5.

1 Real Vector Spaces

Definition (1/2)
Let V be an arbitrary nonempty set of objects on which
two operations are defined, addition and multiplication
by scalars (numbers). By addition we mean a rule for
associating with each pair of objects u and v in V an
object u + v, called the sum of u and v; by scalar
multiplication we mean a rule for associating with each
scalar k and each object u in V an object ku, called the
scalar multiple of u by k. If the following axioms are
satisfied by all objects u, v, w in V and all scalars k and
l, then we call V a vector space and we call the objects
in V vectors.

Definition (2/2)
1)

2)
3)
4)

5)
6)

7)
8)

9)
10)

If u and v are objects in V, then u + v is in V.

u+v=v+u
u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
There is an object 0 in V, called a zero vector for V,
such that 0 + u = u + 0 = u for all u in V.
For each u in V, there is an object u in V, called a
negative of u, such that u + (-u) = (-u) + u = 0.
If k is any scalar and u is any object in V, then ku
is in V.
k (u + v) = ku + kv
( k + l) u = k u + lu
k (lu) = (kl) (u)
1u = u

Remark

Depending on the application, scalars may be real

numbers or complex numbers. Vector spaces in which the
scalars are complex numbers are called complex vector
spaces, and those in which the scalars must be real are
called real vector spaces. In Chapter 10 we shall discuss
complex vector spaces; until then, all of our scalars will be
real numbers.
The definition of a vector space specifies neither the
nature of the vectors nor the operations. Any kind of
object can be a vector, and the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication may not have any relationship or
similarity to the standard vector operations on Rn. The
only requirement is that the ten vector space axioms be
satisfied.

Example 1
Rn Is a Vector Space

The set V = Rn with the standard operations

of addition and scalar multiplication defined in
Section 4.1 is a vector space. Axioms 1 and 6
follow from the definitions of the standard
operations on Rn; the remaining axioms
follow from Theorem 4.1.1.
The three most important special cases of Rn
are R (the real numbers), R2 (the vectors in
the plane), and R3 (the vectors in 3-space).

Example 2
A Vector Space of 22 Matrices (1/4)
Show that the set V of all 22 matrices with real entries is a vector
space if vector addition is defined to be matrix addition and vector
scalar multiplication is defined to be matrix scalar multiplication.
Solution.
In this example we will find it convenient to verify the axioms in
the following order: 1, 6, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 4, 5, and 10.
Let u

u11 u12
= u u
21 22

and v

v11 v12
= v v
21 22

To prove Axiom 1, we must show that u + v is an object in V; that

is we must show that u + v is a 22 matrix.
u11 v11 u12 v12
v11 v12
u11 u12
u+v=
+ v v = u v u v
u
u
21
21
22
22
21 22
21 22

Example 2
A Vector Space of 22 Matrices (2/4)
Similarly, Axiom 6 hold because for any real number k we have

u11 u12 ku11 ku12

ku k

u21 u22 ku21 ku22

so that ku is a 22 matrix and consequently is an object in V.
Axioms 2 follows from Theorem 1.4.1a since

u11 u12 v11 v12 v11 v12 u11 u12

uv

vu

u21 u22 v21 v22 v21 v22 u21 u22

Similarly, Axiom 3 follows from part (b) of that theorem; and
Axioms 7, 8, and 9 follow from part (h), (j), and (l), respectively.

Example 2
A Vector Space of 22 Matrices (3/4)
To prove Axiom 4, this can be defining 0 to be
0 0
0

0 0

With this definition

0 0 u11 u12 u11 u12

0u
u u u u u
0
0

21 22 21 22

And similarly u + 0 = u.
To prove Axiom 5, this can be done by defining the negative of u to be
u u12
u 11

u21 u22

With this definition

u11 u12 u11 u12 0 0
u ( u )
u u 0 0 0
u
u

21 22 21
22

And similarly (-u) + u = 0.

