S P E C I A L

S E C T I O N

DSM-5 and Psychotic and Mood

Disorders
George F. Parker, MD
The criteria for the major psychotic disorders and mood disorders are largely unchanged in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), with a few important exceptions: a new assessment
tool for the psychotic disorders based on dimensional assessment, a new scheme of specifiers for the mood
disorders, the addition of three new depressive disorders, and recognition of catatonia as a separate clinical entity.
In addition, subtle changes to the diagnostic criteria for longstanding disorders may have important ramifications.
There are forensic implications to these changes in the psychotic and mood disorders, but in most cases, these
implications should be relatively modest, as the DSM-5 Work Groups ultimately adopted a cautious approach to
changes in the psychotic and mood disorders.
J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 42:18290, 2014

This article will consider the forensic implications of

the changes in the diagnostic criteria for the psychotic and mood disorders contained in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition (DSM-5),1 which was published by the
American Psychiatric Association (APA) in May
2013. DSM-5 includes modest changes to the criteria and descriptive text for nearly every psychotic and
mood disorder, some more significant than others.
New developments in the psychotic and mood disorders in DSM-5 include the recognition of catatonia as a clinical state and the addition of three new
disorders: disruptive mood dysregulation disorder,
persistent depressive disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder.
Forensic clinicians routinely encounter psychotic
and mood disorders when performing forensic evaluations and while caring for patients in correctional
settings. Psychotic disorders are particularly common in criminal forensic evaluations, as they are the
primary reason for requests for evaluation of competence to stand trial2 and sanity at the time of the
offense.3 The psychotic disorders may also be seen in
civil forensic evaluations, particularly in civil commitment and disability evaluations. Mood disorders
are less frequent than psychotic disorders in criminal
Dr. Parker is Professor of Clinical Psychiatry and Director of Forensic
Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, IU Health Neuroscience Center, 355 West 16th Street, Suite 2800, Indianapolis, IN
46202. E-mail: [email protected].
Disclosures of financial or other potential conflicts of interest: None.
182

forensic evaluations, but may be pertinent to competence-to-stand-trial and insanity evaluations. They
are more common in civil forensic evaluations, particularly in disability evaluations.
The members of the DSM-5 Task Force and
Work Groups reviewed the results of the abundant
neuroscience research published over the past two
decades and realized that the boundaries between
many disorder categories are more fluid over the life
course than DSM-IV recognized (Ref. 1, p 5) and
considered the implementation of a dimensional approach to diagnosis, which would have dramatically
changed the focus of the DSM. However, the Task
Force recognized that it is premature scientifically
to propose alternative definitions for most disorders
(Ref. 1, p 13). DSM-5 thus continues to use the
categorical approach to clinical diagnosis familiar to
clinicians and to most consumers of forensic evaluations. Forensic clinicians may experience challenges
to DSM-5 diagnoses, based on the widely published
criticisms by the chair of the DSM-IV Task Force4
and the current Director of the National Institutes of
Mental Health (NIMH), who in 2009 launched the
research domain criteria project to develop, for research purposes, new ways of classifying mental disorders based on dimensions of observable behavior
and neurobiological measures.5 Familiarity with the
extensive review process that led to DSM-5, which
included extensive literature reviews, field trials, and
public and professional review before final publica-

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Parker

tion (Ref. 1, pp 6 10), should allow for effective

rebuttal of such challenges.
The Psychotic Disorders
The Psychotic Disorders Workgroup decided that
DSM-IV criteria for the psychotic disorders do not
accurately capture the considerable variability of
symptom profile, response to treatment, and most
importantly, social function and outcome; however, despite considerable pressure to move to a dimensional approach to the diagnosis of psychotic
disorders, the DSM-5 does not represent such a
paradigm shift (Ref. 6, p 11).
There is subtle evidence of the dimensional approach in the chapter entitled Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders, which begins
with a description of five domains of psychotic
symptoms (Ref. 1, p 87), the names of which are
identical to the five symptoms listed in Criterion A
for the diagnosis of schizophrenia in DSM-IV. In
addition, the work group developed a rating instrument, the Clinician-Rated Dimensions of Psychosis
Symptom Severity, to evaluate eight dimensions of
psychosis, which may help with treatment planning, prognostic decision-making and research
(Ref. 1, p 89), but placed it in Section III, Emerging
Measures and Models (Ref. 1, pp 743 4). This instrument is mentioned in the last section of the criteria for each of the psychotic disorders, under the
heading Specify Current Severity; clinicians are referred to the instrument after the statement quantitative assessment of the primary symptoms of psychosis . . . may be rated for its current severity . . . on
a 5-point scale (Ref. 1, p 91). This tool appears to be
easy to use, could easily be adapted for inclusion in an
electronic medical record, and may prove valuable in
correctional and other treatment settings where continuity of care is difficult to achieve due to clinician
turnover and movement of patients within the system. However, each section ends with a note, which
states diagnosis of [the disorder] can be made without using the severity specifier, which certainly implies that the use of this instrument is not required. A
PubMed search of the phrase clinician-rated dimensions of psychosis symptom severity returned no
items; thus, this instrument appears not to have been
validated, which may make it vulnerable to challenge
in court.
Overall, the criteria for diagnosis of psychotic disorders in DSM-5 are little changed from those in

