Types of Lenses

1. Zoom lenses (or varied focal length lenses):

It is by far the most common type of lenses known to the average consumer. Prosumer (a person
who buys electronic goods that are of a standard between those aimed at consumers and
professionals.) camcorders and professional video cameras often come with it right from the box.
This is so because with zoom lenses you can go telephoto or wide-angle at the push of a button.
Its a no-brainer; if you can zoom in or zoom out, the lens is called a zoom lens.
The advantage of zoom lenses over prime lenses is that you dont have to change lenses to get to
a tighter or a wider composition; it saves time. Plus, if the cameraperson is not switching lenses,
they dont have to worry about carrying them or constant cleaning. This choice of lens is ideal
for documentary and newsgathering since, in both situations, the operator doesnt have the
luxury of pre-planning, rehearsals, and second takes. With zoom lenses, the operator can record,
for instance, a podium with several people on it, or go for tight close-ups and show each ones
faces.
The disadvantage of zoom lenses is the loss in image quality. Narrative filmmakers should
always use prime lenses, unless they are going for a specific camera effect or trick, such as the
dolly counter zoom.

2. Prime lenses (or fixed focal length lenses):

It cant zoom in or zoom out.
Therefore, every time the filmmaker wants to get tighter on his composition, he can either
(1) Physically move the camera closer to his subject or
(2) Change the camera lens for one with a longer focal length and narrower field of view the
telephoto lens.

Accordingly, if the filmmaker decides for a wider composition, he can either

(1) Physically move the camera away from the subject or
(2) Change the camera lens for one with a shorter focal length and wider field of view the wideangle lens.
As a trade-off for the inconvenience of switching lenses, the image quality is far superior with
prime lenses, offering more pristine, clearer recordings. Professional narrative filmmakers always
prefer prime lenses.

3. Telephoto lenses: are longer than the average. In comparison to normal lenses or the human
eye, telephoto can get really tight on the subject. It correlates to a zoom in with zoom lenses. The
image is optically enlarged to show fine details from a subject that is far away.
Telephoto lenses compress space, making people and objects that are far apart appear really near
one another. If a filmmaker is shooting a scene on the freeway where actors have to run among
speeding vehicles, telephoto lenses can be a safe method to keep actors distant from danger while
still selling the illusion that the talent is just a few feet away from moving cars.
One drawback of telephoto lenses is that shakiness and movements are more pronounced and
therefore noticeable. Mathematically speaking, even though the camera itself may be moving only
a fraction of an inch, the framing may be moving several feet. With ultra telephoto lenses, pans
and tilts may be nightmarish to accomplish since the moves could be too fast or shaky. Use a
tripod!
Shallow depth of field is another inherent characteristic of telephoto lenses. Ergo, telephoto lenses
are ideal to rack focus.

4. Wide-angle lens: By comparison, wide-angle lenses are the opposite of telephoto. Wide-angle
lenses have a broader field of view, and therefore they can show sweeping panoramas of
mountains, oceans, and forests. Since camera jiggle is negligible with wide-angle, this choice of
lens is ideal for handheld work.
Wide-angle lenses also exaggerate depth, making people and objects appear further apart from one
another. Extreme wide-angle lenses should not be used too close to actors unless for a specific
purpose or effect since wide-angle bends the image, which is totally unflattering.

5. Normal lens: are halfway between telephoto and wide-angle lenses. Normal lenses mimics
what the human eye sees, without neither getting too close to the subject, nor distorting it, nor
compressing the distance among the plains.

The Aperture (Iris)

The word aperture means opening. In the world of cinematography, this opening is located in
the camera, more specifically on the lens. The size of the aperture is reaperturegulated by the lens
diaphragm, which opens to admit light and closes to block it. The figure to the right shows the
diaphragm, which is formed by several blades that leave a circular hole in the center the aperture.
When the camera is in auto mode, the diaphragm achieves a certain level of autonomy (selfcontrol) and behaves according to the cameras sensors, which determines the amount of light
entering the lens.
In auto mode, the camera uses its built-in reflected light meter to average the quantity of light
falling on the subject in frame. If too much light is reaching the subject, causing the image to be

overexposed or washed out, the aperture closes to shield some of the light. When this happens, the
image darkens and exposure is corrected according to the cameras judgment.

