TRC Electromechanival Technology Series Mechanisms Linkages

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MECHANISMS

2391
'

LINKAGES

DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAIN VIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK

12205

fpl

DELMAR PUBLISHERS
Publishing, Inc.
Division of Litton Education

Copyright

1972

By Technical Education Research Centers,

Copyright
after

claimed until January

is

1,

1977.

portions of this work covered by

all

right will

be

in

Inc.

There-

this

copy-

the public domain.

All rights reserved.

No

the copyright hereon

part of this

work covered by

may be reproduced

any form or by any means

or used

in

graphic, electronic, or

recording, taping,
mechanical, including photocopying,

systems
or information storage and retrieval

without

Education Research
written permission of Technical
Centers.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

79 - 170790

PRINTED

IN

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Published simultaneously in Canada by


Delmar Publishers, a division of

Van Nostrand Reinhold,


The

Ltd.

was perproject presented or reported herein


of
Office
pursuant to a grant from the U.S.

formed

Department of Health, Education, and


The opinions expressed herein, however, do

Education,
Welfare.

of the

policy
not necessarily reflect the position or
official endorsement
no
and
Education,
of
Office
U.S.
be inferred.
by the U.S. Office of Education should

Foreword

The marriage of

electronics and'technology

New

technical personnel in today's industries.

with combination

skill

technical specialists.

many

devices of
optical
skills

is

new demands

for

occupations have emerged

who work with

many

systems and

mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, thermal, and

must be competent

also in electronics. This need for

who

especially significant for the youngster

in industrial

creating

requirements well beyond the capability of

Increasingly, technicians

kinds

is

is

combination

preparing for a career

technology.

This manual

is

one of

a series of closely related publications

designed

for students who want the broadest possible introduction to technical occupations. The most effective use of these manuals is as combination textbooklaboratory guides for a full-time, post-secondary school study program that

provides parallel and concurrent courses

in electronics,

mechanics, physics,

mathematics, technical writing, and electromechanical applications.

unique feature of the manuals

in this series is

technical laboratory study with mathematics

topic

is

the close correlation of

and physics concepts.

studied by use of practical examples using

modern

Each

industrial applica-

The reinforcement obtained from multiple applications of the concepts


has been shown to be extremely effective, especially for students with widely
diverse educational backgrounds. Experience has shown that typical junior
tions.

college or technical school students can

make

satisfactory progress in a well-

coordinated program using these manuals as the primary instructional material.

School administrators

manuals to support
programs

in

such fields

or quality assurance.

will

common
as:

be interested
first-year

in

the potential of these

core of studies for two-year

instrumentation, automation, mechanical design,

This form of technical core program has the advantage

of reducing instructional costs without the corresponding decrease in holding

power so frequently found

in general

core programs.

This manual, along with the others

in

the series,

is

the result of six years

of research and development by the Technical Education Research Centers,


Inc.,

(TERC),

quarters

in

a national

nonprofit, public service corporation with head-

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

It

has undergone a

number of

revisions

as a direct result of experience gained with students in technical schools

community

and

colleges throughout the country.

Maurice W. Roney

//'/'

The Electromechanical Series

TERC

is

engaged

cal Technology.

in

an on-going educational program

The following

titles

in

Electromechani-

have been developed for this program:

INTRODUCTORY
ELECTROMECHAN SMS/ MOTOR CONTROLS
I

ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/DEVICES
ELECTRONICS/AMPLIFIERS
ELECTRONICS/ELECTRICITY

MECHANISMS/DRIVES

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
UNIFIED PHYSICS/FLUIDS

UNIFIED PHYSICS/OPTICS

ADVANCED
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/ SERVOMECH AN ISMS
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/FABRICATION
ELECTROMECHAN ISMS/TRANSDUCERS
ELECTRONICS/COMMUNICATIONS
ELECTRONICS/DIGITAL

MECHANISMS/MACHINES

MECHANISMS/MATERIALS
For further information regarding the
its

EMT

program or for assistance

in

implementation, contact:
Technical Education Research Centers, Inc.

44

Brattle Street

Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

iv

Preface

The study of mechanisms is one of the oldest of the applied sciences.


The early Greeks and Romans used simple levers and linkages in a wide
variety of application;
said to have

and the American Industrial Revolution can truly be


been based on mechanical components. The advent of space

exploration has
nisms.

demanded a rebirth
we have thought

In the past

of interest

in

mechanics and mecha-

primarily of applications in the auto-

motive, machine tool, and watchmaking fields. Today, it is more common


to think of aerospace, defense weaponry, computer and precision
instrument
applications.

These changes

new demands upon


This material

in

emphasis have created subtle but important

training programs in mechanisms.

is

an

introductory treatment of modern

Linkages, combining the elements of


practicality.

figurations,

for use

Mechanical
mechanical theory with those of

The topics treated include: various levers and four-bar conand some selected special topics. The materials are intended

by technology students who have had

to practical applied mechanics.

cover the material

in

or no previous exposure
Consequently, no attempt has been made to
little

the fine detail that would be appropriate for the ex-

perienced specialist

in mechanical linkages.
An attempt has been made to
expose the student to the practical skills of mechanical assembly and to the

principles of operation of a variety of mechanisms.

The sequence of presentation chosen is by no means inflexible. It


expected that individual instructors may choose to use the materials
other than the given sequence.

The

particular topics chosen for inclusion in this

primarily for convenience and

economy

of materials.

volume were

Some

is

in

selected

instructors

may

wish to omit some of the exercises or to supplement some of them to better

meet

their local needs.

The

many

materials are presented in an action-oriented format combining

of the features normally found

in a

textbook with those usually asso-

ciated with a laboratory manual. Each experiment contains:

1.

An INTRODUCTION which
and often includes

2.

identifies the topic to

a rationale for

A DISCUSSION

be examined

doing the exercise.

which presents the background, theory, or techniques needed to carry out the exercise.
v

A MATERIALS

3.

list

which

laboratory experiment.

identifies

all

of the items needed

in

the

(Items usually supplied by the student

such as pencil and paper are not included

in

the

lists.)

which presents step-by-step instructions for perare


forming the experiment. In most instances the measurements

A PROCEDURE

4.

done before calculations so that all of the students can at least


period ends.
finish making the measurements before the laboratory
5.

An ANALYSIS GUIDE which

offers suggestions as to

student might approach interpretation of the data


conclusions from
6.

in

how

the

order to draw

it.

reinare included for the purpose of reviewing and

PROBLEMS

problems may be
forcing the points covered in the exercise. The
about the
of the numerical solution type or simply questions
exercise.

perform the
Students should be encouraged to study the text material,
technical report on
experiment, work the review problems, and submit a
acquire an understanding
each topic. Following this pattern, the student can
valuable on the job.
and skill with, modern mechanisms that will be very
of,

For best
in

results, these students

should be concurrently enrolled

in a

course

technical mathematics (introductory calculus).

of a series of
This material on Mechanical Linkages comprises one
at Oklahoma
volumes prepared for technical students by the TERC EMT staff

R.W. Tinnell. The


State University, under the direction of D.S. Phillips and
R.W. Tinnell,
principal authors of this material were L.P. Robertson,
T.G. Watts, and D.A. Yeager.

An

Instructor's

Data Book

is

available for use with this volume.

Mr.

the inCook was responsible for testing the materials and compiling
made
staff
Other members of the TERC
structor's data book for them.
Harlan

valuable contributions in the


It

is

sincerely

form or

hoped that

this

criticisms, corrections

volume

and suggestions.

as well as the other

volumes

in

supplementary materials
the series, the instructor's data books, and the other
for both
the study of technology interesting and rewarding
will

make

students and teachers.

THE TERC EMT STAFF

TO THE STUDENT
provided
Duplicate data sheets for each experiment are

in

the back of

and completed while performthe book. These are perforated to be removed


submitted with the experiment
ing each experiment. They may then be
analysis for

your instructor's examination.


vi

Contents

experiment

CLASS-ONE LEVERS

experiment

COMPOUND LEVERS

experiment

CLASS-TWO LEVERS

13

experiment

CLASS-THREE LEVERS

20

experiment

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

experiment

COMBINED MECHANISMS

34

experiment

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

40

experiment

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

50

experiment

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

59

experiment 10

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

66

experiment 11

FOUR-BAR SUMMARY

73

experiments

FOUR-BAR PROBLEM

80

experiment 13

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

85

experiments

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

experiment 15

TRANSLATIONAL CAMS

103

experiment 16

DISK CAMS

110

experiments

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

119

experiment 18

MULTIPLE CAM TIMING

130

experiment 19

HARMONIC DRIVES

140

experiment 20

INTRODUCTION TO THE GENEVA MECHANISM

145

experiment 21

LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

150

vii

27

94

experiment 22

SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM

experiment23

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

experiment 24

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

167

experiment 25

COMPUTING MECHANISMS

171

experiment26

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

178

experiment 27

RATCHET MECHANISMS

187

experiment 28

FRICTION RATCHETS

194

experiment 29

TOGGLE LINKAGES

199

experiment 30

TOGGLE LATCHING

206

WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION

211

Appendix

Appendix B

154

(TRIG)

EXPERIMENT DATA SHEETS

viii

II

160

Back of Book

S
expenment

CLASS-ONE LEVERS

INTRODUCTION. Machines and mechanisms


03

^"

Sh

^ ^S^^^^

often appear to be quite comolicatPH- hn

* *

f
e^erntT^n
elements
h elements
One of the
found in most machines is the
exam.ne the most basic of the machine
elements - the class-one

DISCUSSION. Complex machines are only


combinations of two or more simple
machine
elements. Many persons classify the
basic machine elements as being the lever,
the pulley,
the wheel and axle, the inclined
plane, the
screw, and the gear.
However, most scientists

and engineers recognize that there


are

only two basic principles

in

machines: name-

the lever and the inclined plane.


The wheel
and axle, the pulley, and gears may
be conly

sidered

levers.
The wedge and the screw use
the principle of the inclined
plane.
By be-

coming familiar with the principles of


these
simple machines, you can more
easily understand the operation of complex
machinery.
Machines have many purposes.

lever.

In this

exDerimeri w
exper,ment
we

Machines may also be used to multiply


speed. A good example of
this is the bicycle;

we

gain speed

by exerting

a greater force.

Finally,

machines are used to change the


For example, a flag is
raised to the top of a
flagpole by exerting a

direction of a force.

downward

force on the hoisting rope


which
causes an upward force on the
attached flag.

Probably the simplest and most


often
used type of machine is the
lever.
A lever
consists of a rigid bar that

about
bar

a bearing

may be

known

is

free to rotate

as the fulcrum.

either straight or curved.

They

be used to transform energy. For


example, a generator transforms
mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Or, machines
may be used to transfer energy from one
place
to another. For example, the
connecting rods,
crankshaft, drive shaft, and rear
axle

cation.
1-1

has

The

class-one lever

the

fulcrum

shown

resistance.
A seesaw or a crowbar are good
examples of the class-one lever.
Other examples with which you may be familiar

energy from the automobile


engine to the

are

rear wheels.

Another use of machines

is to multiply
can use a system of pulleys to raise
a large weight with a
much smaller force

We

ex-

But we must exert

this force

over a

greater distance than the height


through which

the weight

raised:
thus, the load moves
more slowly than the pulley chain on
which

we

pull.

in figure

located

between the
effort or force application
and the weight or

transfer

erted.

The

Levers

have been grouped into three


different classes,
depending upon the location of the
fulcrum
with respect to the weight and
effort appli-

may

force.

w "'

lever.

is

machine

lets

FULCRUM

us gain force, but

only at the expense of speed or


distance.

Fig. 1-1

Class-One Lever

EXPERIMENT

and

shears, pliers,

many problems

oars.

in

is

the

is

force about

is

the lever
is

This distance

the force.

line of action of

In this

For example,

moment.

the center of

is

moment can
The moment of force

in

figure 1-1, the center of

be the

fulcrum point.

caused

example, 80 pounds

of a machine

pound-feet.

To have equilibrium
moments about the center

(or

balance), the

of

moment must
ics is

ratio

X8 2 =F 1

assume that a force of


applied as indicated by F-j and

illustrate this fact,

80 pounds

is

that distance
foot,

how much

balance?

S^i

Using the

feet.

MA = y2

240
qq

ratio in

the velocity or displacement


is

3.

mechan-

ratio.

This

defined as the distance through which

for the input distance and S 2 for the out-

put distance,

distance C 2 is 1
weight would we be able to

is

(1.2)

the input force moves divided by the distance


through which the output force moves. Using

(1.1)

our example,

Another frequently used

in figure 1-1,

be equal. In other words,

To

defined as the ratio of the out-

In

F2

is

MA =t*
F

in

balance 240

put force to the input force.

by the weight about the fulcrum would be


equal to F 2 X C 2 Assuming that F 2 is measured in pounds and C 2 is measured in feet,
the units would be

will

pounds. In this case we have a positive mechanical advantage in that our effort has been
magnified 3 times. The mechanical advantage

of the force and the fixed point

arm

80_X_3 =
240 bs
F2 =

the product of the force and the


perpendicular distance from that point to the
a point

moment

well illustrated in the

The moment of

class-one lever.

Solving for F

factor involved in

mechanics

This factor

of force.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS-ONE LEVERS

If

moment

equation

Velocity (Displacement) ratio =

and

g-

(1.3)

inserting the given values gives:

Fo X

= 80

lb

X 3

In figure

ft

1-2, the lever rotates

Fig.

1-2

Class-One Lever Velocity Ratio


2

about the

ful-

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

crum and moves the weight, F2, a distance,


At the same time, the input force, Fi, is
moving through the distance S-j. From similar triangles,

it

arm, you would expect 4 times that force to


be exerted by the other arm.

would be increased to 200

To
S2

1 sin

Since the friction

is

'

(1.4)

quite small,

tion

distance

it

can be neg-

levers

to the direction

Look

However,

at figure 1-3

in
all

we have

con-

the fulcrum.

the input will equal the work at the output;

pump

is.

paral-

which the force was


levers are not straight.

and you may wonder how

to measure the length of the

direction of the force) at

in

this point, the

which the weight acts has been

in

exerted.

The work performed

lected for this discussion.

that

lbs.

sidered have had straight arms, and the direc-

lel

Your 50

lbs.

can be seen that

S-|

(force

CLASS-ONE L E VERS

two arms about

This figure represents a curved

You do not measure around

handle.

the curve you use the straight-line distance.

To determine

F2 X S2 _ F 1 X Si
This equation

is

draw

straight

line

representing force

F.|

through the point where the force, F


1

equal to:

is

applied and
applied.

the length of the effort arm,

line

in the direction in which it is


Then, from the fulcrum, draw a

perpendicular to this force

length of this perpendicular,

is

line.

The

the length

of the effort arm.


short,

In

lever

are

(S1/S2)

is

(F2/F1).
effort (F-j

whatever

and the weight of the

friction

if

neglected,

the displacement

ratio

equal to the mechanical advantage


practice,

In
in

our

it

takes a

may

friction

be

in

more
overcome

little

illustrations) to

the

system.

Therefore, the actual mechanical advantage

always somewhat
displacement

=F

1.1,

it

can be seen that

This indicates that the effort

expended by force
increased by an

is

F-|

will

be magnified or

amount equal

divided by length C

advantage

than the velocity or

less

ratio.

From equation
F2

is

That

is,

to length

C-j

the mechanical

2
equal to the effort

arm divided

by the resistance arm. For example, a classone lever having 8 inches on one side of the
fulcrum and 2 inches on the other would
possess a mechanical advantage of 8/2 or 4.
If

you applied 50

lbs.

Fig. 1-3

of force to the 8-inch

Class-One Lever

Curved Lever Arm

EXPERIMENT
To

find the length of the resistance arm,

the same method

is

Draw

used.

direction the resistance, F 2

line.

a perpendicular

The perpendicular

the fulcrum to this

line, 8

a line in the

operating and

is

from the fulcrum construct


to this

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS-ONE L E VERS

is

how

class-one lever has the effort and

the resistance on opposite sides of the ful-

The

moment

and the

crum.

the !ength of

sistance or opposition (force output)

the curvature of a

formed, this method

lengths of the

or speed

The

apply.

effort (force applied)

The

opposite directions.

Regardless of
is

direction,

will

find the

arms. Then, the same

size,

of the force that you

distance from

the resistance arm.

lever

They can change the

do work.

help

force

is

re-

move

in

magnified,

but with a corresponding decrease in speed or


distance. It was seen that the mechanical adequaled the ratio of resistance to

vantage
effort.

This ratio

moment

also equal to the

is

arm)

when

Further,

solutions described for straight-arm levers can

arm

be used.

noring friction and the weight of the lever

(or lever

the velocity or displacement

arm,
In

summary,

are

levers

machines that

ratio.

ig-

ratio

is

equal to the mechanical advantage.

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2


1
Shaft, 4" x 1/4"

in.)

2 Collars

with bearings

in.

Dial caliper (0-

2 Spring balances

Lever arm, 2

Lever arm,

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

2 Spring balance posts with clamps

PROCEDURE
Inspect each of your

2.

Mount

3.

Move both

components to be sure they

1.

arm
4.

5.

is

the components on the breadboard as

are

shown

undamaged.
in figure 1-4.

spring balance posts until the lower balance reads about 10 oz

vertical.

Record the readings of both spring balances

(F-|

and the

lever

and F 2 ).

measure and record the distances from the center of the shaft to
the point where each spring balance attaches to the lever arm (E-| and C 2 ).
Using the

dial caliper,

Manually twist the

lever

arm

the spring balance readings.

slightly

Make

away from the

vertical,

and observe the changes

in

notes as to the nature and size of the changes.

the upper spring balance closer to the fulcrum and repeat steps 3 and 4.

6.

Move

7.

Again move the upper spring balance closer to the fulcrum and repeat steps 3 and

8.

Keep repeating the above process

until the

fulcrum.

upper spring balance

is

4.

quite close to the

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

CLASS-ONE LEVERS

SPRING BALANCES
-SPRING BALANCE

POST

3
The

Fig. 1-4

9.

Move

Now move
you

1 1

12.

13.

still

Then repeat

its

steps 3 through 8.

the longer lever arm to the other end of the shaft.

Set up the lever so that


have a class-one lever but the arms are at opposite ends of the shaft.

Repeat steps 3 through


For each
(M-j

Setup

the lower spring balance closer to the fulcrum and return the upper one to

original position.

10.

Initial

set of data,

9.

compute and record the moment of upper and lower

lever

arms

and M2).

Compute

the percent difference between

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In

in

and

M2

for each case.

your own words explain the action of the class-one

ratio of the lever-arm distances

served relative changes

with the ratio of the forces for each case.

force observed

when

Explain any large percent differences

in

the lever arm was

M2

Were the results when the lever arms were separated the same
why you think this is reasonable.
5

Compare

Comment on

moved away from the

the values of M^j and

Explain

lever.

the

the ob-

vertical.

for each case.

as

when they were

together?

EXPERIMENT

CLASS-ONE LEVERS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

%
r

Mi

Fo
2
1

Fig. 1-5

M2

So
2

M1

Si

Fig. 1-6

Data for Coplanar Arms

%
1=1

Diff.

in

M2

s2

Diff.

in

Data for Noncoplanar Arms

PROBLEMS
1.

crowbar

push at

(figure 1-7) has a solid support at P; a load F 2

F-|.

If

force

F.|

is

100

lbs,

what load can be

shown?
6

is

to be lifted

lifted for

by

man's

the dimensions

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

CLASS-ONE L E VERS

hFig. 1-7

2.

bar

is

Lever for Problem

placed under a two-ton stone with a fulcrum 16 inches from the point of
How long will the rest of the lever be in order to raise the stone with

application.

a 150-lbpull?
3.

4.

It is desired to transmit motion by means of


75 mm from the fulcrum and moves 4 cm.
where would the output be attached?

typewriter type bar

the other side.


in

0.1 second.

is

in.

a class-one lever.
If

The

driver

is

the output motion desired

attached

is

1.5

cm,

long on one side of the fulcrum and has 1/2 in. on


linkage causes the 1/2-in. arm to move 90 degrees

The typewriter

Compute

the linear velocity of the type on the end of the 8-in.

lever arm.

experiment

INTRODUCTION.
with a rigid linkage.

one

many

practical cases

In this

experiment we

In

it

desirable to connect

is

shall

examine

two or more simple

levers

example of compound

a simple

class-

levers.

DISCUSSION. One

that

of the action.

Figure 2-1 shows a simple

it

with the load and effort.

often called the mechanical ad-

is

vantage (MA) of the

reverses the direction

is

lever

This ratio

of the characteristics of a

class-one lever

one

COMPOUND LEVERS

With a

moments-

on the effort and load

side of
In

to be

= F fi
1 1

(2.1)

the lever are

M1

other words,

MA = -^=tt-

load.

lever of this type, the

of-force acting

In

Any down-

of the effort will result in an up-

ward motion
ward motion of the

lever.

class-

some cases we want the load motion


the same direction as the effort mo-

We

tion.

M 2 =F 2 2

and

in

two

can produce this result by using

class-one levers as

shown

in

figure 2-2.

Notice that the two levers are connected by


a

respectively.

When

two moments

the

the lever

is in

That

are equal.

equilibrium,

rigid

left

is,

link.

end of the

ward,

then

the effort force causes the

If

lever

the

system to move down-

load

end

is

also

moved

downward.

M-|=M 2

or

2
1

= F 2 22

on the link can be


determined using equation 2.1 and the left-

The force

we solve this
F i we have

If

hand

relation for the ratio of F 2 to

lever

when

pendicular to

F2

(f)

fi

acting

the connecting link

f=F

FULCRUM

EFFORT

Fig. 2-1

Class-One Lever

1^

is

per-

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 2

COMPOUND LEVERS

F2

LOAD

EFFORT

2-2

Fig.

we could

Or,
in

A Compound Class- One

use the righthand lever and F


2
link force is

Lever

*1

= -! = -!
S2
F
2
2
1

VR

which case the

(2.4)

fi

when
= F

and the weight of the arms are


Comparing this relationship to

friction

neglected.

2*f

equation 2.3,

we

see that

Equating these two equations for the link


force gives us

VR T
<1

= (VR 1 )(VR

(2.5)

will give us the velocity ratio


of a

compound

lever system.

Then, solving for the ratio F /F


1(
2

we

have

It is

the

worth mentioning at

work done

at the load

this point that

end of

a lever

is

Fo

W2 =

(2.2)

Notice that t^/i

(MA^
ical

of the

advantage

F /F
2

is
1

is

first lever, je'j/j^ is

(MA 2

compound

force F

the mechan-

is

system.

(MA T

If

we

As you

(MA 1 )(MA 2

will recall,
is

the direction of the

define lever efficiency as

individual mechanical advantages:

of a class-one lever

in

At the input the work done

of

Consequently,

we see that the mechanical advantage of


a
compound lever system is the product of the

MA T =

measured

of the second lever, and

the mechanical advantage

the whole

where S
2

the mechanical advantage

F S
2

eff

then

(2.3)

W9
Txr

we have
F S

the velocity ratio (VR)

eff =

given by

2 2

F lSl

is

Comparing

this

we can

see that

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPOUND LEVERS

EXPERIMENT 2

we

equation to 2.2 and 2.5,

In

most

lever

express efficiency as

it is

_MA

eff

-VR

cases the efficiency of a

practical

system

so near unity that measuring

is

quite difficult.

(2.6)

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers


2 Bearing holders with bearings

2 Lever arms, 2

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

2 Lever arms,

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"

If the straight link

is

Dial caliper (0

not available

can be fabricated as shown

it

long

in.

2 Spring balances

with bearings

in.

*1 Straight link, 6

2 Spring balance posts and clamps


2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2

Collar

in

in.)

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect each of your

components to be

sure they are undamaged.

should be at the

last

hole

in eact

2.

2-3. The link


Assemble the mechanism shown in figure
to the breadboard.
lever arm and it should be parallel

the input fore


they are parallel to the breadboard and
Adjust the spring balances so that
to the breadboard.
lever arms should be perpendicular
is about 4 oz. All of the

4.

Record the input force F

5.

of each
Measure and record the effective length

6.

Compute

the force

7.

Compute

the

8.

Compute the mechanical advantage

9.

Record the product

10.

Compute the

1 1

Compute

12.

Move

(f)

moment

total

and the output force F 2

lever

arm

(8

8 2 , C'v

and

' ).

acting in the link.

(M
of force acting on each lever arm

(MA 1 )(MA 2

v M 2 M'v

of each class-one lever (MA-| and

of the

and

MA 2

M2

).

).

two mechanical advantages.

mechanical advantage using

MA T =

F' /F-|.

results of steps 9 and 10.


the percent difference between the

the input spring balance

down

repeat steps
to the hole nearest the fulcrum and

through 11.

10

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPOUND LEVER

EXPERIMENT 2
1"

LEVER POINTING UP

OUTPUT FORCE

COLLAR
1"

LEVER

DOWN

POINTING

3S~

LINK

\<D\

LEVER

2"

\<b\

POINTING

DOWN

INPUT FORCE

\<b\
2"

LEVER

POINTING UP-

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In

2-3

Vo

The Experimental Mechanism

analyzing your results you

should consider the following point

1.

Did

2.

Did your values of total mechanical advantage agree?

3.

When would

4.

What do you think caused the

all

of the values for moment-of-force agree in each trial?

compound

lever be

more

suitable than a single class-one lever?

errors in this experiment?

11

EXPERIMENT 2

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPOUND LEVERS

Qtv

First

Second

Trial

Trial

Fl
F2
*1

*2
1

M1
M2
Mi
M'2
MA-,

MA 2
(MA-|

MMA2)

Diff.

Fig.

The Data Table

2-4

PROBLEMS

A compound

The
is

2.
3.

lever

arm lengths

are:

type shown
i

1.2

ft,

in figure

4
2 =

2-2,has an input force of 125 oz.

in - 1

= 3 5
11 in - and 2
'

What
"

the output force?

What
If

lever of the

is

the link force

the input

fast

in

in

problem

problem 1?
1

moves

ft/sec,
a short distance with a velocity of 1.8

does the link move?

4.

How fast

5.

What

is

does the output move

in

problem 3?

the total mechanical advantage

in

12

problem 1?

how

experiment

INTRODUCTION. A

second-class lever has the pivot point or fulcrum at one

applied at the other end.

periment

we

CLASS- TWO LE VERS

The

resistance

is

somewhere between these two

shall investigate the characteristics of this

DISCUSSION.

If

the weight or resistance

type of

is

In this ex-

lever.

the fulcrum

is

end-the force

points.

is

the center of

moment, then

placed between the fulcrum and the force as

shown

in figure 3-1,

the result

known

is

F2

as a

X 2 =F Xe
l

(3.1)

class-two lever.

The mechanical advantage, F2/F1, equals the

good example of

The wheel

the wheelbarrow.

crum, the load


lifting

is

a class-two lever
will

be the

in

figure 3-1.

If

would

F2

'

give

[50

farther

lb

lbs

x 4/1].

If

It

should

other end of the lever.

F-|)

For

power of 200 lbs at


the weight were placed

back from the wheel, would

arms, H^ffy

foot,

on the handles (force

lifting

moment

be noted that the length, 8j, is the entire


length of the lever since the fulcrum is at the

distance

] equals 4 feet and distance #2 equals

50

ratio of the

ful-

represented by F2, and the

force by F1

applying

is

it

a class-one

lever,

the direction of

motion of the output force was opposite to


the direction

be

of the input force when

moved down, F2 moved

easier or harder to lift?

up.

look at

F-j

fig-

ure 3-1 shows that for the class-two lever, the


in the same direction; when
moves up (counterclockwise), F2 moves

motions are

Again referring to figure 3-1 and applying the principle of

moments, we

see that

Fig.

3-1

if

Class-

13

Two Lever

F-j

up.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS-TWO LEVERS

EXPERIMENTS

o
1

._ 1

"1

"

FULCRUM

Fig.

3-2

Class-

Two Lever -

to the relative distances moved


to figure
the second class lever? Referring
outcan be seen that the force of the

What happens
in

3-2,

it

input force, F v
put, F 2 , is greater than the
by a factor equal to the lever-arm ratio, 9.^19.^,
Graphically,

4/1 or 4.

in this case,

seen that force

F-j will

it

can be

move more than

force

posithe lever moves from its initial


3-2.
figure
in
tion to the dashed-line position

F2

when

downward must be balanced


lbs
by upward forces. Assume that F 2 is 200
150
other
the
is
is 50 lbs. Where
and that
rium, the forces

must be acting upward along with F-|?


fulcrum point must
If you answered that the
This
be supporting 150 lbs, you are correct.

lbs that

force-not one of the applied forces-is called


mechanically
a reaction and would have to be
capable of holding that

work (force x distance)


equal the Work output. That is,

Ignoring friction, the

input will

F2

F-,

is

4 times S 2

1/4 F 2
this equality
,

if

must be equal to
is

to be maintained.

relationof application. Figure 3-3 shows this


lbs at 45,
ship. In other words, applying 50
shown, is equivalent to applying simultane-

Ft
sum

as

the
basic law of mechanics states that

of forces acting on a

or direction equals zero

if

felt in

equals
of force felt in the vertical direction
angle
the applied force times the sine of the

in
Again note that the direction of the motion
for
and
F
the class-two lever is the same for 2

weight.

the horizontal direction? With the


application of a force at an angle, the amount

be
Since

much

What if Fi were to be applied at an angle


horizontal lever?
of, say, 45 degrees to the
Would the full 50 lbs of F-\ be felt in the verWould the full 50 lbs of F<\
tical direction?

X S 2 = Ft X S y
then

Relative Motions

and
ously 35.35 lbs horizontally to the right
45
45
=
cos
sin
35.35 lbs vertically because

body in any plane


the body is in equi-

= .707.

Another way of saying this is that


must equal the
the forces acting downward
forces acting to
forces acting upward, or, the
librium.

applied to the second-class lever,


figure 3-3, that applying a
it can be seen in
applying a
force at an angle is the same as
the end of the
lesser force (F, X sin 0) at

When

acting to the
the right must equal the forces
are
Referring to figure 3-2, two forces
left.

shown
as

(F 2

Fi and

and F^.
is

acting

F2

is

four times as large

downward.

lever arm.

For equilib-

14

EXPERIMENT 3

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS- TWO L E VERS

(50)

F-j

SIN 0
(35.35)

COS0
(35.35)

(200)

3-3

Fig.

Force Applied at an Angle


accuracy of the above using this technique.

What happens to the reactive force at


the fulcrum when F-j is applied at an angle?
Remember that when force F-| was applied
was a
There will

at right angles, there

acted upward.

reactive force, but

X cos

angle

0) caused

still

be an upward

pushed to the

disful-

crum point]

there must be a force

by

F-j

Scales often use combinations of lever

component

arrangements similar to the

operating at an

system shown

would be

there were not, the lever

(if

arm of the 50-lb pull is the perpendicular


tance of the 50 lbs line of action to the

reactive force that

balance the horizontal

that will

(Fi

now

The effective lever-arm or moment-

[Note:

compound

in figure 3-4.

With the dimensions shown

left in figure 3-3).

lever

in

the figure

what must the value of F-| be to balance


the system? First, what is the value of f for
the lower lever? The lever-arm ratio is 1/6
[remember that the fulcrum is 6 ft from fr

3-4,

what weight, F2, can be


(balanced) by a pull, F-j, of 50 lbs at an

In
lifted

figure 3-3,

angle of 45,
at

45

lbs.

arm

is

if

the lever-arm ratio

is

4:1?

F-|

not 5

equivalent to a vertical pull of 35.35

50

Multiplying this 35.35 lbs by the leverratio gives a

technique
distance."

is

weight of 141.4

lbs.

Another

is

Fig.

3-4

Class-

The

1/7.

7.14

Be sure that you can check the

This

lbs.

lever.

to use the "effective lever-arm

So,

ft).

will

lbs.

equal 1/6

X 300

lbs or

be the load on the upper

lever-arm ratio of the upper lever

Therefore,

will

Another solution

Two Compound
15

f will

Levers

be 1/7 X 50 lbs or
is

to

first

compute

CLASS- TWO

EXPERIMENT 3

This

1/42 (1/6

an overall

gives

F-j

ratio

complishes 30

is

= 7.14

lbs 0.1

upward

in.

ac-

of work; therefore,

in. -lbs

f,

is 50 lbs, must accomplish at least this


work
much
[50 X S = 30 in.-lb; S = 0.6 in.]

which

of

Multiply the 1/42 by 300

1/7).

lbs and, again,

lever

Moving 300

motion?

lever

has a 1/6 ratio; then the upper lever ratio


1/7.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LEVERS

The lower

the overall lever-arm ratio.

You may note

lbs.

arm

lever

that

motions

is,

then,

Now, let's look at the relative


compound lever system. Assume that
you wish the 300-lb weight to move 0.1 in.
How far must F-j move to accomplish this

6 to

move

the same as the


ratio;

rather than

must,

to 6.

7 times S, or 4.2

the motion ratio

42 to

is

F-j

Since the

in.

system ratio was 1/42 for force, then

overall

in this

that this

but inverse to the force

ratio,

is

the inverse of 1/42, or

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Lever arms, 2

in.

long with 1/4

2 Bearing holders with bearings

2 Lever arms,

in.

long with hubs

2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2

2 Spring balance posts with clamps

*1

2 Spring balances
For

link construction details see

bore hub

2 Collars

with bearings

in.

in.

Dial caliper (0

Straight link, 6

in.)

in.

long

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1

components to be sure they

Inspect each of your

2.

Mount

the bearing plates and shaft hangers as

3.

Mount

-in.

lever

and

a 2-in. lever,

are

shown

undamaged.
in figure 3-5.

both pointing downward from

a shaft

through the

bearing plates.
4.

Similarly

5.

Install

mount two

6.

a shaft

through the hangers.

The bearing

plate levers should both point

downward and both hanger

should point upward.

Adjust the bearing plate location and shaft height so that


is

7.

on

the 6-in. link between the small lever on the hanger shaft and the long lever on the

bearing plate shaft.


levers

levers

all

fevers are vertical

and

the link

horizontal.

Install

the spring balances so that one

The other

is

between the long hanger

is

between the small bearing plate

lever

and

lever

and

a post.

a post.

the end holes of the levers.

8.

Adjust the spring balances so that they are

9.

Set the input force for about 4 oz. being sure that the spring balances are horizontal

10.

in

Record both forces,

F-|

and F2.

16

EXPERIMENT 3

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

OUTPUT FORCE

CLASS- TWO L E VERS

F2
)

8j

1"

DOWNWARD

LEVER UPWARD
6"

Tj

LINK

2"

LEVER

DOWNWARD

2"

LEVER

UPWARD
INPUT FORCE

V
1
'

Fig.

11.

is

shown

Compute

lever, 9.^,

$.'2,

Z\ and

in figure 3-5.

the force

(f)

'

The Experimental Setup

Measure and record the length of each


length

12.

3-5

acting in the link using

17

F-j,

Hi, and C^-

(The identity of each

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS- TWO L E VERS

EXPERIMENT 3

13.

Compute the

14.

Compute

15.

Move

and e V

force (f) in the link using F 2 ,

the percent difference between

down

the input spring balance

and f.

to the next hole

in

the input lever and repeat steps 9

through 14. Record data.


16.

Again move the input spring balance


through 14. Record data.

down

to the next hole

in

the lever and repeat steps 9

%
Qty.

F2

Fl

Diff.