DSM-IV. All of the psychotic disorders found in

DSM-IV are present in DSM-5, and catatonia was
added, as a semiautonomous clinical entity. Schizotypal personality disorder is listed at the beginning of
the section, because this disorder is considered part
of the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders (Ref. 1, p
90). However, because only a small proportion
(Ref. 1, p 657) of people with schizotypal personality
go on to develop another psychotic disorder, the diagnostic criteria and explanatory text for schizotypal
personality disorder, which are essentially identical
to those in DSM-IV, remain in the section on Personality Disorders. The recognition in DSM-5 of
schizotypal personality as part of the schizophrenia
spectrum may have implications for sanity evaluations, which typically hinge on the presence or absence of psychosis, even though people with schizotypal personality do not show persistent symptoms of
psychosis, such as hallucinations or delusions.
Delusional Disorder

In DSM-5, people who show bizarre delusions are

now eligible for the diagnosis of delusional disorder,
which is a significant change. The criteria also include a more modest change, as course specifiers are
now more detailed. The subtypes of delusions are
unchanged from DSM-IV, but clinicians may now
also specify if the persons delusions show bizarre
content. The addition of bizarre delusions to the
diagnostic criteria may increase slightly the frequency of this uncommon diagnosis, which DSM-5
estimates has a lifetime prevalence of 0.2 percent
(Ref. 1, p 92). In a recent article, bizarre delusions
were rarely (2%) identified as the sole reason for a
DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia,7 so the number
of people whose diagnosis would change from
schizophrenia to delusional disorder is likely to be
low. It is hard to predict how the shift of bizarre
delusions to the criteria for delusional disorder will
affect treatment; the small research literature on the
treatment of delusional disorder suggests that longterm treatment with antipsychotic medication may
lead to a modest decrease in the intensity of delusions.8,9 It is unknown whether people who have
delusional disorder with bizarre content will show a
similar response to antipsychotic medication. Given
the strong likelihood of persistent symptoms in a
person with delusional disorder, assessment of the
risk of violence based on bizarre delusions will require, as always, a careful evaluation of the individual

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DSM-5 and Psychotic and Mood Disorders

and his symptoms, particularly if the delusions involve an identifiable individual (e.g., a family member or neighbor) or a group of people (e.g., police
officers), thus putting that person or group at risk of
violence.
Brief Psychotic Disorder

The core diagnostic criteria for brief psychotic disorder are essentially unchanged: the symptoms must
persist for one month or less, and the person must
recover fully after the psychosis ends. The criteria
now require the acute onset of at least one symptom:
delusions, hallucinations, or disorganized speech.
Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior remains
as a fourth possible symptom but is not sufficient
alone to make the diagnosis. The impact of this minor revision on forensic psychiatry is likely to be
minimal.
Schizophreniform Disorder

The diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is little changed. The A, B, C, and D criteria are identical
to those in DSM-IV. The text for the specifier with
good prognostic features has been slightly revised
(Ref. 1, p 97). Schizophreniform disorder remains
intermediate in symptom duration between brief
psychotic disorder and schizophrenia. It has no corollary in the International Classification of Diseases
(ICD) scheme,10 in which a diagnosis of schizophrenia may be made after one month of symptoms of
psychosis. The forensic impact of the minor changes
in the criteria for schizophreniform disorder in
DSM-5 should be minimal.
Schizophrenia