F-Stops
The size of the aperture is measured in f-stops. In technical terms, the f-number is the focal length
divided by the diametef-numbersr of the aperture. The figure to the right shows the same lens open
to two different f-stops. In the top picture, the f-stop is 2.8. In the bottom picture, the f-stop is 16.
Ergo, the greater the f-stop number, smaller the aperture is, resulting in less light entering the lens
and the production of dark images. Conversely, the smaller the f-stop number, bigger the aperture
is, meaning more light admitted through the lens and the production of bright images.
Also note that the variation from f/2.8 to f/16 is quite drastic. In the figure, several f-stops were
skipped to better illustrate the point. Between f/2.8 and f/16, there are four whole stops, as the fstop scale below demonstrates:

The f-stop scale can begin at f/1 (the widest possible for most cameras) and end at f/32. Most video
or film cameras, however, dont go that narrow; though some still cameras can stop down all the
way to f/64 and beyond.
Also note the scale above only shows full stops, disregarding fractional stops that exist between
one full stop and the next. Whole stops are important because they represent the admittance or
blockage of half or double the light.
For instance: f/1 lets in twice as much light as f/1.4. Likewise, f/1.4 lets in twice as much light as
f/2. On the other hand, f/16 lets in half as much light as f/11. And f/5.6 lets in half as much light
as f/4. And so on.

Aperture and Depth of Field

The aperture has a major role in determining not focus per se, but depth of field. The greater the fstop number, the deeper the depth of the field is, meaning that more objects are likely to be sharp
in frame. Likewise, the smaller the f-stop number, the shallower the depth of field is.
The diagram next page demonstrates the relationship between aperture and depth of field. Assume
that the camera is on the left side of the image, where lens and aperture readings are located.

The area in red represents whats in sharp focus. With a 100mm lens, the plain of critical focus is
at 4 meters (approximately 13 feet) from the camera. Observe the variation as the f-stop number
increases.

The Language of Cinematography

The forward slash or dash is silent when the f-stop is said. F/16 would be read as f sixteen. F/2.8
would be read as f two point eight.
The word iris and aperture are interchangeable. However, you could be asked to do an iris
rack, while you probably will never hear someone say aperture rack.
When the DP wants you to close the aperture, he may ask you to stop down. If the DP wants you
to open the iris, he may simply say open up. Theres no such thing as stop up.
OR

F-Stop
In optics, the f-number (sometimes called focal ratio, f-ratio, f-stop, or relative aperture) of an
optical system is the ratio of the lens's focal length to the diameter of the entrance pupil. It is a
dimensionless number that is a quantitative measure of lens speed, and an important concept in
photography. The number is commonly notated using a hooked f, i.e. f/N, where N is the f-number.

Notation
The f-number N is given by:

Where f is the focal length, and D is the diameter of the entrance pupil (effective aperture). It is
customary to write f-numbers preceded by f/, which forms a mathematical expression of the
entrance pupil diameter in terms of f and N. For example, if a lens's focal length is 10 mm and
its entrance pupil diameter is 5 mm, the f-number is 2 and the aperture diameter is f/2.

Most modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately geometric sequence
of numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the powers of the square root of 2: f/1, f/1.4, f/2,
f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128, etc.
Where f is the focal length, and D is the diameter of the entrance pupil (effective aperture). It is
customary to write f-numbers preceded by f/, which forms a mathematical expression of the
entrance pupil diameter in terms of f and N. For example, if a lens's focal length is 10 mm and its
entrance pupil diameter is 5 mm, the f-number is 2 and the aperture diameter is f/2.
Most modern lenses use a standard f-stop scale, which is an approximately geometric sequence of
numbers that corresponds to the sequence of the powers of the square root of 2: f/1, f/1.4, f/2,
f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, f/22, f/32, f/45, f/64, f/90, f/128, etc.