First

Trial

Second
Trial

Third
Trial

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw


this experiment.

Compute

3-6

The Data Table

class-two levers illustrated during


a simplified sketch of each of the
distances and compare this
the lever-arm ratio from the measured

obtained from the three


Explain the difference in the force readings
aspects of class-two levers.
In your own words discuss other

ratio with the force ratio.

different

trials.

PROBLEMS
1

Assume

feet and an effective weight


that a sign hinged to a wall has a length of 12
is necessary to
the wall. What upward force, F

of 100 pounds

when 3

feet

from

support the sign? (See figure 3-7.)

-9%

I W= 1001b
Fig.

3-7

Diagram of Problem
18

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

In the

2.

tion,

EXPERIMENT 3

same problem, assume that there

and that

is

no place to support

CLASS-TWO LEVERS

F-j

in a vertical posi-

attached to that end of the sign and brought over to the


building making an angle of 30 with the horizontal. How much force will the cable
a cable

is

be required to support?

[Note:

You

already

know

the vertical

component from

problem one.]
3.

safety valve on a boiler (figure 3-8) has a 2-inch diameter and a steam pressure of

200

lb/in

2
.

If

the lever arm

pivot point, what

is

Fig.

4.

15 inches long and the valve

W that

3-8

is

is

3 inches from the

required?

Valve in Problem

problem was solved which used the "equivalent vertical pull" of


Draw a sketch showing that 50 lb times the "effective lever arm dis-

In the discussion, a

a 50-lb force.

tance" gives identical

problem

In

6.

Using a class-two

3,

if

results.

the safety valve moves 1/32

5.

for example,
a

work device

if
is

the error
0.1 in.

in.,

how

far

does the weight move?

where would you place the output on a 6-inch lever to


in. if the input motion is 0.4 in?
This may be necessary,

lever,

achieve a motion of 0.1

7.

is

the value of

in

the input motion

Draw

is

0.4

in.

and your allowable error

in

a sketch of this lever arrangement.

Discuss the similarities and the differences between class-one and class-two levers.

Give three practical examples of each type.

19

experiment

INTRODUCTION. A

le

and the

"

on the same

is

side

that both the res. itvery similar to a class-two lever .n


effort or input force o
of the fulcrum. However, the

expenmen
the load or output force. In th.s
of load pos.t.ons w.ll
this type lever. Also, combinations
investigate the characteristics of

he c ass-three ever

we

class-three lever

ffo t are

CLASS-THREE LEVERS

closer to the fulcrum than

is

is

be examined.
are times

DISCUSSION. There

when you

makes it possible for you to


Your elbow is the fulcrum.

will

output
want to speed up the motion of the
use a large
force even though you will have to

amount

input force to accomplish

of

flex

your arm.

Your biceps

one inch
muscle applies the input force about
to be
from your elbow. The output force

this.

overcome is in your hand located some 13


inches from your elbow.

class-three
Levers that help do this are called
of
fulcrum
the
4-1
levers. As shown in figure
,

one end, and the


a class-three
is at
weight or output force to be overcome
lever

is

at

inch,

or input force
the other end, with the effort
applied at some point between.

It

force,

is

classThis illustrates the major use of the


displacement.
three lever-fo gain speed or

arc.

input
easy to see that, while the
the
the short distance, S

F 1# moves

distance,
output load, F 2 moves the greater
during the
S 2 Since the whole lever moves
must
same time interval, then the speed of F 2
,

because F 2 covers a greater


the same period of time.

be greater than
distance in

Your arm,

as illustrated in figure 4-2,

a class-three lever.

It is

is

F2

that
Referring back to figure 4-1, assume
will
100 pounds. How much force

is

be required to

lift

this weight?

The

distance

or 4 ft.
from the fulcrum to F 2 is 1 ft + 3 ft
ft or 400 Ib-ft is
So, a moment of 100 lb X 4
equilibrium, F-|
created by this weight. For
F-|
must overcome this clockwise moment.

operates a distance of

this lever action that

Fig. 4-1

you contract your biceps muscle one


your hand swings through a thirteen-inch

If

Class-Three Lever

20

ft

from the fulcrum,

CLASS- THREE

EXPERIMENT 4

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LEVERS

FULCRUM

The Forearm

4-2

Fig.

-A

Class-Three Lever

Again, referring to figure 4-1,

so

100 pounds acting


F} X

= 1001b X 4

ft

and

ft

F-|

in

400 pounds

is

downward

if

acting upward,

force must be present at the fulcrum?

the upward

and

Fi=
1

400^ft = 400lb

force of

to
It

MORE

can be seen that

quired than

moved one

will

be

lifted.

inch, then

F2

force input

However,

will

move 4

if

keep the

lever

is

advantage

is

It is

is

ignored.

that mechanical

tage of

400

100/400 or

However,

additional

moment

lever

Class-three levers will

means that more force must be applied than

ject's

moved or

so small that

is

it

can be

other applications, the

may

arm distance to

the fulcrum.

to be

in

applications, the

be large enough to be

in

When

the weight

the computation, an

determined by the prod-

uct of the weight of the lever arm, and the

have a fractional mechanical advantage which

is

is

must be considered

giving a mechanical advan1/4.

some

In

an important consideration.

In the illustration just given,

lb,

necessary

important to notice that the weight

weight of the lever

the output force was 100 lb and the input


force was

clamp

of the lever has not been considered in any of

inches.

the ratio of the output force to

the input force.

(the

is re-

F-j

the mechanical advantage of a

Remember

downward

in the figure is

weight of the lever

What

Since

on the fulcrum!).

our computations.

class-three lever?

what

fulcrum must have a reaction

lbs acting

arrangement shown

ft

300

is

must equal the downward

forces

forces, then the

F2

direction

21

its

will

center of gravity

weight

lifted.

You

may

center of gravity from

remember that an
is

ob-

the point where the

be considered to be concentrated.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS-THREE LEVERS

EXPERIMENT 4

(CG)
1

|F 2 = 1.00 LB

LB/FT

t
-7.5"

-10"

5"-

Fig.

4-3

Class-Three Lever

Lever Weight Consideration


Ft X 5

in
For example, the 15-in. lever shown
the
With
uniformly.
4-3 weighs 1 lb per foot
necesis
dimensions as shown, what force F-|
one-pound
the
and
sary to place the lever

figure

weight

in

then 15 inches

in.
is

from the fulcrum.


lb/foot or

Since

+ (1.00

lb

X 15

Ib-in.

+ 15

in.)
in.)

lb-in.

in.

|b

lb/12 inches,

tions.

= 1.25

lb

tendcan be seen that there are two forces


the weight
ing to rotate the lever clockwise:
1 -pound
the
and
point
of the lever at the CG

equal these

arm
F-,.

ratio

its

signifi-

if

moments:

in

is

the lever weight


force,

not based just on

but on each weight

exercise for you,

the example

your answer

is

compute the

must be present

active force that

crum

if

which would

respective lever arm.

As an

two

1:3,

is

pf 3 lb

to balance the system

It

v must

is

Be sure to notice that the

neglected.

times

lever

the opposing weights,

in.

pull,

The

indicate a pull,

F-j,
in.

weight of the lever

computacant and must be included in the

will equal

X 15

The

7.5

In this case, the

is

12

Ib-in, =
= 24.38
4j88
5 in.

(CG) which will


to be at the center of gravity
the bar weight

lb

= (1.25

of the bar can be considered

The weight

weight.

= 9.38

=1

equilibrium?

be located 7.5

in.

at the

given in figure 4-3.

2.63

lb

re-

ful-

See

downward.

MATERIALS
Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings
2 Spring balance posts with clamps

2 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"

2 Spring balances

*For

link

with 1/4-in. bore hubs


long with 1/4-in. bore hubs

2 Lever arms,

2-in. long

2 Lever arms,

1-in.

2 Collars
1

Dial caliper

(0-4

in.)

*1 Straight link, 6-in. long

construction details see appendix A.

22

EXPERIMENT 4

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS- THREE L E VERS

OUTPUT FORCE

IE
2"

LEVER

UPWARD

Fig.

4-4

The Experimental Setup

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect each of your

2.

Mount

3.

Mount

components to be sure they

the bearing plates and shaft hangers as


a 1-in. lever

and a

are

shown

undamaged.
in figure 4-4.

2-in. lever

both pointing downward from a shaft through the

on

through the hangers.

bearing plates.
4.

Similarly

mount two

levers

a shaft

23

CLASS- THREE

EXPERIMENT 4
5

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LEVERS

hanger shaft and the long lever on


the 6-inch link between the small lever on the
should both point downward and both
the bearing plate shaft. The bearing plate levers
Install

hanger levers should point upward.


6.

Adjust the bearing plate location and shaft height so that


link

7.

is

Install

are vertical

and

the

horizontal.

the spring balances so that one

the other

is

between the long hanger

is

between the small bearing plate

Adjust the spring balances so that they are

9.

Set the input force for about

20 oz being

and F 2

10.

Record both forces

11.

Measure and record the length of each


is

shown

F-|

lever

in

the end holes of the levers.

sure that the spring balance s are horizontal.

lever,

and
2 e1

fi

2-

{The identity of eacn

in figure 4-4.)

acting in the link.

12.

Compute the

force

13.

Compute

moment

14.

Compute the percent

15.

Compute

the mechanical advantage of each class-three lever, MA<\ and

16.

Compute

the total mechanical advantage

(MAj)

using the results of step 15.

17.

Compute

the total mechanical advantage

(MAj)

using only

18.

Compute the percent

the

and a post;

and a post.

lever

8.

length

all levers

(f)

of force acting on each lever,

difference between M., and

difference between your

1=2

Fl

M v M2

M 2 and

two values

M'-,,
,

between

F-j

Diff.

MA 2

MA T

Fig.

4-5

Mi

MAj

M2

MA 2

The Data Tables

24

and

M'

%
MAt

M'-|

for total mechanical advantage.

%
Mo

M2

and F 2

*2

*1

and

Diff.

Diff.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 4

CLASS-THREE LEVERS

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

Using the measured moment-arm lengths, compute the


moment-arm ratio
Compare this ratio with the ratio of the forces. In your own
words sum
marize the characteristics of class-three levers. Give
five examples of how lever class may
be ap
for each set of data.

plied

in a practical

comments you

situation.

Distinguish between class-two and class-three


levers.

Add anv

believe appropriate.

PROBLEMS
1.1s the

in detail

2.

shown

lever

in figure

4-6 a class-three lever, or

is it

a class-two lever?

Explain

your answer.

In figure 4-6

how much

pull

must be exerted to overcome the load of 6 oz?

r>1

3J>
-4

CM-

-6

CM-

F, = 6
Fig.

3.

4.

4-6

Lever for Problems

1,

0Z

2 and 3

Assume that the lever in Problem 2 moves upward (counterclockwise


two degrees).
Compute the true distances (arc length) that the attaching points
of F
and of F2
1
travel. Compare the ratio of these distances
with the lever-arm ratio.

crimping tool

shown
in

is

in figure 4-7.

the link

pinched together with

What

X between

tool were placed

the

is

a pair of forces of 10 pounds each as


the force exerted on the connector? What is the force

two

levers of the

crimping tool? Hint: If one side of the

on the bench, the bench would push with 10 lbs.


10 LB

10 LB
Fig.

4-7

Crimping Tool

25

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CLASS-THREE LEVERS

EXPERIMENT 4

PIVOTS
Fig.

Figure 4-8

that are

point

Is

Typewriter Mechanism

4-8

a sketch of a typewriter

marked A,

B,

and C.

mechanism,

identify the class of the levers

(speed) of po.nt
Discuss the reiative mot.on

and

2.

and that delivered by


between that applied to the key
Discuss the relative forces
C)
of the three levers (A, B, or
the typewriter sketch. Which
on
based
bar,
the tVPe
to increase speed?
is used primarily

An

7.

eight-inch long lever

the pivot.

from the

Three loads

pivot.

2,

input force

is

necessary to establish equ.l.br.um?

Assume
and the 3-foot distance be Y.
the
express
In terms of X, Y, and 0,
degrees.
the .ever rotates through 0
travel.
arc distance that Ft and F 2
vertical distance and the
In fiaure 4-1

R
8

What

'tsinput force one inch f^m


pivoted at one end and has
and 8 inches respectively,
3, and 4 ounces are 6, 7
of

is

let

the 1-foot distance be

It

26

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

experiment

INTRODUCTION.

This experiment summarizes the characteristics of the three basic types of

levers

and investigates the characteristics of two

parts:

the rocker arm and the

DISCUSSION.

bell

common ways

of linking basic mechanical

crank.

to change

Levers can be used:

where

F-|

the direction of the force being applied, or to

forces,

change the speed of

force,

a force applied.

#i

and

and F 2 are the input and output


is

moment arm of the input


moment arm of the out-

the

J2

tne

2
put force. This relationship

Class-one levers have the applied or input

in

'

is

frequently used

the form

force and the output force on opposite sides

of the pivot point or fulcrum.


forces
tive

move

in

These two

opposite directions.

The

F 2 /F

upon the moment-arm

which shows that the

lengths.

Class-two levers have the input force and

force

in is

arm)

ratio.

in

is

the output. Both forces

greater than the input,

the output

is

less

and the

ratio of force

out to

moment-arm (or leverknown as the lever's

equal to the

This ratio

is

For equilibrium to

move

The output force

the same direction.

(5.2)

mechanical advantage.

the output force on the same side of the fulcrum, but the input force is farther from the

fulcrum than

/C
1

rela-

speed and relative magnitudes of the two

forces depend

=
1

plane or direction

is

etc.)

linear speed of

(e.g.

must be equal.

exist, forces in

This

is,

forces pushing

downward must be counterbalanced by

than the input.

pushing upward.

forces

Forces pushing to the right

must be balanced by forces pushing to the


Class-three levers have the

fulcrum.

The

tion.

In

applied between the output and the

is

Both forces move

in

linear speed of the

left.

two forces on

the same side of the fulcrum but the input


force

any

horizontal, vertical,

is

it is

often necessary to trans-

mit limited rotary or linear motion from one

the same direc-

output

machines

place to another. This

greater

or

is

more of the following

accomplished by one
basic

machine

parts:

than the input, but the magnitude of the output force

is

less

than the applied force.

The method used to analyze

all

levers

is

moments must
counterclockwise moments for equilib-

the relationship that clockwise

equal

rium to

1.

Rocker Arms

2.

Bell

Cranks

3.

Levers

4.

Rods or Shafts

Typical of the use of the

exist.
in

This relationship

is

expressed mathemati-

)2

= F X
2

of these

is

an automobile engine where a rocker arm

moves a valve assembly, thus, opening it. This


basic mechanism is shown in figure 5-1. When
the push rod moves up, the other end of the
rocker arm must move down, causing the

cally as:

F1 X

first

(5.1)

valve to

27

move down. This

action

is

diagramed

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

EXPERIMENT 5

ROCKER ARM SHAFT BRACKET

ROCKER ARM
SHAFT

ROCKER ARM

PUSH ROD

VALVE
ASSEMBLY

Fig. 5-

in

Automobile Rocker Arm Assembly

showing that a rocker arm

figure 5-2

is

1/2

from the pivot

in.

a 24-lb force

class-one lever.

downward
Referring to figure 5-2, what
plied to the valve assembly

force

is

30

lb?

If

is

if

the push rod

you

for the

solve

moment arm

relative

are correct.

S2 =

to equations 5.1 and 5.2.

motions of the two

S-,

2 /i

= 3/8 X 5/4 = 15/32

tance, or 15/32

An
PUSH ROD

FORCE ON

FORCE

I THE VALVE

easy check of motions and forces of


is

to

remember the action of

when

a see-saw (teeter-totter)

person

Rocker Arm Force Diagram

is

on one end and

the other.

down much -

from the pivot and the valve assembly is


5/8 in. from the pivot. Note: These distances
are the perpendicular distances from the pivot

farther

in.

move

of action of the two forces. Now,


we can compute the output force by using

a light person

at

the

light

is

is

on

quite

move up or
much

person will be

will

the result of applying the forces

an angle other than 90 to the

moment

rocker arm? This application is shown in figure 5-3. There are two ways of analyzing the

equation 5.1

/ 2
t

= 30

lb

X 4/5 = 24

lbs

force relationships.

the righthand sketch

which

sit

away from the pivot point and


large distance up and down.

What

to the line

F.,

very heavy

The heavy person must

close to the fulcrum and will not

that the push rod force acts 1/2

the
dis-

in.

a class-one lever

F2 =

in.

The push rod moves upward 3/8 in. and


valve moves downward 1.25 times that

FULCRUM

Assume

so, to

ratio:

forces,

this point did not occur to you, refer back

5-2

in a

that the distance ratio varies

inversely as the

downward does the valve as3/8 in., how


sembly move? What do you need to know to
answer these two questions? If you stated

Fig.

from the pivot

direction.

Remember

far

If

in.

the force ap-

the push rod moves upward

lever-arms or moment-arms,

felt

is

an upward direction,

in

5/8

states that

when

a 30-lb force

is

lines

applied

28

The

first is illustrated in

in figure 5-3.

Here, the

of action of the input and output forces

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

are

5-3

EXPERIMENTS

Rocker Arm, Non-Perpendicular Forces

shown by dashed lines along the force vecThe moment or torque produced by F2

We

tors.
is

shown

as

2 You can
-

distance 2

it

less

is

But,

is

shown

most practical situations.


what moment or torque
Only that force which

say

is

it

is

is

con-

and one acting

acting

vertically,

two true forces, F x and F were


y
they would equal F2. F generates
x

torque because

If

another way, force F2 can

If

plied

we

it

moment arm

two components: one

Fx

horizontally,

usually can measure the angle with the lever.

This

in

and

used,

be broken into

pendicular distance from the pivot point to


acting upon.

To

sidered.

often difficult to measure the true per-

is

perpendicular to that

the line the force

"

being produced?

see that this distance

than the rocker arm length C


Tnis
2
torque must be equal to that produced by
so: F2 X )?2 = F-| X $.']. Practically, however,
is

can also measure the distance

#2 quite easily

equal to that force multiplied by the per-

pendicular distance from the pivot, 0, which


is

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL

is

applied

in

ap-

line

with the

NO

moment arm zero.


and generates a torque

fulcrum which makes the

in figure 5-4.

Fy

acts perpendicularly

equal to F

#2-

How do you compute


If

these components?

the angle with the horizontal of

F2

is

9,

then Fy/F2 =

= F2 sin 9. The
sin 9. Thus, F
y
generated by Fy must be counter-

moment

by the moment generated by the


of F-j; let's call it, F X 8
y

balanced
vertical

From

component
this,

our basic equilibrium equation

becomes:

OR
Fig.

5-4

Angular Force Analysis

29

Xg 2 =FyXfi

= X
2 sin0
1

F-,

sine

(5.3)

should be noted that the parameters


equation 5.3 are usually quite easily measIt

of

and
the force, the angles with the lever,
of the
(from trigonometry tables) the cosines

ured:

angles.

Another device used primarily to transone direcmit motion from a link traveling in
moved in a
tion to another link which is to be
different

direction

the bell crank.

is

of this device

name

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

EXPERIMENT 5

came from the

The

Now, let's analyze the movements


these two forces - sometimes these-forces
actually tensions in taut cables.

of
are

In figure 5-6,

position of
the solid lines indicate the initial
indicate
the bell crank and the dotted lines

crank position after F<[ has been apdegrees.


plied to rotate the crank through 0
and S 2 are the linear disThe distances
tances rather than the arc distances.

the

bell

linkage

doorbells.
used to operate our grandparent's

The

bell

crank

and the two


in

mounted on

is

links are

a fixed pivot

connected at two points

from the

different directions

By

pivot.

points, the
properly locating the connecting
in any demove
output links can be made to
direction.

sired

shown

in

One type of

bell

crank

is

figure 5-5.

In this figure the

two arms

are perpen-

connecting links
dicular to each other and the
Since the forces
are perpendicular to the arms.
to the pivot
are applied on a line perpendicular
point, then the clockwise

moment,

F-|

1(

must be equalled by the counterclockwise


moment, F2 X 2- Thus,
Fig.

X F! =

Bell

Crank Movements

F2
It

or
sin

F 1 /F 2 = 2 /C 1

can be seen

S-i/K-i

tated to

Does

5-6

in

the lower triangle that

(! is the length

of the arm rois the hypot-

the dotted position and

in the
enuse of the small right triangle). Also,
uatin
Ec
9 these
upper triangle, sin 0 = S 2 /%2-

this look familiar?

two

expressions gives:

S^U-i

=S2 /2

or

S 1 /S 2 =8i/K2

The
forces

is

linear distance

other force
ratio.

5-5

multiplied

should be noted that there

movement toward

F1

Fig.

It

considered

Simple Bell Crank

30

moved by one of the


moved by the
by the moment-arm

equal to the distance

in

is

also

the pivot which was not

the above.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENTS

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Spring balances

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Spring balance posts with clamps

2 Bearing holders with bearings


1
Shaft, 4"x 1/4"
1

Lever arm, 2-in. long with 1/4-in. bore hub

Lever arm,

1-in.

Dial caliper (0

Protractor

2 Collars

long with 1/4-in. bore hub

PROCEDURE
components to

1.

Inspect each of your

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

insure that they are

undamaged.

in figure 5-7.

OUTPUT FORCE

INPUT FORCE

OUTPUT FORCE

INPUT FORCE

Fig.

5-7

The Experimental Setup


31

in.)

MECHANISMS/LINKAGE

ROCKER ARMS AND BELL CRANKS

EXPERIMENTS
3.

approximately 90 degrees apart.


Adjust the two lever arms so that they are

4.

are horizontal and the input force


Adjust the two spring halances so that they

(F-j)

about 6 oz.

and F 2 ).

5.

Record the values of both forces

6.

Measure and record the lengths of the

7.

and
Measure and record the angle between each lever arm

8.

Compute

the

component of force

9.

Compute

the

moment

lever

and

arms

difference between the

Compute the percent

1 1

Repeat steps 4 through

2 ).
its

spring balance {& y and

acting at right angles to each lever

of force acting on each lever (M

10.
.

(F-j

and
1

M2

arm

(f

02

and f 2 ).

).

two moments.

0 using input forces of

8,

0,

and

2 oz.

%
=2

*1

*2

02

F,/F 2

Fig.

5-8

f
1

M2

Diff.

The Data Tables

data table. Compare these


the force ratios as indicated in the
any deviations. Summar.ze your
lever-arm ratio, and note and explain

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Compute


force ratios with the

M<|

understanding of rocker arms and

bell cranks.

32

EXPERIMENT 5

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ROCKER A RMS AND BELL CRA NKS

PROBLEMS
1.

Assume that a rocker arm is 3-in. long with the pivot point 1-1/4 in. from the load
side. The input force occurs 2000 times per minute and travels 1/2 in. What is the
average angular speed in radians-per-second of the rocker arm? What is the average
speed of the input force and of the output force?

linear
2.

In

the previous problem, the input force

a time of

What
3.

bell

75.
is

is

30 seconds. What

the

new

felt at

is

increased linearly to

of 6 oz

is

in

3-in.

output?

long and another 2-in. long which are separated by

applied at 60 (see figure 5-9)

30 output at the end of the

2-in.

to the 3-in. arm.

arm?

Fi 6 0Z.

Fig.

3000 per minute

the linear acceleration of the input and of the output?

linear velocity (speed) of the

crank has one arm

A force

is

5-9

Levers for Problem

33

What

force

experimen

INTRODUCTION. As we
be used

in

amine one of these

possibilities.

DISCUSSION.

many

cations, the input

coupled through

have seen, levers

combination with

In

COMBINED MECHANISMS

may be compounded

a gear train as

lever

arms are

shown

in fig-

ure 6-1.

can use any one of several different


approaches in analyzing the operation of such

mechanism.

One way

is

to consider the forces

where ]
and the

is

= Fi

sin

8-j,

we

will

lever

arm

centerline.

produces

T-|

-|

This perpendic-

torque of

= F

^ fi-j

sin

i
is

transmitted

through the gear mesh and transformed

Starting with

see that the force

we

the angle between the input force

re-

cording to

com-

ponent acting perpendicular to the lever arm


is

This amount of torque

quired to produce equilibrium.

Fi acting on

ular force

We

In this exercise

wide variety of other mechanisms.

practical lever appli-

and output

They may

using rigid links.

li
To

Jl

ac-

EXPERIMENT 6

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
or

COMBINED MECHANISMS

0 oz

= 2.5

fi

in.

n =

T^

T2 =

N = 60

36 teeth

0 =45

= 3O

02

which gives us

teeth

= 3.4

in.

F 2 = ??

T 2 =F 1 e 1 -sin0 1

we determine

First

the force acting per-

pendicularly to the input lever arm:

amount of torque
arm where n and

as the

acting

lever

l\l

on the second
f
1

numbers

are the

= 10 X 0.707 = 7.07 oz

sin 0.,

Then the input torque

torque must also be equal to

T.,

t 2 = 2e2

lar

This second lever arm

of teeth on the gears.

is

= 7.07 X 2.5 = 17.65 in.-oz

The output torque transformed by the gear


mesh is

2 is the force component perpendicuto the lever arm. Equating these last two

where

= F

equations for torque gives us

= F
2
2

sin

T2 = T 1 1T =

02

Substituting this value of

2 into the torque

2C2

sin

'2

equation gives us

02

F^i

sin 0^

And

2 =

17 65
-

= 29 45

36

in -- z

29.45

65oz
^=34- = 8DCK
-

output force

finally the

is

or

Fo = F
2

as the

1
1

N sin0 1

2 n

sin

^2

r-

(6.1)

02

sin

You may wish

equation for the output force.

to

no

8.65

0o

0.5

compare

this result to that

produced by equation 6.1 to verify that they


It is

02

worth mentioning that both

are the angles

0-j

are the same.

and

between the applied force

We

and the lever arm centerline.

much

in

This

process seems

and involved; however,


easier

in

than you might expect.

through an example to
done.

illustrate

how

Suppose that the mechanism

in

moves

is, if

the end

an arc distance

S-j,

then the input gear rotates through an angle


it is

work

Let's

the same manner. That

of the input lever

somewhat lengthy
actual practice

can analyze the lever displacements

it

of
1

is

figure

0,1 =

6-1 has the following parameters:

35

77-

radians

results in a rotation d

which

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMBINED MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

of the output

gear equal to

lever in the
For example, if the end of input
then the
previous example moves 1.0 in.,

input gear rotates

(=)=
u

=L=

since the output lever notion

Then

is

related

while the output gear rotates

by

to output gear rotation

0.4 radians

2.5

=
S 2 = 2 e 2 = 3.4 X 0.24 0.816

Q2

in.

lever
Since linear velocity at the end of the

is

equal to

we have

Sj^Sj

we can
The

or

less

_S

(6.2)
1

SIX,

approach to determine

also use this

output velocity

S2

if

the input velocity

is

known.

ungears here, as in the rest of this text


otherwise stated, are considered to have

constant speed.

N
Similarly, ratios such as the mechanical

this
before, the practical application of

As

type of analysis

is

easier than

it

might seem.

advantage can be found using the same type


of analysis methods.

MATERIALS
Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Shaft hangers, 1-1/2 in. with bearings
4 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Spring balance posts with clamps

Spur

gear, approx.

1/4

Spur

gear, approx. 1-1/2 in.

1/4

in.

bore hub

with

bore hub

for link construction details

36

in.

bore hubs

Dial caliper (0-

Protractor

*1
See appendix

OD

2 Lever arms, 2 in. long with


1/4 in. bore hubs
2 Lever arms, 1 in. long with
1/4

OD

in.

4 Collars

3 Shafts, 4" x 1/4"


2 Spring balances
1

in.

Straight link, 6

in.)

in.

long

with


EXPERIMEN T 6

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMBINED MECHA NISMS

PROCEDURE
1.

Inspect each of your

components to be sure

it

is

not damaged.

Record the gear tooth

counts, n and N.
2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

TL

in figure 6-2.

INPUT FORCE

-2_L
I

J__
6 IN.

LINK

GEAR
OUTPUT FORCE

PINION
D

lt

F1

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMBINED MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENT 6

Lever B should make a right


Adjust the mechanism so that levers A, C, and 0 are vertical.
horizontal and the input force
angle with the 6-in. link. Both spring balances should be

3.

should be about 6 oz.

and F 2

4.

Record the input and output forces,

5.

Measure and record the length of each lever arm,

6.

Measure and record the angle between each lever arm and

fi
,

c and D

its

applied force,

A B 0 C
,

and 0q.
7.

Using F v A 2 B

8.

Using F 2

link.

0A

D-

and

0B

D<

<

compute and record the force

acting on the 6-in. link,

(f)

"'
and N com P ute and record the force acting n the 6 n

"

'

If)

Compute

9.

the percent difference between

and

f'.

mesh. Then rotate the pinion


Hold the gear securely while you slip the pinion out of
Re-engage the gear teeth.
about 30 degrees in the direction which increases F 2

10.

Repeat steps 4 through

11.

9.

Qty

Trial

=2

"=1

*C

*B

2
Fig.

6-3

Data Table

A
%

Qty
Trial

Diff.

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
ods used.

What do you

in

Data Table

you should focus primarily on the


good agreement between f and f ? Why do you think

In analyzing

Did they result

6-3

your

results

think were the main causes of error in this experiment?

reduced?

38

How

analysis meththis occurred?

could the errors be

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 6

COMBINED MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1.

Figure 6-4 represents a lever with angular forces applied to each end.

mensions given, compute the

the di-

necessary to achieve equilibrium.

Lever for Problem

6-4

Fig.

2.

pull, P,

From

Referring to figure 6-1, assume the lever parameters are:

FpHoz
F

A.

2 =

91oz

one of the gears has 36

If

= 4O

=2.7

in.

= 25

teeth,

what

two

are the

=1 9in
-

possible tooth counts that

the other gear could have?


B.

the righthand gear

If

gear have?
3.

certain lever system

diagramed

in

is

figure 6-5.

What

is

the value of F
2

5.

What

is

the angle between

has 36 teeth,

how many does

in figure

F-j

6-5?

and F 2

in figure

6-5?

V oo

03

FULCRUM
B

<S IN.
-120

,30

FULCRUM
A
V

the lefthand

2A.

composed of a class-two lever, a link, and a bell crank


What is the mechanical advantage of the system?

4.

10OZ.

in figure 6-1

(Use your results from

V
CLASS
.

V
BELL CRANK

LEVER
Fig.

6-5

Figure for Problems

39

to

as

experiment

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION. The four-bar mechanism is one of the most basic


various classes of operation of this
this experiment we shall examine the
DISCUSSION.
system

in

connected

four-bar

which four
in

able relative

links are

is

inter-

way as to allow predictmotion. You should notice at


it

is

such a

possible to assemble four

way

In

such a

this point that


rigid links in

rigid

mechanism

that relative motion

cannot occur without deforming the links.


A
Figure 7-1 shows one such arrangement.
mechaa
NOT
is
type
construction of this

a four-bar

it

is

mechanisms.

In

important mechanism.
links or

mechanism the

four-bar

members do move
Figure 7-2 show one

relative

to

each other.

possible arrangement for


In this case,

mechanism.

when

the

revinput link (,) rotates through a complete


arc
an
olution, the output link swings through

and back to

starting point.

its

The

pins used

free to
to join the links must, of course, be

allow link motion.

The members of a
move relative to
not
do
structure normally
nism,

practical

structure.

The type
(

linkage will

in this case)

other three

have a

number of members and there may be

we

rela-

motion between them. When one


have specia linkage is fixed and the others
Actufied motions, it becomes a mechanism.

tive

mechanism shown

7-2 can only be constructed

each other.
Strictly speaking a

of

is

links.

if

shorter than the

This

is

in

figure

the longest link

sum

usually the

of the

first test

apply to a proposed mechanism.

link of

For example, suppose we wish to build


mechanism using a 4-in. fixed frame link,

only with mechanisms but


the words linkages and mechanisms are used

input link, a 3-in. output link and


coupling link. We first test to see

2-in.

ally this text deals

in.

mechanism

interchangeably.

40

is

possible

a
a

a 10if

the

by adding the three

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 7

FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION

o
UN*.

cou

\
o

FRAME LINK

F/]g>.

7-2

-4

smallest link lengths and comparing the

Four-Bar Mechanism

sum

6-in.

to the longest length:

4 +2 +3=
In this

example the

lengths

is

less

a four-bar

9<10

The sum of the shorter links is greater than


the longest link so the mechanism is possible.

total of the three short

than the longest length. So such

mechanism can not be

mechanism

three small

built.

If

you
Figure 7-3 shows a
type.

is

links just aren't long

link rotates

enough to

to build a
a 5-in.

mechanism using

coupling

link, a 4-in.

through

we

wish

four-bar

way

output

crank-rocker mechanism.

and

41

is

called a type

this

the input

circle the out-

arc.

mechanism which

a 2-in. input link,


link

when

complete

put link swings through an

the other hand suppose that

mechanism of

In this case, as before,

impossible because the

reach the ends of the long link.

On

Testing this mecha-

5=11>6

2 + 4 +

think about this for a while you will realize


that this

fixed frame link.

nism as before we have

four-bar

acts in this

mechanism or

Fig.

7-4

By changing the dimensions of the

we can

k Mechanism

Drag-

Again,

links

a fixed

frame

in.,
in.,

link of

ble

mechanism

is

to

7-4

and

diagram

of

this

type

a full revolution, the


a full revolution.
this

is

output

of

look somewhat like figure 7-5.

will

cannot go through

go through

In

com-

complete revolution

the output link must also

manner.

which does

mechanism

still

because the lengths of C c and -| won't permit


However, when the input link does move,
it.

link also rotates

A mechanism

We

have a possi-

plete revolution because the lengths of c and


Similarly the output
9.2 will not permit it.

rotate the input link

called a type II four-bar

a drag-link

it

link can't

when we

in.

and

in.,

mechanism,

this case the input

mechanism.
This time

an output link of 4

2+3+4=9>5

possible

is

in.,

insure that such a

2+3+4=9>4
Figure

fixed frame link of 5

link of 2 in.

You can check

the link dimen-

we can change

sions to get another type of mechanism. Suppose we use an input link of 3 in., a coupling

get a different type of relative motion.

Suppose that we have an input link of 3


a coupling link of 4 in., an output link of 4
and

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION

EXPERIMENT 7

or

type

A mechanism

III,

four-bar

rocker mechanism.

mechanism.

42

move

the same

in

of this type

mechanism or

is

called

double-

EXPERIMENT 7

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
The

we

type of four-bar mechanism that

last

as follows:

somewhat more difficult to


Suppose tnat we have link lengths
The input link is 3 in., the coup-

ling link is

consider

will

illustrate.

is

the output link

in.,

the fixed frame link

is

is

in.,

and

Testing the possi-

in.

of building such a mechanism

bility

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

we

see

that since

3 + 4 +
it is

12

7-6 shows a

Figure

sketch

Now
shown

in its

vertical force

from the input

Due

it

may

reverse

if it

its

as the input link

is

we

its

can't

tell

As

upward

can

counterclock-

in

tell

type

cause

Class IV, Four-Bar

in

it

a result of these link

figure

it

7-7

is

dimensions we

whether the mechanism


I

to

or type

do

Fig.

7-6

is

mechanism.

wise motion.

Fig.

type

from the linkage alone what

The condition shown

spring-loaded upward,

continues

this

called a critical position in the cycle of the

continue

direction and swing

Sometimes

will do.

to gravity or

may

condition produces a type IV,

four-bar mechanism.

coupled tothe output

link.