Example 2
A Vector Space of 22 Matrices (4/4)
Finally, Axiom 10 is a simple computation:
u11 u12 u11 u12
1u 1

u21 u22 u21 u22

Example 3
A Vector Space of mn Matrices
Example 2 is a special case of a more general
class of vector spaces. The arguments in that
example can be adapted to show that the set V
of all mn matrices with real entries, together
with the operations matrix addition and scalar
multiplication, is a vector space. The mn zero
matrix is the zero vector 0, and if u is the mn
matrix U, then matrix U is the negative u of
the vector u. We shall denote this vector space by the
symbol Mmn.

Example 4
A Vector Space of Real-Valued Functions
(1/2)
Let V be the set of real-valued
functions defined on the entired
real line (-, ). If f = f(x) and
g = g(x) are two such functions and
k is any real number, defined the
sum function f + g and the scalar
multiple kf, respectively, by
(f g)( x) f ( x) g ( x) and (kf )( x) kf ( x)

Example 4
A Vector Space of Real-Valued Functions
(2/2)
In other words, the value of the function f + g at x is
obtained by adding together the values of f and g at x
(Figure 5.1.1 a). Similarly, the value of kf at x is k times
the value of f at x (Figure 5.1.1 b). In the exercises we
shall ask you to show that V is a vector space with respect
to these operations. This vector space is denoted by F(-,
). If f and g are vectors in this space, then to say that f
= g is equivalent to saying that f(x) = g(x) for all x in the
interval (-, ).
The vector 0 in F(-, ) is the constant function that
identically zero for all value of x.
The negative of a vector f is the function f = -f(x).
Geometrically, the graph of f is the reflection of the
graph of f across the x-axis (Figure 5.1.c).

Remark

In the preceding example we focused

attention on the interval (-, ). Had we
restricted our attention to some closed
interval [a, b] or some open interval (a, b),
the functions defined on those intervals with
the operations stated in the example would
also have produced vector spaces. Those
vector spaces are denoted by F[a, b] and F(a,
b).

Example 5
A Set That Is Not a Vector Space
Let V = R2 and define addition and scalar multiplication
operations as follows: If u = (u1, u2) and v = (v1,
v2), then define

u v (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )

and if k is any real number, then define

ku (ku1 , 0)
There are values of u for which Axiom 10 fails to hold.
For example, if u = (u1, u2) is such that u2 0,then

1u 1(u1 , u2 ) (1u1 , 0) (u1 , 0) u

Thus, V is not a vector space with the stated
operations.

Example 6
Every Plane Through the Origin Is a
Vector Space
Let V be any plane through the origin in R3.From Example 1, we
know that R3 itself is a vector space under these operation. Thus,
Axioms 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 hold for all points in R3 and
consequently for all points in the plane V. We therefore need only
show that Axioms 1, 4, 5, and 6 are satisfied.
Since the plane V passes through the origin, it has an equation of
the form ax + by + cz = 0. If u = (u1, u2, u3) and v = (v1, v2, v3)
are points in V, then au1 + bu2 + cu3 = 0 and av1 + bv2 + cv3 = 0.
Adding these equations gives a(u1 + v1) + b(u2 + v2) + c(u3 + v3)
=0
Axiom 1: u + v = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2, u3 + v3); thus u + v lies in the
plane V.
Axioms 4, 6: be left as exercises.
Axioms 5: Multiplying au1 + bu2 + cu3 = 0 through by -1 gives
a(-u1) + b(-u2) + c(-u3) = 0 ; thus, - u = (-u1, -u2, -u3) lies in V.

Example 7
The Zero Vector Space
Let V consist of a signal object, which we
denote by 0, and define
0 + 0 = 0 and k0 = 0 for all scalars k.
We called this the zero vector space.

Theorem 5.1.1
Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V,
and k a scalar; then:
a)
0u = 0
b)
K0 = 0
c)
(-1)u = -u
d)
If ku = 0 , then k = 0 or u = 0.

