sub-page (Step 5). By selecting ideal trans-
position, the positive and negative parameters are equalized in
this case.
From the data provided in the Monumtl-Day.tlo file as shown

above, the surge impedance, line resistance and propagation
times for the line are obtained, and the equivalent line param-
eters for load flow/stability programs can be estimated.
Modeling Short Lines/Cables COUPLED

If the simulation network is large and has short line sections, or
it is a distribution network with many short line sections, simply PI
reducing the time step causes a longer computational time that SECTION
may be unacceptable. A satisfactory option is to model a short
A “short line/cable” is when the wave propagation or
line with a single Coupled Pi Section and preserve the calculation travel time is less than the calculation time step. Scaling
time step. propagation times:
Original line length (as per Bergeron data in the “….tlo” or

Consider a 5.5 km section of 500 kV transmission line configured “….clo” file) = 222070 metre.
identically to the Monumtl-Day example line above. To derive the Length of short line = 5500 metre.
parameters of the Coupled Pi Section for the 5.5 km section, first
Short line Positive Sequence propagation time =
determine the Bergeron Line/Cable Constants for the line by run- 0.7563291*5500/222070 = 0.0186651 msec.
ning the Line/Cable Constants Program and observe the resulting
Short line Zero Sequence propagation time = 1.051463
data generated in the “….tlo” file as described above. If the line *5500/222070 = 0.02604 msec.
length is not the same as the length of the short line section, the
Surge impedance and resistance/unit length are transferred
only adjustment needed is to scale the zero sequence and positive unchanged.
sequence propagation times in proportion to length.
The Properties Sheet for the Coupled Pi Section is opened and

the data from the Bergeron “…tlo” file (if an overhead line) or
“….clo” (if a cable) is transferred accordingly using the Zsurge,
Ttravel data entry option.

COMPARISON OF LINE MODELS

The Lower Monumental-John Day 222.07 km, 500 kV ac trans-
mission line is used for comparing the precision of the various
line models. Results from a published field test are used for the
comparison [2].
The test is with the line energized at the John Day end with the
Field test model with fault applied on phase C at TIME = Lower Monumental end open circuited. A single line to ground
0.2143 sec.
fault is applied on phase C at the open circuit end, and the volt-
age on phase B at the same end is monitored.

REFERENCES
1. H.W. Dommel, “Digital Computer Solution of Electromagnetic
Transients in Single and Multiphase Networks,” IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-88, No. 4, April 1969.
2. W.S. Meyer, H.W. Dommel, “Numerical Modeling of

Frequency-Dependent Transmission Line Parameters in an
Electromagnetic Transient Program,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-93, Sept/Oct 1974, No.5, pp
1401-1409.
EXERCISES
11.1 Load example case Example 11_1.psc which is the model
of the Monumental-Day 222.07 km, 500 kV transmission line
field test [2]. Run the field test by taking the snapshot at TIME =
0.1973 seconds, and applying the fault at TIME = 0.2143 sec-
onds. Repeat the tests for all three line models: Frequency de-
pendent (phase) model, frequency dependent (mode) model and
the Bergeron model.
11.2 The field test case Example 11_1.psc is a transmission line

without shield wires. Add two shield wires 10 metres above the
outside conductors as shown, spaced 10 metres apart, and with
an 8 metre sag. Collapse the shield wires into the line model.
Repeat the field test with the frequency dependent (phase) model
and determine whether shield wires have any impact on the test
results.
11.3 The field test case Example 11_1.psc has 100 ohm-metre
ground resistivity. Repeat the field test with the frequency de-
pendent (phase) model and a ground resistivity of 2000 ohm-
metre and observe any impact on the test results.

Index
B Project Tree 7
Back flashover 13,36 R

Bergeron model 33
Buttons 21 Real Time Playback 101
RTP 101
C
S
Capacitor 36,64,65
Components 5,19,22 Saturation 1,15
CSMF 19 Series reactance 66
Single pole 11
D Sliders 21,23
Snapshot 7,20,22,68
Dials 21 Subsynchronous oscillation 2,65
Diesel 2 Surge impedance 34,35
Distributed transmission 34 Switch 9
E T
Energy storage 2 Tline 33
Tower 10
F Towers 35
FACTS 1 Transformer saturation 1
Fast front 12 Transportation systems 2
Frequency dependent 29,33
V
G Variable speed drives 2
Geomagnetically induced currents 2
W
H Wind farms 2
HVDC 1,52
I
Instantaneous solution 1
M
Master library 5,19,28,33,36,69
MATLAB/Simulink 2
Meter 19,21,24
Models 28,37
P
Page module 70
Pause 20
Per unit 28,30
Power electronics 1
Power quality 2

Applications of PSCAD® / EMTDC™ Application Guide 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applications of PSCAD® / EMTDC™ Application Guide 2008

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applications of PSCAD® / EMTDC™ Application Guide 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC

Manitoba HVDC Research Centre Inc.

Chapter 2: Traditional Transient Studies .....................................5

Chapter 3: Controls .....................................................................19

Chapter 4: Surge Arresters .........................................................27

Applications of PSCAD/EMTDC iii

Fast Front Studies .........................................................................33

Chapter 5: Transformers .............................................................41

Chapter 6: DC Transmission .......................................................51

Chapter 7: STATCOM Controls ...................................................69

Three Level STATCOM ...................................................................74

Chapter 8: VSC Transmission......................................................79

Chapter 9: Model Veriﬁcation ....................................................87

Chapter 10: Using PSCAD/EMTDC Waveforms for Real Time

Chapter 11: Transmission Lines..................................................103

WHERE PSCAD CAN BE USED

A simple classical example of the use of PSCAD is demonstrated

It is obvious from this example that the instantaneous solution

PSCAD is used by engineers, researchers and students from utili-

• Insulation coordination of AC and DC equipment.

• Traditional power system studies, including TOV, TRV,

• Relay testing (waveforms) and detailed analysis of the

• Designing power electronic systems and controls including

• Incorporate the capabilities of MATLAB/Simulink directly

• Subsynchronous oscillations, their damping and resonance.

• Effects of DC currents and geomagnetically induced

• Distribution system design, including transient

• Power quality analysis and improvement, including

• Design of modern transportation systems (ships, rail,

• Design, control coordination and system integration of

• Variable speed drives, their design and control.

• Intelligent multiple-run optimization techniques can be

Case examples have been prepared for this Applications of

The material is prepared to help launch the electric power en-

PSCAD/EMTDC is under continual development by a team of

Traditional Transient Studies

Sources representing network equivalents and their short

Load Flow Set-up with a Source

Setting the Load Flow with a Generator

dynamically stable when run on a power system stability

MULTIPLE RUN A useful component for initializing generation equipment

Multiple Runs can be accomplished by two methods:

1. Using the Multiple Run component with the following

- Support for real and integer variable types

2. Manually deﬁning the multiple run variables with these

run number and the total number of runs as input to

If the Multiple Run component is used, it will automatically set

If a Multiple Run component is used, the multiple run setting in

A user-defined component has been developed to model the

To ensure there is a random initiation of the circuit breaker clos-

for a probability distribution of maximum line overvoltages for

SWITCHING SURGE DATA REQUIREMENTS

Total network to be reduced

Short circuit impedances for the short circuit capacity

The network example shown below is to have the portion in

The short circuit impedances X1, X2 and X3 shown in this ex-

very least, the sources should represent a resistive portion mod-

Power Flow Conditions

The load flow conditions for maximum expected power flow