Double- Rocker Mechanism

called an indefinite four-bar operation since

become colinear
shown in figure 7-7,

flywheel effect the output link

downward. Or,

Such

links

with the fixed frame as

link

the posi-

counterclockwise motion.

However, as the

no

First, in

7-5

Fig.

at

the output must fol-

in figure 7-6,

low the input

is

link

examine the mechanism

let's

several different positions.

there

of such a

suppose that the input

Let's

counterclockwise at a constant

rotating

rate.

tion

>6

possible.

mechanism.
is

5=

II.

7-7

43

operate

External forces could

either.

Critical

Point in

Mechanism Operation

Mechanism

will

can summarize this discussion as follows:

we

In

conclusion then

1.

Four-bar mechanisms are possible only

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R INTRODUCTION

EXPERIMENT 7

if

sum

the

4.

the input link rotates through

full

is

If

the

the

circle,

5.

mecha-

If

dimensions alone make

link

impossible to classify a four-bar


is

it

considered an

indefinite or type IV

input and output links

mechanism.

conditions

External

full circles,

may

cause

such a mechanism to operate as

a drag-link or

is

it

mechanism,

the mechanism
II

mecha-

III

less

a crank-rocker or type

both rotate through


type

nism.

mechanism.
3.

full
is

while the output

circle

swings through an arc of

nism

then the mechanism

double-rocker or type

If

full

can rotate through a

circle,

of the longest link.

than a

neither the input or output

link

of the three

shorter links exceeds the length

2.

If

any of the other three

mechanism.

classes.

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers


2 Bearing holders with bearings
2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2

with bearings

in.

Lever arm 2

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

Lever arm

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

*1

Straight link 6

in.

long

*1

Reverse link 2

in.

long

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

Steel rule 6

For

3 Collars

in.

long

link construction details see

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1

2.

3.

Inspect each of your

components to be sure they

Assemble the mechanism shown in figure


should be 2-3/4 in. above the breadboard.

are not

7-8.

The

damaged.
shaft through the bearing plates

shorter
Adjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and bearing plates so that when the
horizontal.
is
and
right
ever arm is straight down, the longer arm points to the
l

4.
5.

6.

Make

diagram of the mechanism as

it

now

appears.

Measure and record the length of each link Q C v c and


lever arm for 7 and the distance between shaft centers as
,

Using the measured link lengths verify that this mechanism


used

7.

a simple

in

(Note:

satisfies

Use the shortest

the possibility test

the discussion.

and 2
Carefully rotate the input link and observe the motion of 1# 2 C
,

of these motions

in

your own words.

44

Describe each

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 7

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

-Tch

is

0
1

IN.

LINK

LEVER

2 IN.

LEVER

2 IN.

LEVER

f/flf.

7-g

The

First

Experimental Mechanism

8.

Based on your observations identify the type and name of this mechanism.

9.

Loosen the bearing plate clamps and readjust the spacing between the shaft
hangers and
bearing plates so that both lever arms point straight up.

10.
1 1
.

Now

repeat steps 4 through 8.

Readjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and the bearing plates
so that both lever
right and are horizontal. The coupling should not
bind on the lever

arms point to the


arm holes.

45

EXPERIMENT 7

2.

13.

Repeat steps 4 through

Now
as

14.

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

8.

turn
loosen the shaft hangers and bearing plates and

shown

in figure 7-9.

Repeat steps 4 through

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

8.

them around on the breadboard

EXPERIMENT 7

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Type

of

Name

Mechanism
Dimensions of

Mechanism

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

of Mechanism

=
*c

Sketch of Mechanism

Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

Type

10

of

Data for the First Mechanism

Name

Mechanism
Dimensions of

*o

Mechanism

of Mechanism

Sketch of Mechanism

=
*c

Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig.

7-11

Data for the Second Mechanism

47

EXPERIMENT 7

Twnp

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

nf

Name

of

Mechanism

Mechanism
Dimensions of

*c

*o

Mechanism

Description of Motion

Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

12

Type of

Data for the Third Mechanism

Name

of

Mechanism

Mechanism
Dimensions of

*1-

*o

Mechanism

=
*c

Description of Motion

Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

13

Data for the Fourth Mechanism

48

ANALYSIS GUIDE. The

FOUR-BAR INTRODUCTION

EXPERIMENT 7

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
main objective of

this

experiment has been to introduce the four types

you should discuss each four-bar type and tell


how you can identify each one. Also discuss any difficulty you encountered in getting the mech-

of four-bar mechanism.

In

analyzing your

results

anisms to operate properly.

PROBLEMS
1.

What

is

2.

What

are the characteristics of a

3.

How

can you test to be sure that four given link dimensions can be connected into

a four-bar

mechanism

as

opposed to

Test each of the following link dimension sets for possibility

E)

5.

Make

6.

Tell

= 4

in.,

C,

= 2

a sketch of the

how

a structure?

mechanism?

a four-bar
4.

mechanism?

in.,

9.

in.,

mechanisms

each mechanism

in

in

J2

=
2

in

problem 5 would act

49

four-bar mechanism.

problem 4 which are

clockwise.

in a

if

possible.

1 rotates at a constant rate

experiment

CRANK- ROCKER MECHANISMS

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms having elements pinned


of linkages
Lages. One of the most elementary forms
this

experiment you

DISCUSSION.

will investigate the features

This

is

,n

form of

l.nkage.

You can

see that

if

the fixed link

is

changed, this

is

known

as an

inversion of the mechanism.

Since the
movable connectors.
are quite
forces and strains felt by the frame
correct
important, it is most appropriate and

mechanism. The

th.s

as

were fixed instead of link C 0 the same


When
crank and rocker motion would result.
link 6

called a

three

to call this a four-bar

known

the crank and

frame or foundation.

past it has
four-bar linkage, although in the
because there
been called a three-bar linkage
are

is

and charactenst.es of

Figure 8-1 illustrates the sim-

plest possible plane linkage.

or pivoted to each other are

general four-bar linkage has

The most

general linkage
links of different lengths. This
figure 8-1 and the links are lettered

links

long as they
can be of any form and shape so
do not interfere with the desired motion.

is

shown

in

such that

< 2 <C C <C 0

poFigure 8-2 shows one of the limiting


when the
sitions of the linkage. This occurs
colinear;
crank and the connecting rod are

that

is, lie

on the same

line.

the limiting position shown in figure


sides: link D
8-2, a triangle is formed having
and C c " C 1 K lf a triangle 1S t0 be
link
2
a crank
formed, as it must if we are to have
In

<

Crank Rocker Mechanism

Fig. 8- 1

assumed that link 8 0


not move. This means that
is fixed and does
link C i will
with the link dimensions shown,
In figure 8-1

it

is

rotate through 2tt radians.


as a crank.

that can
called

The word

rotate

Link

is

known

crank indicates a link


Link C 2

continuously.

the rocker (sometimes

beam

,s

or a

can only oscillate through a


Link C c is the connecting
limited arc path.
or a connecting
link and is called a coupler
to the
This link connects the crank
rod.
frequently is the
rocker. Link Q is fixed and

lever)

because

it

Fig.

50

8-2

Contracted Limiting Position

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

0
/

Extended Limiting Position

8-3

Fig.

The

and rocker, then you know that any one side

two

sides.

criteria for this

motions and times of motions of the various


lengths.

type mechanism.

0 <([fic

-fi

+ 2

drawing

a scale

If

is

made

mechanism, the angle through which


For many purposes

accurately.

a scale

ing will provide sufficient accuracy.

<(e c +

-
i>

(8.1)

tells

lar

the frame between the pivot points of the


less

lengths of the connecting rod

(fi

rocker (2) minus the crank

c)

If the lengths of the links are

re-

known,

you can use the cosine law to solve the angu-

us that the distance on

crank and the rocker must be

draw-

For other

purposes an analytical approach will be


quired.

Equation 8.1

of the

the rocker oscillates can be determined quite

>

or rewritten:
e

figures

in

of the

sum

actual
8

shown

This leads to one significant

of a triangle must be less than the

other

limiting positions

8-2 and 8-3 are quite useful in analyzing the

positions

(figures 8-2

than the

shown

and

the limiting positions

in

For example,

8-3).

in figure

8-3 the angle of the rocker (angle between

plus the

and
can De solved by substituting
Q
into the following relationship:

links 2

(C-j).

Figure 8-3 illustrates the extended limiting position of the crank

and rocker mecha-

<*i

*c>

2 2 o cos

nism.

where

from

will

<e 2 +0

the angle between C Q and fy- Once


known, the sine law can be used

is

is

repeated for the other extreme position which

figure 8-3 that

1 +fic

is

to find the angle at the crank. This process

the lengths of the sides of triangles, you can


see

this angle

Using the same basic principle regarding

give both

limiting angles of the rocker

and the angular position of the crank at these

(8.2)

limits.

This equation

tells

From

us that the crank length

can find out

added to the connecting rod length must be


less

the above analytical approach you

how many

tion are required for

than the length of the frame and rocker.


51

degrees of crank rota-

motion to the

right

and

Fig.

for

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

motion to the

left.

Analytical Design of Crank-Rocker Mechanism

8-4

Knowing

these facts

permits you to use the usual angular relation-

d = 2 arc tan

VK

ships to determine velocity and acceleration.

Now,

let's

look at the problem of deter-

outlined

The

K-

in figure 8-4.

sin

rectangular coordinates of point

M2
(8.4)

where

mining where the follower will be for a given


crank angular position. This general problem
is

+ L2 L + M

L=-7T

+COS0

cos

P-|

are

xi =
y-|

S-|

cos

J?i

sin

The

(x

2
+ (y 2
2 -x-,)

-y 1

solid

dashed

lines

give the

which

lines

is

will give
in

the

figure 8-4.

figure

known

shown
as

the

:
)

will

in

look at a linkage having

now

dimensions as follows: C-j = 2.5 inches, c =


10 inches, C 2 = 4.5 inches, and Q = 9 inches.
A scale drawing of this linkage is shown in figure 8-5 with the two extreme positions shown.

(8.3)

is

to determine the

number

of degrees that the rocker oscillates through as

By substituting the f(0) values for the


unknowns in equation 8.3 and expanding, you
an equation for 6

equation 8.4

sign will

The problem

finally arrive at

2*1*2

drawn with

We

sin 9

the Pythagorean theorem that

in

+ o2

cross condition.

x 2 = 2 Q + 2 cos 6
y2 = 2

K1

The minus
with

We know by

"jr^

plus sign

figure

and of point P 2

the crank revolves.

you can

terms of.

52

Referring to figure 8-5,

see that this equals angle P 2 0' P' 2

Fig.

and that this angle


angle 00'P

You can

Crank- Rocker Problem

8-5

when crank

equal to angle OO'P'2

is

see that

we know

position

the

Thus,

we

cosines and determine the

For the

up

position of link

left

which

2 which makes

is

c -

(fi

c^

= e2

+ 0

'

" 2C

2 o

in

cos (00 P 2>

and ends

P'-j

at

This

P'-|.

less

is

time

from

than 180 degrees.

different.

is

is

RPM. What

right.

first

to

to
P'-j

the crank

Let's

assume

is

120

the time for the left stroke and

This involves

determining the value of angle P2 OP'2

which

00'P 2 = arccos 0.5555

P'-|

P'2

rotating counterclockwise at

the time for the right stroke?

2
2
7.5 = a2 + 4.5 - (2)(9)(4.5) cos (00'P 2 )

If

rom

With rotation as shown

than to return to the

the crank

we have

the figure, link 2 takes longer to swing

left

Substituting,

position

rotating with a constant angular velocity,

this
2

in

P"2 takes a crank rotation

angles desired.

triangle OO'P^:

is

Also, the return swing of link #2

can use the law of

two

P2 when the crank reaches

takes more than 180 degrees of crank rotation.

lengths of the sides of triangles OO'P'2 and


triangles OO'P^.

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

is

You can

the difference

angular position.

in

see that this angle

is

equal to

Angle 00'P 2 = 56 15'


P
In

an identical fashion

we can

solve for angle

OO'P'2 b Y usin 9 trian 9 ,e OO'P'2 and the cosine


law. From this we find that

Again, using the cosine law,

Angle 00'P' 2 = 132 46'

And, angle

(132 46') total

"

P'

from

- 15 20'

that

= 14 36'

swing of the rocker.

see

= 29 56'
2 0P' 2

we determine

The left stroke (from P2 to P 2 will take a


movement of the crank of 180 degrees plus
degrees of rotato P'
angle P
2 of the 360
2
tion. The right movement of the rocker will
be 180 - angle P' 2 0P 2 of the 360 degrees.
The time involved will be this same fraction

- 00'P =
= angle 00'P
2
2
2 0'P 2
(5615') = 7631' which is the

You can

=
- 0'0P"
2
2 0P' 2 0'0P 2

figure 8-5 that the

swing of link 2 from position P'2 begins

53

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

of the time to revolve

360

degrees.

120

From

half second.

means one revolution each

RPM

RPM

where
time

in

is

and
the revolutions per minute

the time for one revorelationship between angular ve-

minutes.

The

lution.

this,

is

is

and linear velocity of a point at


distance from the center of rotation is
locity

Time

+1 4 6

= 180

motion of

for left

360

.5

distance = aIi^ath
Velocity
veiocny =
t|me
tjme

= 0.27 seconds

and

The
Time
2

It is

ities

we

for right

4 6

180

3~

6q

motion of

.5

know

will

the veloc-

shown

as

is

note that the velocity

member

that in physics

e
which

You may

the acceleration.

is

we

You

in figure 8-6.
is

perpendicular to

that
the radius from the center of rotation and
the acceleration is toward the center.

of the various motions of a linkage. Since


do have circular motion, the velocity is

angular as

acceleration for a crank rotating at a constant

= 0.23 seconds

often important to

= rcj

relationship between the velocity and the

angular velocity

a given

VELOCITY

re-

define an angle as

ACCELERATION

_ arc length
radius

gives the angle, 0, in radians.

entire circle this expression

For the

becomes
Fig.

8-6

Rotating

Body

Velocity

and Acceleration

= 2w radians

The angular acceleration,


and

Angular velocity, w, equals the angle covered

per

rotating
per unit of time. All points on a given
have the same angular velocity. Also,

|=^=

(2tt)

measured

second.

found

body

co

is

in

in

In

a, equals

dw/dt

units of radians per second,

summary,

all

relationships

linear displacement, velocity,

acceleration will remain true by substituting


0 for displacement, co for velocity and a for

RPM

acceleration.

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

*1

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

2 Collars

1/4

in.

in.

long with

bore hub

2 Dial indexes and holders

2 Shaft hangers with bearings

in.

in.

2 Disk dials

2 Bearing holders with bearings

Lever arm 2

Lever arm
1/4

2 Bearing plates with spacers

and

Straight link 6
Steel rule

in.

in.

long

long

2 Sheets of linear graph paper


*See Appendix A

long with

bore hub

54

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENT 8

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE
components

1.

Inspect each of your

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown


2-3/4

in.

to insure that they are


in

figure 8-7.

undamaged.

Be sure that the bearing plate shaft

above the breadboard surface.

INDEX

INDEX
<2L

XL

n
"

DIAL
i

g>

2l

DIA L

CI

ZJ

L2J

IN.

LEVER

LINK

WPT~70
l

2 IN.

2 IN.

Fig.

8-7

V
l,

LEVER

LEVER

The Experimental Mechanism

55

jz>
"*
i

is

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENTS

Adjust the spacing between the shaft hangers and the bearing plates so that both lever

3.

same time.

arms can point straight up

at the

4.

Allow the mechanism find

its

5.

Measure and record the length of each of the links

(C

6.

Rotate the

attached to the shorter lever arm

in

dial

dial reading at

own

two

"rest" position and set the

and c ).

20 increments and record the other

each increment.

Driver

rOHOWci

Anni
iai
iy u lar
r*M

Position

Position

Velocity (Rad/sec.)

n
u

20

tu
end

bU

80
1UU
120
140

loU
I

OU

200
oo n
ZZU
240
oan

280
300
320

340
360

dials to zero.

*2=_
F/#.

5-5

Data Table for the First

56

Trial

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

7.

Assuming that the


of the follower

in

EXPERIMENTS

driver

were turning

each increment

at

100

RPM compute

the average angular velocity

step 6.

in

smooth curve of the follower position versus time using the conditions of step

8.

Plot a

9.

Similarly plot follower velocity versus time.

10.

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS

Move the

link to the

next hole nearer the shaft and repeat steps 3 through

LSIriwpr
IVCI

Fr>l
ln\A/pr
\J \ lUVVCI

A nni
lot* \/ol/^r*i+\/
Ml
ILJU d! V c IUL.I Ly

Position

(Rad/sec.)

Position

20
*tu

R0
uu
80
I

uu

190

14U
I

ou

ou

9nn
990
240
260

280

300

320
340
360

x
!

Fig.

8-9

9.

Data Table for the Second

57

Trial

7.

EXPERIMENTS

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw


and the two

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

CRANK-ROCKER MECHANISMS
a skeleton sketch of

your mechanism showing the lengths of the

links

extreme positions of the rocker. Using the law of cosines, calculate the rocker swing

and compare with that observed. Explain any differences noted. Using your measured link
for a cranklengths, verify that this mechanism satisfies the conditions given in the discussion
rocker.

Do

this for

both

sets of links used.

PROBLEMS
1.

Assume that the crank


was rotating clockwise
to the left?

2.

What

What must be
linear velocity

3.

is

at

60 RPM. What

the time needed for

the rotational speed


is

in

in

radians/second/second.

What

problem 2

its

the experiment

the time required for the rocker to


return

RPM

movement

move

to the right?

of a crank 3.5 inches

If
is

starts at rest

the acceleration

in

length of

its

is

with an angular acceleration of 3

constant,

what

is

the angular velocity

the velocity of a point 3.5 inches from the center at this

time? What was the average velocity of


4.

is

in

500 feet/minute?

The crank described


after 7 seconds?

mechanism used by you

rotation of the

this point?

Using equation 8.4, compute one set of angular positions of the crank and rocker
used during this experiment. Be sure the angles you use correspond to those of
figure 8-4.

Compare the computed

values with the observed values and

on the differences.

58

comment

INTRODUCTION. An
link or

important inversion of the four-bar linkage

double crank mechanism.

are able to

make complete

and features of

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

KJ

experiment

In this

rotations.

is

the one

experiment you

will investigate

if

have a

the frame, the resulting

make
known as

such that the shortest link can

you have what


If

is

the shortest link

and one of the adjacent

you have what

known
If

or

is

as a crank

is

links

known

type

is

is

as a double-rocker

have what

mechanism.

(B)

Fig. 9-1

see in figure 9-1,

next longest link

and one

is

is

oscillate.

fixed, both links


if

Inversions of a Four-Bar

fixed,
If

is

rotate through a full

Mechanism

it

be

link-

if

one

the longlink

may

the next shortest

may

the shortest link

DRAG-LINK

59

will

figure 9-1.

rotate

may both

And,

in

est or

link

make

double-crank mecha-

as a drag-link or

finally,

is

is,

mechanism

These three inversions of type

As you can

linkage,

used as the coupler


will

the shortest link, that

ages are illustrated

fixed, then
I

fix

nism.

and rocker.

the shortest link

you

known

a full ro-

indeed a crank

as a type

connecting rod, you

known

the characteristics

drag link mechanism.

already know, if you


with lengths
mechanism
four-bar linkage

linkage.

as the drag

type mechanism both of the links pinned to the frame

In this

DISCUSSION. As you

tation,

known

oscillate.

And

fixed, the links

360

degrees.

Fig.

Mechanism

Special Drag- Link

9-2

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 9

Fig.

Drag- Link Mechanism:

9-3

Critical Positions

If

The general requirements for a drag-link


mechanism may be obtained by looking at
what are known as the critical positions of the

the driver link has uniform motion

(angular velocity

is

constant),

will transmit

it

to the follower link a highly variable angular


velocity

as

they

both make

olution, there will be a time

about their fixed centers. This variable velocity

is

used

in practical

applications of the drag

mechanism, especially

link

frame

For example, if the length


and the
and
5
1
Q are the same
and 2 are the same, then when
lengths of
c
makes one revolution, the driver link
link

type mechanisms.
of

full rev-

when each

of the

rotating links will be colinear with the fixed

quick-return

in

Since both links rotate a

mechanism.

rotations

full

(link

our diagram). At

in

formed

a triangle will be

as

is

this

shown

time

in fig-

ure 9-3.

links

fi

.|

will

made two

have

revolutions.

This

that the following relationships must be true

is

illustrated in figure 9-2.

in

In this special drag-link

the critical positions you can see

From

order for this mechanism to function:

mechanism where

< +C c

(9 ' 1)

<fi 1

+R 2 -o

(9 2)

the driver length equals the frame distance be-

tween pivot points, and where the connecting


rod length equals the driven lever length, the
driving angle

c1

and the driven angle are nearly

<5 c + 2-

(9 3)
"

proportional over a considerable portion of

the cycle. In the position


a
in

20-degree

movement

approximately

shown

of crank

20-degree

in
-|

figure 9-2,

These three

will result

that the shortest link

movement

ments for

of

crank 8 2 Much beyond this 20-degree movement, however, finds crank C 2 remaining alstill

as crank

a drag-link

equalities link

most

inequalities,

C-j

cranks and link S c


rod.

continues to rotate.

60

and
is

is

coupled with the fact


fixed, are the require-

mechanism.
link

In these in-

are the rotating

the coupler or connecting

EXPERIMENT 9

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
We

now

will

tions of crank

crank.

Let's

look at the

which

two

You can

in-line posi-

from

assume that these two positions

w '"

Crank 2

represent a desired output.

by inspection that

see

time

this

ment from

De

The time required

to "].

'1

left

to right position

will

move

be longer than the time required to

be the driven

will

DRA G-LINK MECHANISM

for move-

is

the driver crank and will be rotating at a constant angular velocity.

determine
time
to

it

there

takes crank

move

this

if

is

The problem

a difference

to

move

will

to the

left

to the right and to determine

time difference

be to

between the

(9.5)

and

what

will be.

To check

if t-j

revolution

plus t2 equals the time for one

we add equation

9.4 to 9.5 and see

that

+t 2- T

*1

L^60^

= T [ 180 + 0

360

+ 180-0

+0 ]

360

L
=

+T

T 360] _ T
1

L360J

and since

tion, the

two expressions

equals the time for one revolu-

add to equal

will

this time.

9-4

Fig.

You
that link

Drag- Link Motion Analysis

The

figure 9-4 can be

can see by the sketch


-|

position to

will travel
its

extreme

from
left

its

in

figure 9-4

extreme

position

right

when

shown

in

found by using the cosine


It is

im-

portant to draw a sketch of a proposed drag

link

link

Since 2
travels at a constant rate, the time required

motion

law and the lengths of the linkages.

^2 moves from position '2 to 2.


for this

values of angles 6 and

mechanism to check the possible motions

graphically as well as using analytical techniques.

The cosine law

gives the following

is

relationships.

(1

(9.4)

6 = arc cos

2 2 ( 1

(9.6)

0)

where
t

is
1

is

the time of motion from "1 to

'1

the time of one rotation of link 2

61

= arc cos

1+ 0

2
)

2 2 ( 1

-( 2
c

+ 0

+ 22

(9.7)
)

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 9
MATERIALS

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers


2 Bearing holders with bearings

2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2


2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

in.

with bearings

2 Collars

arm 2

Lever

Lever arm

1/4

1/4

in.

in.

Steel rule

*1

in.

long with

bore hub
1

in.

long with

bore hub

Reverse link

in.

long
in.

long

2 Disk dials

2 Dial indexes and mounts


2 Sheets of linear graph paper

*For

link

construction details see appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Inspect each of your

Construct the mechanism shown

be 2-3/4

in.

are not

components to be sure they


in

figure 9-5.

damaged.

Note that the bearing

plate shaft should

above the breadboard.

3.

Allow the mechanism to find

4.

Rotate the

dial fixed to

its

own

"rest" position and set both dials to zero.

the shorter lever arm

in

20-degree increments and record the

angular displacement of the other dial at each increment. Continue in this

way

until

you

have completed a whole revolution.


5.

RPM,
Assuming that the driver lever arm was turning at a constant angular velocity of 100
used in
compute and record the angular velocity of the follower in each of the increments
step 4.

6.

Plot a

smooth curve of the follower

conditions of step

lever arm's

displacement versus time assuming the

5.

7.

Similarly plot the follower lever arm's velocity versus time.

8.

as
Repeat steps 4 through 7 using the longer lever arm as the driver and the shorter arm

the follower.
9.

Measure and record the length of each

link in the

62

mechanism.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 9

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

2-IN.

LEVER

1-IN.

LEVER

01

10

0
2 3/4"
2-1

LINK

n
U

5-5

The Experimental Setup

63

EXPERIMENT 9

Angular Veloc-

Follower

Driver

ity (Rad/sec.)

Position

Position

Driver

Follower

Angular Veloc-

Position

Position

ity (Rad/sec.)

20

20

40

40

60

60

80

80

100

100

120

120

140

140

160

160

180

180

200

200

220

220

240

240

260

260

280

280

300

300

320

320

340

340

360

360
B

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

c
Fig.

9-6

Data Table First

Fig.

Trial

9-7

Data Table Second

Trial

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Draw a sketch of your experimental setup using figure 9-3 as a guide. Indicate on your sketch the maximum and minimum points of velocity of the follower shaft. Add
additional

comments

the measured lengths,

of your

show

own

to clarify the actions involved in drag-link mechanisms. Using

that the experimental

discussion for a drag-link.

64

mechanism

satisfies

the conditions given

in

the

EXPERIMENT 9

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DRAG-LINK MECHANISM

PROBLEMS
1.

Figure 9-3 has linkages with the following lengths:


7

in.;

and

= 9

in.

is

fi

= 4

in.; C-j

= 10.5

in.;

and 2 is the driver. How many degrees must


from the extended colinear position to the over-

a fixed link

crank 2 rotate to carry crank

C-]

lapping colinear position?


2.

If

crank 2

in

problem

rotates at

200 RPM, what

is

the time required for crank

C-|

to rotate from the extended colinear position to the overlapping colinear position?

What

is

the time for

its

Assume

return?

that crank C 2 rotates in a counterclockwise

direction.

and discuss three

3.

List

4.

Assume

that link

spectively,

RPM, how

and that
long will

vertical position

How

long will

it

practical applications for the drag link

and

link

links t'

it

and

fi

Link

take for link 2

in figure

9-3 are 6 inches and 10 inches,

7 and 8 inches.
2 are

take link 2

downward?

to the upright position?

shown

C-|

mechanism.

If

link

-|

is

is

rotating in a counterclockwise direction.

to rotate from the vertical

Compute the

ratio of these

65

600
upward to a

rotating at

to rotate from a vertical position


C-|

re-

two

downward

times.

position back

expert men

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

10

do not require any of the links to turn


can be
applications a type III four-bar mechanism
through a complete revolution. In many such
th.s
of
experiment we shall examine the operat.on
to achieve the desired motion. In this

INTRODUCTION. Many

practical four-bar applications

used
type of four-bar mechanism.

DISCUSSION. Double

rockers, like

four-bar mechanisms, must be possible mechshorter


anisms. That is, the sum of the three
links

must be longer than the longer

link.

With

this condition satisfied, the easiest

way

to get a double rocker


link shorter

this

is

to

make the coupling

than any other. Figure 10-1 shows

any combination such that the

of the longest and the shortest links is


gives
greater than the sum of the other two

sum
a

double rocker, no matter which

We

can get some

of this
limiting

link

The

positions.

shown

principal

in figure 10-2.

*WSSMS5CTS^^^

Fig.

10-1

Double- Rocker Mechanism

(b)

Cc + e 2 LIMIT

Fig.

10-2

ec + 1

CRITICAL POSITION

Double- Rocker Critical Positions

66

is

fixed.

insight into the operation

type of mechanism by considering

positions are

type of double rocker.

(a)

In general,

other

all

its

limiting

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
we

If

with the driver

start

(])

in

the

counterclockwise limiting position as shown


in

we

figure 10-2a,

must

Now
you

reaches

clockwise limit as shown

At

10-2b.

see that while

will

limit,

has reached

has not.

again,

We

its

find

2 could continue to go counterclockwise until


it reaches the position shown in figure 10-3.

in figure

this point the link lengths

you examine figure 10-2a

if

counterclockwise

reach the point where the follower


its

wish to build a double-

(10.1)

Then, as we rotate the driver clockwise,

we can

we

if

mechanism which has the limiting


positions shown in figure 10-2, then must
be less than Q and 2 must be less than #1-

see that the link lengths

+ 2 <fi 0 + 1

see that

rocker

satisfy the inequality.

fi

we

So,

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

10

must

(Note that this figure

is

not to

scale.)

satisfy the inequality

< 0 + 2

(10.2)

we add these two


and 10.2) we have
If

2 c + 2 +

Subtracting

-,

inequalities (10.1

<2e 0 +

2 + ]) from each side gives us

2C

< 2 Q
Fig.

or

< o

(10.3)

If

10-3

1 - c Limiting Position

this kind of limiting

is

to occur, then

the link lengths must satisfy the inequality


or, in

other words, c must be


if
we subtract the two original
less

than Q

Similarly,

inequalities

we

e 2"

Adding

have

fi

<C
2-|)

< 2 + 1-c

or
" C
1

to

both

sides

renders

2 2 <2.,

In

0 + c

other words,

if

< 2 + 1
we want

have this type of


or

lengths which
versely, this

(10.4)

67

0 + c

is

(10.5)

the mechanism to

limiting

we choose

satisfy this condition.

link

Con-

type of limiting cannot occur

greater than +
2

if

EXPERIMENT

It is

also possible to construct a double-

shown

case the

this

In

rocker mechanism which passes through the


critical position

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

10

lengths

link

must

satisfy

the inequality

in figure 10-4.

0 -e c

<e c +

or

As

before,

this condition

!/

<o-*2>

do
0'

Fig.

10-4

- C

we

< 2 -i

(10.6)

can produce or prevent

by choosing

link lengths

which

or do not satisfy this condition.

There are other double-rocker limiting


and critical conditions; however, they do not
introduce new inequalities so we will not
consider

Position
2 Critical

them

at this time.

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

2 Dial indexes with mounts

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Lever arm 2

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

2 Bearing holders with bearings

Lever arm

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

*1

2 Shaft hangers with bearings


2 Shafts 4" X 1/4"

Reverse link 3/4


Steel rule

in.

in.

long

long

2 Sheets of linear graph paper

2 Collars

*For

2 Disk dials

link construction details see

Appendix A.

PROCEDURE
components to be sure they

1.

Inspect each of your

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

3.

Looking from the right

At
4.

this point set

Move

both

in

through

figure 10-5,

move the

longer lever

arm to

Continue

Take

in this

way

until

particular note of

in

10-degree steps.

On

in

its

clockwise

limit.

Record both

dial

you reach the counterclockwise limit


what occurs if the mechanism passes

a critical position.

Starting at the counterclockwise limit of the longer lever arm, slowly

zero
6.

figure 10-5.

the input link (longer lever arm) from zero

readings at each step.

undamaged.

dials to zero.

of the longer lever arm.

5.

in

are

move

it

back toward

10-degree steps. Again record both the input and output dial readings.

a sheet of graph paper plot the input displacement versus

both sets of data.

68

output displacement for

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

10

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

0
[0

0]

3 0

2-IN.

INDEX

LINK

LEVER

INDEX

0LU0

0
in

1-IN.

DIAL

LEVER

DIAL

Fig.

10-5

The Experimental Setup

69

EXPERIMENT

10

7.

linkage
Measure and record the length of each

8.

Move the bearing


2-1/2

9.

the mechanism ( 0 1f
,

and K c ).

by approximately

in..

Repeat steps 3 through

in

shafts are separated


plate assembly sideways until the

8.

ANALYSIS GUIDE. In analyzing


Te^ve motion between the driver
How can you
spacing
h
e ify

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

he inequalities given

in

should discuss the


the data from this experiment you
the effect of changing
and follower in each case. Consider
Using your link d.mensions you can
explain this effect?
Which ones were satisfied for each case? Make

the discussion.

aw ng of each mechanism and

conditions that
discuss the limiting and critical

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

0O

01

o=-

Fig.

10-6

=-

Data Table

70

you encountered.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

10

Counterclockwise

Clockwise

0-

0,

0-

2-=
*c

Fig.

10-7

Data Table

II

PROBLEMS
1.

The four-bar mechanism shown


= C = 14
= 10 in and

-'

in

figure

=8
c

in -

10-8

WiM

has the following dimensions:


this

mechanism work as

double

rocker?

Fig.

71

10-8

Four-Bar Mechanism

EXPERIMENT

10

that
10-8 assume an E 1 - * c limiting position like
position.
so, draw a sketch of it in that

shown

like that
10-8 assume an C Q - 2 critical position
a sketch of it in that position.

shown

Can the mechanism

2.

in figure

10-3?

If

Can the mechanism

3.

in figure

10-4?

If

in figure

in figure

so,

make

in figure

Write the inequality that the link lengths

4.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DOUBLE-ROCKER MECHANISM

10-9

Fig.

that your result

Mechanism for Problem

problem 4

is

Show

6.

satisfied
Write the inequality that must be

if

figure 10-10

^5SSMSS^^

7.

Show

that your result

in

10-10

Mechanism

problem 6

is

<V

e,

Fig.

4.

discussion.
identical to inequality 10-5 in the

5.

in

10-9 must satisfy.

is

for

to exist.

i>

Problem 6

discussion.
identical to inequality 10-6 in the

72

INTRODUCTION. The
linkage mechanism.

FOUR-BAR SUMMARY

11

experiment

four-bar mechanism

experiment we sha

In this

of the four-bar

mechanism

DISCUSSION.

considered by some specialists to be the basic

is
I

examine the

link length

classes.

linkage

rocker or type

an assembly of

is

mechanical components wherein the various

shows the

members move relative to each other and each


component has a prescribed form of motion.

output links

requirements for each

mechanism.

Figure 11-2

motion of the input and


of a crank-rocker mechanism.

relative

mechanism is composed of
interconnected links, one of which is fixed
Figure 11-1 shows a schematic of such a
four-bar

In this sketch 2

mechanism.
link,

is

the input (or driver)

the coupling link, and 2


driven)

Pi,

link.

and

is

is

the fixed
link,

all

free

is

tne output (or

The connecting points

P2 are

0,

0',

to allow relative

rotation between the connected links.

the input link, 1# can rotate through

If

full

link

revolution and this causes the output


to

rotate

revolution, the

through

only

mechanism

is

part

of a

called a crank-

Fig.

73

11-1

Four-Bar Mechanism

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y

1 1

+ C must be greater than


2
Otherwise the mechanism could not
+
Q
assume the position shown. Stated symbol-

we

analyzing any four-bar mechanism,

In

the relative link length to insure


that the mechanism is physically possible to
We can do this by checking to see if
build.

we

the

of the three shorter

greater than the longest link.

is

fi

ically this

is

lengths

link

they aren't,

If

fi

first test

sum

see that

>e 0 + e

then they simply won't reach the required


points.

connecting

If

mechanism

the

is

possible to build,

can write three of these statements.

analysis of the critical positions.