5.2 Subspaces

Definition

A subset W of a vector space V is called

a subspace of V if W is itself a vector
space under the addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V.

Theorem 5.2.1

a)

b)

If W is a set of one or more vectors

from a vector space V, then W is a
subspace of V if and only if the
following conditions hold.
If u and v are vectors in W, then u +
v is in W.
If k is any scalar and u is any vector in
W , then ku is in W.

Remark

Theorem 5.2.1 states that W is a

subspace of V if and only if W is a
closed under addition (condition (a))
and closed under scalar multiplication
(condition (b)).

Example 1
Testing for a Subspace

Let W be any plane through the

origin and let u and v be any
vectors in W. Then u + v must
line in W because it is the
diagonal of the parallelogram
determined by u and v, and ku
must line in W for any scalar k
because ku lies on a line through
u. Thus, W is closed under
addition and scalar multiplication,
so it is a subspace of R3.

Example 2
Lines Through the Origin Are Subspaces
Show that a line through the origin of R3 is a
subspace of R3.
Solution.
Let W be a line through the origin of R3.

Example 3
A subspace of R2 That Is Not a Subspace

Let W be the set of all points

(x, y) in R2 such that x 0
and y 0. These are the
points in the first quadrant.
The set W is not a subspace of
R2 since it is not closed under
scalar multiplication. For
example, v = (1, 1) lines in W,
but its negative (-1)v = -v =
(-1, -1) does not.

Remark

Every nonzero vector space V has at least two subspace: V

itself is a subspace, and the set {0} consisting of just the zero
vector in V is a subspace called the zero subspace.
Combining this with Example 1 and 2, we obtain the following
list of subspaces of R2 and R3:
Subspace of R2
{0}
Lines through the origin
R2

Subspace of R3
{0}
Lines through the origin
Planes through origin
R3

These are the only subspaces of R2 and R3.

Example 4
Subspaces of Mnn

From Theorem 1.7.2 the sum of two

symmetric matrices is symmetric, and a scalar
multiple of a symmetric matrix is symmetric.
Thus, the set of nn symmetric matrices is a
subspace of the vector space Mnn of nn
matrices. Similarly, the set of nn upper
triangular matrices, the set of nn lower
triangular matrices, and the set of nn
diagonal matrices all form subspaces of Mnn,
since each of these sets is closed under
addition and scalar multiplication.

Example 5
A Subspace of Polynomials of Degree n

Let n be a nonnegative integer, and let W consist of all function

expressible in the form

p( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n

(1)

where a0,,an are real number.

Let p and q be the polynomials

p( x) a0 a1 x ... an x n

and

q( x) b0 b1 x ... bn x n

Then
(p q)( x) p( x) q( x) (a0 b0 ) (a1 b1 ) x ... (an bn ) x n

and

(kp)( x) kp( x) (ka0 ) (ka1 ) x ... (kan ) x n

These functions have the form given in (1), so p + q and kp lie in W. We
shall denote the vector space W in this example by the symbol Pn .

Example 6
Subspaces of Functions Continuous
on (-, ) (1/3)

Recall from calculus that if f and g are continuous

functions on the interval (-, ) and k is a constant, then
f + g and kf are also continuous. Thus, the continuous
functions on the interval (-, ) form a subspace of F(-,
), since they are closed under addition and scalar
multiplication. We denote this subspace by C(-, ).
Similarly, if f and g have continuous first derivatives on (, ) form a subspace of F(-, ). We denote this
subspace by C1(-, ), where the subscript 1 is used to
emphasize the first derivate. However, it is a theorem of
calculus that every differentiable function is continuous, so
C1(-, ) is actually a subspace of C(-, ).