Critics have described the DSM-5 criteria for

schizophrenia as an evolution, not a breakthrough.11,12 The DSM-IV criteria for schizophrenia were quite reliable and diagnoses made with these
criterion were stable over time, so only modest
changes were made in DSM-5.13 The five symptoms
of the A criterion, which are familiar to clinicians,
have been retained, but one of the two symptoms
needed to diagnose schizophrenia must be delusions,
hallucinations, or disorganized thinking and speech.
Schneiderian first-rank symptoms (i.e., bizarre delusions or auditory hallucinations, either conversing
among themselves or providing a running commentary) are no longer sufficient to qualify a person for a
diagnosis of schizophrenia. Research on these symp184

toms found that they had no prognostic relevance

and were not linked to a family history of schizophrenia; removing the Schneiderian symptoms from the
A criteria was estimated to affect fewer than 2 percent
of diagnoses.11 In another change based on recent
research, the negative symptoms have been limited to
two choices: diminished emotional expression or
avolition (Ref. 1, p 99). Negative symptoms are
often overlooked in criminal forensic evaluations,
which typically focus on the link between positive
symptoms of psychosis and behavior, but a lack of
volition may have important implications for deciding whether a defendant possessed mens rea at the
time of the alleged offense. In civil forensic evaluations, negative symptoms are well known as a primary cause of disability in schizophrenia.14
DSM-5 does not identify any subtypes of schizophrenia (e.g., paranoid or disorganized), due to the
frequent comorbidity among the DSM-IV subtypes
and their poor reliability, low stability, and limited
prognostic value.13 In contrast, the course specifiers
for schizophrenia in DSM-5 are almost completely
new. There are two main categories of course specifiers, first episode and multiple episodes, each of
which may be described as acute, in partial remission,
or in full remission; the specifier continuous is the
only holdover from DSM-IV (Ref. 1, pp 99 100).
These specifiers should allow clinicians to describe
accurately the present clinical status of a person with
schizophrenia. The specifiers are likely to see regular
use in correctional psychiatry, where ongoing treatment is the norm, and in civil forensic evaluations,
where the specifiers may be helpful in commitment
and disability evaluations. The course specifiers are
not as likely to be a factor in criminal evaluations of
competence or sanity.
The connection between a given mental disorder
and a risk of violence is not prominent in the psychosis and mood disorders sections of DSM-5. The closest DSM-5 comes to this topic is in the description of
associated features supporting diagnosis of schizophrenia, which includes the observation that hostility and aggression can be associated with schizophrenia, although spontaneous and random assault is
uncommon. Aggression is more frequent for younger
males and for individuals with a history of violence,
non-adherence with treatment, substance abuse and
impulsivity (Ref. 1, p 101). Beyond this statement,
DSM-5 has little to say about the risk of violence
associated with psychosis. The Cautionary State-

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Parker

ment for Forensic Use of DSM-5, which precedes

the sections of diagnostic criteria, does not mention
risk of violence.
Schizoaffective Disorder

Schizoaffective disorder was considered for removal from DSM-5, in favor of a dimensional approach to the diagnosis of the psychotic disorders.
This proposal was based on the low reliability of this
diagnosis compared with other psychotic disorders,
recent research that suggested that schizoaffective
disorder is intermediate between schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder and may not be a separate diagnostic
entity, and the limited clinical utility of a diagnosis
that practitioners make without adhering to criteria.15 However, because the available research findings are not yet compelling enough to justify a move
to a more neurodevelopmentally continuous model
of psychosis (Ref. 16, p 131), schizoaffective disorder was retained, with revised criteria. In particular,
the requirement for the presence of a mood episode
was strengthened, such that mood symptoms sufficient to meet criteria for a mood episode must be
present for at least half of the total duration of the
illness from the onset of the first psychosis to make
a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder (Ref. 15, pp
23 4). Schizoaffective disorder diagnosed with
DSM-IV criteria has been shown to be an unstable
diagnosis.17 Field trials of the DSM-5 criteria for
schizoaffective disorder showed good test-retest reliability when rigorously applied,18 so it is possible the
new criteria will also lead to a more stable diagnostic
entity.
The forensic implications of the changes in the
criteria for schizoaffective disorder in DSM-5 are not
clear. A proper diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder
requires that a person meet all of the criteria for
schizophrenia and all of the criteria for an episode of
bipolar disorder or depression, with the exception of
impaired function. DSM-5 estimates the prevalence
of schizoaffective disorder to be one-third that of
schizophrenia (Ref. 1, p 107), so it should be an
uncommon disorder. Although it is important to
make as accurate a diagnosis as possible to treat effectively, the alternatives to schizoaffective disorder
(i.e., schizophrenia with a mood component or a
mood disorder with psychosis), should also lead clinicians to treat with appropriate classes of medication. Otherwise, the forensic implications of the
changes to schizoaffective disorder should be modest;