Critical

for figure

is,

(or

In the crank-rocker

each other.

mechanism

Notice that as

of these positions.

counterclockwise,
ear with 0 as

eventually

it

output

this occurs, the

link

becomes

is sti

"

colin-

m vin g

its

+c c

<K 0 + e +K 2
1

down

to write

the three

for

all

critical positions,

four

we would have

total of twelve separate inequalities.

Among

twelve statements there would be a


number of duplications. In fact there would

these

be only

Of these six
them would indicate

six different inequalities.

relationships, three of
that one link was shorter than the sum of the
This is, of course, the
other three links.

In

the counterclockwise direction.

nas reacned tne limit of


2
This position
counterclockwise travel.

words,

other

statements relating the lengths of the linkages

As the input link continues its rotation, it


soon becomes colinear with 2 C as shown in figure 1 1 -3b. At this time 2 has traveled as far as
in

<e 0 +

we were

If

When

counterclockwise.

can

are

rotates

C-]

in figure 11 -3a.

shown

T3a

and

shown in figure 11-2 there are four possible


Figure 11-3 shows all four
critical positions.

it

positions are those positions in

more) of the links are colinear.


two or more links are lined up with

which two

That

two

we
The other

critical positions

For any one of the

we then proceed with an

we

condition that

could be called the counterclockwise limiting

the

test for

of

possibility

physical

when we
a

consider

mechanism.

position.

As

clockwise,
in figure

it

continues

finally reaches the position

colinear with Q ,
Finally,

figure

In this position

11 -3c.

and

is

1-3d where

is

These three relationships

again

shown

in

again colinear with


its

are:

This time 2 has reached

inequalities are the

only ones that are useful for linkage analysis.

shown

moving clockwise.

reaches the position


it is

The remaining three

counter-

rotation

its

1< e c + C 2- o

l<-c +

e2

+ o

{11 2)
-

clockwise lim-

<8c -2 + eo

(11 " 3)

iting position.

can get some further insight into the


relative link length requirements by manipFor example, if
ulating these relationships.

We

In

each of the

critical

positions

we can

write mathematical statements about the


ative link lengths.

For example,

in figure

rel-

we add

1-3a

74

1 1

and

1 1

.2

we have

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

1 1

FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y

EXPERIMENT

2.,

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y

1 1

< 2fi 2 or

2-,

<C 2

The

(11.4a)

first

than the
Similarly, adding 11.1

And

finally,

<2C c orC 1 < c

adding

2C n

sum

of

and 2

is

shorter

,ess %"\-

and 11.3

On
2-|

of these indicates that Q

1.2

and

the other hand, the second and third

0 is longer
between c and

that

1.3

<2 0 ore <C Q

than 1 plus the difference

We

can state both these

conditions as
(11.4c)

c-

2l

+e <C 0 <

2-

(11.5)

fi

Comparing these three relationships we observe


that -| must be the shortest link in a crank-

est

rocker mechanism.

necessary for a crank-rocker mechanism.

We

This relationship, together with the shortlink

being

and 11.3 into the forms

type

II

<c c + e 2 -

-*2 +

8 2 -fi c

make up the conditions

or drag link

input link

C-j,

The mechanism shown

can rearrange inequalities 11.1, 11.2,

mean

inequalities can be taken together to

(11.4b)

revolution,
1

(])

in figure

1-4

When

mechanism.

is

the

of this mechanism makes a

the output

link

also

goes

through a complete revolution.

i< c o

Analyzing the drag-link mechanism using


the critical positions,

+ *1<o
P2

Fig.

11-4

Drag- Link Mechanism

76

we

find that the fixed

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

link

(fi

must

and

be shortest

that

the

c-

5
ll

1 1

inequality 11.5

is

FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y
not

satisfied,

we

then

will

have a double-rocker instead of a drag-link.

inequality

EXPERIMENT

o< E 2<c + 1-o

It

(11.6)

fi

should be noted that either a crank-

rocker or drag link can be used as a double-

rocker simply

must be

satisfied.
in

Notice that
considered so

in

get a

A type

good hint about

operation simply by identifying the shortest

link

some way.

both of the mechanisms

we

far,

by confining the input

IV mechanism having an indefinite

motion relationship
equal sign appears

is

in

produced whenever an

either inequality

1.5 or

link.

11.6 instead of an inequality sign.

The type
in

figure 11-5

is

four-bar

mechanism shown

sometimes called a double-

rocker mechanism.

Critical position analysis

reveals that there are three alternate

If

we

the connecting link

will

hand,

if

( c )

have a double-rocker.
the input link

is

II

the shortest

On

III

in

either type

I,

depending on outside

reconstraints and load conditions.

In
is

or type

ways to

one of these mechanisms.

build

may operate

mechanism
type

Such

the other

the shortest but

classify

the
11.5

conslusion,

we

see

that

we

can

four-bar mechanisms by identifying

shortest

and

link

11.6.

and

testing

inequalities

EXPERIMENT

1 1

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R SUM MA R Y

MATERIALS
Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Bearing plates with spacers
2 Bearing holders with bearings

Lever arm 2

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

2 Shaft hangers 1-1/2


2 Shafts 4" X 1/4"

in.

Lever arm

with bearings

*1

Reverse link 2

*1

Reverse link 3/4


Steel rule

in.

long

in.

long

long

in.

4 Collars

*For

link construction details see

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1.

Consider a mechanism having link lengths of:

fi

= 1.0

in.

= .75

in.

2.

Test this mechanism to insure that

3.

Using the methods described

in

= 2.0

in.

= 2.0

in.

it is

Show your work.

physically possible.

the discussion, classify the mechanism by type.

Show

your work and your conclusion.


4.

Using components from the materials


specified in step

5.

6.

construct

mechanism having the

Examine the operation of the mechanism.

Does

it

agree with your classification?

Stop

Slowly go through one complete input motion cycle.


and make a sketch of the mechanism.
Write three valid inequalities for each

8.

Repeat steps

Repeat steps

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

link lengths

1.

7.

9.

list,

through 7 for

critical position.

linkages of:

mechanism having

.,

= 1.0

in.

fi

= 1.5

in.

fi

= 2 0in
-

= .75

fi.,

= 1.0in.

= 2.5

fi

In analyzing

your

in.

results

from

2
c

in.

through 7 for a mechanism having linkages

at each critical position

of:

= 2 0in
-

= 2.0

in.

this exercise

you should consider which

in analyzing the corresponding mechanism.


the inequalities you wrote would be useful
the critical positions.
any instability you observed in the mechanisms at

78

of

Discuss

EXPERIMENT

1 1

FOUR-BA R SUMMA R Y

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROBLEMS
1.

Write the twelve

2.

Which of the

inequalities

inequalities in

for the

problem

critical

positions

shown

in

figure

11-3.

simply state that one link must be shorter

than the sum of the remaining links?


3.

Draw sketches showing four

4.

Repeat problem

mechanism

in

problem

3.

5.

Repeat problem 2 for the mechanism

in

problem

3.

6.

Which

7.

for the

inequalities in

positions of a type

critical

problem 3 are the most useful

Using your inequalities from problem

6,

in a drag-link.

79

show

in

that C

II

four-bar mechanism.

analyzing the mechanism?

Q must be the shortest

link

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms
In this

characteristics.

FOUR-BAR PROBLEM

12

experiment

are

always designed

almost

experiment we

have

to

input/output

specific

examine one design approach which can be used

shall

with double-rocker mechanisms.

DISCUSSION. A common problem


design of mechanisms

is

in

that of converting one

motion into another. Any type of

oscillatory

To

the

four-bar mechanisms will accomplish this purpose and this approach is usually the simplest

solve this

problem we

the

will invert

mechanism by assuming that link 2 remains


30
fixed and rotate the frame (link 0
)

degrees counterclockwise.

assume the two levers


that are to rock are 8 inches apart and the
driving lever is 12 inches long. When the drivand most

ing

lever

Let's

logical.

swings 20 degrees,

we

desire the

driven lever to swing 30 degrees.

The problem

is

to find the length of the

driven rocker and the length of the coupler


The given elements of the problem are
link.

shown

in

12-1.

figure

identified as link

-|

The

driver

link

is

and the distance between

the two rocker pivots is labeled link Q and is


shown as the frame. We will assume that the
initial

position

parallel to link

of

the

driven

link,

is

Double- Rocker Problem Solution

12-2

Fig.

8-j.

The
Pi

position of point 0" will be in

relationship to link 2 as

proper

if

link c 2

its

nad

From this
30 degrees clockwise.
its second
in
drawn
point 0", link ] is

rotated

position (angle

0-20 degrees).

Point
of link
12-2.

in
is

"inverted"

position

shown

in figure

labeled P"i as

The next

point ?'\.

this

You

step

is

to connect point

might note that point

P-j

P-|

is

to
in

the proper relative position to link C 2 after


both links have rotated through their desig-

nated number of degrees.

The perpendicular
Fig.

12-1

Double- Rocker Design Problems

is

80

next drawn.

On

bisector of line P-|-P"i

this line will be

found the

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

center of any circle passing through the

two

Therefore,

the

of

positions

relative

intersection of the

point P 2

P-j.

line

and

link

gives us

The

solving the linkage problem.

completed mechanism shown


sired positions

in

its

two

de-

illustrated in figure 12-3.

is

a practical situation the next step

FOUR-BA R PROBL EM

12

In

would be to

check the solution by assembling and trying


out the design.

Reference Diagram for

12-4

Fig.

Freudenstein's Equation

we consider each of the


we know that the sum

If

vector,

components must equal


C

cos

of the

zero:

+ C 2 cos

cos 6 + 0

-|

links as a

= 0
(12.1)

Fig.

Also,

Completed Double- Rocker Design

12-3

the

sum

of the

components must

equal zero:

One

of the most useful analytical equa-

two
named

tions for coordinating the motions of


levers

is

the Freudenstein equation

who

for the engineer

derived

it.

The previous

levers, this

approach

more

sin

= 0

(12.2)

2.2 gives the following expressions:

fairly straightforward.

is

finish with only close approx-

imations, the geometrical approach

creasing

sin 6
1

and with two positions of the

Although you
accurate

Squaring and rearranging equations 12.1 and

problem was solved using geometrical layout


techniques,

sin

is

usually

enough for most purposes.

demands

for precision

In-

cos

sin

a=

(K

a=

2
cos 0 - Q - 2 cos 0) (12.3)

sin 9 -

sin

0)

(12.4)

require that

Expanding both sides of equations 12.3 and

analytical approach be taken.

12.4, then adding gives

Figure 12-4 shows a general layout for

any four-bar mechanism.


tions

that

we

those labeled
the figure and

The angular

posi-

= K 2
1

+C o 2 + 2 2

" 2C 1 o

cosd

are usually interested in are

0
is

and

6.

used

in

Angle a

is

- 22

labeled in

2 C-|

the derivation of the


sin 6 sin

Freudenstein equation.

81

cos0 cos0- 2C 2 e 1

- 22

cos
2 Q

EXPERIMENT
By

this

rewriting

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BA R PROBL EM

12

equation,

we

In

derive the

our problem we assumed

for the driver link,

Freudenstein equation

we assume
K1 cos 0

K2

cos 0

K3 =

cos (0 - 0) (12.5)

where:

now

the driven

a position

called link ),

now called

link,

and

link

2^ The initial angles


to be
= 1 10. The movement
are: 6 = 100 and 0
of link C-| is 20 degrees clockwise and we
parallel to link

desired a corresponding

movement

of link 2

set of angular

Ki =

through 30 degrees. The second


80.
positions is: 6 = 90 and 0 =

V*1

K 2 = 0/

fi

2
first set

Substituting the
2
K 3 =(e 02+ 2

fi

2+e
c

2)/(2 2 e l)
1

may be used to
mechanisms when you desire

This
linkage

equation

of angles into

the Freudenstein equation (12.5) gives

cos 110 = -.34202

solve

three

K-,

K 2 (cos

(cos 110) -

110) +

different positions of both of the rocker arms.


Three different angular positions inserted into

= cos(110 - 110)
= -0.34202K-,

equation 12.5 would give you three equations

+ 0.34202 K 2 +

in

three unknowns.

Ki,

K 2 and K 3
,

value of one

You

can then solve for

Knowing, or assuming, the

length

K3

Kg

And

of a link permits the

K}

since

0.66667,

(K^

0 /#i

= 8/12), then

complete solution.

0.34202K 2 + K 3 = 1.22801
Let's

use

this

equation

to

solve

(12.6)

the

problem previously solved by geometric means.


Figure 12-5 restates the problem using the

Using the second set of angular positions


gives

linkage nomenclature used in Freudenstein's

equation.

(0.66667) (cos 80) -

K2

(cos 90) +

K3

= (80-90)

From which we

K3

find that

Substituting equation

K2

(12.7)

= 0.86904

12.7

into

= 1.04955

110

Since

K2

fi

0 / 2

8
Fig.

12-5

Double- Rocker Problem Relabeled

82

1.04955

= 7.6223

21.6 gives

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Using the expression for

EXPERIMENT

K3

given with equa-

You can
rather

Inserting the corresponding values of 6

with

those

means shown

graphical

now have

compare

determined

in figure

a technique of

may

mechanism

if

three sets of angular relationships are given.

see that these values

closely

This technique

also be used to determine the

= 10.358

known.

positions are

tion 12.5 determines that

FOUR-BAR PROBLEM

12

by

three unknowns, K-j,

You

12-3.

accurately the lengths of linkages

when

linkage

length

known

these values to a

determining quite

and

you three separate equations in the


K 2 and K3. Applying

will give

will

or to an assumed

give

the

of

rest

the

mechanism dimensions.

angular

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Dial indexes with mounts

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Lever arm

4 Bearing holders with bearings


2 Shafts 4" X 1/4"
2 Disk dials

Lever arm 2

Wire

Steel rule 6

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

in.

long with 1/4

in.

bore hub

link (length

determined by student)

long

in.

PROCEDURE
1.

A
of

certain double-rocker application has an input link


1

The two

in.

links are parallel

45 clockwise, the output


C
2.

0 and

Record your

when they

link rotates 90.

(])

of 2

are vertical.

in.

and an output

When

link (

the input link rotates

Using the Freudenstein equation, determine

results in the data table.

Verify graphically that your values are correct.

Turn

in

your graphical verification with

your data.
3.

Construct a straight wire link to use for

fi

Construction details

may

be found

in

Appendix A.
4.

5.

Assemble the mechanism.


Attach dials to the input and output

arms are pointing


6.

Rotate the input

vertically
dial

shafts.

Set

8.

to indicate 90

when both

lever

upward.

clockwise

in

5 steps.

Record both input and output angle

point until you have covered the range specified


7.

them

in

step

at each

1.

Plot a curve of input versus output angular displacement.

Reset the dials and indexes so that they read 90

when the

levers are pointing straight

down.
9.

Repeat steps

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
mechanism
the

satisfies

6,

In

and

7.

your analysis of these data you should discuss the extent to which the

the original requirements.

Was the input

two data runs agree with each other?


83

to output relationship linear? Did

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FOUR-BAR PROBLEM

12

=
c

Second

First Trial

Fig.

12-6

Trial

The Data Table

PROBLEMS
of mechanism was used in the experiment?

1.

What type

2.

Give three different practical uses for the double-rocker mechanism.

3.

Show how

equation 12.5

is

obtained from the previous equation given

in

the

discussion of this experiment.


4.

Using either graphical or analytical techniques, design a four-bar mechanism that


through 26
will place the follower lever through 15 degrees as the driver lever goes
moves
follower
degrees; then, as the driver lever goes another 33 degrees, the

through

1 1

degrees.

In all cases the angular

84

movement

is

in

the clockwise direction.

experiment

INTRODUCTION. Another
and compressors

is

experiment we

DISCUSSION.
sible versions
(a) illustrates

engines and
is

SLIDER

"\

is

will

examine the mechanical


shows four pos-

common mechanism

pumps where the

Fig.

One

it.

mechanism that

your automobile engine.


mechanism.
in

In

other three alternatives have the block sliding


along a link but one of the other links

in

guide or frame

moves along

13-1

used

pumps,

engines,

in

application of this type

details of this

of a slider crank linkage. Sketch

fixed and the block

N K M E C HA NI S M S

that of the piston and the crank shaft

Figure 13-1

the

CRA

type of four link mechanism commonly used

the slider-crank mechanism.

you are familiar with


this

The

These alternatives

will

experiment

but

you

them used

different applications.

in

not be analyzed
will

Different Versions of a Slider- Crank Linkage

85

is

fixed.
in this

occasionally

see

EXPERIMENT

MECHANSIMS/LINKAGES

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

13

TDC

BDC

SLIDING

BLOCK

Fig.

13-2

Slider Crank Notation

mechanism to
Figure 13-2 illustrates the
The connectbe discussed in this experiment.
is known as the
ion to the sliding block
The crank in figure 13-2 is labeled
wristpin.

and

When

its

center of rotation

the wristpin

its

center,

away from the crank


top dead center.

at

is

When

it

is

travel farthest

it is
is

labeled 0.

said to be at

crank mechanism, like most


analyzed for
four link mechanisms, can be
graphical
most practical purposes by using

The

slider

positions as well
drawing showing the extreme

dustrial

closest to the

of motion as
crank center is on the same line
from the crank
the slider, the TDC position

can

(BDC)

to

said

is

much

complicated

For example,

expressing
you have a complicated equation
crank involving
the motion of the slider
trigonometric functions, the computer
several

equation for

programmed

be

readily

to

many small increments

displacement of the crank.

minutes after
-i

in-

if

center equals

upon the

fairly

easier to solve.

is

TDC

made

has

scene

The

dimensions.

appearance of the computer

equations

it

intermediate

known

as

be at bottom
The difference between top
dead center.
dead center
dead center (TDC) and bottom
known as the stroke. When the
center,

crank

This usually consists of a scale

techniques.

it is

solve

this

of angular

In just a

few

programmed, the computer

displacements,
can give you a tabulation of
Let's look at
and accelerations.

(13.1)

velocities,

The

position of the wristpin at

BDC

equals

way

slider
of analyzing the motion of the

block shown

BDC =

(13.2)

-2i

As shown, we
connecting

The

TDC
13.1

stroke

and

equals the

BDC

as

between

difference

expressed

in

in figure 13-2.

rod,

equal to k; that

will

c,

to

the ratio of the


be
the crank, t

let

is,

equations

and 13.2
Stroke =

TDC - BDC

-(K c -i) = 2K 1

+ c )

and since
h = 1 sin

(13.3)

86

0=

sin 0

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

You

then

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

13

can see that you can quite readily solve

equation 13.7 forgiven values of crank angular


sin 0

sin

displacement.
(13.4)

Since the error

The movement of the

slider, d,

is

also use equation

imate

solutions

is

quite small,

we

shall

13.7 to determine approxto the slider velocity

and

acceleration for given crank angle positions.

d =

- 8

cos

0 - c cos 0
The

(1

-cos0) +

-cosfl)

<1

velocity of the slider equals the first

derivative of 13.7, or

(13.5)

From trigonometry we know


= yj\
sin

- sin 2

Vp =

that

cos

\
0+ sin
2k
/~*\

'

ioj( sin

(13.8)

Substituting the value of

0.

from equation

13.4

into

gives

this

and acceleration equals the


equation

first derivative

of

13.8, or the second derivation of

equation 13.7 which equals

cos0= v4l-^)
k2

ap = ico 2 (cos
Therefore,

substituting

equation

into

(1

cos

20
(13.9)

13.5
In

d = C1

cos)

equation 13.8 and 13.9,

velocity of the crank

link.

co

the angular

is

K,

and positive

values indicate counterclockwise rotation of

+ 8c ^1_ v

/l-^)

Corresponding positive values of Vp


].
and ap indicate that the velocity or acceleration
link

(13.6)

is

Although equation 13.6 does give an exact


expression for the slider displacement,
difficult to

use this for

many

it

close approximation to equation

more commonly used and the error


small.

It

13.6

As the crank rotates, the connecting rod


oscillate around point ?2, first in a
clockwise and then in a counterclockwise
direction.
Normally the linkage (fi c will
will

is

measured from

considered positive

in

is

is

quite

should be noted that the slider

placement, d,

TDC

have

an

angular

velocity

and an

angular

dis-

acceleration.

and

Keeping

in

mind that both

is

velocity and acceleration are vector quantities,

these equations.

the relative motion

the difference

is

between two points.

and point

d^!

0.

is

values of the

crank angle, 0, without the use of a computer.

toward the crank center

h
(1-cos0) +\^-

sin

P-j

V P!P
87

motion

Velocity at point

with respect to

point P2

found by

(13.7)

in

V PiO ~ V P

20

P-j
is

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

13

"P

Vp
1

Fig.

This relationship

shown

is

13-3

of frequent interest

is

the

just

simple formula has been developed which


possesses accuracy sufficient for most purposes
so

However, there are more

accurate analytical methods.

Vp 1" Vp 2

maximum velocity of the slider and


where this maximum velocity occurs.

the preceding figure to solve the

various velocities.

Another item that

in figure 13-3.

Knowing the directions and two of the


values, you can use graphical techniques as
in

Slider Block Velocities

is

shown

p2

long

the

as

lengths

of

ratio

between

and j (,,/! = k) is greater than 1.5. This


formula gives the crank angle 0 present when

The following

formulas are exact equations for calculating


the angular velocity and acceleration of the

the slider reaches

maximum

velocity:

connecting rod.

0=

" P1 p

CO

(k

(k 2

COS

v 2

co

(k

(k

- 1)

2 - sin 2

This equation

is

sin

0)

is

slider

that

angles

are

anism before concluding

/-|

will enable

aspects of existing
It

might be wise to

is

"y".

mech-

this discussion. This

illustrated in figure 13-4.

figure the offset distance

measured

ratio

briefly discuss the offset slider crank

letter

remembering

all

crank mechanisms.

situation

xco Pl p

when the

Formulas 13.1 through 13.12

2/3

connecting rod (link c ), you can then determine the velocity of the rod at point P-\ by

= ec

1/2

4.0.

(13.11)

solve the angular velocity of the

v Pl p 2

3)

accurate to within one minute

you to analyze nearly

When you

(13.10)

- sin 2 0) 1/2

of the correct angle

(13.12)

arc cos

is

In this

indicated by the

Right triangle solutions give the

expressions indicated for the distances shown

in

in

radians and not degrees.

88

the diagram.

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

n figure

the slider
at

BDC

is

it is

at
1

when
0
wm,e
2

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

13

3-4 the angle of the crank

You can

TDC

following relationships are true;

You

is

designated as

see

180 degrees. Motion of the

moves to the

right begins

located at the upper

when the crank


angle 0

is

when

arm of angle
at the lower

slider as

it

link

is

0,

we

=arcsin

arc sin

fi^Tj

j^L-

arm of the

we

ca " this angular displacement

0p

and the angular displacement


be

of the crank for the left motion of the slider

then

02 =

and ends

obvious that the offset distance,

It is

of the crank

figure also that the

can see that the motion of

the slider does not occur simply as the crank


rotates

from the

less

than the distance 5


C

mechanism to function.

It

fi-j

y,

must

for this

bears repeating

see

that graphical

9R

= 180 +

d<i

-0 2

nisms

will

purposes.

and

lems,

0L

= 180

-d } +0 2

drawings to scale of mecha-

often

As with

the sketch

be sufficient for practical


all

engineering type prob-

can serve as a check on

your analytical computations.

89

EXPERIMENT

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

13

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Dial index with

Wire loop

Steel rule 6

Spacer No.

2 Bearing mounts with bearings


2 Shafts 4" X 1/4" in.

4 Collars
2 Shaft hangers with bearings
1

Lever arm

Rigid shaft coupling

For

details of wire link construction see

link
in.

mount

in.

long

long

6X1/8

in.

long

X 1/32

in.

wall thickness

long with 1/4

in.

Disk dial

in.

bore hub

Screw 6-32 X 1/4

round head

in.

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
components to be sure they

1.

Inspect each of your

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

3.

Turn the

in

are

undamaged.

figure 13-5.

lever shaft several times to insure that the slider

moves

freely.

It

may

be de-

sirable to lubricate the slider shaft.


4.

Adjust the bearing plate assembly so that the lever shaft and the slider shaft are the

same height above the breadboard.


5.

Set the lever

arm so that

it

is

pointing directly toward the slider, then set the disk dial

to read zero.
6.

Lay the

steel rule across

slider shaft.
7.

Tape the

Starting at zero

the shaft hangers so that

rule in place

on the

dial,

if

its

zero end lines up with the end of the

necessary.

record the lever angle (0) and the slider displacement (X)

every 20 for a complete revolution of the

lever.

arm

8.

Measure and record the lengths of the

9.

For each data point (0, X) compute and record the distance

lever

(]

and coupling

link (C

c ).

(d) that

the slider has

moved from TDC.


10.

Using the lengths of the lever and wire

link,

compute and record the value of K

for this

mechanism.
11.

Use equation 13.6 and your values of, 2 1#

90

fi

and K to calculate d for each data

point.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig,

EXPERIMENT

13-5

13

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

The Experimental Mechanism


91

EXPERIMENT

13

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In

examining the

results

from

this

values of the
comparison of the measured and computed

Also discuss

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

how the mechanism acted

experiment you should make


slider

displacement

(d).

in the experiment.
at the critical positions encountered

the slider to rotate on


Did you observe any tendency of
Would rotation affect the results?

its

Fig.

a detailed

13-6

The Data Tables

92

shaft?

If so,

why

did

it

do

it?

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

13

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1.

List at least

practical application of each of the four inversions of the slider

one

block mechanism shown


2.

crank mechanism has a crank length of 2 inches and a connecting


rod length of 8 inches. The crank turns counterclockwise at 480 RPM. Find the
following values when the crank is at 60 degrees (zero degrees is at the horizontal

An

in-line slider

position

3.

in figure 13-1.

when the

slider

is

at

TDC.)

inches

a.

Slider displacement

b.

Slider velocity in ft/sec.

c.

Slider acceleration in ft/sec.

d.

Connecting rod angular velocity

e.

Connecting rod angular acceleration

f.

The crank

sliding block

in

angle giving

Make

in rad/sec.

maximum

mechanism has

in rad/sec.

slider velocity

a 2-inch crank

and

in

radians and in degrees.

a 6-inch

connecting rod.

The

horizontal and located 2 inches above the center of


a neat, scale drawing of this mechanism and determine the

stroke line of the slider

the crank.

is

length of the stroke in inches. Then, assume the crank rotates constant at 120 RPM
and determine the time in seconds for the forward and the return stroke. The crank
is

rotating in a clockwise direction.

93

INTRODUCTION.

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

14

experiment

In various

types of machines

we

differoften desire that there be a definite

this is
one direction and the return movement. When
experiment we will
called a quick-return mechanism. In this

ence between the time of a movement

in

the case, the mechanism we use is


motion.
examine some methods of obtaining a quick-return

DISCUSSION. When only


ence

is

required

in

stroke, an offset slider

be employed.

You can

a small time differ-

forward and return


crank mechanism can
see

by the mechanism

illustrated in figure 14-1, there


in

the

two

is

a difference

strokes of the sliding block. With

the crank link j rotating counterclockwise,


while
the slider will move from TDC to BDC
The rethe crank goes through an angle, 0.
0.
turn stroke will be through a larger angle,
is constant,
If the crank angular velocity u>

then the motion from

BDC

longer interval of time.

difference in this

to

TDC

takes a

is

always

frequently want a greater

time differential than

is

possible with this par-

type of mechanism. The ratio 0/0 is


as the ratio of time of advance to time

ticular

known

can determine this ratio if we


the offset distance and the lengths of

We

of return.

know

and

links

by using the trigonometric

relationship between them.

mechanism that will give us a larger


time difference between advance and return
motions is the drag link slider shown in figure

14-2.

However, the time

mechanism

We

tively small.

as the

rela-

This type mechanism

is

better

Whitworth quick-return mechanism.

STROKE BDC

Fig. 14-

Offset Sliding Block Quick-Return

94

known

TDC

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

14

CRANK CIRCLE

Whitworth Quick-Return

14-2

Fig.

Fig.

Whitworth Quick Return

14-3

with 2:

Mechanism
the Whitworth quick-return, the small

In
link,

is

fixed.

slider

is

Let's

The follower, 2 provides the


output motion. The motion from the left to
/

the right occurs as link

angle

angle 0.

6 and
the

and the return motion

is

angle

is

assume that you wish to have

be double the value of angle

through

equal to

Since

0.

120 degrees.

Knowing

this, plus either

'

we

see that

assume that we know the length of the crank.

We

Figure 14-3 shows the layout necessary.

+ 2a

arbitrarily select a rotation point for the

(14.1)

on the frame.

know

is

arc sin

0 /-|.

In other

words,

if

we

(J2

we can

of the crank

0 ),

Then we draw

through this point.

the distance between the crank center

and the driven link center

travel in

grees

is

find the time of

drawn symmetrical to

circumference of the crank

a vertical line

by the intersection of a

*V

two circumference
line

de-

thisvertical line.

circle.

line

on the

J2-|

Location

of the pivot for the driven crank 2

and by knowing the angular velocity of crank

of the follower, 2 2 ,

crank

Next an angle of 240

This locates the positions of crank

and the length

one direction by using equation 14.1

The end

the

or of the distance Q
can construct the desired mechanism. Let's

length of the crank

equal to

0=180
where a

+ 0 equals 360 degrees, then 0 would be


240 degrees and 0 would be equal to

'

You can

through

As you can see in figure 14-2, angles


are made by crank ) when 2 s n

horizontal position.

angle 0

travels

Ratio

mechanism take twice as long to return as to


advance. This means that you want to have

attached to the

driver link, i^.

is

found

between these

positions and the vertical

through 62 s pivot. We now have


a 0/0 ratio of 2 to 1

mech-

anism giving

can De con "

nected to whatever mechanism you wish to


drive.

The

ratio of

In the

to 0 will give the time-

of-advance to time-of-return relationship.

if

95

the crank

mechanism shown

in figure 14-2,

takes three seconds to

make

EXPERIMENT

14

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

Fig. 14-4

Crank Shaper Quick Return Mechanism


the cutting tool

at a
one complete revolution and is turning
wiM
constant speed, then the output link 2

take

two seconds to

zontal position to

And

its

rotate

from

for the return to

its

its left

is

idle in

the reverse or non-

cutting direction, this operation

quick as possible.

hori-

We

will

is

made

as

assume that the

counterclockwise direcCrank
tion with a constant angular velocity.
the
and
will make a complete revolution

crank

right horizontal position.

since the crank rotates only

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

120 degrees

starting position, the out-

will rotate in a

also asfollower arm will oscillate. We will


the folboth
sume that the zero position of
crank
lower arm and the crank is with the
folthe
course,
pointing downward and, of

return t0
put crank 2 wi take one second t0
horizontal position. You can see that
its left

Whitworth quick return mechanism can give


you almost any time difference you want.

lower arm

in its center position.

You can

by the skeleton drawing that our angles

The device shown in figure 14-4 is a comYou


monly used quick-return mechanism.
move the cutwill see this technique used to

6 can be determined

see

and

by drawing tangents

to

point of the
the crank circle from the pivot
follower arm.

one direction
ting tool of a shaper that cuts in
Since
only and is idle in the return direction.

Then we can draw

a line

from

tangency.
the crank pivot to these points of

96

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
The follower moves

left

back to the right through angle


crank

and

move

Since the

8.

time of motion

in

two

the

The

directions

#i

+h

2-|

to the left because

larger than angle 0.

is

or

rotating at a constant speed, the fol-

is

lower takes longer to


angle

through angle

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

14

+ d

(h

fi.,)

a
- cosa
1
sin

relative

Thus:

again

is

0/0.
(2 1

The sketch on

the left in figure 14-4

(h

is

+h
+

sin a)

d)(fi
1

cosa

.,) -

typical of the application of this type mecha-

The crank

nism.

arm OP

is

rotates and the slider in

caused to translate and oscillate

treme

right to

extreme

left as

Let's see

if

placement of point

we

is

will notice that

a function of a.

crank ] moves

from A' to A". The return movement


faster.

You

Point P moves from ex-

about pivot point 0.

can calculate the dis-

We

will let P

will

you can
the displacement equation. The

second derivative of this equation

will

give

the equation for the acceleration of point

P.

Both the velocity and the acceleration are


useful parameters

when analyzing

a practical

device such as a shaper cutting tool.

The distance from the crank

d.

mid-position.

its

P to the upper point of the crank

movement of
circle to

the equation for the

find the velocity of point P

differentiate

from the bottom position as indicated by the


position of a and crank position CA. Further,
we will let the distance from the line of
be

is

displacement of point P from

We

positive.

as

right

measure the angular displacement of

circle

in

P.

position with
Q be the zero

the

to

and d

h,

of this equation are con-

Equation 14.2

stants.

To
movement

member

the right

much

equation 14.2 gives x as

Also note that K-p

will

be

P 0 P,

h.

we

Once

will call x.

values are inserted for a, d and h,

the derivatives of equation 14.2 are easy to

#1

Take an
and draw

will

a perpendicular to the vertical

first

be dx/da.

obtain

BA. Then we know that

centerline

The

obtain.

arbitrary position of the crank

is

derivative of equation 14.2

But the velocity

If we remember the
we have little difficulty

dx/dt.

relationship,

we

wish to

following
obtaining

dx/dt:

AB

OB

OC

You can
and

sin

+ CB =

(h

cosa)

_ dx _ dx da _
"
dt
da dt "

!o_

o0

w dx
da

(14.3)

OAB

are similar; thus

VP "

see in figure 14-4 that triangles

OPP 0

Using the relationships

AB
OB

in

we simply

multiply the

tion 14.2

by the angular velocity of crank

first derivative

to obtain the velocity of point

97

equation 14.3

P.

of equa-j

EXPERIMENT

14

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

Another type of quick return mechanism

more conventional four-bar arrangement. Figure 14-5 shows an example of such


an arrangement. The four-bar mechanism is a

employs

drag-link assembly and the stroke of the block


limited as shown in figure 14-6. The actual

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

can be found by making a scale drawing of


the mechanism. It is not uncommon for the
ratio

0/0 to be
In

return

is

length of the stroke and the time ratio 0/0

duce

some

as smal

as

0.

two or more quickused in tandem to pro-

applications

mechanisms are
compound 0/0 ratio.

WMMMMMMMfflr
Fig.

14-5

Fig.

14-6

Four-Bar Quick Return Mechanism

Stroke of Four-Bar Quick-Return

98

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

14

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

MATERIALS
1

Disk dial

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Dial index

2 Shaft hangers with bearings

Rigid coupling

4 Bearing holders with bearings

Screw 6-32 x 1/4 roundhead

2 Shafts 2" x 1/4"

Spacer

Breadboard with

Shaft 4" x 1/4"

Collars

legs

and clamps

Lever

arm 2

For details of wire

in.

in.

#6x1/8

long x 1/32

in.

wall thickness
Steel rule 6

2 Lever arms

and mount

long with 1/4

long with 1/4

link construction refer to

in.

in.

in.

long

*1

Wire reverse link 2

*1

Wire loop link 3

in.

long

bore hubs
in.

long

1"

LEVER

bore hub

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
components to be sure they

1.

Inspect your

2.

Construct the bearing plate assembly shown

undamaged.

are

in

figure 14-7.

DIAL
1"

LEVER

J]

2" WIRE

LINK

h-r
0j

2"

LEVER

3 1/2"

2 3/4"

Fig.

14-7

The Bearing Plate Assembly

99

in.

EXPERIMENT

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

14

Mount the bearing

3.