Example 6
Subspaces of Functions Continuous
on (-, ) (2/3)
To take this a step further, for each positive integer m, the
functions with continuous m th derivatives on (-, )
form a subspace of C1(-, ) as do the functions that
have continuous derivates of all orders. We denote the
subspace of functions with continuous m th derivatives
on (-, ) by Cm(-, ), and we denote the subspace
of functions that have continuous derivatives of all order
on (-, ) by C(-, ). Finally, it is a theorem of
calculus that polynomials have continuous derivatives of
all order, so Pn is a subspace of C(-, ).

Example 6
Subspaces of Functions Continuous
on (-, ) (3/3)

Solution Space of
Homogeneous Systems

If Ax = b is a system of the linear

equations, then each vector x that
satisfies this equation is called a
solution vector of the system. The
following theorem shows that the
solution vectors of a homogeneous
linear system form a vector space,
which we shall call the solution space of
the system.

Theorem 5.2.2

If Ax = 0 is a homogeneous linear
system of m equations in n unknowns,
then the set of solution vectors is a
subspace of Rn.

Example 7
Solution Spaces That Are Subspaces
of R3 (1/2)
1 - 2 3 x
0
y 0
(a)
2
4
6

3 - 6 9

z

1 - 2 3 x
0
y 0
(c)
-3
7
-8

4 1 2

z

1 - 2 3 x
0
y 0
(b)
-3
7
8

-2 4 -6

z

0 0 0 x
0
y 0
(d)
0
0
0

0 0 0

z

Each of these systems has three unknowns, so the

solutions form subspaces of R3. Geometrically, this
means that each solution space must be a line through
the origin, a plane through the origin, the origin only, or
all of R3. We shall now verify that this is so.

Example 7
Solution Spaces That Are Subspaces
of R3 (2/2)
Solution.
(a) x = 2s - 3t, y = s, z = t
x = 2y - 3z or x 2y + 3z = 0
This is the equation of the plane through the origin with n = (1, -2,
3) as a normal vector.
(b) x = -5t , y = -t, z=t
which are parametric equations for the line through the origin
parallel to the vector v = (-5, -1, 1).
(c) The solution is x = 0, y = 0, z = 0, so the solution space is the
origin only, that is {0}.
(d) The solution are x = r , y = s, z = t, where r, s, and t have
arbitrary values, so the solution space is all of R3.

Definition
A vector w is a linear combination of
the vectors v1, v2,, vr if it can be
expressed in the form
w = k1v1 + k2v2 + + krvr
where k1, k2, , kr are scalars.

Example 8
Vectors in R3 Are Linear
Combinations of i, j, and k
Every vector v = (a, b, c) in R3 is
expressible as a linear combination of
the standard basis vectors
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)
since
v = (a, b, c) = a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) +
c(0, 0, 1) = ai + bj + ck

Example 9
Checking a Linear Combination (1/2)
Consider the vectors u = (1, 2, -1) and v = (6, 4, 2) in R3. Show
that w = (9, 2, 7) is a linear combination of u and v and that
w = (4, -1, 8) is not a linear combination of u and v.
Solution.
In order for w to be a linear combination of u and v, there must
be scalars k1 and k2 such that w = k1u + k2v;
(9, 2, 7) = (k1 + 6k2, 2k1 + 4k2, -k1 + 2k2)
Equating corresponding components gives
k1 + 6k2 = 9
2k1 + 4k2 = 2
-k1 + 2k2 = 7
Solving this system yields k1 = -3, k2 = 2, so
w = -3u + 2v

Example 9
Checking a Linear Combination (2/2)
Similarly, for w to be a linear combination of u and v, there must
be scalars k1 and k2 such that w= k1u + k2v;
(4, -1, 8) = k1(1, 2, -1) + k2(6, 4, 2)
or
(4, -1, 8) = (k1 + 6k2, 2k1 + 4k2, -k1 + 2k2)
Equating corresponding components gives
k1 + 6k2 = 4
2 k1 + 4k2 = -1
- k1 + 2k2 = 8
This system of equation is inconsistent, so no such scalars k1 and
k2 exist. Consequently, w is not a linear combination of u and v.