the main concern will continue to be appropriate and

consistent use of the criteria.
Catatonia

In DSM-5, catatonia is recognized as a separate

clinical entity, though not as an independent disorder. It can be diagnosed whenever it is present, but
only in the context of a mental disorder, a medical
disorder, or an unspecified condition. If a person
meets 3 of the 12 criteria, the specifier with catatonia should be added to diagnoses of most of the
serious mental disorders in DSM-5 (Ref. 1, pp 119
120), to facilitate its appropriate recognition and
specific treatment.19 Catatonia was once considered
a common presentation of schizophrenia, but its reported prevalence in schizophrenia declined over the
course of the 20th century20,21; in recent research,
though, catatonia was found in up to 10 percent of
people with an acute psychiatric disorder, nearly half
of whom had a mood disorder and only a quarter of
whom had a psychotic disorder.22 Improved awareness of catatonia could have implications for forensic
practice. In the criminal realm, catatonia could certainly contribute to a finding of incompetence to
stand trial, but it is unlikely to be an element of an
insanity defense, as only one of the 12 symptoms,
agitation, might be a precursor to illegal activity. The
primary outcome of recognition of catatonia,
though, would be the impact on the person with
catatonia, as this condition can be treated
effectively.22
Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome and Shared
Psychotic Disorder

The Psychotic Disorders Work Group considered

adding attenuated psychosis syndrome as a new diagnosis to DSM-5, but instead decided to place it in
Section III as a condition for further study, after field
trial data showed that it was not diagnosed reliably by
clinicians.23 Attenuated psychosis syndrome is
meant to describe people who show recent onset of
modest, psychotic-like symptoms and clinically relevant distress and disability (Ref. 23, p 32). In addition, the person who experiences the symptoms must
recognize them as unusual and experience sufficient
distress or disability to seek clinical evaluation. Despite the clear guidance in the DSM-5 that conditions in Section III are not intended for clinical use,
this syndrome is not just in Section III, but is also
specifically identified in Other Specified Schizophrenic Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorder as

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one of four examples of alternative presentations of a

psychotic disorder; where it is labeled other psychotic disorder, attenuated psychosis syndrome
(Ref. 1, p 122).
The diagnosis of attenuated psychosis syndrome
may contribute to a finding of incompetence to stand
trial, as young adults are at highest risk for this disorder and are at highest risk for arrest, but it is unlikely to be the single reason for such a finding, given
the absence of overt psychosis. Attenuated psychosis
is also unlikely to be a precursor to an insanity verdict, as this syndrome is meant to identify people
with symptoms that are psychosis-like but below the
threshold for a full psychiatric disorder (Ref. 1, p
783). Attenuated psychosis may appear more frequently in civil forensic evaluations, in the context of
employment and disability assessments.
Shared psychotic disorder (folie a` deux), which was
present in DSM-IV as a separate disorder, exists in
DSM-5 only in the section on other specified schizophrenic spectrum and other psychotic disorders, as
delusional symptoms in partner of individual with
delusional disorder (Ref. 1, p 122). The presence of
shared psychotic disorder in DSM-5 will allow continued recognition of this disorder, which, although
rare, is occasionally seen in forensic cases, both criminal and civil.
Mood Disorders
The DSM-IV section on Mood Disorders has
been replaced in DSM-5 with separate sections for
the Bipolar Disorders and the Depressive Disorders.
The section on Bipolar Disorders is placed between
the Psychotic Disorders and the Depressive Disorders in DSM-5, in recognition of their place as a
bridge between the two diagnostic classes in terms of
symptomatology, family history and genetics (Ref.
1, p 123). Three new depressive disorders are included in DSM-5: disruptive mood dysregulation
disorder, persistent depressive disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder; the first of these will not be
discussed in this article but will be considered in the
review of Neurodevelopmental and Other Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence.24 The number
of bipolar disorders is unchanged; they consist of
bipolar I, bipolar II, and cyclothymic disorders, as
well as bipolar disorder due to medications, drugs, or
a medical condition. The criteria for episodes of mania, hypomania, and major depression are generally
unchanged from DSM-IV, with a few important ex186

ceptions, which are discussed below. Missing from

DSM-5 is the DSM-IV entity of mood disorder
NOS, which has been replaced with unspecified bipolar disorder and unspecified depressive disorder;
people who present with an unclear pattern will have
to be designated as one or the other.
Specifiers for Mood Disorders