The Experimental Mechanism

14-8

Fig.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

plate assembly

on the breadboard

as

shown

in figure 14-8.

Also mount

the dial index assembly.

4-in. shaft

if

Adjust the

operates freely.
times to insure that the mechanism

dial several

Rotate the

4.

to the 2-in.

input lever

necessary.

so that it points just opposite


arm that is outside the bearing plate
when the 1-m.
should be approximately horizontal
lever arm. These two arms
points vertically downward.
1-in. lever

slider
Set the mechanism so that the

6.

Lubricate the

is

at

top dead center.

dial
In this position, adjust the

and index to read zero.


Lay the

7.

6-in. steel rule across

end of the

shaft.

Tape

it

in

the slider shaft hangers so that

position

if

its

up with the

zero end lines

necessary.

dial angle (0) and the slider


dial, measure and record the
Starting with zero degrees on the
revolution in the clockw.se d,rect,on.
placement (X) every 20 degrees for one full dial

9.

Repeat step 8 for one

full dial

revolution

in

10.

link
Measure and record the length of each

1 1

Measure and record the lengths (*,,

12.

Measure and record the stroke

(S)

the counterclockwise direction.


in

and E 2 ><
the four-bar mechanism ( v 0 8 C

^ and O

of the links

in

the slider-crank mechanism.

of the slider-crank mechanism.

100

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

13.

Adjust the
the 2-in.

14.

1 -in.

lever that drives the slider so that

it

is

pointing

in

the same direction as

lever.

Repeat steps 8 and

*o

Clockwise

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

14

9.

Record the data as 0' and

0'

Fig.

14-9

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

X'.

X'

The Data Table


101

8'
x

Counterclockwise
0'

X'

EXPERIMENT

14

ANALYSIS GUIDE In your analysis


X On^the cu^e identify the regions
Determine the

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM I

ratio of

for each set of 0 and


of these data you should plot a curve
and from BDC to TDC.
of slider travel from TDC to BDC

the four modes of operation.


time of advance to time of return for

PROBLEMS
1.

2
'

Make

a sketch

showing why equation 14.1

is

true.

the
equation 14.2, make a scale drawing of
Using figure 14-4 as a guide and using
ocve
Then, assuming a crank angular
mechanism having the following dimensions.
velocity of point P and the accelerat.on
of 4tt radians per second, compute the
ity

of point P

when a

is

330

degrees.

Crank

3.

In

problem 2 what

is

the 0/0 ratio?

- 1.25
d = 0.25
h = 0.75

C-]

in.
in.
in.

How much

time does

it

take for P to

move

in

each direction?
4.

5.

reached by P? What
problem 2 what is the maximum velocity
do these occur?
acceleration? Where, with respect to a,
In

of quick-return
List five practical applications

102

mechanisms.

is

the

maximum

experiment

15

TRANSLATION AL CAMS

movements are common place happenings in mechanisms and


machinery. One method of changing movement, such as changing from rotary to up-and-down,
In this experiment we shall investigate some basic features of cam
is through the use of a cam.
action with concentration on translational-type cams.

INTRODUCTION. Changes

DISCUSSION. A cam

is

in

Serving this purpose, cams have been said to

plate or

usually a

cylinder which transfers motion to a follower

be the brains of the automatic machinery

by means of

use

its

edge or by a groove cut

A cam

surface.

can be a projection on a

revolving shaft or a projection

wheel.

It

in its

may be

on

Or,

not

move

at

all

in

some

many

individual ma-

chine parts.
All

cam; the driven

link

into

the driving link or


or follower; and the

in

fixed link providing support or frame.

moving.

As

you might suspect, there are many ways of


calssifying

and categorizing cams and cam

power in the
They are most often

followers.

Figure 15-1 illustrates cams

mechanical

and face cams.

transmit

sense that gear trains do.

modify

is

cam mechanisms can be separated

three distinctive parts:

cam does

cases, the

but rather imparts a change

Cams seldom
to

in

responsible for the

a sliding piece or a groove

motion to a contacting part that

utilized

are

various motions of the

a revolving

which imparts on oscillating motion to the


follower.

They

today.

ified as plate

motion.

TRANSLATION A L CAM

FACE CAM
Fig.

15-1

Classifications

103

class-

or disk; cylindrical; translational;

EXPERIMENT

illustrations

these

examining

By

one complete revmakes


olution of most cams, the follower
path.
one complete trip out and back over its
instant
The position of the follower at any
In the

depends upon the shape of the cam.


design of

practical
ratio

in a definite series

must be
the

cams an angular velocity

not directly involved, but the follower

is

cam occupies

The

you

for

that

notice

should

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TRA NSLA Tl ONA L CAMS

15

of positions while

a corresponding series of

vertical axis represents the position

to the times
of the follower corresponding
marked on the horizontal axis. n other words,
I

are plotting follower displacement

we

against

tically)

cam

(ver-

positions (horizontally).

the vertical distance, y, and the


the
horizontal position, x, then we have
y = f(x).
familiar mathematical expression:

we

If

call

The value of y depends upon the value of x,


depends upon
or, the position of the follower
the

cam

position.

positions.

The study of cam mechanisms

is

usually

of the
done graphically because it is the path
that we
follower and the amount of its motion
common forms
are interested in. The most
are uniform,
of motion desired in the follower
deharmonic, and uniform acceleration and
In the planning of a

celeration.
initial

cam, the

of
position, length of stroke, character

motion,

and

follower

are

direction
usually

motion of the

of

Moreover, suppose that


working with
the rack is 6 inches long. In
need a motion
this machine we find that we
pinion-driven rack.

inches.
that starts after the rack has moved 2
and
rate
rack
This motion is to be at 1/2 the

must stop

after the rack has traveled a total

of 5 inches.

of the
axis with regard to the location

The problem refollower are also known.


cam
mains to determine the shape of the
follower
desired
that will produce the
profile

To

out this cam,

lay

itional
left

cam

like

of figure

the one

15-1.

In

will use a trans-

shown

in

the lower

this case the

(plastic, steel, etc.) as

In

cam,

The

planning

particular

displacement graph

horizontal axis

is

is

translational

very useful.

usually related to

cam

mark the horizontal

axis to indicate

relative positions of the slide.

For a constant

mark the

shown

15-2.

in figure

Then we choose a reasonable margin


bottom of the cam so that it can be mounted
sufficient.
in

about 1 inch will be


mark off this margin as shown

Let's say

We

the figure.

Now,

the

must be a point
along the top edge of

follower

follower and will ride


the cam. And we don't want

it

to move-up-

2-inch
and-down before the rack reaches the
the
mark so we make the cam flat from zero to

2-inch mark.

on
motion starting at some "zero" position
position
final
the left and proceeding to the
we will
attempt
first
In our
on the right.
arbitrarily

first

at the

cam

moves back and forth horizontally and the


follower moves up and down.

we

used.

and end points at 2 and 5 inches


material
respectively on a piece of cam

to the rack.

experiment we

cam can be

start

motion.

In this

translational

The angular

known.

the
motion of the cam and the location of

cam

that

To illustrate this technique, let's suppose


we have a machine that includes a

From 2 inches to 5 inches we want the


that the
follower to move up at half the rate
inches,
rack moves. Since the rack will move 3
much or
the follower must move half that
1-1/2

axis repspeed of operation, this horizontal

inches upward.

We mark

this

1-1/2

horizoninches above the margin at 5 inches

resents time.

104

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TRANSLA TIONA L CAMS

15

77777777771

1-1/2 IN.

MARGIN LEFT FOR


MOUNTING THE CAM

15-2

Fig.

Then,

tally.

in.

we

connect the 2

just

points with a straight

a vertical direction

and

in.

straight

Cam

is

complete the cam profile with

inches,

y=

we

a flat line in

where

with a set of three conditional equations.

we

get these equations

cam

divide the

x,

we

call

the

2.

Fromx
Fromx

3.

From x =

In

the

(this is also

first

= 2
= 5
= 6

region

the reference

level

we

the y-axis

is

1%

rise

run

cam displacement

(0<

which we

Mx +

y
o

height y
is

y must equal zero, we

(1/2)2 + b

cam

the

2,

have

< 2)

(2<x<5)
(5<x<6)

the follower position)

So, in this region

Then, since at x =

0tox
2tox
5tox

is

To
into

then the regions are:


1.

at

If

over a run of 3 inches, the slope

the three straight line regions of rack (or cam)

displacement.

+ b

Since the line rises 1-1/2 inches

intercept.

can describe this cam analytically

Mx

the slope and

is

this region.

We

is

not to move

from 5 to 6

upward, the equation

sloping

line

for such a line

line.

Finally, since the follower


in

Laying out the

+ b

-1

constant

shall call zero.

Consequently, the conditional equation for

can use the conditional

this region

is

equation,

y = 0

In

the second

y=-^-x-1

0<x<2
interval

that follows a

2<x<5

Finally, in the third region

105

is

constant

EXPERIMENT

y=
is

reference

inches above the

1-1/2

level,

but y

so

unknown, then we can

is

5<x<6

- 1/2

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TRANSLATIONAL CAMS

15

y =

the conditional equation for this region.

which
Using these methods we can get equations

which describe any


In

cam

linear

is

used to

lever

displacement

angular

= 2

sin'

(15.1)

-|p

hold the

profile

is

length

the

the other hand,

On

of

if

the

lever

arm.

we know 0 and

would

The sudden

cause problems at higher speeds.


in

profile

technique used
r

With slow-

satisfactorily;

this situation in high-speed cams.

where

cam

would impart an inertial


force to the follower (F = ma) and probably
cause it to "bounce" and lose contact with
the cam. Various methods are used to avoid

is

gravity

let

work
moving machinery
however, sudden changes in cam
changes

(y)

will

this will

profile displacement

arm and the cam

We

follower in position on the cam.

of

(0)

y.

this

point.

In such a case the relationship

the

between

(15.2)

2rsinf

experiment a translational cam


motion by
will be used to produce angular
allowing the follower to move around a pivot

produce angular displacements by allowing


arm
the follower to operate through a lever
about a pivot.

with

it

of course, equation 15.1 solved for

is,

In

profile.

cases the follower

some

find

cam

the

The primary

to avoid sudden changes in


Other methods include the

is

profile.

use of cam-follower springs and constrained


motion such as that employed by a face cam.

MATERIALS
Breadboard with legs and clamps
2 Bearing plates with spacers

Disk dial

Dial index with

Dial caliper

3 Shafts

1/4X4

in.

long

6 Bearing holders with bearings

8 Collars
Lever arm 2
1
Roller type

in.

cam

long with 1/4

in.

mount

(0- 4

in.)

X 9

in.

piece of sheet metal

approx. 0.05

in.

thick

1-1/2

in.

bore hub

Pair sheet metal shears

in. C

Steel rule

follower approx. 1/4

in.

long

PROCEDURE
1

that they are undamaged.


nspect each of your components to insure
a piece of sheet metal lay

2.

On

3.

Carefully cut out the cam.

out the translational cam shown

in

figure

5-3.

Mount the cam support


figure 15-4.
Construct the bearing plate assembly shown in
the right of the bearing plate center. Mount
shafts about 3-1/2 in. apart somewhat to
Measure and record the length of the follower
the follower shaft as high as possible.
lever arm.

106

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

15

TRA NSLA TIONA L CAMS

LEADING CORNER
OF THE CAM

[*-flN.~U-1

IN.

Fig.

15-3

The Experimental

Cam

COLLAR

CAM WILL
BE INSERT-

ED HERE

Fig.

15-4

The Bearing Plate Assembly


107

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TRA NSLA TIONA L CA MS

EXPERIMENT 1 5
5.

Mount the

bearing plate assembly on the spring balance stand.

6.

Insert the

cam, leading corner

so that

it

rests

from the left


on the cam support shafts between the
first,

7.

Adjust the collar pairs so that they

8.

Position the

cam

will

hold the

cam

side of the bearing plate assembly


pairs of collars.

upright.

so that the center of the roller follower

is

resting against the leading

corner of the cam.


9.

Adjust the follower


directly

10.

11.

Put a reference mark on the side of the cam

dial for zero reading.

below the center of the

roller follower.

cam approximately 1/4 in. Measure and record both the cam displacement
and the angle through which the cam follower dial has rotated (0).
Move

the

Repeat step ten

in

increments of approximately 1/4

in.

you reach the

until

(x)

trailing

corner of the cam.


12.

Return the cam to


1 1

1 3.

two more

its

original starting position (as in step 8)

cam

passes,

and

compute and record the average values of x and

each set of data.


First Pass

9, 10,

times.

Using the data from the three

0 for

and repeat steps

Third Pass

Second Pass

Length of follower lever arm


Fig.

15-5

The Data Table


108

Average Values
X

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ANALYSIS GUIDE. From

EXPERIMEN T 1 5

the data obtained, plot a graph using the transverse

the abscissa and the cam-follower angle as the ordinate.

layout of the cam.


distance.
lines

TRA NSLA TIONA L CA MS

From your

graph,

Compare your

compute the change

in

Summarize the function


cam action.

represented by your graph.

cam

position as

with the physical

angle for each change

For each of these compute the ratio "delta y/delta x".

three practical uses of this type

results

in

horizontal

Write the equations for the

of a transverse

cam and

give at least

PROBLEMS
1.

If

y = 3x + 4, how
for each unit of motion of the

the mathematical equation for the motion of a transverse

many

units will the

horizontal

cam?

cam follower move

(Hint:

Use the

vertically

first derivative

cam

is

of the equation, or make a quick

plot of its graph.)


2.

In the discussion three

common forms

of

cam motion

are mentioned:

harmonic, and uniformly accelerated and decelerated motions.


each type of motion.

If

necessary, look this

up

in a

Draw

uniform,

a sketch of

mechanical engineer's handbook.

3.

What

4.

The graph used in this experiment is known as a displacement graph. By what


other name is the ratio dy/dx (change in displacement with respect to time) known?

5.

Assume that the cam you used moved from the leading corner to the trailing corner
in two seconds at a uniform velocity. What is the cam-follower's velocity vertically
when the cam has moved 2 inches? Express your answer in both mm/sec and in

meant by the expression "cam-follower pressure angle"? What is the maximum pressure angle that you would expect to be used in practical cam designs?
Was this point illustrated in this experiment? Explain and discuss.
is

ft/sec.
6.

Layout a 6-inch cam

profile that will satisfy the following conditional equations:

7.

Describe

cam

in

1/4 x

1/2

1/3 x -1/2

1-1/6

0<x<2
2<x<3
3<x<5
5<x<6

your own words the cam follower motion that would


problem 6.

profile in

109

result

from the

experiment

INTRODUCTION. The most


In

16

popular type of cam

cam which

the disk

is

is

also

sometimes ca

With

led

oscillating

into reciprocating or
type of cam, rotary motion is translated
motions
will be constructed and its resulting
this experiment a basic disk cam

the plate cam.

motion.

DISK CAMS

this

will

be

examined.
in figure 16-1

DISCUSSION. The cam shown


to as a
is commonly referred
type cam.

cam

Its

outer edge

is in

disk or plate

contact with a

In this case the

follower.

cam

follower

the cam
has a roller which makes contact with
Further, the cam follower is limited
profile.

by the frame so

it

can move only vertically.

its

and

or total displacement position


downward as the cam returns to the ini-

maximum

The follower of a
"pushed" upward by the cam; it

tial

position.

disk
is

cam

is

said to be

constrained by the cam. However, its downward motion must be furnished by gravity, a
spring, or another

in

sudden change

in

motion requires a sudden

noise,
take-up of bearing-slack with consequent
approach would
wear, and vibration. A better

of the exbe to gradually ease into and out


attreme cam follower positions rather than

in

the shape of a sinewave as


maximum excursion and as

its

With

type of motion,

this

leaves

it

cam

At low speeds

opposite direction.

it.

follower

this leads

commonly

used
to the type of motion that
motion.
with disk cams - simple harmonic
is

cam

monic motion,
from zero

mum

motion

is

its

follower has simple harvelocity slowly increases

in its initial position;

velocity

to zero.

CAM FOLLOWER

found

displacewould gradually approach its total


in the
travel
begin
ment position and slowly

maximum

WZZM

is

approaches

it

When

'////////A

direction or

its

illustration of this

An

movement.

mechanism.

Although disk cams are frequently used


also
relatively slow mechanisms, they are

in a violent

This results

application of force.

tempting to abruptly change

The follower moves upward as the cam


(derotates from its initial or zero position
to
fined as position closest to the cam center)

Any

shafts.
often used on rapidly rotating

obtains maxi-

midway between zero and

its

displacement, then slowly decreases


A displacement graph of this type

shown

in figure 16-2.

The motion illustrated in figure 16-2 is


various porthe same motion described by
its

low-

You may remember

that

tions of a sine (or a cosine) curve


est to highest point.

a sine wave's ordinate value (y)


vertical distance for a specific

from

is

equal to the

number

of de-

on the diameter of a unit


to
This basic principle will be used

grees as measured
circle.

generate
Fig. 16-1

Disk

displacement graph

monic motion.

Cam
110

having har-

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

16

DISK CAMS

assume that you want a cam folmove with harmonic motion from its

Let's

lower to

position through a distance of 1-1/4

initial

Further, to be practical,

let's

in.

plot the posi-

of the cam follower corresponding to


each 30 rotation of the cam. Since the same
tion

motion

will

going up,

it

is

as in

2tt

only necessary to determine

what the displacement


the

down

be followed going

will

be for one-half of
Fig.

cam

Simple Harmonic Motion-

16-2

rotation.

Displacement Graph

The

first

step

in

laying out a

cam

is

dius with the circle circumference

to

draw the displacement diagram. This diagram


can be drawn to full scale or to appropriate
scale
tal

if

The

full scale is impractical.

The

figure 16-3, the vertical axis


scale

1-1/4

the

The

in.

selected.

maximum

displacement desired

eter equal to the

is

drawn with

maximum

diameter of 1-1/4

is

marked.

At the appropriate point

For example,

vertical distance

ameter

is

is

from 0 to

in
1

figure 16-3, the

on the

the distance from 0 to 2

the 60 position.

in

is

the distance for

is

marked with

of points corresponding to each

90

of

as

rotation.

The

final step

series

30 degrees
is to draw a

smooth curve through these points

ra-

(fig.

16-3).

30

Fig.

cam

dis-

And,

In a similar fashion, the

displacement graph

in.

The circle is divided into 30 angles


shown. The intersection of the 30 angle

circle di-

the distance indicated on the

placement graph for the 30 position.

a diam-

displacement:

projected to the ver-

is

along the horizontal axis, this vertical distance

As shown in
drawn to full

horizontal scale was arbitrarily

Next, a circle

this case, a

is

is

located.

This gives the distance the


to move after each 30 of ro-

tation of the cam.

vertical axis will represent the

displacement of the follower.

from that point

diameter.

cam-follower

horizon-

axis will represent degrees of rotation of

the cam.

line

tical

is

1&3

90

180

Harmonic Motion Cam Displacement


111

270

360

EXPERIMENT

16

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DISK CAMS

FOLLOWER

MINIMUM CAM RADIUS


PRIME CIRCLE

!CAM

Fig.

Now

the question

is

how

16-4

'CENTER^

line

through this point.

Then, at

a distance

shown in figure 16-4. The next step in the


cam layout is to draw the prime circle. This is
a circle with a radius from the cam center to
the center of the cam follower. The prime

are

is

shown

As shown
is

as a dotted line in figure 16-4.

in figure 16-5,

center of the cam, C, as a center and mark on

the radial

lines

The

cam
by the mark on the cam

the distance from the

center as indicated

follower

30 degrees of

each

for

drawn on the

arcs

follower

You can

circles.

Draw the

think

procedure as holding the cam

profile

this
ro-

follower
a

is

of

and

still

around it.
The cam
smooth curve drawn tangent to

the

tating

rotation.

radial lines give us the

center position of the follower.

these roller positions.

method

Another

the prime circle

divided into 30 segments, corresponding to

the 30 points of the displacement graph

use the

16-5,

to figure

referring

Still

to get this dia-

which equals the smallest radius of the cam,


the cam follower is drawn. These first steps

circle

Cam Layout

First Steps in

gram of the desired motion onto an actual cam


layout.
The first step is to select the center
point of our cam layout and to draw a vertical

roller

example, on the 150

illus-

to

trated in figure 16-3.

of

determining

the

center on a particular radial line (for

draw the prime

radial

circle

would be

line)

outward on the 150

radial.

"0"
Next, using the roller center as the
position,

the displacement graph

in figure

the center line of the follower.


ience

Complications can occur with

mark the displacements indicated on

we

16-3 along

30 divisions of the cam are labeled.

cam

rotation

is

to be

in

there

if

In

profile.

For conven-

usually label these distances.

ing that the

lowers

the roller

The

follower

the clock-

many

is

a rapid

change

roller fol-

in

the

cases the point of contact of

not on the center

line

of the

in

contact with a cam. The force

by the

marked in

contact and acts along the normal to that

112

fol-

roller

is

felt

perpendicular to the surface of

wise direction, the degrees of rotation are


the counterclockwise direction.

cam

Figure 16-6 illustrates a typical roller

lower.

Assum-

is

sur-

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

16

DISK CAMS

180

210

BASE CIRCLE

PRIME CIRCLE

CAM PROFILE

Fig.

face.

Cam

16-5

Naturally, there will be a

Layout, Roller Follower, Harmonic Motion

component of

force along the center line of the camfollower. The rest of the normal force is felt
this

perpendicular to the
as

cam follower center

PRESSURE ANGLE
line

shown.

The term

pressure angle

is

illustrated in

figure 16-6.

It is the angle between the follower center line and the normal force line.

The importance of
to the lateral force

force

becomes too

Looking
lateral

Thus, the

large,

component

lateral

is its

component.

at figure 16-6,

force

f (x)

size

this angle

= F

relationship

If

NORMAL
FORCE

FORCE COMPONENT
ALONG FOLLOWER

CENTER LINE

LATERAL FORCE
COMPONENT

CAM PROFILE
POINT OF

this lateral

CONTACT

the roller will jam.

you can see that the


is

sin 6

force varies directly with the

of the pressure angle.

We

Fig.

try to keep this

16-6

Cam

Roller Forces

and Pressure Angle


113

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DISK CAMS

16

between cam and

increase the distance

Or,

centers.

the

size of the

practical

cam and cam

considerations

must be reached.

In

In

most of today's

lateral

In

as one-half the

the

cam

= F
n

cam follower is
arm that is
shown in figure 16-7.

applications the

of the lever

arm

(0)

is

related to the vertical dis-

placement of the follower by

0 = 2sin-i()

much

normal force imposed upon

roller, (f (x)

pro-

such a case the angular displacement of the

follower

appli-

force could be as

some

pivoted about a point as

by

prescations, followers will generally handle


This
sure angles up to about 30 degrees.

means that the

is

located at the end

compromise

and

in-

However, the

roller are limited

and

file

it

roller

cam diameter can be

creased with the same result.

would be parallel to the cam


called the prime curve.

positions,

this
pressure angle as small as possible, but
means making the roller large in diameter to

or

sin 6).

y = 2r sin"2

Again referring to figure 16-5,

you can

observe that the point of contact between the


always the
roller and the cam profile is not

same point

lying

on

cam

radius

line.

From

diagram the pressure angle of the roller


can be estimated. This is one major reason

this

basis
for using the center of the roller as the

for determining the

to

draw

a line

cam

profile.

If

you were

through the centers of the

roller

where

r is

the length of the follower arm.

Disk type cams are also frequently used


disto trip a microswitch at a given angular
placement. Cams for this purpose are usually
layed out in
figure 16-8.

two concentric circles as seen in


Such electromechanical switches

are widely used in automatic controls.

\follower path
\
\

FOLLOWER

ARM^

CAM

FOLLOWER
SHAFT

ROTATION

Fig.

16-7

Pivoted

114

Cam Follower

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DISK CAMS

16

CONTACTS

MICROSWITCH

FOLLOWER

CAM

16-8

Fig.

Cam-Operated Microswitch

MATERIALS
2 Bearing plates with spacers

and clamps

Breadboard with

Dial caliper (0 -

Cam

Protractor

Piece of sheet metal 4"

legs

0.05

in.

1/4

in.)

follower roller approx. 1/4"

Lever arm approximately

OD

in.

in.

long with

bore hub

Spur gear approximately 1-1/2


with 1/4

X 4" X approx.

in.

Spur pinion approximately 3/4


with 1/4

in.

in.

OD

bore hub
in.

OD

bore hub

2 Disk dials

thick

2 Dial indices with mounts

Flat file

Hand

Universal pin

drill

and twist

3 Shafts 4" X 1/4"

bit (3/8 in.)

hub (1/4

in.

bore)

Lever arm approximately 2

Extension type spring approximately

6 Bearing holders with bearings

1/4

3 Collars

in.

1-1/2

in.

long with

bore hub

in.

long

PROCEDURE
1.

Inspect each of your

of teeth on the
2.

3.

two

components to

insure that they are

Measure and record the diameter of the cam follower


Using the method presented
of 4"
to

X 4"

sheet metal.

maximum

undamaged. Count the number

gear wheels.

in

roller (d).

the discussion, lay out a simple harmonic

The follower should have

displacement.

115

travel of 1-1/2 inches

cam on a piece
from minimum

EXPERIMENT
4.

16

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DISK CAMS

Carefully cut out the

cam and

file

any rough spots

in

the

cam

5.

Mount

the

cam on

6.

Construct the bearing plate assembly shown

7.

Mount the

bearing plate on the breadboard.

8.

Rotate the

cam

hole

in

the profile smooth. Put a 3/8-inch

center.

the universal pin hub.

until the follower

Fig.

16-9

is

at its

in figure 16-9.

minimum displacement

The Bearing Plate Assembly

116

location.

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
Cam

Profile

0;

Ng

Gear

Fig.

&

16-10

Follower Data

The Data Tables

117

0,

16

DISK CAMS

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

DISK CAMS

16

Adjust the tension arm and spring on the output shaft so that

9.

it

holds the follower against

the cam.
10.

Set both dials to zero.

11.

Rotate the cam

dial to

12.

Repeat step

for

1 1

the 30 position and record both dial readings (0,

cam

dial positions

cam

dial to

& 0O

).

of 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330,

and 360 degrees.


1

Carefully return the

3.

the zero position.

14.

For each data point, compute the vertical displacement (y) of the follower.

15.

Plot a curve of follower displacement (y) versus

16.

Remove

cam and

the

trace

its

cam displacement

(0j).

profile in the space provided in the data table.

your analysis discuss the differences between harmonic motion and


From your observations during this experiment, discuss the importance of acculinear motion.
Discuss sources of errors possible when
rate machining operations when manufacturing cams.
the follower pressure
laying out a cam profile and methods of minimizing these errors. Discuss

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In

angle as a function of

cam

displacement.

pressure angle position, explain


point.

you did not

If

ments you

feel to

why and

an increase

feel

in

you

If

felt

estimate

more

resistance to rotation at the

how much more

maximum

force was required at that

Add any

rotational resistance explain this.

other

com

be applicable regarding disk cams.

PROBLEMS
1.

Write the mathematical expression (equation) for figure 16-3.

both as y =
2.

6) and y =

f (sin

cam whose
1800 RPM, what

If

the

is

4.

For a given cam

represented by figure 16-3 rotates at a speed of

the velocity of the follower at the 30 degree position; the 90 de-

in this

experiment, assume that the spring tension

pressure angle

force felt by the

is

180 degree position; and the 360 degree position?

With the cam used

when the

(cos 0).

follower motion

gree position; the


3.

Express this equation

is

maximum.

Compute

is

three pounds

the normal force and the lateral

roller.

it is

cided to rebuild the

found that the maximum pressure angle

cam

using a

minimum

is

30

degrees.

radius twice the original.

Is

It is

the

de-

new

pressure angle increased or decreased? Explain.


5.

Draw the displacement graph for a medium speed cam whose follower must rise one
inch during the first 90 degrees of camshaft rotation, dwell for the next 30 degrees,
return to the
1

90

initial

point during the next 50 degrees and dwell for the remaining

degrees.

118

experiment

INTRODUCTION.
cam

with

It

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

frequently advantageous to use the properties of levers

is

operation. In this experiment

we

in

conjunction

cams having followers that are pivoted.


Parabolic motion is used, instead of simple harmonic motion, in the cam layout and observations
will be made about the graphs of displacement, velocity, and acceleration.

DISCUSSION. Cam
a straight

motion.
are

line;

followers often

that

in

they have rectilinear

is,

However, you

will find

very frequently used as

This

move

will investigate

that levers

cam

erties of

Two

change.

force

doing this are shown

representative
in

to harmonic motion

ways of

figure 17-1.

with

Since the roller

is

A cam

will

it

length of the lever

in

figure

arm
17-1.

contact

straight line.

first half

of

its

The equation

times.

its

motion

giving displacement as a

of acceleration

position increments)

and of time (cam

is

s=1/2at 2

(17.1)

by the

To show how this


we will examine a
a disk

motion and a constant deceler-

deceleration and acceleration have equal

function

ful-

move along

as indicated

cam layout,
translational cam and then
affects

in

follower having parabolic motion

path having a radius equal to the

circular

similar

have a constant acceleration during the

will

ation during the second half of

"constrained" by the

crum or pivot point,

letter

roller in
in a

it is

that sudden changes

displacement are avoided.

when

You can see that the


the cam will not move

in

followers.

done to take advantage of the propthe lever, such as motion change or

is

uniformly accelerated motion and

where
and

cam.

s
is

is

the distance, a

time.

is

the acceleration,

Since the acceleration

is

stant during the first half of the follower

conrise,

the distance given by equation 17.1 will equal

type of motion that

is

than simple harmonic motion


bolic motion.

Sometimes

this

even smoother
is

the square of the time multiplied by a con-

called para-

motion

Fig. 17-1

is

stant.

This means that the follower will travel

three times as far during the third time inter-

called

Cams with Pivoted Followers


119

EXPERIMENT

17

Parabolic Motion Displacement Graph

Fig. 17-2

val as

did during the

it

differences in travel,
is

"1", are

first;

the

if

1, 3, 5, 7,

deceleration

stant

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

first

time

example,

9, 7, 5, 3, 1.

is

of line

This type of motion

The

illustrated in figure 17-2.

represents time or

and the

To
shown

OY

construct

in figure

the

a distance equal to
is

in

Along
unit.

this

is

shown. You

more

which

Then the next

OY

OY.

This procedure

will

into similar line segments.


is

In

one-third the

1'-2'.

you

position indicated

on the horizontal

displacement graph
the desired cam.
the

axis.

points thus obtained are then connected


is

shown.

compare

rise

it

is

It

may

be

this curve with

that of simple harmonic motion.

in-

From

this

possible to construct

In this particular case, only

of the follower

is

graphed.

de-

divisions, use 1, 3, 5, 9, 9, 5, 3,
In fact,

across the graph to the corresponding

of interest to you to

will notice that this

will give eight divisions.

Then draw

connecting the divisions

with a smooth curve as

drawn at
line, mark

If

OY

cam
The

is

gives six divisions (1, 3, 5, 5, 3, 1).


sire

line

is

three times this long, the next 5, and

so forth as

AY

to line

(the actual

Then, connect the heights indicated on

displacement graph

AO

a line connect-

OY

increments

figure 17-2.

17-2, a line

any convenient angle.


terval

distance

horizontal axis

position

The maximum displacement

as the distance

draw

back to

other words, the distance 0-1'

is

vertical axis represents the follower

displacement.

shown

cam

OA

divide line

for

appropriate:

to

is

OA

lines parallel to

is

applied during the second half of travel, the


reverse of this sequence

step

the end of

follower displacement distance).

a con-

acceleration)

(negative

ing

interval

Then when

The next

and so forth. The

Now

let's

see

what difference

follower will make.

any

even number of divisions can be obtained by

lines

using longer series of subdivisions.

will

120

drawn

in

figure 17-2, the

follow an arc.

a pivoted

Instead of the vertical

Let's

cam

follower

assume the same

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

17-3

Fig.

type of motion

cam

Displacement Graph

is

desired over these

we have

positions, but that

Cam

mum

is

located

maximum

and

and Pivoted Follower

first six

a pivoted

midway between

cam

Follower Type

Pivoted Roller

Roller Diameter

mini-

Follwer

of the follower.

travel

with Parabolic Motion

follower with a two-inch lever arm. Also, the


pivot point

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

17

Arm

3/16 inch

2 inches long

Minimum Radius of Cam 7/32


-

The basic change

ment graph
straight

is

lines;

this causes in

our displace-

Follower Center on-line with Roller Mini-

that the ordinates are no longer

they are

arcs.

mum Travel

These arcs are

Motion Desired

drawn from the assumed pivot position using


the correct length of lever arm.
pivot points are labeled C-|,

C2

The
etc.

Parabolic rise for 120 degrees, dwell for

various

Line

grees,

OA

drawn to illustrate that the same


parabolic motion will be formed from these
line

segments.

17-3

If

the

downward

travel

is

parabolic

120 degrees.

has been

parabolic,

inch

to

rise

120 defall

for

Follower

through 45 de-

also

then the mirror image of figure

would be used.

How

can

we

transfer this type of

motion

First,

cam? Let's look at


design problem. The following fea-

although not absolutely essential,

into the profile of a disk

let's

an entire

these characteristics.

tures are desired:

17-4.

121

draw the displacement diagram that has


This is shown in figure

EXPERIMENT

Fig.

17

Displacement Graph

17-4

In figure 17-4, the lever

Cam

Disk

movements

with a 2-inch radius.

and labeled

OA

is

follow

wise, the lever will appear to rotate counter-

clockwise.

The prime

Since this motion

6'.

rotation of 120 degrees,

desired over a

will

transferred to this arc

is

through

cam
then each movement
grees of cam motion.
is

move off this position. Instead of


rotating the cam on paper, we will move the
lever.
Since the cam motion will be clock-

arm

The
The arc OY is drawn
The parabolic motion
fall will

for the rise only.

these same distances.

described on line

with Parabolic Motion and Pivoted Follower

are

given and the curve of the displacement

drawn

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

will

circle

is

divided into 20 degree

Locate Ci by moving the lever cen20 degrees counterclockwise, then draw a

segments.

occur during 20 de-

ter

tangent at this point to the prime

circle.

In a

similar manner the other centers and the ap-

The

first

steps in the layout of the

profile are to locate the

cam

center,

its

cam

propriate lengths are transferred to these arcs.

This gives the locations of the roller center.

mini-

mum

diameter, the roller position, and the

initial

position of the follower pivot point.

Next, the roller


tions.

draw the desired 45


degree rotation of the follower and transfer
the distances from the displacement graph to

The next

this arc.

step

is

figure 17-5.

Notice

through

that the lever

arm

shown

As the cam

in figure 17-5.

It

cam

roller

profile as

is

should be noted that

maximum

position from

is, from 120 de240 degrees of cam rotation. A

positions 6 through 12; that


grees through

be

careful examination of figure 17-5 will reveal

tangent to a circle drawn through the center


of the roller.

these posi-

in

curve tangent to the

the roller dwells at

6' in

will

drawn

positions gives the desired

to

These are labeled

A smooth

is

that this profile has been obtained.

rotates, the lever

122

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

There are times when

17-5

Disk

Cam

a technician

17

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

Profile for Pivoted Follower

must

Frequently,

we do not have

a basic

equation

analyze not only the displacement versus time

and must depend upon graphical techniques.

characteristics of cams, but also the velocity

These approaches give you accuracies

and the acceleration of the cam action.

cient for

you know,

if

As

suffi-

most purposes.

you have the mathematical equa-

tion for displacements, the derivative of this

Remember

that acceleration

equation (ds/dt) will give you the velocity.

change per unit of time (dv/dt).