Theorem 5.2.3

a)

b)

If v1, v2, , vr are vectors in a vector

space V, then:
The set W of all linear combinations of
v1, v2, , vr is a subspace of V.
W is the smallest subspace of V that
contain v1, v2, , vr in the sense that
every other subspace of V that contain
v1, v2, , vr must contain W.

Definition

If S = {v1, v2, , vr} is a set of vectors in a

vector space V, then the subspace W of V
containing of all linear combination of these
vectors in S is called the space spanned by v1,

v2, , vr, and we say that the vectors

v1, v2, , vr span W. To indicate that W
is the space spanned by the vectors in
the set S = {v1, v2, , vr}, we write
W = span(S) or W = span{v1, v2, , vr}

Example 10
Spaces Spanned by One or Two
Vectors (1/2)

If v1 and v2 are nonlinear vectors in R3

with their initial points at the origin,
then span{v1, v2}, which consists of all
linear combinations k1 v1 + k2 v2 is the
plane determined by v1 and v2.
Similarly, if v is a nonzero vector in R2
and R3, then span{v}, which is the set
of all scalar multiples kv, is the linear
determined by v.

Example 10
Spaces Spanned by One or Two
Vectors (2/2)

Example 11
Spanning Set for Pn
The polynomials 1, x, x2, , xn span
the vector space Pn defined in Example
5 since each polynomial p in Pn can be
written as
p = a0 + a0x + + anxn
which is a linear combination of 1, x,
x2, , xn. We can denote this by writing
Pn = span{1, x, x2, , xn}

Example 12
Three Vectors That Do Not Span R3
Determine whether v1 = (1, 1, 2), v2 = (1, 0, 1), and v3 = (2, 1, 3) span the vector
space R3.
Solution.
We must determine whether an arbitrary vector b = (b1, b2, b3) in R3 can be expressed as
a linear combination b = k1v1 + k2v2 + k3v3
Expressing this equation in terms of components gives (b1, b2, b3) = k1(1, 1, 3) + k2(1, 0, 1)
+ k3(2, 1 ,3) or (b1, b2, b3) = (k1 + k2 + 2k3, k1 + k3, 2k1 + k2 + 3 k3)
or
k1 + k2 + 2k3 = b1
k1
+ k3 = b2
2k1 + k2 + 3 k3 = b3
by parts (e) and (g) of Theorem 4.3.4, this system is consistent for all b1, b2, and b3 if and
only if the coefficient matrix

1 1 2
A 1 0 1
2 1 3

has a nonzero determinant. However, det(A) = 0, so that v1, v2, and v3, do not span R3.

Theorem 5.2.4

If S = {v1, v2, , vr} and S = {w1,

w2, , wr} are two sets of vector in a
vector space V, then

span{v1, v2, , vr} = span{w1, w2, , wr}

if and only if each vector in S is a linear
combination of these in S and each vector in
S is a linear combination of these in S.

5.3 Linear Independence

Definition
If S={v1, v2, , vr} is a nonempty set of
vector, then the vector equation
k1v1+k2v2++krvr=0
has at least one solution, namely
k1=0, k2=0, , kr=0
If this the only solution, then S is called linearly
independent set. If there are other solutions,
then S is called a linear dependent set.

Example 1
A Linear Dependent Set

If v1=(2, -1, 0, 3), v2=(1, 2, 5, -1), and

v3=(7, -1, 5, 8), then the set of vectors
S={v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent,
since 3v1+v2-v3=0.

Example 2
A Linearly Dependent Set
The polynomials
p1=1-x, p2=5+3x-2x2, and p3=1+3x-x2
form a linear dependent set in P2 since
3p1-p2+2p3=0.