DSM-5 includes multiple specifiers to describe

the Bipolar and Depressive Disorders (Ref. 1, pp
149 54, 184 8), as part of a mixed categoricaldimensional approach.25 The specifiers are meant
to define a more homogeneous subgrouping of individuals with the disorder who share certain characteristics . . . and to convey information that is relevant to the management of the individuals disorder
(Ref. 1, pp 212). The presence of new and more
detailed descriptive specifiers for the bipolar and depressive disorders may have some impact on forensic
psychiatry. The specifiers are intended to be used to
describe the course of a persons disorder and should
not affect the frequency of the underlying diagnosis,
but some specifiers may have implications for suicide
risk. In addition, these specifiers may be useful in
forensic contexts where a prediction of future course
may be helpful, such as sentencing, civil commitment, and child custody.
The specifier of with anxious distress (Ref. 1, p
149) is the only entirely new one. It was added to
account for the high prevalence of symptoms of anxiety in both manic and depressed states and because
a substantial body of research conducted over the
past two decades points to the importance of anxiety
as relevant to prognosis and treatment decision-making in bipolar and depressive disorders.26 The addition of this specifier should encourage the identification of anxiety in people who have a bipolar or
depressive disorder, which should lead to improved
management of suicide risk, as anxiety is a risk factor
for suicide.27 Conversely, a lack of recognition of
anxiety in the medical record or treatment plan could
have implications for malpractice liability in cases of
attempted or completed suicide.
The DSM-IV specifier of postpartum onset has
been replaced in DSM-5 by with peri-partum onset, which may be applied if the mood episode occurs during pregnancy or within four weeks of delivery. The explanatory note for this specifier makes it
clear that it was added to improve the recognition of
bipolar and depressive episodes during pregnancy, in

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Parker

order to prevent postpartum psychosis, which is often linked to a mood disorder and is a major risk
factor for infanticide (Ref. 1, pp 1523). The addition of peri-partum onset will thus have forensic implications, both for the management of bipolar and
depressive disorders in pregnancy and for the review
of cases of infanticide.
The DSM-IV entity of a mixed episode of bipolar
disorder has been replaced with the specifier with
mixed features (Ref. 1, p 149 50), which can be
applied to bipolar I, bipolar II, major depressive, and
persistent depressive disorders. Thus, a person with
hypomania or mania who shows some symptoms of
depression and a person with depression who shows
some symptoms consistent with hypomania or mania should be designated as with mixed features.
Although the mixed-features specifier will better account for the highly prevalent subsyndromal presentations (Ref. 28, p 30) of both manic and depressed
states, its addition does not solve the problems of the
overlap between unipolar and bipolar depression or
the gray zone of the boundary between bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.28 As a result, debate on the applicability of this specifier to a particular person could be vigorous. The DSM-5 criteria
for the specifier of mixed features have also been
criticized for including euphoria and excluding agitation and irritability, thus moving away from Kraepelins original concept of mixed depression as a
fairly common clinical entity.29 Overall, the impact
this specifier will have on forensic practice is unclear.
The specifier with seasonal pattern now includes
all mood episodes (mania, hypomania, and depression) in the introduction and the criteria, instead of
being limited, as in DSM-IV, only to episodes of
depression. However, the explanatory note makes it
clear that the essential feature is the onset and remission of major depressive episodes at characteristic
times of the year (Ref. 1, p 153), which retains the
intent of the DSM-IV criteria.
The criteria for the specifiers with melancholic
features and with atypical features are largely unchanged from DSM-IV, but a detailed note on the
use of each specifier has been added to the text for
each. The criteria for the specifier with psychotic
features are essentially unchanged and have no explanatory note. The criteria for with rapid cycling
are also unchanged, but a second explanatory note
was added to clarify that each of the four episodes