The

moving 200

derivative of the velocity equation (or the

ft/sec

is

velocity

You can be

and have zero acceleration.

second derivative of the displacement equa-

Negative acceleration will give a decrease

tion) will give the equation for acceleration.

velocity.

in

EXPERIMENT

17

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

>
H
CJ

O
_J
ill

>

z
o
I
DC
UJ
_J
UJ

Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration Graphs

77-6
Figure 17-6
tion

the graphical representa-

is

parabolic motion occurs


is

Remember

of parabolic motion.

constant during the

when

is

first half

tive

of

change

in this figure is

accel-

in

velocity

(dv/dt), so at

with

any point

respect

in

half.

representa-

Acceleration

acceleration.

Between

of follower

constant during the second

The bottom graph

between velocity and displacement.

the acceleration

motion and the deceleration (negative


eration)

that

the

is

to

0 and

from zero to some

t-j

the velocity increases

finite value.

The

slope of

the displacement curve must, accordingly, begin at zero

and increase continually.

At

t-j,

the velocity begins to decrease; thus, the slope


of the displacement curve

time

begins to

time, the height

of the acceleration at the point equals the


slope of the velocity

This same type of relationship holds

ond.

At

high at

t-|

and

toward the horizontal until time


time velocity is zero and the dis-

tilt

this

2
placement

line.

is

curve

must be horizontal (zero

slope).

Since acceleration

is

the negative accelera2


tion indicates a negative slope in the velocity

Between

constant from tg to

the velocity must be linear. For example,


2 the
the acceleration is a constant 2 ft/sec

U,
if

velocity

curve.

must be changing 2

This

t-|

is

and

evident because the velocity

curve angles from upper

ft/sec every see-

124

left

to lower right.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

17

ZERO

POSITIVE

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

NEGATIVE

LINEAR

INCREASING

INCREASING

DECREASING

DECREASING

17-7

Fig.

From
able to

this brief discussion

Slope Representations of Curves of Motion

you should be

zontal

form some generalizations regarding

these three related graphs.

If

the displacement from tg to ti), or can


be "decreasingly positive" (displacement from

any point on

to t^), or linearly positive as

graph between tg to

any diagram equals


the

moves upward to

(as in

t-|

at

positive slope

the right and can be "increasingly positive"

these graphs are

arranged in vertical order, then:

The slope of the curve

line.

t-j.

in

negative slope can

take on three different forms also:

height of the ordinate at that

negative (velocity

point on the next lower diagram.

from

negative (displacement

There are seven different types of slopes

may

tg).

have. Zero slope indicates a hori-

linearly

to t^); increasingly

t-|

from t 3 to

creasingly negative (displacement

curve

the velocity

4 ); or de-

from

different slopes are

shown

in figure 17-7.

MATERIALS
2

Bearing plates with spacers

Breadboard with

Dial caliper (0

Cam

Protractor

Piece of sheet metal 4 x 4 x approx.

legs

follower roller approx. 1/4

0.05
1

Flat file

Hand

in.

drill

Lever arm approx. 4

Spur gear approx. 1-1/2

Spur pinion approx. 3/4

and clamps

1/4-in.

in.)
in.

OD

1/4-in.

1/4-in.

in.

long with

bore hub
in.

OD

with

OD

with

bore hub
in.

bore hub

2 Dial indices with mounts

thick

3 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

and twist

bit (3/8 in.)

Lever arm approx. 2

Extension type spring approx.

6 Bearing holders with bearings

1/4-in.

3 Collars
2 Disk dials

1-1/2

125

t.4

to

Graphical representatives of these seven

in.

long with

bore hub

in.

long

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

17

PROCEDURE
1

Measure and record the diameter of the follower

2.

cam

Using a sheet of white paper, draw the

roller.

profile for a

cam and

cam follower

having

the following specifications:

Cam

Rotation: Counterclockwise

Type Follower: Pivoted or oscillating roller


Diameter of Follower: As measured by you
Length of Follower Arm: 2 in.

Minimum Cam

Left to discretion

Radius:

Follower Pivot Center:

On same

line

with cam center

Follower Movement: Vertical distance of

Type Motion: Parabolic

from

motion

during 180 degrees of

in.

initial

cam

maximum
point to

maximum

displacement

Return motion during the

rotation.

next 180 degrees rotation using parabolic motion.

cam

profile to the piece of sheet metal

and carefully cut

3.

Transfer your

4.

File

5.

Put a 3/8-in. hole

6.

Assemble the bearing plate assembly shown

7.

Mount the

8.

Rotate the cam until the follower

9.

Adjust the tension arm and spring on the output shaft so that
the

irregularities in the

smooth any

in

the

cam

it

profile.

cam center and mount

it

on

a universal pin hub.

in figure 17-8.

bearing plate on the spring balance stand.

is

at

its

minimum displacement
it

location.

holds the follower against

cam

10.

Set both dials to zero.

1 1

Rotate the cam

dial

to the 30 position and record both dial readings (0j

Repeat step

for

cam

12.

out.

1 1

dial positions of 60, 90,

& 60

120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330,

and 360 degrees.

cam

dial to

the zero position.

13.

Carefully return the

14.

For each data point compute the vertical displacement

15.

Plot a curve of follower displacement (y) versus

16.

Remove

the

cam and

trace

its

(y)

of the follower.

cam displacement

(0j).

profile in the space provided in the data table.

126

).

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

OUTPUT SHAFT

17

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

CAMSHAFT

mmmm^v///////////////////////////////////////////.

COLLAR

GEAR
SPRING-

FOLLOWER

ARM

|Q1
rah

COLLAR

rer

CAM

m
0

OUTPUT DIAL

FOLLOWER SHAFT

INPUT DIAL

F/<7.

77-5

77?e

Bearing Plate Assembly

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

Plot a graph of the data obtained during this experiment. Compare the
measured displacement values with those computed during the layout of the cam. Explain any
differences noted.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of parabolic motion

when applied to cams.


Add any comments of your own you deem

with linear and with simple harmonic motion


using a pivoted

cam

follower.

127

in

comparison

Discuss the reasons for


appropriate.

EXPERIMENT
Cam

17

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Profile

0:

Gear

&

Fig. 17-9

Follower Data

The Data Tables


128

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT

PIVOTED FOLLOWERS

17

PROBLEMS
1.

If

the graph of displacement versus time

is

a second-degree equation,

what degree

equation represents velocity? What degree equation represents acceleration?


2.

3.

Is

the displacement equation for parabolic motion during the

lower

rise a

Draw

a sketch

a long lever
4.

showing the pressure angle for

in detail,

why

or

of the

fol-

not.

a roller follower having a short versus

speed of 600

list

the

RPM.

maximum and

values for the ordinates of each graph.

Determine the angle through which the follower traveled

in this

600 RPM, what was the maximum angular


angular velocity of the cam follower assembly?

cam

first half

why

arm. What effect does the lever arm length have on the pressure angle?

Assume that the cam you used in this experiment rotates at


Draw the displacement, velocity, and acceleration graphs and

minimum
5.

second-degree equation? Explain

rotated at

129

experiment.

If

the

velocity and the average

experiment

INTRODUCTION. Cams
relationships.

In this

establish

are often used in groups to produce motions

experiment we

DISCUSSION. Cams
to

18

definite

MULTIPLE CAM TIMING

shall

examine

are often used in groups

time relationships be-

two cams

is

the position of follower b

is

we

If

Since the two cams

B.

sketch follower position versus

time, the result will be

As the

18-2.

somewhat

is

one-to-one.

the cams are set up so that

determined

is

"on"

its

cam, the other

is

ON CAM

"off"

Coupled Cams
ON CAM

FOLLOWER aj

OFF CAM

ON CAM

FOLLOWER

OFF CAM

OFF CAM

Fig.

18-2

Follower Positions Versus Time

130

Moreover

when one

FOLLOWER

Fig. 18-1

like figure

In this particular case the gear ratio be-

tween the two cams

determined by the profile of cam A. Simi-

larly,

cam

timing.

definitely related to each other.

lefthand gear rotates, the position of follower


a

profile of

cam

are gear-coupled, the followers' motions are

are gear-coupled and, there-

fore, have related angular positions.

which have fixed time

simple example of such multiple

by the

tween independent operations. Let's consider


the two cams shown in figure 18-1. In this
case the

its

follower

cam.

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

18

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

COUPLED
CAMS
ON CAM
FOLLOWER

ON CAM

OFF CAM

ON CAM

ON CAM
OFF CAM

OFF CAM

>-

FOLLOWER

Fig.

18-3

Overlapping

Cam

Action
b

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

'

COUPLED
CAMS

ON CAM

ON CAM

FOLLOWER

OFF CAM

ON CAM
I

FOLLOWER

OFF CAM

Fig.

in

18-3.

the times during


the

duce any desired amount of overlap.

rotating

figure

cam

The colored

So

areas represent

which both followers are on

simultaneously.

the follower rods and

far

we

have used two cams which

have had approximately equal dwell angles.


This

In this illustration

is,

of course, not at

all

necessary.

Many

applications require unequal but synchronized

cam couplings have been

dwell times.

omitted for simplicity.


It

Unequal Synchronized Dwell

one cam with respect to the


we can get overlapping action as shown

By
other,

18-4

OFF CAM

should be apparent that by rotating

rangement.

one cam with respect to the other we can pro-

overlap.

131

Figure 18-4 shows such an

Also shown

is

a small

ar-

amount of

EXPERIMENT

MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

18

By adjusting the angular velocity of


cam and its dwell angle, we can produce

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Figure

ratios.

coupled by

18-5

illustrates

two cams

approximately 2:1.

a ratio of

wide range of dwell times.

The coupling between cams may be


tually

any type of positive drive mechanism.

Gears, tooth belts, chains, rigid couplings and


solid shafts are

cams together.

all

used occasionally to couple

Up

until

now we

have con-

sidered only

cams coupled by

ratio.

certainly possible to use other

It

is

In the case of a 2:1

vir-

a 1:1 velocity

cam on
as the

one on the

cam

pinion

fast

This would cause the


follower to go through its cycle
gear.

twice as often as the gear

same

velocity ratio, the

the pinion would rotate twice as

possibilities

for

cam

follower.

overlap

metrical dwell are, of course,

still

and

The

unsym-

possible.

FOLLOWER
ROLLER

FOLLOWER
ROLLER (O

CAM

CAM

ON CAM

ON CAM
1

_J

'

OFF CAM

OFF CAM

FOLLOWER

a
1

ON

ON

ON

FOLLOWER

OFF

OFF

ON
OFF

b
I

Fig.

18-5

Two-to-One
132

Cam

Coupling

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MULTIPLE CAM TIMING

18

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

Fig.

18-6

Multilobe

Cam

Timing Device

FOLLOWER
ROLLERS

CAM

ON CAM

ON CAM

OFF CAM

FOLLOWER a
OFF CAM

FOLLOWER

OFF CAM

ON CAM

OFF CAM

ON CAM

*2

Fig.

the
use

18-7

Cam

with

Another way to produce substantially


same type of follower relationship is to
multilobe cams. Figure 18-6 shows such

*3

Two

Followers

In

many

possible to

two or more cams have

cases

the same profile.


use

In

such instances

both followers
In all these

cam

may

it is

multiple followers.

18-7 shows one such case.

an arrangement.

lower motions

in

this

often

Figure

Notice that while

case

have the same

motion, they are alternately on the cam.

configurations the fol-

be used to actuate me-

the desired output

lower

chanical, electrical, or other devices.

133

is

is

produced when the

If

fol-

on the cam, then the two followers

EXPERIMENT

18

MUL TIPL E CAM TIMING

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

ON CAM

'r

FOLLOWER

FOLLOWER

then

is

OFF CAM
|

Fig.

alternate

CAM

output action.

Overlapping Follower Action

18-8

are substantially the

This arrangement

equivalent to the one

shown

same

as those of figure

18-3.

in figure

When

18-1.

using

multiple followers

in

this

way, we can produce overlap from 0 to 100%

By

depending on follower location, cam

locating the followers appropriately

follower

we can produce overlap in a multiple follower


configuration. One possibility is illustrated in
In this case the follower

figure 18-8.

it is

size.

In

necessary to use a

cam

that

size,

100%

order to get

is

thick enough

to allow side-by-side follower mounting.

motions

MATERIALS
1

Bevel pinion with 1/4-in. bore hub

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Bevel gear with 1/4-in. bore

6 Bearing mounts with bearings

2 Spur pinions approximately 3/4

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

4 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

2 Spur gears approximately 2

2 Adjustable cams with 1/4-in. bore hubs

1/4-in.

2 Index mounts

2 Microswitches with mounting hardware

6 Collars

Worm
Worm

hub
in.

OD

with 1/4-in. bore hub

2 Shaft hangers with bearings

bore hub

DC motor with mount


DC power supply 0 30V
Lamp assembly (3 lamps)with
-

connecting leads

wheel

134

in.

and

overlap

OD

with

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

18

PROCEDURE
1.

2.

Inspect each of your

components to

insure that they are

worm

drive assembly

shown

Construct the

in

undamaged.

figure 18-9.

The dimensions

indicated are

only approximate.
3.

Construct the bearing plate assembly shown

The dimensions

indicated

drive assembly, motor, switches,

and lamp

in figure

18-10.

are only approximate.


4.

Mount the

bearing plate assembly, the

assembly on the breadboard as shown

worm

in figure

18-11.

5.

Adjust the various shaft spacings for smooth operation of the entire mechanism.

6.

Connect the lamp assembly, switches, motor, and power supply

as

shown

in figure

18-12.

Carefully arrange the wires so that they will not foul the mechanism.
7.

Turn on the power supply and


freely,

set the voltage to

and the lamps should blink as the cams

about 15V. The mechanism should run

rotate.

If all

the lamps do not blink, check

the switch mountings to insure that the cams are operating the switches.
don't blink, check your wiring and the lamps themselves.
8.

Adjust the cams so that the lamps


First

lamp 3 on for 1/2 of

light in

cam

the following sequence:

revolution,

then lamp 2 on for 1/6 of a cam revolution,

on for 1/3 of a cam revolution,


return to lamp 3 on.

then lamp
finally

Fig.

18-9

The

Worm
135

Drive Assembly

If

the lamps

still

Fig.

18-10

Bearing Plate Assembly

136

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

18

r&
CAM

3a

0|

St

5
0
0

CAM

MOTOR

^OTO^

^^^

^^^j

F/g. 75-

1 1

The Experimental Mechanism


137

EXPERIMENT

18

MUL TIPL E CAM TIMING

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LAMP
ASSEMBLY

NO

"I
I

o-

COM

RED

NC

L__.

AMBER

n lN0
COM

GREEN

NC
I

COM

Fig.

9.

Draw

18-12

The

Electrical Circuit

a scale sketch of the relative follower positions simiJar to

Label each segment showing which lamp


10.

is

Readjust the cams so that the lamps light

in a

sequence that

step 8.
1 1

Repeat step 9 for the sequence

in

step

0.

RESULTS FROM STEP


Fig. 18-

13

The Experimental Results


138

those

in

the discussion.

on.
is

the reverse of the one

in

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MUL TIPLE CAM TIMING

18

RESULTS FROM STEP


Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
for

each setup.

list

and discuss at

18-13

11

The Experimental Results (Cont'd)

you should compare the follower patterns


and differences between the follower patterns. Finally,

In the analysis of these results

Discuss the similarities

least three applications

of multiple

cam

timing.

PROBLEMS
1.

Make

a sketch

showing how three cams could be used to produce the same

results

as those observed in the experiment.


2.

Repeat problem

3.

If
is

using only one

cam and two

has a dwell angle of 180 and

cam

is

followers.

rotating at 35

RPM, how

long (in seconds)

the follower on the cam?

4.

What would be the

5.

How

6.

The cam
80.

time?

long

If

is

in

result

if

the dwell angle

in

the follower in problem 4 off the

problem 4

is

problem 3 were

10?

cam?

directly coupled to a second

cam with

a dwell angle of

the lobes are displaced from each other by 45, what would be the overlap

(Assume that the 110 cam has

other one comes up on

its

its

lobe.)

139

follower

come on

the lobe 45 before the

experiment

INTRODUCTION.

In

modern mechanical power transmission systems,

reductions are often necessary.

harmonic drive transmission.

is

This task can sometimes be accomplished effectively with


experiment we will examine one type of harmonic drive.

drive transmis-

an efficient, small, light-weight method

for getting gear speed reductions.

Ratios of

more than 300:1 can be efficiently achieved


in a single reduction.
Harmonic drives are
relatively

high-ratio gear speed

eration as a gear speed reducing device.

wave generator

shape

the

distorts

smaller diameter flexspline, and

the reduction ratio

when

the

rotated

inexpensive, simple, and can have

The

basic

(19.1)

harmonic drive transmission

of three parts:

flexspline,
illustrates

and circular
the parts.

where n

wave generator,

spline.

spline

Figure 19-1

spline.

For speed reductions the

is the number of teeth on the flexand N, the number on the circular


Because of the greater circumference

of the circular spline,

input goes to the wave generator, and output


is

The

of

is

low to zero backlash.

consists

In this

DISCUSSION. The harmonic


sion

HARMONIC DRIVES

19

and the

taken from the flexspline with the circular

ratio will

it

contains more teeth

be a negative quantity,

spline held stationary.

is

Figure 19-2 illustrates the components

opposite to the input.

may

be used

harmonic

drives.

Various metals and plastics

of the transmission meshed together for op-

in

the

manufacturing

of

WAVE GENERATOR

FLEXSPLINE

CIRCULAR SPLINE

(N)

Fig. 19-1

in-

dicating that the output rotational direction

Components of a Harmonic Drive


140

(n)

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

19

HARMONIC DRI VES

WAVE
GENERATOR
(INPUT)

Fig.

Stainless

steel

is

common

material

for

making flexsplines for units to be used


heavier

load applications.

Harmonic

WAVE GENERATORS

Hydraulic or

Pneumatic Operation

Friction

Type

Fig.

19-3

Harmonic Drive

19-2

also

come

in a

utilizing the

in

variety of configurations,

same mechanical

ure 19-3 illustrates

drives

principles.

some of the

CIRCULAR SPLINES

A Hermatically
Sealed Unit

Built Into a

Contoured Cup

Toothed Ring

Variations of

141

Harmonic Drives

Fig-

possibilities.

FLEXSPLINES

Housing

all

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

HARMONIC DRI VES

19

MATERIALS
Harmonic

drive with

mount

2 Bearing plates with spacers

Breadboard with
Adjustable

legs

cam with

and clamps
1/4-in.

2 Spur gears, approx. 3/4-in.


with 1/4-in. bore hubs

OD

Stroboscope

DC motor

Universal joint

Microswitch mounted on an index mount

2 Spur gears, approx. 2 in. OD


with 1/4-in. bore hubs

Lamp and

2 Collars

Power supply

with

mount

holder

bore hub

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

4 Bearing holders with bearings

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Examine

components to

insure they are not

damaged.

Count and record the number of teeth on each. Calculate


of each reduction shown in figure 19-4.

Identify the flexspline and circular spline of the harmonic drive.

number of
4.

of the

Locate the spur gears.


ratios

3.

all

Count and record the

teeth on each.

Calculate the speed ratio from the motor to the output shaft

HARMONIC
DRIVE

LAMP

Fig. 19-4

Experimental Setup

142

the

EXPERIMENT

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

5.

Assemble the mechanism shown


and power supply so that

it

will

19

HA RMONIC DRIVES

Connect the lamp to the microswitch


turn on when the plunger is depressed by the lobe on

in figure

19-4.

the cam.

mechanism to insure proper operation before applying power to the motor.

6.

Hand

7.

Connect the motor to the

8.

rotate

supply and set the voltage to about 20 volts.

Using the stroboscope measure the angular velocity of the motor shaft
universal joint (oj

9.

DC power

light flashes.

utes and dividing result

by 3 to

OD)

in.

(2

(to

in.OD

get revolutions per minute.

N1

n
(3/4

(3/4

N2

in.

OD)

(2

in.

OD)

N1

N2

n1

Spur Gears

and the

by using the second hand on your watch and


0
Better accuracy can be achieved by counting for three min-

Count the output angular velocity


counting the

(coj)

).

N3

-N 3

Ratio

no
nrr
n -N
3
3

Harmonic Drive

wo
Calculated

Measured

Fig.

19-5

The Data Table

143

w
i

+
ratio

EXPERIMENT

HA RMONIC DRI VES

19

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
is
is,

accomplished.
explain

why

In the analysis of

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

your

results

you should explain how

a velocity reduction

Explain the relation of the harmonic drive to the cams you have studied. (That
a harmonic drive could be considered a special cam application.) Give some ap-

plications for the

harmonic drive transmission.

PROBLEMS
the harmonic drive positive or does some slippage exist?

1.

Is

2.

Explain

3.

The input

how
is

the harmonic drive should be connected to get a gear speed increase.


applied to the wave generator, the flexspline

is taken from the


compared to the input?

output

4.

The

circular spline

is

circular spline.

What

is

is

held stationary and the

the direction of output rotation

held stationary, flexspline used as the input and the output

taken from the wave generator.

Is

this application of the

harmonic drive

speed

re-

ducer or increaser?
5.

6.

Determine
If

for

a set of gears for a

some

harmonic drive that

application the motor

be the output torque for

80%

is

will give a

delivering a torque of

overall efficiency?

144

reduction of 200:

50

in.-oz,

what would

NTRODUCTION TO THE
GENEVA MECHANISM

20:

experiment

producing intermittent motion with a constant velocity input


mechanical drive systems. In this experiment we will explore the basic

INTRODUCTION. A mechanism
is

sometimes needed

in

operation of such a mechanism, the geneva wheel.


mittent

mode

Such wheels are often used to get an

of operation.

DISCUSSION. Geneva wheels come


basic configurations;

they

may

in

varies with each style of geneva

three

number of

be external,

leaves

make the diameter

ber

always enters and

the slot of a spherical wheel at the


it

is

engaged for 180

degrees and therefore has a dwell angle of

The

180 degrees.

of the star

external type has a dwell

more than 180 degrees and the internal


The
one's dwell is less than 180 degrees.

of

long drive time of the internal type gives the

rotated, the roller engages the slots

advantage of lower accelerations because of

of the driven
it.

roller

of the geneva

As the
is

the

equator of the sphere,

wheel relatively large.

wheel

slots.

Because

mechanism is illustrated in figure


The wheels may have from 3 to a great
20-1
many slots but usually have from 4 to 18.
Fewer slots give high accelerations and a large

geneva

slots

wheel and the

Each of these types of

internal, or spherical.

number of

inter-

driving

member

member

(star

the greater time available to reach necessary

wheel) and turns

The distance turned depends on the numof slots in the star wheel. The dwell time

(time the roller

is

not engaged

in

velocity.

However, the internal geneva wheel

mechanism

is

the input shaft

the slots)

mount because
cannot be a through shaft. The

more

difficult to

DRIVER

(A)

SIX SLOT EXTERNAL

(B)

Fig.

20-

FOUR SLOT INTERNAL

Geneva Drive Mechanisms


145

(C)

FOUR SLOT SPHERICAL

EXPERIMENT 20

INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

crank must be fastened to the overhanging

end of the input


tive

Because of the

shaft.

-|

cos

mechanical simplicity, the external geneva

and

most often used in cases where dwells


of more than 180 degrees are acceptable.

drive

is

An

b = Q -

SI]

cos

a.

external geneva wheel with 8 slots

would turn

360 degrees

a total 1/8 of

rotation of the driving wheel.

for each

4-slot

would turn 1/4 of 360 degrees and,


the

rela-

Since the

wheel

from the center

in general,

rotation angle of the star wheel, 0,

maximum
line

is

value of

180%,

a measured

then

is

(20.2)

(20.1)

where n

is

the

number of

which

slots.

is

the distance required between the

input and output shafts.

Observing the diagram

Fig.

in

the crank arm and n

figure 20-2

20-2

is

Geneva Wheel with Simplified Sketch

146

the

-|

is

the length of

number of

slots.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 20

INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

MATERIALS
Breadboard with legs and clamps 2 Bearing plates with spacers
1
Geneva wheel mechanism
2 Shaf ts 4" x 1 /4"
4 Collars
2 360 disk dials
4 Bearing mounts with bearings 1 Dial caliper. (0 - 4 in.)
2 Dial indices with mounts
1

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Inspect each

component you plan to use to

insure that

it is

undamaged.

Identify the geneva wheel and place the parts together with the roller not engaged in a
slot of the star wheel.

3.

4.

Measure the length of the crank arm of the driving mechanism and the distance between
the shafts. Record them in the data table.
Calculate the distance between the shafts using equation 20.2.
Distance between

Crank arm length,


#i

shafts,

Measured
Calculated

Input Angle

Output Angle

Input Angle

Output Angle

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

65

70

10

75

15

80

25

85

29

90

30

100

35

150

40

200

45

250

50

300

55

350

60

360
Fig.

20-3

The Data Tables


147

EXPERIMENT 20

INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

Fig.

20-4

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

The Experimental Setup

5.

Construct the mechanism as shown

6.

Set the geneva wheel so that the roller

7.

Hold the geneva wheel fixed and

8.

Read and record output angular displacement for each value of input given

set

in

figure 20-4.
is

just beginning to enter the slot of the star wheel.

both the input and output

dials to zero.
in

the data

table.
9.

Plot a graph of the angular displacement of the driving crank (input) versus the angular

displacement (output) of the driven member.

148

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
ANALYSIS GUIDE.

your discussion of the

In

INTRODUCTION/GENEVA MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 20

results achieved in this

experiment include

output motion discussion. Explain how the velocity of the output changes as the
illustrate your explanation.

scription of the

input rotates through 360 degrees. Use your graph to

PROBLEMS
1.

Calculate the distance between the shafts of an 8-slot geneva wheel that has a driving

crank length of
2.

How

inch.

does the ratio of input and output velocity vary with the number of slots of

geneva wheel (averaged over long time periods)?


3.

What

some of the

are

possible problems that

one might encounter

in

driving geneva

wheel mechanisms at high RPMs?


4.

The

external geneva wheel has a greater dwell than drive time and the opposite

lationship

is

true for the internal device.

re-

For equal input velocities, which would

you expect to experience lower acceleration and why?


5.

How many
driven

6.

What

7.

What

a de-

degrees does a 10-slot star wheel turn during each revolution of the

member?

is

is

the dwell time for a 10-slot external geneva wheel mechanism?


the major advantage of the internal type compared to the external type

geneva mechanism?

149

INTRODUCTION.

Varying load conditions are an important consideration

mechanical devices.

In

DISCUSSION. The
the driving

driven
is

member

is

member

part A.

the operation of

of

will

During the rotation from C to E, lengths

the

part B in figure 21-1 and


is

in

examine an example of how the load on a driven


constant frictional load on the output of the mechanism.

this experiment we

though there

shaft can vary even

geneva mechanism

LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

21

experiment

As the

a-j

and b2 vary according to

driver

rotates and engages the driven member, the

a-\

lever arm length SL^ changes as the


moves through the arc between points
C to E. The relationship of 2 t0 tne an 9' e a

cos a

effective

and

roller

b2 = q

is

9-2

= #1

m2

2m

cos

" ^1 cos

The distance between the

01

shafts, q,

is

where

m=

b
180'

and

n = No. of Slots

sin

The input

Fig.

21-1

The Geneva Wheel

150

force

is

applied to the shaft of

member and
C E.

the driving

tangent to the arc

the

diameter,

The

fixed.

is

lever

delivered as a force

arm length

advantage, but only the

remains

-j

E.

to

its

longest length at point

m2

~W

m=

sin

2m

cos

J
sin

45"0

is

ference of part B) constitutes the effective

As the

force.

C and

roller

from C to D, the

lever

moves through the arc


arm of the driven mem-

ber effectively gets shorter but the angle be-

is

comes such as to deliver more torque to part


B. As an example let's suppose a = 22.5 de-

a
1

acting to

tangent to the circle inscribed by the circum-

Referring to figure 21-2, the roller

grees.

mechanical

component

produce rotation (the part of the force that

force delivered to the star wheel

For example, 2 at 0 (point D)

maximum

providing the

longest,

Neglecting the roller

may vary because the effective lever arm


length 2 var"ies from its shortest length at
point

LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENT 21

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

414

half-way between points

C and

vector producing the torque

is

D.

The

is

force

along the tan-

gent line from F to G.


g

= 1v/l + (1.414) 2 - 2(1.414)(1) = 0.414C


1

whereas 2 at 45 (points C to E)

If

the

arm length of the driven

lever

is

member

decreases

effective length but the

in

becomes more favorable for producing


the torque and these occur in equal proportions, the load would not change from C to E.
However, if one of these values changes more
angle

at

- -|V3- 2.818(0.707) = 0.9695

As the lever arm length varies, the angle


which the force is applied also varies. At

points

C and E

the torque arm,

is

than the other, the load would vary as the

at its

roller

moved through the

arc

from C to

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

360 disk

Dial index with

legs

and clamps

dial

mount

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"


4 Bearing mounts with bearings
1

Geneva wheel mechanism

4 Collars
2 Spring balances
2 Spring balance posts with clamps
2 Lever arms 2
Fig.

21-2

Forces in a Geneva Mechanism

1/4-in.

151

in.

bore hubs

long with

E.

LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

EXPERIMENT 21

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Examine

all

your parts to be sure they are not damaged.

Construct the mechanism shown

in figure 21-3.

Leave the adjustments on the spring

balances loose.
3.

Set the geneva mechanism so that the roller

is

just entering a slot in the star

wheel from

the bottom.
4.
5.

Hold the mechanism fixed and

set

Be sure that both of the

arms are

lever

the

to read zero degrees.

dial

vertical

and that both of the spring balances

are

horizontal before making any data readings.


6.

Set the dial to the

first

angle listed

in

the data table and readjust the levers so that they

are both vertical.


7.

Hold the mechanism

8.

Adjust the output spring balance until the lever arms

when
9.

10.

in this

position and adjust the input spring balance to about 4 oz.


will

remain

in

the vertical positions

released.

Record the input to output forces and compute their

ratio.

Set up the next angle listed on the data table and repeat steps 7 through 10.
until all of the data has

been recorded.

I
I

fi
l-[

P^

[-

"

LEVVER ARM
POINT ING UP

OUTPUT FORCE

STAR WHEEL OFF


GENEVA MECHANISM

INPUT FORCE

CALIBRATED DIAL
Fig.

21-3

Experimental Setup

152

Proceed

EXPERIMENT 21

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

LOADING GENEVA MECHANISMS

Angle
F

Ft (oz)

(degrees)

2 (oz)

Ratio

oU
JO
/in

45

RD
RR
oo

ou
DO

70
75
Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.
to the input angle.

sented

in

27-4

The Data Table

makes with

Discuss your data emphasizing the pattern that the data

Explain

why

respect

the results turned out as they did by extending the ideas pre-

the discussion section.

PROBLEMS
1.

Calculate the length of the driven crank, 9.^ at 0 and

90 degrees

for a four-slot

geneva wheel.
2.

Calculate the length of the driven crank,

at 22.5

and 45 for a

six-slot

geneva

wheel.
3.

What

is

the approximate angle at which the roller will

eight-slot geneva
4.

If

row of holes

first

engage

in

the slot of an

wheel mechanism?
is

to be drilled in a piece of steel plate by a semi-automatic

tool, explain briefly

how

machine

geneva mechanism might be used to position the table

of the machine tool.


5.

If

a four-slot geneva

mechanism

is

used to drive a six-slot geneva mechanism, de-

scribe the output rotation pattern in relation to a constant input.

input and output

RPM

related?

153

How

are the

experiment

INTRODUCTION. A
sliding link.

In this

SLIDING- LINK MECHANISM

cam application which is used in many rotary machines is


experiment we shall assemble and examine a simple example of
this I
specialized

of mechanism.

DISCUSSION. A
couple

sliding link can

parallel shafts

output motion.

be used to
and produce predictable

Figure 22-1 shows a typical

example of one type of

sliding-link

mechanism.

From

these

we can

sketches

observe

several

conditions that must be satisfied to


produce such a mechanism.
For example,
figure 22-3a

must be

illustrates that

the

Also we see that the minimum


length of the output link must be
2

shortest link.

As the input

link

C
1

rotates counter-

clockwise, the slider moves along the output

2 causing it to turn also. In such an


arrangement there are two limiting positions.
These positions are shown in figure 22-2.
link

*2-0-1

while the

maximum

Notice from the figure that the limiting positions occur when the angle between
and

*2

90

is

degrees.

At

this point

we

length

2 must be

see that

Since the slider moves from


the working length (S) of C

S =

J2

J2

2 t0 %2>

2 must be

2 -fi 2

or

0
where
link

is

moves

= 2 sin" -J1

(22.1)

S=( 0 +

1>-<V

fi

1>

the angle through which the output


as the input link rotates.

Notice

that the operation of this type of sliding link

very similar to that of a crank rocker fourbar mechanism.


However, in this case, the
is

coupling link has zero length and the output


link length

is

variable.

The slider must be able to move freely


from the minimum output link length to the
maximum output link length. These positions
occur when the output
fixed link are colinear.

link,

input link, and

o-

Figure 22-3 shows

both these positions.

Fig.

154

22-

Basic Sliding-Link

Mechanism

EXPERIMENT 22 SL I DING- LINK MECHA NISM

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

22-2

Limiting Positions for a Sliding- Link Mechanism


SLIDER
0'

Pf

TT7

MINIMUM OUTPUT LINK LENGTH

(A)

SLIDER
J
,

_e 2"
(B)

Fig.

22-3

MAXIMUM OUTPUT LINK LENGTH j

Maximum and Minimum Output


155

Link Lengths

EXPERIMENT 22 SL I DING- L INK MECHA NISM

so

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

we have

Either type of sliding-link

S = 2C,
as the

(22.2)

working length of the output

mechanism

can

be used as a double rocker provided that

the

link

link.

lengths are appropriate for the desired

output.

we change

ure 22-4.
that

is

when

This mechanism works

in a

similar to a four-bar drag-link.

physically

output follows

it

limited.

"bottom"

If

SL^

is,

it

applica-

must not

the slider

be

will

against the limit and prevent nor-

manner

mal operation.

That

cations physically limited sliders can be used

is,

the input link turns a complete revolu-

tion, the

Except for a double-rocker

tion the working length of

the relative lengths of g


and #i so that q is the shortest link, we will
have a mechanism like the one shown in figIf

if

around.

the limits

In

some double-rocker

appli-

outside the normal output

lie

stroke range.

//
/

,'/

Fig.

22-4

Sliding Link with

<

MATERIALS
1

Breadboard with

Bearing plates with spacers

legs

and clamps

Slotted lever 2

Flat head

in.

long with 1/4-in. bore hub

machine screw 2-56 x 1/2

2 Bearing holders with bearings

2 Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2

2 Shaft hangers with bearings

2 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4

2 Disk dials

Steel rule 6

2 Dial indices with mounts

Shaft 2" x 1/4"

Shaft 4" x 1/4"

Lever arm

in.

long with 1/4-in. bore

hub
156

in.

long

in.

in.

OD

in.

EXPERIMENT 22 SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

PROCEDURE
components to

insure that they are

1.