Example 3
Linear Independent Sets
Consider the vectors i=(1, 0, 0), j=(0, 1, 0), and
k=(0, 0, 1) in R3. In terms of components the vector
equation
k1i+k2j+k3k=0
becomes
k1(1, 0, 0)+k2(0, 1, 0)+k3(0, 0, 1)=(0, 0, 0)
or equivalently,
(k1, k2, k3)=(0, 0, 0)
So the set S={i, j, k} is linearly independent.
A similar argument can be used to show the vectors
e1=(1, 0, 0, ,0), e2=(0, 1, 0, , 0), , en=(0, 0,
0, , 1)
form a linearly independent set in Rn.

Example 4
Determining Linear
Independence/Dependence (1/2)
Determine whether the vectors
v1=(1, -2, 3), v2=(5, 6, -1), v3=(3, 2, 1)
form a linearly dependent set or a linearly independent set.
Solution.
In terms of components the vector equation
k1v1+k2v2+k3v3=0
becomes
k1(1, -2, 3)+k2(5, 6, -1)+k3(3, 2, 1)=(0, 0, 0)
Thus, v1 , v2, and v3 form a linearly dependent set if this
system has a nontrivial solution, or a linearly independent
set if it has only the trivial solution. Solving this system
yields
k1=-1/2t, k2=-1/2t, k3=t

Example 4
Determining Linear
Independence/Dependence (2/2)
Thus, the system has nontrivial solutions
and v1,v2, and v3 form a linearly
dependent set. Alternatively, we could
show the existence of nontrivial
solutions by showing that the
coefficient matrix has determinant zero.

Example 5
Linearly Independent Set in Pn
Show that the polynomials
1, x, x2, , xn
form a linearly independent set of vectors in Pn.
Solution.
Let p0=1, p1=x, p2= x2, , pn=xn and assume
a0p0+a1p1+a2p2+ +anpn=0
or equivalently,
a0+a1x+a2x2+ +anxn=0
for all x in (-,)
(1)
we must show that
a0=a1=a2= =an=0
Recall from algebra that a nonzero polynomial of degree n has at
most n distinct roots. But this implies that a0=a1=a2= =an=0;
otherwise, it would follow from (1) that a0+a1x+a2x2+ +anxn is
a nonzero polynomial with infinitely many roots.

Theorem 5.3.1

a)

b)

A set with two or more vectors is:

Linearly dependent if and only if at
least one of the vectors in S is
expressible as a linear combination of
the other vectors in S.
Linearly independent if and only if no
vector in S is expressible as a linear
combination of the other vectors in S.

Example 6
Example 1 Revisited
In Example 1 we saw that the vectors
v1=(2, -1, 0, 3), v2=(1, 2, 5, -1), and v3=(7, -1,
5, 8)
Form a linearly dependent set. In this example
each vector is expressible as a linear
combination of the other two since it follows
from the equation 3v1+v2-v3=0 that
v1=-1/3v2+1/3v3, v2=-3 v1+v3, and v3=3v1+v2

Example 7
Example 3 Revisited
Consider the vectors i=(1, 0, 0), j=(0, 1, 0), and
k=(0, 0, 1) in R3.
Suppose that k is expressible as
k=k1i+k2j
Then, in terms of components,
(0, 0, 1)=k1(1, 0, 0)+k2(0, 1, 0) or (0, 0, 1)=(k1, k2, 0)
But the last equation is not satisfied by any values of k1
and k2, so k cannot be expressed as a linear
combination of i and j. Similarly, i is not expressible
as a linear combination of j and k, and j is not
expressible as a linear combination of i and k.

Theorem 5.3.2
a)

b)

A finite set of vectors that contains the

zero vector is linearly dependent.
A set with exactly two vectors is
linearly independently if and only if
neither vector is a scalar multiple of
the other.

Example 8
Using Theorem 5.3.2b

The function f1=x and f2=sin x form a

linear independent set of vectors in F(, ), since neither function is a
constant multiple of the other.