needed in one year to qualify for this diagnosis must

be marked by full remission or a switch of polarity.
Bipolar I Disorder

The Mood Disorders Work Group introduced the

criteria for the bipolar disorders by noting the bipolar I disorder criteria represent the modern understanding of the classic manic-depressive disorder
(Ref. 1, p 123). There are two changes in the criteria
for bipolar I disorder in DSM-5. First, a person with
mania must show elated or irritable mood or both
and increased energy or activity, which modestly
tightens the criteria for a manic episode. Second,
excessive involvement in activities no longer requires these activities to be pleasurable, just to have a
high potential for painful consequences (Ref. 1,
p.134), which can be seen as a modest loosening of
the criteria. The work group also clarified that mania
induced by treatment with antidepressant medication counts as a manic episode for the purpose of
diagnosing bipolar I disorder. The DSM-5 criteria
for bipolar disorder are unlikely to have a significant
impact on forensic psychiatry and are unlikely to
solve the debate over whether bipolar disorder is
overdiagnosed30 or underdiagnosed.31
The prevalence of self-reported bipolar disorder in
correctional populations is likely to remain high so
long as people who report mood swings are given a
prescription for a mood-stabilizing medication and a
diagnosis of some form of bipolar disorder by clinicians. If the DSM-5 criteria for the diagnosis of bipolar disorder are used appropriately, the frequency
of this phenomenon should decrease. However, even
though the DSM-IV diagnosis of bipolar disorder
NOS has been removed, DSM-5 has added other
specified bipolar and related disorders (Ref. 1,
p 148) and unspecified bipolar disorder (Ref. 1,
p 149), which are likely to be used to describe people
who report subjective mood instability that does not
meet criteria for bipolar I or bipolar II disorder. In
particular, the choices under other specified bipolar
and related disorder include four variant presentations, including one that is also listed in Section III
(depressive episodes with short-duration mania),
which could account for several bipolar presentations
that do not include a true manic or hypomanic episode. The report of a prior diagnosis of bipolar disorder in a forensic evaluation should prompt thorough, open-ended questioning of the persons

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DSM-5 and Psychotic and Mood Disorders

psychiatric history, searching for evidence of true

manic or hypomanic episodes.
Bipolar II Disorder

The DSM-5 diagnosis of bipolar II continues to

require at least one episode of current or past hypomania and at least one episode of current or past
major depression, with no history of an episode of
mania. There is a new focus in the criteria on the
functional impact of the symptoms of depression in
bipolar II, as the section on the diagnostic features
notes that this disorder often presents with major
depression and urges clinicians to ask for a history of
hypomania in people who are depressed (Ref. 1, p
135). In addition, because people who have bipolar
II disorder often experience repeated or prolonged
episodes of depression, DSM-5 makes a point of describing bipolar II disorder as not less severe than
bipolar I disorder. The observations made above regarding the prevalence of diagnoses of bipolar I disorder also apply to bipolar II disorder.
Cyclothymic Disorder

The diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder requires a

two-year history of many episodes of not-quite hypomania and not-quite major depression. DSM-IV
permitted this diagnosis to remain active if an episode of mania, hypomania, or major depression occurred after the first two years of subsyndromal
symptoms. The DSM-5 criteria hold that criteria
for a major depressive, manic or hypomanic episode
have never been met. In addition, the DSM-5 criteria clarify that hypomanic or depressive symptoms
must be present at least half of the time during the
required two-year period (Ref. 1, pp 139 40). These
changes in the criteria will further restrict the prevalence of this relatively rare disorder, but their impact
on forensic practice is likely to be minimal, as this
disorder is uncommon in criminal forensic evaluations and is not a major cause of disability.
Major Depressive Disorder

The primary criteria for the diagnosis of major

depression in DSM-5 are largely unchanged from
DSM-IV, with one potentially significant exception.
DSM-IV permitted a diagnosis of depression in a
bereaved person only if the symptoms had been present for more than two months or if they had caused
marked functional impairment. However, research
on bereavement and depression found little reason
188