Inspect your

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown


the shafts are

3.

in

figure 22-5.

undamaged.
Be sure the

slider

operates freely and that

in line vertically.

^2- anc

Measure and record q,

^ for

'

tnis

mechanism. (Each of the symbols

is

de-

fined in the discussion.

arms pointing

4.

With both

5.

Rotate the input

lever

Continue for at
6.

least

Move the sliding


shown in

shaft as

board

in

upward,

set the dials to read zero.

10-degree steps and record both input angle and output angle.

360 degrees of input

rotation.

link to the 1/2-in. position

figure 22-6.

The output

on the input

dial

lever

and relocate the output

must be located through one of the bread-

slots.

7.

Repeat steps

8.

Compute

9.

From your

10.

dial

straight

3, 4,

and

5.

the value of S' for each setup using equation 22.2.


data determine the total angular swing of

Record

this value as 0'.

Using equation 22.1 compute the output lever swing 6".

OUTPUT
DIAL

INPUT DIAL

Fig.

22-5

The

First

Experimental Mechanism

157

EXPERIMENT 22

SLIDING-LINK MECHANISM

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

SLOTTED LEVER

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

22-6

In analyzing

angle for each mechanism.


values of S and S' agreed

in

Then

The Second Experimental Mechanism


your

you should plot the input angle versus the output

results

discuss the nature of the plots.

each case.

How well

did 0' and

0"

Consider also

how

well your

agree?

PROBLEMS
1.

List several practical uses for a sliding-link

2.

certain sliding-link

the working length of


3.

If

the fixed link

in

mechanism.

mechanism has an input

link that

is

14

in,

long.

How

long

is

SL-

problem 2 were 18

in.

long,

what kind of output motion would

result?
4.

5.

Through what angle would the output


If

the fixed link

in

link in

problem 2 were 12

in.

problem 3 swing?

long,

what kind of output motion would

result?
6.

7.

Through what angle would the output


If

the input velocity

in

link in

problem 5 swing?

problem 5 were constant, would the output velocity also be

constant? Explain your answer.

158

EXPERIMENT 22

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

First

*0

SLI DING-LINK

MECHANISM

Second Setup

Setup

0"

=
=

S'

0' =

C9 =

2
S
S'

0" =

=
=

Output

Input 0j

0O

Input 0j

First

Second Setup

Setup
Fig.

22-7

The Data Tables

159

0O

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

Output

experiment

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

-i

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms which


this

motion with different velocities in difQuick-return mechanisms are one


experiment we will examine a sliding-link type of

produce

linear

in practical applications.

ferent directions are widely used

example of

II

type of motion.

In this

quick return.

DISCUSSION. The
shown in figure 23-1
similar

is

operating

in a

clockwise

(])

rotates through angle

direction,

load

output

the

swings through the arc

the input link

As

must

the

than

in

link

faster during the return

travel
it

stroke

does during the advance stroke.

we

speed

can

Be-

(2)

cause of this difference

and

the whole mechanism a quick-return assembly.

through angle

6,

The

in

BDC. We

travel of the load

limiting positions of the

the

call

more

will call this part of the

when

moves the same


distance during both the advance and return
strokes. The input link (]), however, rotates

swing of %2-

Notice that the load

it

does

(d)

and

23-1

Figure

9.2

C-j

Because of this and the fact that

are perpendicular,

that the angle between 1

advance

iting position

during the return

Fig.

link.

and #2 are perpendicular.


Also notice that the angle between Q and
at the limiting position is one half of the total

tions occur

than

output

by the

Notice that the limiting posi-

clearly.

cycle the return stroke.

a larger angle (0) during the

limited

is

23-2 shows the limiting positions somewhat

output link swings back to A' and the load

stroke

some

rotating at

moves from bottom dead center

as the input link rotates

through

is

constant angular velocity (w), then the load

(BDC) to top dead center (TDC). We will


Then,
call this motion the advance stroke.

returns to

If

the

from A' to

(a)

stroke.

manner

to a four-bar crank-rocker.

input link

the

mechanism

sliding-link

is

Sliding-Link Quick Return

160

we

and

can observe

at the lim-

Fig.

2. =

which

is

23-2

We

C-|

figure 23-2 that

Wc:

rotates

From

during the return stroke of the quick-return

this equation

we can

solve for

in

the

form

mechanism.

figure 23-2

the angle through which

advance stroke
stroke

from

s,r

(23.1)

the angle through which

From

can relate these angles to the link

lengths by observing

-a

II

The Sliding-Link Mechanism

90 _
9U

6 = 180

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 23

IV1ECAHNSI MS/LINKAGES

we

can observe that

E-j

rotates during the

related to that of the return

is

As

by

= 360

we may

write

- 9

Substituting the relationship for 6

a result

we

0=

have

180 +^sin"

(23.3)

= 360 -(180 -a)

and
or

6=
for the

180 + a

advance stroke rotation of

(23.2)

6 = 180

C-j

161

-ysin"

(23.4)

ft)

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 23
Then the

ratio of these

two

0/0

angles

A'

is

II

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

is

equal to stroke distance S. This distance

chord subtending the arc AA' at a radius

called the ratio of the speed-of -advance to the

is

speed-of-return:

equal to J^-

'

tms case #2

is

tne total effec-

tive length of the output, link.

180 +

sin"

From

such

(23.5)

analytical

geometry we know that

chord can be found by

d
1

180

sin

S =

We

can use this equation to determine this

important ratio from the lengths of

In

mally more than 180 degrees while 6

link

but

we have

sin-j

already determined that

sm

this

is

nor-

is

nor-

so

a=

eT

we have

than 180 degrees.

less

Now
put

making calculations based on

equation you should remember that

mally

and

J>2

let's

go back and examine the out-

and load relationship.

shows a simplified sketch of


mechanism.

(23.6)

Figure 23-3

this part of the

for the stroke distance of the load.

For simplicity

let's

of action of the load


fixed link
analysis

is

This

simpler

When

is

will

when

assume that the

line

perpendicular to the

it is

S can have.

the case.

the line of action of the load

perpendicular to

Actually this

not always be true but

then the distance

If

we

is

the

maximum

value that

allow the fixed link to have

an angle other than 90 degrees to the

line of

load action, the stroke will be reduced.

When

the fixed link and load action are colinear, the

is

stroke will be at

to

its

minimum

value.

\
90

LOAD

///////;///// ////////////////a rrr


BDC *
Fig.

23-3

The Stroke Distance


162

+ TDC

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 23

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Bearing plates with spacers

2 Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2


2 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4 in.

2 Bearing holders with bearings

4 Shaft hangers with bearings

in.

OD

Steel rule 6 in. long


Shaft 2" x 1/4"

2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

Disk dial with 1/4-in. bore hub

Dial index with

mount

2 Collars

Lever arm

long with 1/4-in. bore hub

Rigid coupling

Slotted lever 2

Roundhead machine screw 6-32 x 1/4

Lever arm 2

Flat head

in.

in.

in.

long with 1/4-in. bore hub

long with 1/4-in. bore

machine screw 2-56 x 1/2

hub

thickness
h

For details of wire

link construction refer to

Spacer No. 6 x 1/8 with 1/32 wall

in.

Wire loop

link

in.

long

appendix A.

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Inspect your

components to

insure that they are

Construct the experimental setup shown

undamaged.

in figure

23-4(a) and 23-4(b).

fit.

II

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 23

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

II

n
\

L~1/ /

<

>

Fig.

Rotate the

3.

freely.

Experimental Setup Front View

23-4(b)

dial several

times to insure that the mechanism

Lubricate the load shaft

if

is

properly aligned and rotates

necessary.

Rotate the mechanism until the crank lever (i^) and the slotted lever both point straight
upward. Now adjust the 2-inch lever that drives the load so that it points in the same

4.

direction as the slotted lever.


5.

With the load

6.

Lay the 6-inch

7.

at

TDC,

set the input dial to zero.

steel rule across

the load shaft hangers so that

the end of the shaft. Tape

it

Starting with zero degrees

on the

displacement (X) every 20

degrees for

position

in

dial,

Repeat step 7 for one

9.

Measure and record the length of each


that

is

full dial

not tne slotted

measure and record the

revolution

revolution

full dial

in

link in the

mechanism

Adjust the 2-inch lever that drives the load so that

Repeat steps 7 and

13.

From your

14.

and the load

(], C Q , c

and

fi

2 )-

(Notice

(S)

it is

pointing

in

the direction at 90 to

Relocate the load shaft as necessary.

12.

in

(j3)

of the load.

1 1

defined

angle

the clockwise direction.

lever.)

Measure and record the stroke

that of step 5.

dial

in

the counterclockwise direction.

10.

zero end lines up with

necessary.

if

one

8.

its

8.

Record the data as

data determine

j3'

and

and 6 for the

the discussion.)

Using the results from step 13 compute 0/0.

164

X'.

first

setup arrangement only.

(0 and 0

are

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Clockwise

EXPERIMENT 23

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

F/g.

23-5

X'

777e

165

Data Table

0/0

Counterclockwise
X'

II

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM

EXPERIMENT 23
ANALYSIS GUIDE.
X.

On

In

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

II

your analysis of these data you should plot

the curve identify the regions of the load travel from

For the

first

TDC

to

curve for each set of

BDC

and from

BDC

to

j3

TDC,

experimental arrangement determine the ratio of time-of-advance to time-of-return

using equation 23.5.

Also determine the stroke using equation 23.6.

Why

pare to your experimental values?

were the

results different

How do

these results com-

when you moved the output

lever?

PROBLEMS
1.

quick-return mechanism of the type

shown

in

figure 23-1

has the following

dimensions:

= 8 inches
2 = 18 inches
Will such a
2.

If

and

mechanism work
in

problem

like

the one

the fixed link

mechanism work

satisfactorily?
1

in

Q
c

were increased

What would be the

4.

What would be the stroke

5.

List three applications of a quick-return

= 28 inches

Explain your answer.

figure 23-1 ?

3.

= 6 inches

in

length by 6 inches,

ratio of speed-of-advance to speed-of-return in


in

problem 2?
mechanism.

166

would the

Explain your answer.

problem 2?

/ LL

experiment

INTRODUCTION.
experiment we will

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

Mechanical devices are often used to perform computing functions.

some of the more popular mechanisms used

investigate

for

In this

computing

alge-

braic functions.

DISCUSSION. Mechanisms used

in

Figure 24-1 shows a mechanism that can

comput-

operations could be classed as analog com-

ing

The term analog comes from the word


analogy which means a similarity between two
puters.

different things.

may be

or angle

With mechanisms,

In

is

2=

Another

gear and pinion

The device could be used to find any one of


the quantities if the other two are known. If
x is 3 and 2 is 12 and the values are set on the
device, then y would register 9.

computing device.
ratio

else.

a simple

is

x + y

dis-

used to represent

be analogous to) something

by

a distance

each case the displacement

of the mechanical device


(or

is

related to x and y

placement could represent pounds of force,

work or power.

is

the displacement of the center pointer and

used to represent time, miles

hour or gallons per minute.

per

The sum, 2,

be used for adding quantities.

type of

Recall that the velocity

of the gear and pinion

Wp

RACK

is

where ojg and ojp are the angular velocities of


the gear

and pinion, and n and N are the num-

ber of teeth of the pinion


tively.

and

gear, respec-

Solving for the angular velocity of the

pinion gives us

C0

'

The

ratio of

gear

and pinion

velocity

is

-N/n

is

N
n

co
g

constant for any given

set; thus,

the pinion angular

constant times the gear angular

Then in this case, we have a type of


analog computer that multiplies by a constant.

velocity.

It

should be noted that the constant can be

less

than one

in

which case the device becomes

"divide by a constant" analog computer.

Fig.

167

24- 1

Mechanical

Summing Mechanism

EXPERIMENT 24

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

Sprocket approximately 1-1/4

2 Dial indices

1/4-in.

3 Dial index mounts


Shaft 2" x 1/4"
1
Roller chain approximately 10 inches

in.

OD

with

bore hub

Spring balance

Spring balance post with clamp

Pulley approx.

OD

in.

with 1/4-in. bore

hub

long

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Inspect

all

of the parts to insure that they are

Reproduce the two

shown

scales

in figure

in

proper working condition.

24-2 and prepare them to be taped onto the

breadboard.

:r

r:

11

10

o
2

10

14

16

12

3.

^
^

Fig.

24-2

Calibrated x

and y

Scales

12

14

16

Assemble the sprocket and pulley on the shaft

as

shown

in

figure 24-3.

The pulley

is

used

only as a standard for the sprocket and shaft.


4.

Remove

the master link from the chain and put the link in a safe place so that

it

doesn't

get lost.
5.

Construct the mechanism shown

in

figure 24-4.

Be sure to use

a flat

washer between the

chain and nut to avoid burring the chain links.


6.

Position the spring balance and the index

the chain

measure
7.

is

taut.

in this

The ounce

mounts

so that zero

is

indicated

on each when

scale of the spring balance will be used as a displacement

experiment.

Set each of the values of x and y indicated

output readings (ounce

scale)

in

the data table and record the respective

from the spring balance.

Make

all

readings to the nearest

whole number.
8.

Remove

the chain and replace the master

link.

168

Then disassemble the

rest of the apparatus.

EXPERIMENT 24

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

PULLEY
Fig.

24-3

Sprocket and Pulley Assembly

CHAIN

SPROCKET
SCALES

INDEX

PULLEY

NJ
=2?

Fig.

tscgr

Experimental Setup Side View

24-4(a)

~To

4
ill

ill

ill

10

\Q

oi

To

((50

~oL_fo"

lYp

>

1
1

Experimental Setup Top View

169

''I

16

''

to

"o)

24-4 (b)

14

12

''

VTH.I

Fig.

10

12

14

16

EXPERIMENT 24

X
A

19

1 ft
I

7/
c

n
u

12

12

11

ANALYSIS GUIDE. Examine


some of the

Fig.

Discuss

z.

and

2.

0
0

(z)

x, y

output

tween

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (ALGEBRA)

24-5

The Data Table

the results of the data table and determine the relationship be-

some of the

What

possible sources of error in this experiment.

practical applications that this kind of

mechanism could

satisfy?

PROBLEMS
1.

Suppose that we misalign the x and y scales in the experimental mechanism an inch
or so by sliding one to the left and the other to the right in figure 24-4. If the three
pointers were zeroed on the scales,

would the misalignment

affect the accuracy of

subsequent data?
2.

Compare the

calibration of the x

How do

they compare?

3.

Explain

why

4.

Use the spring equation to explain

the scale

is

and y

different for the x

why

scale to the scale

on the spring balance.

and y compared to the

z scale.

the force calibration of a spring balance can

be used to express linear displacement.


5.

Explain

how to program and

solve the equation

A+

6.

16 = 25

on the experimental setup of

this experiment.

Sketch a mechanism using a

lever

and spring balances

in

such a

way

as to allow

you

to substitute forces for the displacements used in the experiment.


7.

Explain

in detail

an example problem solution using your device from problem

170

six.

are

COMPUTING MECHANISMS

25

experiment

(TRIG)

INTRODUCTION. Computations

of physical quantities that involve angles frequently require

the use of trigonometry.

experiment we

In this

examine some basic trigonometric com-

will

puting mechanisms.

DISCUSSION. A mechanism used

to

solve

trigonometric functions would be classed as


an analog device.

The

relationship

the input and the output

may

between

involve sine,

cosine or tangent functions. Sometimes they


also

involve

secant,

cosecant or cotangent

functions but no information that


tained

in

the

first

three

is

is

not con-

added.

or tangent function generator

when

its

output

displacement, velocity, or other quantitative

measure

is

proportional to that function of a

chosen angle.
put

is

In

other words,

when

the out-

plotted versus the input angle, the graph

would be proportional to the curve you would


get

by plotting the values for that function

from

a trig table.

The shapes of the

sine, co-

sine and tangent functions are illustrated in

device can be considered a sine, cosine

figure 25-1.

EXPERIMENT 25

COMPUTING MECHANISMS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

(TRIG)

(C) y =

Fig.

TAN

25-1 Graph of Trigonometric Functions (Cont'd)

You should already be familiar with a


cam that drives a follower in a simple
harmonic motion. The cam shown in figure

placement equivalent to the sine function (or


cosine, which is simply displaced 90 from

25-2 would be a device for generating a

the follower displacement graph

disk

the sine).

dis-

It is

important to understand that


is

called a

MAX.

MID.

MAX
MIN.

MID

n/2

MIN
2n

FOLLOWER DISPLACEMENT

CAM AND FOLLOWER


Fig.

25-2

Sine

Cam Used as a
172

Function Generator

sine or cosine

can

We

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

EXPERIMENT 25

IVIECAHN ISMS/LINKAGES

function because of

shape.

its

any point recording data and

start at

then pick the reference which gives the desired curve.

The scotch yoke in figure 25-3 is another


popular mechanism for solving problems inLink

volving the trigonometric functions.


is

and

crank with a length

is

-|

fixed at

The input angle is the crank angle


shown as a in the diagram. The magnitudes
of the x and y components correspond to the
point P.

by the slotted parts and are


marked accordingly on the diagram. Length

distances traveled

The Scotch Yoke

25-3

Fig.

the analog distance used to represent the

is

hypotenuse and while


distance in

make

it

x,

it

shown

is

the figure, a slot

a variable.

The

in

as a fixed

part

relationships

a scale factor of

could

sin

and

it is

2.8 inches,

Then,
inch,

if

radar

shows that

is

measured to be one

we have

a flying target

Precision

tioned at an angle of 20 degrees above the

levels of

in figure

is

.0

scale factor

.0(500) = 500 yards

is

posi-

shown

scale factor

a.

1500 yards away, and the antenna


horizontal as

1400 yards

(25.1)
sin

illustration of this, let's say that a

receiver

=*

the distance y

Height =

As an

we have

Horizontal Range = 2.8

2.8(500 yds)

Solving each equation for 1 gives us

cos a

yards, the dis-

would be adjusted to three inches.


The crank would be rotated to give an angle a
of 20 degrees. If the distance x is measured

x = i cos a

500

tance,

between

and y are
y = #i

inch =

25-4. Choosing

tion

is

mechanisms can be used to

give high

accuracy but the principle of opera-

the same as that described above.

TARGET

^0
HEIGHT

20

RADAR
SET

GROUND RANGE

77777M7777777777777777777M777777777777P777?
Fig.

25-4

Example Problem
173

EXPERIMENT 25

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

*1

Wire loop

link

legs

and clamps

approx. 3

in.

Steel rule 6

Disk dial with 1/4-in. bore hub

in.

3 Collars

long

long

Dial index with

Shaft 2" x 1/4"

mount

Lever arm,

Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4 roundhead

Spacer No. 6 x 1/8-in. long x 1/32-in.

long with 1/4-in. bore hub

in.

wall thickness

2 Shaft 4" x 1/4"


4 Shaft hangers with bearings
*See appendix

Rigid coupling

2 Bearing plates with spacers


2 Bearing mounts with bearings

for wire link construction details.

Slotted lever, 2

1/4

in.

long, with

bore hub

in.

PROCEDURE
1

2.

3.

Inspect your parts to be sure they are in satisfactory working condition.

Construct the mechanism shown

in figure

25-5.

Begin with the crank arm pointing up and the dial at 0. Adjust the ruler to measure the

Be sure the screw holding the


same place for each reading you make.

travel of the follower.

4.

link to the rigid coupling

is

in the

Record the displacement of the follower for each 20 degrees of rotation of the crank arm
from 0 to 360 (call displacements left of the starting point a negative quantity).

0
0

Fig.

25-5

Experimental Setup

174

EXPERIMENT 25

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

5.

Construct the mechanism shown

6.

Start with the slotted lever pointing vertically

Fig.

25-6

in figure

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

25-6.

and adjust

Experimental Setup

175

dial to read

II

zero degrees.

EXPERIMENT 25

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

Fig.

25-5

Crank Angle a
in

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

Lever Angle

Displacement

degrees

in

inches

in

a.

25-6

Displacement

degrees

inches

20

1/8

40

1/4

60

3/8

80

1/2

100

5/8

120

3/4

140

7/8

160

180

1-1/8

200

- 1/8

220

- 1/4

240

-3/8

260

- 1/2

280

-5/8

300

-3/4

320

-7/8

340

360

- 1-1/4

Fig.

7.

in

25-7

The Data Table

Place the ruler so that one edge of the rigid coupling indicates three inches and call this

zero displacement.

Position the ruler and sliding

displacement equally

in

mechanism so that you can measure the

both directions.

8.

Record the angles for the displacements

9.

Plot the curves of your data

on separate

listed in

the data table.

sets of axes

176

but on the same sheet of graph paper.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
ANALYSIS GUIDE.

EXPERIMENT 25

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (TRIG)

your data explain the type of curve you got in each case.
Explain how you know the function generated to be as you stated. Discuss any difficulties you

encountered

in

In analyzing

the experiment.

PROBLEMS
1.

The mechanism of

where

is

figure 25-4 has a

the link length and

is

maximum

error (e) of

the crank length. Calculate the

maximum

error

for your setup.


2.

Explain

how you

could use the experimental setup of figure 25-4 to get the cosine

function.
3.

Calling the displacement, y, write the equation relating the angle

a and y

for figure

25-4.
4.

Write the equation relating the displacement, y, and the angle, a, for figure 25-5.

5.

Look
90.

at the

experimental setup

What would

in figure

25-5.

Try to imagine rotating the

lever to

the distance of displacement approach?

6.

Did your results of problem five agree with equation 25.1? Explain your reply.

7.

and horizontal components of two quantities that are at right


angles to each other, which of the mechanisms of this experiment would you use to

Knowing the

vertical

determine the angle? Explain.


8.

you knew the vertical component and hypotenuse of a right triangle, which of
the mechanisms you constructed would produce data proportional to the angle?
If

Explain your answer.

177

26

experimen

INTRODUCTION.

Certain physical quantities represent areas or integrals and others represent

rates or derivatives.

is

change

changing

gasoline mileage of a car goes

40 mph to 10 mpg
change

rate of

at

A mpg
^v

= -0.6

An

in relation
if

instantaneous rate

in

equation would be replaced by

AV

or

=-^ =

average rate

dS

instantaneous rate = -^-= 62

50 mph for

mph

Notice for average rates

decrease an average of 0.6


in

d.

at

hour

hr./gal

This means that your gasoline mileage would

per hour increase

the

the 3-hour interval

-12
20

22

10

60-40

in

at

mileage,

speed,

in

called a derivative and

is

each delta, A, (rate of change) used

the

60 mph, the average

mpg, divided by the change

average rate =

how

from 22 mpg

the change

is

tells us

For example,

to another quantity.

examine some simple ways of mechanically

will

quantities.

rate of

rapidly one quantity

experiment we

this

In

computing some of these

DISCUSSION. A

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

mpg

time

for each mile

intervals

while

for

we

talk

about

derivative

we

specify instants of time.

speed over the interval

Mechanisms that have

considered.

a measurable out-

put quantity proportional to a rate of change

Many

are

rates

compared to time.
here to a point

Your average
would be

50 miles awav

is

of

rate

quantities

in

are

example

three hours.

in

change of

AS = 150

mi. =

"Tup

your average

rate of

position

hour you drove.

It

cn
50 mph

50 miles each

isn't difficult

to perceive

the car you drove as being stopped part of the

averaging 50

is

called

differentiators.

good

the speedometer of a car which

gives the speed of the car at

any given time.

One method

shown

of doing this

is

in figure

The cable from the wheel turns a permanent magnet inside a coil so that an
electrical current is generated and measured
by the current meter. The faster the car goes,
the faster the magnet turns, inducing more

change so on the

average, your position changed

time or doing 70

often

26-1.

average rate

This

changes

Suppose you drove from

mph

part of the trip

and

current, causing the speedometer pointer (meter needle) to read higher.

still

then calibrated

mph.

in

mph.

or meter deflection

Suppose exactly one hour after you

is

The meter face is


The output current

quantity that

is

pro-

portional to the rate of change of the position

left

you looked at the speedometer and


on
it read 62 mph. The instantaneous speed then
would be 62 mph at time equal to one hour.

of the car so this instrument

this trip

It

a differentiator.

uses electrical currents to be analogous to a

speed so

178

is

it is

also an analog computer.

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

EXPERIMENT 26

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COIL

SPEEDOMETER
CABLE

KB

3-

CURRENT
METER

MAGNET

SHAFT ROTATION
TAKEN FROM WHEEL

Fig.

26-1

Figure 26-2 shows a purely mechanical

method of producing the same

results.

faster the shaft rotates, the farther

Speedometer

Solving for

work

gives us

The

the weights

moved outwardly causing the sleeve to


The linkage makes the pointer
up.
needle indicate up scale.

W=

are

Pt

move

Now

let's

As an introductory example
one horsepower
words,

power

If

look at integrating mechanisms.

is
is

let's recall

we want

that

area under a curve.

550 ft- lbs/sec. In other


work per unit of time.

Considering the ordinate

values on the graph


multipliers for

P =

compute work in terms of


we would be calculating the

to

power and time,

figure

tigate

time

physical quantities.

graphical

relationship

Y777W777
POINTER

ROTATING
SHAFT

Fig.

26-2

Centrifugal Rate Indicator

179

26-3 to be

the actual units,

work _

the

in

let's

inves-

of

some

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

EXPERIMENT 26
r

LU

g
O
CL

Computing Work Graphically

25-3

Supposes machine expends a continuous


two units of power for each one unit of time.
We would plot this on the graph of figure 26-3
as shown for time increment one, the work
performed

The computation

(2) (1

power curve

Now,

x width).

if

no power

is

is

produces only

method

and

is

from 0 to

The

-r

(t)dt

(time axis)

unit as before

how you

is

not

it

means

interest here

the integral but what

1)

in

the area, so

W = Pt =
The

area

(3) (1)

= 3 units

under the curve (work)

W=

Pt=

(2) (5)

Area O, by the same technique,

The

total

work performed, then,

is

is

-r

w (2-3)

-r

W (3-5)

=p

-r

(t)dt

= 0

f(t)dt= 3

units.

the total

area:

Wt = W v2 + W 2 _3 + W3.4 + W 4 5 =

w (1-2)
is

= 10 units

f(t)dt

= 10

f (t)dt

= 6

2 + 0+ 3

+ 10 + 6 = 21 units

180

For

areas.
1

written

W (0-1

For the time interval of 2 to 3, the power


the curve
is 3 and the work is the area under

calculating

for

the integral

the area under the curve of the function,

f (t)

during the next time interval, no work is


accomplished and the area from 1 to 2 is zero.

from 2 to 3 {At =

example,

length

expended

is

curve

the curve under which the

be solved mathematically using integral calculus, or by some machine. Definite integrals

the area under the

of a rectangle

(area

When

the

computed becomes other shapes,


the problem becomes more complex and must

are
is

as

relatively

is

area to be

= 2 units of work

Note that the product

long

rectangles.

is

W = Pt =

so

easy

of areas

solve

terms of

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 26

Fig.

Thus,
integrator,

when we say
we mean that it

Area of Haifa Sine Wave

26-4

device

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

is

an

example, an intermediate step to cajculating

can compute the

that the area of half a sine

area under a curve for us.

wave

is

0.636

involves taking the indefinite (orantiderivative)

of the function:
Let's carry the

example further by look-

When we

ing at figure 26-4.

definite integral

from zero to

curve

we

is

0.636,

sin

say that the

ir

x dx = - cos x + k

of a half sine

Here k
are saying that the area

and

under the curve equals 0.636 and would be

called the constant of integration

is

shifts the

the x, y axes.

written

waveshape up and down on


When k = 0, the cos x wave

would be varying about (above and below)


Area

In

the
its

way

f (x)dx

=J

sin

x dx =

the x axis

0.(
.636

cases

we

are only interested in

line.

will use in this

which the area changes rather than

specific value.

interested in the

and

Figure 26-5 shows the integrator that

some
in

In

these cases

end values shown

bottom of the

integral

we

between

input,

experiment.
coj,

are not

at the top

curve.

Rdco:

For

^^ji OUTPUT, Wo

vm

FRICTION WHEEL

Fig.

The

output,

2&5

Mechanical Integrator
181

co

we

relationship

Q and

is

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

EXPERIMENT 26
MATERIALS

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

Pulley approximately

1/4

2 Bearing plates with spacers


1

DC motor 28 VDC

Pulley approximately 2

1/4

in.

in.

OD

in.

Disk dial

Steel rule 6

in.

with

2 Collars

bore hub

Flexible coupling

2 Bearing mounts with bearings

Stroboscope

2 Shaft hangers with bearings

DC power

O-ring approximately

OD

long

2 Shafts 1/4 X 4"

in.

bore hub

with

supply (0-40V)

1X1/8

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect your

components to

insure that they are

undamaged.

2.

Construct the bearing plate assembly shown

in figure 26-6.

3.

Snap the O-ring onto the smaller of the two

pulleys.

4.

Mount the

5.

Loosen the clamps and

bearing plate on the breadboard as

shown

quite tightly.

It

should

in

figure 26-7.

fit

whole bearing plate assembly up snugly (not tightly)


metal parts of the two pulleys
against the small pulley with the o-ring on it. Note: The
slide the

should contact the o-ring only. Retighten the clamps.

BEARING PLATE

LARGE
PULLEY

COLLAR

INPUT DIAL

INPUT

Fig.

26-6

SHAFT

The Bearing Plate Assembly


182

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 26

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

REFERENCE

DIRECTION

POSITION

MOTOR

Fig.

26-7

Experimental Setup

II

Top View

6.

Adjust the mechanism so that the rubber friction drive wheel


pulley wheel.

7.

The forces

is

on the outer edge of the

tend to move the rubber friction wheel away from the center of the
drive wheel so the collar riding against the shaft hanger can serve to adjust the position
will

of the friction wheel.


8.

Place the ruler so that

and
9.

10.

will

Set the

Move

one edge of the

dial indicates

3 inches. This will be the reference

be called zero.

power supply voltage to 10

volts

and strobe the

dial

to determine the output

RPM.

the dial the distance indicated

(in 1/64 inches) in the data table (so that the friction
wheel moves toward the center of the drive wheel) and reset the collar against the shaft

hanger.
11.

Strobe the output and repeat step 10 for each position indicated
input

is

made to

in

the data table.

The

represent a sine wave by taking the values of displacement from the

sine curve.

12.

Your data

represents slightly less than 90 of a cycle.

provided, choosing a scale to

Plot your data

on the graph

make the amplitude approximately the same

wave provided.
183

as the sine

EXPERIMENT 26

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

Reading

Distance

6/64

4A

(at

in.

in.

/ /o4 in.

zziw

in.

26/64

in.

31/64

in.

38/64

in.

Using your data for the

first

26-8

The Data Table

75 and your knowledge of integration, plot

remaining output curve should look

In analyzing

RPM

net point)

Z/D4

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

Output

Reference

l\IO.

13.

From

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

your

if

how

results

from

this

experiment you should examine the

data and discuss the relationship that exists between the input and output.

words how the experimental mechanism could be used


difficulties you encountered with the experiment.

in a

Explain

computing machine.

in

your own

Discuss any

a.

PROBLEMS
1.

After

integrating a

function you get a constant of integration which can be

determined with some additional information.


+ k. In order to see the effect of
y =

/dx=x

k =

and k =

2.

Three points (say x = 0,

and

Suppose we solve the problem


y = x + k belowfor k = 0,

k, plot

2) for each line should

-- 4
3

Fig.

26-9

the

complete cycle could be run.

Problem Axes
184

be sufficient.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 26

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS)

EXPERIMENT 26
2.

The

COMPUTING MECHANISMS (CALCULUS}

distance

from the

friction

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

wheel to the center of the drive pulley, R,

moving from the outside edge to the center

at a constant velocity.

is

by

varied

This distance

is

changing at a linear rate and

yxdx=-y+k
Sketch the output waveshape.
3.

If

a flywheel changes

its

velocity

the rate of change (average)


4.

load

full

is

moved along

length of

100

feet.

in

Ignore the vertical position by letting k = 0.

from 10

RPM

RPM

to

is

in

three seconds, what

is

per second?

conveyor belt such that

What

RPM

40

it

takes 30 seconds to travel the

the average rate of change (velocity)

in feet

per second.
5.

way in which a mechanism could be connected to your experimental


order to drive the friction wheel back and forth in a sine function
(R - sine ) (Check previous experiments for ideas about sine function generators).

Sketch
setup

6.

in

Sketch the input and output waveforms for problem 5 above.

186

RATCHET MECHANISMS

27

experiment

INTRODUCTION. Many mechanisms

require that motion be in only one direction.

quire that motion be intermittent although the input motion

motion

of achieving both of these types of

amine some

is

may be

In this

to use a ratchet.

Others

re-

One method
experiment we will ex-

continuous.

of the basic features of ratchets.

DISCUSSION. Ratchet mechanisms or ratchet gearing may be used to transmit motion


of

an

nature, or to prevent a

intermittent

from rotating backward. As an intermittent motion device, these mechanisms are

shaft

And,

useful for stepping or indexing.

as a

PAWL

one-way motion device, they are useful as


preventative or safety devices.

Figure 27-1 shows a ratchet in perhaps


its

simplest form.

In this

ment of the wheel


rection will occur

that direction.
its

in

mechanism

when the

When

move-

counterclockwise
lever

the lever

is

is

moved

di-

Fig.

lever

is

given an

tion, the ratchet

In

other words,

up and down

If the
be secured to a stationary member.
square
in
were
teeth of the ratchet wheel

wheel

will

shape, the pawl

when the

oscillatory

be given an

mo-

in

action.

27-2.

prevent the ratchet wheel from rota-

Fig.

27-2

ger

would then prevent motion

either direction.

wheels are

inter-

mittent rotary motion.

To

Basic Ratchet Wheel

ting in the clockwise direction, the pawl could

over the wheel teeth but will not cause

wheel rotation.

in

returned to

original position, the pawl or detent will

slide

27-

also

used

This approach
Here, the pawl

to
is

is in

provide

reversing

illustrated in figure

the form of a plun-

which has one tapered side and

Reversing Ratchet Mechanism

187

Square-toothed ratchet

is

free to

EXPERIMENT 27
move but is held
amount

pawl

is

lifted

ratchet

against the ratchet wheel

by

When

the

and turned 180 degrees, the

flat

a small

driving face

RA TCHET MECHA NISMS

is

wheel

of spring force.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
placing a

number of pawls

by side and
proportioning their lengths according to the
pitch of the teeth on the ratchet wheel,
a
side

reversed which will give the

quite fine feed can be obtained even though

motion

the ratchet wheel has a coarse pitch.

in

the opposite

di-

rection.

Another important type of ratchet


In all of

the ratchets discussed so

number of indexing

far,

positions equals the

ber of teeth on the ratchet wheel.

the

num-

One way

number of index positions is


to increase the number of teeth; however, a
large number of teeth mean smaller ones and
thus less strength. Another method used to
increase the number of stops made by the
to increase the

ratchet wheel

is

to use multiple pawls.

example, adding another pawl which

is

For
of a

shown in figure 27-3 will


double the number of indexing positions. By
different length as

Fig.

27-3

Fig.

27-4

frictional type.

positive

In this

The

is

the

the

direct,

intermittent

in

the pawl

in

smooth

figure 27-4

only one direction


is

moved

surface.

in

is

is

the ratchet wheel will rotate.

the ratchet wheel attempts to


to prevent

it.