Geometric Interpretation of
Linear Independence (1/2)

Linear independence has some useful geometric

interpretations in R2 and R3:
In R2 and R3, a set of two vectors is linearly
independent if and only if the vectors do not lie on
the same line when they are placed with their initial
points at the origin (Figure 5.3.1).
In R3, a set of three vectors is linearly independent if
and only if the vectors do not lie in the same plane
when they are placed with their initial points at the
origin (Figure 5.2.2).

Geometric Interpretation of
Linear Independence (2/2)

Theorem 5.3.3

Let S={v1, v2, , vr} be a set of

vectors in Rn. If r>n, then S is linearly
dependent.

Remark

The preceding theorem tells us that a

set in R2 with more than two vectors is
linearly dependent, and a set in R3 with
more than three vectors is linearly
dependent.

Linear Independence of
Functions (1/2)

If f1=f1(x), f2=f2(x), , fn=fn(x) are n-1 times differentiable

functions on the interval (-,), then the determinant of
f1 ( x)
f ' ( x)
W ( x) 1

:
( n 1)
f1 ( x)

f 2 ( x)
f 2' ( x)

...
...

:
f 2( n 1) ( x) ...

f n ( x)
f n' ( x)

f n( n 1) ( x)

Is called the Wronskian of f1, f2, ,fn. As we shall now know, this
determinant is useful for ascertaining whether the functions f1,
f2, ,fn form a linear independent set of vectors in the vector
space C(n-1)(-,). Suppose, for the moment, that f1, f2, ,fn
are linear dependent vectors in C(n-1)(-,). Then, there exist

scalars k1, k2, , kn, not all zero, such that

k1f1(x)+ k2f2(x)++ knfn(x)=0
for all x in the interval (-,). Combining this equation with the
equations obtained by n-1 successive differentiations yields

Linear Independence of
Functions (2/2)
k1 f1 ( x) k2 f 2 ( x) ... k n f n ( x) 0
k1 f 1' ( x) k2 f 2' ( x) ... k n' f n ( x) 0

:
k1 f 1( n 1) ( x) k2 f 2( n 1) ( x) ... k n( n 1) f n ( x) 0

Thus, the linear dependence of f1, f2, ,fn implies that the linear
system
f1 ( x )
f ' ( x)
1

:
( n 1)
( x)
f1

f 2 ( x)
f 2' ( x)

...
...

:
f 2( n 1) ( x)

...

f n ( x ) k1 0
f n' ( x) k2 0

: :
:

f n( n 1) ( x) k n 0

has a nontrivial solution for every x in the interval (-,). This

implies in turn that for every x in (-,) the coefficient matrix
is not invertible, or equivalently, that its determinant (the
Wronskian) is zero for ever x in (-,).

Theorem 5.3.4

If the functions f1, f2, ,fn have n-1

continuous derivatives on the interval (,), and if the Wronskian of these
functions is not identically zero on (,), then these functions form a
linearly independent set of vectors in
C(n-1)(-,).

Example 9
Linearly Independent Set in C1(-,)
Show that the functions f1=x and f2=sin x form a
linearly independent set of vectors in C1(-,).
Solutions.
The Wronskian is

W ( x)

x sin x
1 cos x

x cos x sin x

This function does not have value zero for all x in the
interval (-,), so f1 and f2 form a linearly
independent set.

Example 10
Linearly Independent Set in C2(-,)
Show that the functions f1=1 and f2=ex , and f3=e2x
form a linearly independent set of vectors in C2(,).
Solution.
The Wronskian is

1 ex

e2 x

0 ex

2e 2 x 2e3 x

0 ex

4e 2 x

This function does not have value zero for all x (in fact,
for any x) in the interval (-,), so f1, f2, and f3
form a linearly independent set.

Remark

If the Wronskian of f1, f2, ,fn is

identically zero on (-,), then no
conclusion can be reached the linear
independence of {f1, f2, ,fn}; this set
of vectors may be linearly independent
or linearly dependent.