for such a distinction. The Mood Disorders Work

Group therefore proposed that symptoms of depression in the context of bereavement or other significant loss would qualify for a diagnosis of major depression, which would have removed the normal
bereavement exception for depression found in
DSM-IV and present in the ICD.32 This proposal
was met with strong criticism by many clinicians and
the public, who felt that the new disorders inappropriately turned a normal psychological reaction to
loss into a form of psychopathology.
The Mood Disorders Work Group did not reinstate the bereavement exception, but instead added a
note to the depression criteria to explain that responses to a significant loss . . . may include the feelings of intense sadness, rumination about the loss,
insomnia, poor appetite, and weight loss noted in
Criterion A, which may resemble a depressive episode. Although such symptoms may be understandable or considered appropriate to the loss, the presence of a major depressive episode . . . should also be
carefully considered (Ref. 1, p 161). This change to
the criteria for major depression could have an impact on civil forensic psychiatric evaluations. If bereavement is no longer a barrier to a diagnosis of
depression, this diagnosis can be made in survivors of
wrongful or negligent deaths, which could increase
claims for damages.
A more subtle change in the criteria for depression
in DSM-5 can be found in the description of depressed mood, where a person who is depressed is
sad, empty or hopeless; in DSM-IV the phrase was
sad or empty. Thus, a feeling of hopelessness alone
is enough to meet the criterion for depressed mood,
which could increase the frequency of the diagnosis
of depression.32 Hopelessness has long been recognized as a risk factor for suicide,33,34 so the recognition of this symptom as characteristic of depression
should encourage clinicians to inquire about hopelessness and then to take it into account in their
suicide risk assessment.
A major concern for all clinicians who use the
DSM is the reliability of the disorders described in
the manual. Major depression does not fare well in
this regard; the inter-rater reliability of DSM-5 major depression showed a coefficient of 0.28, well
below the coefficients for the DSM-III35 (between
0.60 and 0.80) and DSM-IV (between 0.40 and
0.80) criteria.32

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Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

The diagnosis of persistent depressive disorder is

new to DSM-5 and is meant to combine the
DSM-IV disorders of dysthymia and chronic major
depression, defined as two or more years of continuous major depression. The decision to merge these
diagnostic concepts was based on research that suggested that chronic depression was prevalent in the
community and could be distinguished from nonchronic depression.36 The A, B, and C criteria for
persistent depressive disorder are unchanged from
the DSM-IV criteria for dysthymia, but the D criterion now reads criteria for a major depressive disorder may be continuously present for two years (Ref.
1, p 168). The relationship between persistent depressive disorder and major depression in DSM-5 is
somewhat confusing and leads to conflicting recommendations. For example, a person whose symptoms meet major depressive disorder criteria for two
years should be given a diagnosis of persistent depressive disorder as well as major depressive disorder
(Ref. 1, p 169), whereas for a person who meets
criteria for persistent depressive disorder, if the
symptom criteria are sufficient for a diagnosis of a
major depressive episode at any time during this period, then the diagnosis of major depression should
be noted, but it is not coded as a separate diagnosis
but rather as a specifier (Ref. 1, pp 170 1). The
proper diagnosis of a person with chronic depression
may thus become a fruitful area for cross-examination, given the multiple ways a person with chronic
symptoms of depression could be coded. The impact
of persistent depressive disorder in clinical practice
may be modest, outside of the possible confusion of
proper diagnosis, as people who have dysthymia or
chronic depression respond to similar treatment.
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder

This disorder was in Appendix B of DSM-IV (Ref.

37, pp 71518) but has been moved to the main text
in DSM-5. The research criteria laid out in DSM-IV
have been modified for DSM-5. This diagnosis is
based on the presence of specific symptoms in the
week before onset of menses followed by resolution
of the symptoms after onset. The symptoms must
include one or more of marked affective lability, irritability or anger, depressed mood or hopelessness,
and anxiety or tension, as well as one or more of an
additional seven symptoms, with a total of at least
five symptoms. The criteria specifically note that

Criterion A should be confirmed by prospective

daily ratings during at least two symptomatic cycles
(Ref. 1, p 172), which means it will be difficult to
make this diagnosis on the basis of a single evaluation; although two cycles of daily ratings are technically not required, it will be easy to challenge a diagnosis made without these data. The addition of
premenstrual dysphoric disorder to DSM-5 may
open up new avenues in civil forensic evaluations,
most likely in the area of disability evaluations, and
may make an appearance in criminal evaluations if
affective instability and anger due to this disorder
contribute to an individuals violent behavior.
Conclusion
Overall, because many of the changes in the criteria for these disorders are minor, the forensic implications of the DSM-5 criteria for the diagnoses of
psychotic and mood disorders appear to be modest,
with a few exceptions. Forensic clinicians should review the DSM-5 criteria for the mood and psychotic
disorders carefully and consider how the new criteria
may affect their evaluations and practice.
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