Multiple Pawl Ratchet

Friction Ratchet

The

The

such that

encouraged.

the proper direction,


Conversely,

move

opposite direction, the pawl friction

188

no

transmitted by frictional resistance.

pawl shape shown

If

rather,

ratchet wheel has a

motion

is

is

engagement between the pawl and

the ratchet wheel;

motion

type there

will

action in this type of

if

the

in

tend
fric-

tion ratchet

is

positive-action

substantially the

ratchet

RA TCHE T MECHA NISMS

EXPERIMEN T 27

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

same

as the

in

figure

second type of friction ratchet

is illus-

illustrated

ROLLERS

27-1.

trated in figure 27-5.

sometimes

between the ratchet wheel

are placed

balls,

Rollers, or

and an outer ring which, when turned


direction,

one

in

causes the rollers or balls to be

wedged between the wheel and ring as they


move up the inclined edges. Rotation in the
opposite direction will cause the rollers to

move

into the recessed areas of the teeth

RATCHET
WHEEL

and

thereby reduce the friction between the two


surfaces.

When

designing a positive-action ratchet

some consideration must be given to the way

To

in-

automatically pulled

in

the pawl mates with the ratchet teeth.


sure that the pawl

is

Fig.

and engaged properly, an appropriately contoured tooth shape

is

important.

One way

the ratchet

to

is

to

make

initial

sure that the ratchet

initial

Another Friction Ratchet

lie

contact

The

between the pawl and the

center points. This

PAWL PIVOT CENTER

CENTER OF RATCHET

27-6

circle.

contact at the point of

line

of the ratchet and pawl pivot between their

contact between the pawl and

Fig.

on the same

line of

tooth face should pass through the center

wheel center, the pawl pivot center, and the


point of

all

normal to the

insure that relatively small forces are acting in

the system

27-5

Pawl-Tooth Mating Design

189

is

illustrated in figure 27-6.

EXPERIMENT 27

In

used to

RA TCHET MECHANISMS

some cases a four-bar mechanism is


move a ratchet pawl. Figure 27-7

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES
The
tooth or

shows one of the many possible arrangements


employing a four-bar mechanism. In this type

rack

of assembly the pawl steps over the ratchet

or linear.

teeth, engages

one and

pulls

it

each time the crank rotates.

wheel

ratchet

motion

is,

The

many

teeth.

may have

In

used as a drive pawl.

use a rack

a single

some instances a
The intermittent

motion may be either rotary

to the right

as in figure 27-7

motion mechanism would

linear

place of the ratchet wheel and

in

would probably have some means of returning


the rack to its starting position from the end

resulting

of course,

is

drive pawl used

inter-

mittent.

of

its

travel.

DRIVE

PAWL

CRANK

Fig.

27-7

Four-Bar Ratchet Assembly

MATERIALS
Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

2 Lever arms

2 Bearing plates with spacers

in.

long with 1/4-in.

bore hubs

4 Bearing holders with bearings


2 Shafts 4" x 1/4"

Spur gear approx. 3/4


1/4-in.

Shaft 2" x 1/4"

in.

OD

2 Flathead machine screws 2-56 x 3/4

2 Disk

4 Hex nuts 2-56 x 1/4 in.


Steel rule 6 in. long
1
Rubber grommet approx. 1/2
1

with 1/4-in. bore hubs

2 Dial indices with mounts


5 Collars

Flat washers No. 2 x 1/2

Rack

1/4

in.

in.

in.

OD

2 Shaft hangers with bearings


dials

with

bore hub

in.

OD

thick with 1/4-in. hole

PROCEDURE
1

2.

Inspect each of your

Mount the
1/2

in.

components to

insure that

rack to the crank and rocker as

long and the rocker should be

in.

190

it is

shown

long.

undamaged.
in figure

27-8.

The crank should be

RA TCHE T MECHA NISMS

EXPERIMEN T 27

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

0
INPUT DIAL
3 1/2"-

Fig.

3.

The Experimental Setup

Construct the remainder of the mechanism shown

on the drawing
C'

4.

27-8

in

figure 27-8.

The dimensions shown

Measure and record each

are only approximate.

o''

Adjust the height of the rocker shaft and the spacing between the bearing plate assembly

and crank shaft so that the rack properly meshes with the gear when both
vertically
5.

6.

link length

Adjust the dials to read zero when the rack


Fit the

levers point

downward.

output

dial so that

it

is

at its righthand limiting position.

squeezes the rubber

grommet

firmly against the bearing

plate.
7.

Starting at zero carefully rotate the input dial clockwise

the input and output


tated
8.

more than 360

dial readings at

10.

20-degree steps.

Continue

until the

Record both

output

dial has ro-

degrees.

Reset the dials to the position given

squeezed between the output


9.

each step.

in

dial

in

step 5.

and the bearing

Be sure the rubber grommet

is

firmly

plate.

Repeat step 7 but rotate the input counterclockwise this time.

On

graph paper plot the output positions versus the input positions for both sets of data.

191

EXPERIMENT 27

RA TCHET MECHANISMS

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Clockwise Rotation
Input

Output

motion?

Input

*o

Fig.

tions of a ratchet.

1"

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

Counterclockwise Rotation

27-9

In analyzing this

Output

The Data Table

experiment you should consider several possible applica-

How

might a ratchet be used to obtain both quick return and intermittent


Discuss means of varying the timing of the intermittent motion. What was the purpose

grommet? Discuss any difficulties you encountered


and any other pertinent comments which you might have.
of the rubber

192

in

assembling the mechanism

EXPERIMENT 27

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

RA TCHET MECHANISMS

PROBLEMS
1.

Discuss at least three similarities and three differences between a geneva

and

a ratchet

mechanism

mechanism.

2.

What

are the advantages of the friction type ratchet over the positive action type?

3.

Draw

4.

Graphically determine the

simple stick diagram of the experimental mechanism.

amount

of horizontal and vertical displacement experi-

enced by the rack in the experiment.


5.

Verify that the mechanism

in

the experiment satisfies the conditions required for a

crank rocker.

193

/ >C

experiment

INTRODUCTION.
allowing rotation

In
in

many

it is

necessary to restrict rotation

In this

experiment we

friction ratchet

of a wheel and a pawl.

is

will

composed

In this

examine

that

Figure 28-1 shows one

of the possible arrangements.

a simple

type of

we know

the value

freely

(or gravity) force

In
is

In

by the pawl spring and that

from the weight of the pawl

some

cases no spring

component

of the

and the pawl arm

is

the wheel

to turn,

it

force f2 to the lever which

is

If

itself.

moments

used and the pawl

held in contact with the wheel by gravity.


this event

)
-j

angle.

the end of the pawl against the

exerted

arising

(f

a ratchet.

When we don't know


we can determine it from the spring

this value,

force

example of such

dicular to the pawl arm.

may turn relatively


counterclockwise.
When it does, it
lift

one direction while

of the spring (or gravity) force acting perpen-

mechanism the wheel


tends to

in

Friction ratchets are sometimes used to provide

the opposite, direction.

single direction rotation.

DISCUSSION. A

applications

FRICTION RATCHETS

That

is,

must impart

such that the

on the pawl arm balance.

acting

from

is

figure 28-2,

only small amounts of torque

are required for counterclockwise rotation of

Sf

-fi 1 f

(28.1)

the wheel.

where both
In

other cases the spring

is

used and the

f-j

and ^2 are perpendicular to the

pawl arm.

torque required to turn the wheel counterclockwise depends more or


the spring force.
fied diagram

under

this

less

directly

Now

on

Figure 28-2 shows a simpli-

28-3 shows the ones

of a friction ratchet operation

type of condition.

purposes of analysis

look at the angles between the

forces and distances

in

the mechanism. Figure

we

will

be interested

Let's notice that the force ^2 acting to

pawl arm

For

let's

let's

assume

is

28-1

of the tangential force F.

Friction Ratchet

194

in.

the

one of the quadrature components

Jmrn
Fig.

lift

The

relationship

EXPERIMENT 28

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

between these two forces

28-2

Forces Acting on a Friction Ratchet


or

is

a = 180

F =

=cos a

evaluate this equation

we must

mine the angle a between ^2


this

we observe

(28.3)

-|3

(28.2)

So,

To

FRICTION RA TCHETS

ar| d

first deter-

F.

that at the vertex of

To do

^ anc

'

tne

we know
aw of sines

if
|

fJ,

we can

to the triangle

we nave

a + 0+ 180 = 360

find a.

sin

R
j0

sin

Applying

in figure

28-3

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FRICTION RA TCHETS

EXPERIMENT 28

to the pawl arm.

or

sin

where R

is

(3

=-p

sin

the wheel radius, C

distance between shafts and

With

this

is

is

the center

FR =

the angle

line

and the pawl arm.

equation (28.4)

we can determine
Finally, if we know

between the center

The wheel torque

(28.4)

SRf 1
#1 cos

28.1

shaft

at the

wheel

is

and 28.2

where

Sfi

r is

SRfi

=- =

F;

&i

the shaft radius.

(28.5)

the wheel

If

relates the tangential

(28.7)

cos a

in

figure 28-1

rotate clockwise, the pawl

which

(28.6)

and the tangential force required

rendering

#1 cos

of course,

j3.

Then using 28.3 we get a.


a, we can combine equations

F =

is,

wheel opposing

spring (or gravity) force acting perpendicular

is

attempts to
forced down-

This tends to jam the pawl against the

ward.

wheel force to the

arm

its

clockwise rotation.

MATERIALS
OD, 1/16

Washer 1/4

in.

2 Bearing plates with spacers

O-ring

average diameter

4 Bearing holders with bearings

2 Spring balances

4 Collars

Spring balance post with clamp

Waxed

Protractor

Steel rule

Dial caliper

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps

Pulley approximately 2

1/4-in.

in.

OD

with

bore hub

2 Lever arms

in.

long with 1/4-in.

bore hubs

in.

in.

approximately 18

string

ID, 1/2

in.

long

in.

in.

thick

long

in.

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect

all

of your

components to
and O-ring

shown

28-4.

2.

Assemble the

3.

Assemble the mechanism shown

4.

Adjust the shaft center distance so that the lever arm

levers

as

undamaged.

insure that they are


in figure

in figure

28-5.
is

vertical

when the

O-ring

is

in

firm

contact with the pulley groove.

one end of the waxed

5.

Tie a loop

6.

Wind the string tightly in a single layer onto the pulley shaft so that the loop is accessible.
The string must be wound on the shaft in the direction that will cause the pulley to turn
forcing the pawl arm away when the loop end of the string is pulled.

7.

Adjust the pawl spring balance so that

in

string.

it is

196

horizontal and reads 4 ounces.

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 28

NOTE:

Fig.

8.

Hook the end

9.

Smoothly

THE O-RING IS STRETCHED


AROUND LEVERS AND RESTS
IN THE SLOT BETWEEN THEM.

WASHER

O-RING

Fig.

FRICTION RA TCHETS

28-5

28-4

<S>

Levers and O-Ring

The Experimental Mechanism

of the remaining spring balance into the string loop.

pull

the spring balance causing the pulley to rotate at a constant velocity.

Record the force required to maintain a constant pulley velocity.


practice this operation several times to get
10.

Wrap the

string

back onto the shaft

in

it

smooth enough.

the opposite direction.

197

You may

have to

1 1

Now

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

FRICTION RA TCHETS

EXPERIMENT 28

repeat step 9.
for pawl forces of 8, 12, and 16 ounces.

12.

Repeat steps 6 through

13.

Measure and record the ratchet parameters

1 1

the angle between the pawl center

line

listed

near the bottom of the data table. (0

and the center

line

between the shaft

Pulley

Pulley

Pawl

Force

Force

Force

Forward

Backward

is

centers.)

4 oz
8 oz
12 oz
16 oz

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

In analyzing

28-6

your

The Data Table

results

from

this

experiment you should consider two

main points:
1.

Was the forward force required to

rotate the pulley more-or-less proportional to the

pawl force?
2.

Did you observe

a difference

between the forward and backward pulley forces for

given pawl force?

Based on your answer to these points discuss the effectiveness of the experimental ratchet.

PROBLEMS
1.

Using your ratchet parameters from step 13 and equation 28.4, compute the angle

2.

Make

3.

Using equation 28.3 compute the angle

4.

With equation 28.7 compute the pulley force

a sketch of the

mechanism

similar to figure 28-3

a and

label
Fj

it

and

label

on your

and

label

and

p.

j3.

sketch.

s,

R, fi,

r, -|

on your

drawing. (Assume fi = 12 oz for this calculation.)


5.

Compare
well

Fj

from problem 4 to the corresponding value

do they agree?
198

in

the data table.

How

experiment

INTRODUCTION.
such a

way

DISCUSSION.
anism shown

moment

Basically, a toggle linkage

in

Let's consider the simple


If

is

we

In this

forces,

respectively,

f-j

has

can draw the force diagrams

its

in

and

equal

in

to

links ^1

and

each

other

examine basic toggle action.

at the

load

(point B),

we

two components.

see
It

share of the vertical load (f/2) and a

horizontal component (F), From figure 29-2b


we can determine the relationship between
these two components as being

figure 29-2a the compres-

in

are

will

that the force here has

for

and

(-|

experiment we

Looking

figure 29-2.

magnitude.

composed of two members joined together

mech-

we assume

that the link lengths

Notice that
sion

clamps and fasteners.

in figure 29-1.

are equal, then

shown

29

that a small force at the joint produces a large force at the ends. Toggles are used in

a variety of presses,

TOGGLE LINKA GES

f/2

^2'
in

-= tan

or

Moreover, these forces must add

up vectorially to equal the force

applied

-p-

= 2 tan

to the toggle joint.

\\\\\\\\\\\\\^

(A)

FORCES AT POINT A

Fig.

29-2

(B)

FORCES AT POINT B

Forces in a Simple Toggle Mechanism

199

(29.1)

where
line

is

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TOGGLE LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 29

many

In

the angle between 2 and tne center


will

BC.

applications the

link lengths

not be equal. Figure 29-4 shows a typical

case using unequal link lengths.


this equation

Another way that


times written

requires that

tan0 =

sin

we

is

and

are

Notice that
2
the vertical force components at points

figure 29-5.

that

recall

the force diagrams shown

we can draw

some-

In this case

f-j

in

now

C and

B, respectively.

cos
If

Substituting into equation 29.1 gives us

the

the mechanism

sum

of fi and

is

equilibrium, then

in

must equal the force

applied at the toggle joint:


_f__ - sin

cos

1+ f 2

or
Also, the
f

cos@=

2 F sin

(29.2)

moments

acting

must be equal so

as an equivalent expression.

= af

bf
-J

plot equation 29.1, the result

we

If

approximately as shown
that as

in figure 29-3.

on points C and B

is

Focusing on the forces at point B (figure


29-5b), we see that f 2 and F are related by

Notice

approaches zero degrees, the ratio

Now, if f is a finite
(non-zero) force, then F becomes extremely
In theory at least, F would be infinite
large.

f/F also approaches zero.

0.

However,

idealistic

condition

at

in

in a practical case,
is

in

the links,

(29.3)

such an
Using the

impossible due to play

the joints, compression

-^ = tan@

12

Fig.

29-3

can solve

for fi in terms of f 2 with the result

etc.

10

moment equation we

14
IN

16

DEGREES

f/F Versus

200

18

20

22

24

26

28

30

Fig.

f
1

=-j-

TOGGLE LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 29

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

29-4

Toggle With Unequal Arms

Substituting this into equation 29.3 allows us

^2

to solve for the ratio f/F:


Substituting this into the sum-of-vertical-forces

equation

will give us

j=

2=

(1

+-^)tan

(29.4)

or

this

In

type of

mechanism,

when 0

changes, the values of a and b also change.


f

2 n+f)=f

Consequently, the relationship between f/F

and
which can be solved for ^2 n terms of
'

is

different for each position of the

mechanism. However, as

2"

+a/b

(A)

FORCES AT POINTS A,

Fig.

29-5

B,

&C

#2

ar| d

(B)

Forces in Unequal Link Toggle

201

is

quite small, then

~ Ci

FORCES AT POINT B

we can approximate

So,

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TOGGL E LINKA GES

EXPERIMENT 29

0 and

of tan

the ratio f/F using

use the

form

X2

tan0

!<1

tan

(29.5)

when 0 is a small angle. It is often slightly


more convenient to rearrange the coefficient

in

actual practice.

MATERIALS
6

long

Steel rule

Protractor

Breadboard with

in.

1/4

and clamps

legs

Shaft hanger with bearing

4 Bearing holders with bearings

*See Appendix

OD with

bore hub

in.

Wire loop link approx. 3 in. long


Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4

Spacer No.

3 Shafts 4" X 1/4"

1/32

2 Spring balances with clamps and posts


Lever arm 2 in. long with 1/4 in. bore hub
1

in.

Rigid coupling

*1

2 Bearing plates with spacers


1

Pulley approx. 3/4

in.

6x1/8

with

wall thickness

5 Collars
2 Pieces of string approx. 6

in.

long

for wire link construction details.

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect

all

of your

components to

insure that they are

undamaged.

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

3.

Measure and record the

4.

Check to

5.

Position the input spring balance completely back against

6.

Move the output


until the

7.

used

in

the toggle mechanism.

spring balance forward until

input force

The

is 1

to

when no

it

force
its

reads zero.

is

applied.

post.

Then

carefully

move

ounce.

that:

string connecting the input force to the toggle joint

joint vertically.

(b)

link lengths

29-6.

see that both spring balances read zero

Check to be sure

(a)

in figure

approaches the

Adjust the position of the lever arm shaft as necessary

make the input

string vertical.

The point of attachment of the wire link to the slider block must be as
shown in figure 29-7. You may have to hold the screw in this position
while taking your force and angle readings.

(c)

Both spring balances must be horizontal and they must not touch any
part of the mechanism.

202

it

back

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

EXPERIMENT 29

Q.

J~l

<2>

CO

TOGGLE
JOINT

U
Fig.

29-6b

'
i

LJ

Experimental Setup Top View

LINK

(B)

29-7

CORRECT

Fig.

LINK

(A)

TOGGLE LINKAGES

Slider

and Link Alignment

203

INCORRECT

EXPERIMENT 29

8.

With the conditions

9.

Record the input


(0)

10.

in step

(f)

between the wire

7 satisfied, repeat step

and output
link

and the

in

6.

(F) forces, then carefully

measure and record the angle

slider shaft center line.

Repeat steps 6 through 9 for input forces of

must be exercised
1 1

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TOGGLE LINKAGES

2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

and 7 ounces. Considerable

care

taking these data to insure that they are reliable.

For each data set compute the ratio f /F.

2.

Plot the angle 0 versus the ratio f/F

3.

On

on

a sheet of graph paper.

the same set of axes plot equation 29.5.

*1f

(ounces)

f/F

1V

Fig.

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

29-8

777e

Data Table

you should compare the two curves and discuss


discuss
some of the possible sources of error in the
and
their differences and
experiment. Discuss each of the conditions given in step 7 and explain why each is important.
In the analysis of these data
similarities.

List

204

EXPERIMENT 29

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TOGGLE LINKAGES

PROBLEMS
1

2.

3.

machine employs equal length arms in a toggle mechanism.


is required to
If the toggle angle never exceeds 2.0 degrees, what input force
a minimum load force of 1,000,000 pounds?
Make a sketch showing how a nutcracker using a toggle mechanism can be adjusted

certain stone crushing

to

accommodate nuts of

pair of toggle pliers requires a force of

degrees.
4.

A certain

If

various sizes.

toggle

mechanism has unequal

ratio f/F at a toggle angle of:


5.

22 pounds to hold the toggle angle

the toggle links are of equal length,

Work out problem 4

.0

what

links of

-|

is

=8

in.

and

^ = 5 in

Wnat

is

the

degree? 5.0 degrees? 30 degrees?

using both equations 29.4 and 29.5.

do you observe?
6.

at

the load force?

List several practical applications of a toggle

205

mechanism.

What

difference,

if

any,

30

experiment

TOGGLE LA TCHING

INTRODUCTION. Mechanisms

that latch or hold a load in position are widely used in

practical applications.

experiment

this

In

we

shall

examine

a simple

example of

many

a latching

mechanism.

DISCUSSION. Toggle
quently
Figure
in

this

used

to

latch

shows

30-1

way.

mechanisms

load

Combining the

fre-

and

30.2 gives us

position.

in

results of equations 30.1

simplified toggle used

mechanism

In this

-|

and 2

(S.,

+ s2

3 the load sup-

links with

are the toggle

are

tan

S2

(30.3)

port link.
as

When

the toggle links are to the right of

the center line as shown


load support

The

latched.

is

in figure 30-1,

the relationship between the unlatching

force and the load force.

the

In actual practice

some friction and slack in the


mechanism so that an unlatching force slightly
greater than that predicted by equation 30.3

there will be

load force tends

to hold the toggle in the position shown.

is

we apply an unlatching force from the


right, we can push the toggle joint past its
center line and release the load. The amount

usually required for unlatching.

If

of unlatching force required depends on the

geometry of both the toggle and the support

arms

on the load

as well as

of figure 30-1

force.

we can determine

In the case

the effective

toggle end load (F') applied through the load

support using figure 30-2.

The

load support

is

a class-two lever

and

the force effective at the end of the toggle can

be found by observing that the moments


ing

on the

act-

must be equal

lever

F(St

+S 2

= F'(S
2

or

F'= F

Then

if

(30.1)

the toggle angle (0)

is

relatively

small, the unlatching force necessary to just

hold the system

in

equilibrium

,l + 2

tan

is

CENTER LINE
(30.2)

Fig.

206

30-

Latching Toggle

TOGGLE LA TCHING

EXPERIMENT 30

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

if

the angle between

when

small

-|

and the center

the mechanism

line

is

on the

resting

is

stop.

A
Toggle mechanisms of this type are used
in a variety

Figure

of practical applications.

30-3 shows a typical example of a toggle latch

TOGGLE STOP

used

jaw

in a pair
is,

in

of pliers.

In this case the

effect, a bell crank

lower

used to change

the direction of the load force.

Fig.
It
is

Determining Unlatching Force

30-2

worth noting that

is

if

Notice also that the


fixed.

the toggle stop

located a distance (S3) above the

then the force (f) acting on the stop

f'-f^

screw

pivot,
will

It

in

left

end of

fi-j

is

not

can be adjusted with a positioning


the handle.

This allows the spacing

of the latched jaws to be set to a desired value.

be

(30.4)

Because of this adjustability

a force analysis

of the type discussed above

is

one

only valid

at

setting.

ADJUSTING

SCREW

JAWS

BELL CRANK
Fig.

30-3

Toggle Latch Pliers

MATERIALS
Steel rule 6

in.

long

Pulley approx. 3/4


1/4-in.

Protractor

in.

OD

with

bore hub

Rigid coupling

Wire loop link approx. 3

Shaft hanger with bearing

Machine screw 6-32 x 1/4

Bearing holders with bearings

Spacer No. 6 x 1/8 with 1/32

Breadboard with

legs

and clamps
f

Bearing plates with spacers

Shafts

4"x

1/4"

in.

5 Collars

Lever arm 2

2 Pieces of string approx. 6

long with 1/4-in.

bore hub
See appendix

in.

wall thickness

Spring balances with clamps and posts


in.

long

for wire link construction details.

207

in.

long

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

TOGGLE LA TCHING

EXPERIMENT 30

PROCEDURE
1

Inspect

all

of your

components to

insure that they are

undamaged.

2.

Assemble the mechanism shown

3.

Measure and record the

4.

Check to see that both spring balances read zero when no force

5.

Position the input spring balance so that

6.

Move the output


until

it

(a)

used

in

the toggle mechanism.


is

applied.

reads zero with the toggle against the stop.

it

spring balance forward until

it

reads zero.

Then

carefully

move

it

back

The

that:

string

connecting the input force to the toggle joint approaches the

joint vertically.

to
(b)

link lengths

reads 14 ounces.

Check to be sure

7.

figure 30-4.

in

make the

Adjust the position of the lever arm shaft as necessary

input string vertical.

The point of attachment of the wire link to the slider block must be
as shown in figure 30-5. You may have to hold the screw in this position while taking your force and angle readings.

(c)

Both spring balances must be horizontal and they must not touch any
part of the mechanism.

8.

With the conditions

9.

Record the input

in

(f)

(0) between the wire

step 7 satisfied repeat step 6.

and output
link

and the

(F) forces,

Repeat steps 6 through 9 for input forces of

10.

Keep the output force

at

then carefully measure and record the angle

slider shaft center line.


1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

oz. until the toggle unlatches.

14 oz. Considerable care must be exercised

in

taking these data

to insure that they are reliable.

Using the link lengths, work out an equation for the approximate unlatching force you

11.

would expect
one

in

for the experimental mechanism.

the discussion.

With your equation and your values of

12.

Use an analysis approach similar to the

link lengths (also

compute the expected unlatching force and record

ANALYSIS GUIDE.

in

step 7

force),

it.

you should compare the experimental and


then discuss their differences and similarities. List and

In the analysis of these data

computed values of unlatching forces,


discuss some of the possible sources of
given

your value of output

and explain why each

is

error in the experiment.

important.

208

Discuss each of the conditions

EXPERIMENT 30

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Fig.

Fig.

30-4a

30-4b

Experimental Setup Side View

Experimental Setup Top View

TOGGLE LA TCHING

EXPERIMENT 30

TOGGLE LATCHING

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

Unlatching
force

equation
Unlatching
force
value
Fig.

30-6

The Data Table

PROBLEMS
1.

pair of toggle latch pliers has equal length toggle links

degrees.

What

is

the unlatching force

if

and

a toggle angle of

the load effective at the toggle end

is

two
300

pounds?
2.

What type of four-bar mechanism is represented by the pliers


Assume , = 1-3/8 in., 2 = 1-3/8 in., 3 = 1 in. and fig = 2-1/2 in.
fi

3.

mechanism

If

the links are

load

is

figure 30-3?

J2

like figure 30-1

= 4

in

is

used to lock an automobile

lift in its

"up"

position.

3 = 2-1/2 ft, fi 4 = 6 in. and the effective


2
4500 pounds, what would be the unlatching force for a toggle angle of 3.5
C-j

ft,

3-1/2

ft,

degrees?
4.

What would be the force on the toggle stop in problem 3


the mechanism to be fully latched when 0 = 3.5 degrees.

5.

List three practical applications of a toggle latch

210

if

mechanism.

S = 2-1/2

ft?

Assume

DELMAR PUBLISHERS, MOUNTAINVIEW AVENUE, ALBANY, NEW YORK

12205

Appendix

WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION

The wire

links used in these

diameter of 0.05

in.

experiments should be constructed using

steel

wire with a

Figure A-1 shows the construction details for a straight link.

Fig.

The

link should
1

2.

Straight Link Construction

be constructed as follows:

Cut the wire

Smooth

A-1

slightly longer than the desired length () plus 0.65 in.

off the rough ends with a

file

should be the desired value plus 0.65


3.

Bend the ends of the wire

4.

Twist the wire

if

as

total length

in figure

A-1

necessary to align the ends.

+-

Fig.

A-2

Reverse links are constructed


as

shown

and remove any excess length. (The

in.)

shown

in figure

in

Reverse Link Construction


the same

way but with

A-2.

213

the ends bent

in

opposite directions

Loop
figure A-3.

In

links are constructed in a similar

The remaining end

WIRE LINK CONSTRUCTION

APPENDIX A

MECHANISMS/LINKAGES

is

constructed

most cases the exact dimensions of

manner but have


like a straight

a link are

not

loop bent

or reverse

critical.

in

one end as shown

in

link.

Don't worry

if

your

link isn't

precisely the prescribed dimensions.

When you make one


in later

of the links keep

it

with the other components so that

experiments.

Fig.

A-3

Loop Link Construction

214

it

can be used

APPENDIX

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

%
f=1

s1

=2
1

Fig. 1-5

s2

M2

Diff.

in

Data for Cop/anar Arms

%
F

Si

Fig. 1-6

s2

Data for Noncoplanar Arms

M2

Diff.

in

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

Qty.

First

Second

Trial

Trial

h
*2
f

M2
m't

M'2
MA.,

MA 2
(MA-,)(MA 2

Fjj/F,

Diff.

F/^r.

2-4

The Data Table

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

0/

Qty.

Fl

^2

*1

*2

First
Trial

Second
Trial

Third
Trial

F/V7.

5-5

7/je

Dafa 7a6/e

*2

Diff.

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

F2

LL

*2

*2

*1

%
f

M2

Diff.

M'-j

M2

%
MA-j

MA 2

F/fir.

4-5

MAy

7/7e

MA T

Data Tables

Diff.

Diff.

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

%
LL

F2

C
1

Fl /F 2

F/fif.

5-S

f
1

The Data Tables

M
1

*21

M2

Diff.

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

Qty

Trial

>=2
1

F/ff.

5-5

Data Table A

Qty
Trial

Fig.

6-3

Data Table B

Diff.

EXPERIMENT

Name

Date:

Class

Type of
Mechanism

Name

Dimensions of
o

Mechanism

Instructor

of Mechanism

*1-

Sketch of Mechanism

=
*c

Description of Motion

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

Type

10

of

Data for the First Mechanism

Name

Mechanism
Dimensions of

fi

Mechanism

of

Mechanism

h~

=
*c

Description of Motion

Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig.

7-11

Data for the Second Mechanism

Type

of

Name

of

Mechanism

Mechanism
Dimensions of

*c

*o

Mechanism

Description of Motion

Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

12

Type of

Data for the Third Mechanism

Name

of

Mechanism

Mechanism
Dimensions of

*o

Mechanism

*1

=
c

Description of Motion

Sketch of Mechanism

Test of Mechanism's
Possibility

Fig. 7-

13

Data for the Fourth Mechanism

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

Driver

Follower

Angular

Position

Position

Velocity (Rad/sec.)

20
40
60

80
100
120

140
160
180

200

220
240
260
280
300
320
340

360

Fig.

8-8

Data Table for the First

Trial

=
o _

Driver

Follower

Angular Velocity

Position

Position

(Rad/sec.)

20
40
60
80

100
120

140
160
180

200

220
240

260
280

300
320
340
360

Fig.

8-9

c=

Data Table for the Second

Trial

o=_

EXPERIMENT

Name

Instructor

Class

Date:

Follower

Driver

Angular Velocity (Rad/sec.)

Position

Position

Driver

Follower

Angular Veloc

Position

Position

ity (Rad/sec.)

20

20

40

40

60

60

80

80

100

100

120

120

140

140

160

160

180

180

200

200

220

220

240

240

260

260

280

280

300

300

320

320

340

340

360

360

1-

=
=

*o

*c
Fig.

9-6

Data Table First

h=

r
h=
Trial

Fig.

*0
9-7

Data Table Second

Trial

EXPERIMENT

Name

10

Instructor

Class

Date:

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

0i

0.

0-

*o=-

2-

Fig.

10-6

Data Table

0.

Counterclockwise

Clockwise

Fig.

10-7

Data Table

II

02

EXPERIMENT
Date:

11

Name
Class

Instructor

EXPERIMENT

Name

12

Instructor

Class

Date:

=
*c

Second

First Trial

Fig.

12-6

The Data Table

Trial

&

EXPERIMENT

Name

13

Instructor

Class

Date:

*1

Fig.

13-6

(Meas.)

(Comp.)

The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT

Name

14

Date:

Class

Instructor

8'
x

*c

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

Fig.

14-9

Clockwise
0'

The Data Table

X'

Counterclockwise
0'

X'

EXPERIMENT

Name

15

Date:

Instructor

Class

First Pass

Second Pass

Third Pass

Length of follower lever arm


Fig.

15-5

The Data Table

Average Values
X

EXPERIMENT

Name

16

Date:

Class

Cam

Instructor

Profile

G;

Ng

Gear

Fig.

&

16-10

Follower Data

The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT

Name

17

Date:

Cam

Class

Instructor

Profile

e)

Gear

Fig.

&

17-9

Follower Data

The Data Tables

9,

EXPERIMENT

Name

18

Instructor

Class

Date:

RESULTS FROM STEP


Fig.

<1

18-13

18-13

*5

The Experimental Results

RESULTS FROM STEP


Fig.

The Experimental Results (Cont'd)

EXPERIMENT

Name

19

Instructor

Class

Date:

N1

n
1

(3/4

OD)

in.

(2 in.

OD

(3/4

N2

in.

OD)

(2 in.

N1
OD)

N2

n
1

Spur Gears

N3

"3

-N 3

Ratio
n

3 - N3

Harmonic Drive

wo

CO;

Calculated

Measured

Fig.

19-5

The Data Table

w
i

+
ratio

EXPERIMENT 20

Name

Date:

Class

Instructor

Distance between

Crank arm length,

shafts,

-|

Measured
Calculated

Input Angle

Output Angle

Input Angle

Output Angle

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

(degrees)

65

70

10

75

15

80

25

85

29

90

30

100

35

150

40

200

45

250

50

300

55

350

60

360
Fig.

20-3

The Data Tables

EXPERIMENT

Name

21

Date:

Class

Instructor

Angle
(degrees)

F t (oz)

F 2 (oz)

Ratio

20
25

30
35

40
45

50

55

60
65

70
75

Fig.

21-4

The Data Table

EXPERIMENT 22

Name

Date:

Class

Output

Input 0j

0Q

(degrees)

(degrees)

First

Instructor

Input 6j

Output

Second Setup

Setup
Fig.

22-7

The Data Tables

0O

(degrees)

(degrees)

EXPERIMENT 23

Name

Date:

Class

*2

*c

Clockwise

Counterclockwise

(3

F/g.

23-5

Instructor

Clockwise

(3'

X'

The Data Table

0/0

Counterclockwise
X'

EXPERIMENT

Name

24

Date:

Class

Instructor

12

10

12

14

16

11

17

17

10

13

12

12

11

Fig.

24-5

The Data Table

output

(z)

EXPERIMENT

Name

25

Instructor

Class

Date:

Fig.

Crank Angle a
in

dearees

25-5

Fig.

Displacement
in
III

inrhps
Ivl IUJ
II

Lever Angle
in fipnrpp*;

25-6

Displacement
in
III

inrhpQ
ICO

II lis

20

1/8

40

1/4

60

3/8

80

1/2

100

5/8

120

3/4

140

7/8

160

180

1-1/8

200

- 1/8
/ o

220

- 1/4

240

- 3/8

260
280

-5/8

300

-3/4

320

-7/8

340

360

- 1-1/4

Fig.

25-7

The Data Table

EXPERIMENT

Name

26

Instructor

Class

Date:

Reading

Distance

From

Output

Reference

No.

Ref point)

6/64

12/64

in.

17/64

in.

22/64

in.

26/64

in.

31/64

in.

38/64

in.

(at

Fig.

in.

2&8

7?

The Data Table

RPM

Fig.

26-10 Curves

EXPERIMENT

Name

27

Instructor

Class

Date:

Counterclockwise Rotation

Clockwise Rotation
Input

Output

Input

Fig.

27-9

The Data Table

Output

EXPERIMENT

Name

28

Instructor

Class

Date:

Pulley

Pulley

Pawl

Force

Force

Force

rorwaru

DdUlx well

vJ

4 oz
8 oz
12 oz
16 oz

Fig.

28-6

The Data Table

EXPERIMENT

Name

29

Date:

Class

*1-

Instructor

2
T

(ounces)

f/F

1V

F/fif.

77?e

Data Table

EXPERIMENT

Name

30

Date:

Class

Instructor

h=

1=

Unlatching
force

equation
Unlatching
force

value
Fig.

30-6

The Data Table

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