Sound Recording for Film

Film sound recording contrasts in some ways with TV production techniques. Whereas TV studio
sound recording is typically done with in-house equipment, it's much more common for recording
sound for features to be done initially on separate recorders from the camera to get a better sound.
Also, sound is routinely taken to professional recording studios to be reworked.
For both film and TV sound recording, microphones, mixing boards, and DAT recorders are
important equipment that should be understood by producers and sound engineers.
Many sound engineers prefer the use of external dynamic shotgun mics. These are mics at the end
of a long boom which can make a big difference in the final sound quality to be edited; for instance,
ambient equipment sounds are diminished considerably. Some people choose wireless
microphones for more precise mic placement. Some people say that wireless mics don't have the
same signal fidelity as wired ones, but they are in the minority.
Most film sound is sent through a mixing board and not directly to the recording device. This
allows for very subtle fine-tuning of sound, the way a large graphic EQ in a component stereo
system allows one to get the "perfect" sound playback for different recordings.
Film sound engineers also make heavy use of the DAT recorder. These "digital audio tape"
recorders were first developed by Sony in the early 1980s. Sony discontinued their production in
early 2006 to make way for the hard disk recording revolution but DAT recorders are still in heavy
use in film. DAT recorders are especially used for on-location filming as they allow for much
greater post-production sound editing control. They're great for capturing "natural" background
sound.
Film actors add in their voices later on via over-dubbing. They speak their lines aloud on camera
but their voices are not recorded at that time; or, if it is, this will be totally replaced later on in a
recording studio through Automatic Dialogue Replacement.. Special effects sounds such as the
firing of laser cannons in "Star Wars" are also recorded separately and dubbed in later. The mixingin of sounds later on in film allows for very great levels of control over the final quality, which is
why film sound quality often seems more "sonorous" than TV production sound.
For film, a sound editor will take separate tracks of dialogue, special effects, and music scoring
and dub them all together into a multitrack recording, and edit the mix later on.

Modern film making, especially for independent productions, makes increasing use of computerbased DAWs, or digital audio workstations.
Using a computer, an ADC-DAC (analog to digital/digital to analog converter), and digital audio
editor software, the sound editor uses the computer's sound card acts as an audio interface,
especially when converting analog audio signals into digital form.
The software controls the two hardware components and provides a user interface to allow easy
access to recording and editing.
Some modern DAWs, such as the Euphonix System 5-MC integrated DAW controller, are made
to integrate with other computerized DAWs such as Pro Tools, Nuendo, Logic Pro, Digital
Performer and Pyramix. These give ever more powers of control and refinement to sound recording
editors.

Sound Recording for TV

TV program sound recording is done in studios or on the road as with the news, so equipment and
techniques will be a bit different than with film sound recording. Recording equipment in TV
studios may be done with in-house equipment, which contrasts with film's typical use of separate
professional sound studios.
The importance of good sound to TV documentaries, shows, and other programs cannot be
underestimated, although it is often overlooked or taken for granted. Many people get so concerned
with the visual aspects that they forget about the importance of the audio, which can make or break
a program.
Both the film maker and the TV program maker have to be concerned with sound recording
equipment, the basics of which are the microphone, the mixer, and the DAT recorder.
Many TV and film sound engineers choose the external dynamic shotgun mic. You may want to
consider wireless options as sometimes its awkward to hold the mic close to the action while also
keeping it behind the camera. Remember that the better the sound quality during the filming, the
easier the editing is later on.
Some sound engineers opt to run the mic's signal through a mixer before it gets to the camera. This
allows much more control over the recording before it gets recorded by cameras that may have
limited sound recording capability or volume. Mixers are like giant graphic EQs that can give a
wide array of subtlety to sounds and get closer to the "perfect" audio mix.
Another option is to use DAT recorders. These can reproduce sound with high fidelity. These are
used to inject the sound back into the project at a later phase of the production, thus keeping it
"pristine".
Much TV sound recording is done in the field and done directly (without heavy overdubbing).
Thus, there are some techniques that should be followed to get the best possible sound quality
under these circumstances.
Someone recording a vocal part should talk accross the mic, not into it, as the latter tends to
produce "snaps, crackles, and pops".

Even when doing TV documentaries, the mic should be on a stand and not held in the hand if at
all possible. Clearly this technique is not used much in news, but news is designed as a one-off,
not a lasting program. Also, make sure a mic or mic stand is not set up on something that's
vibrating, as this can create "ghost noise".
If recording in the studio, set up the mics away from anything that gives off a low "hum", air vents,
fans, air conditioners, and so on. Mics are sensitive and will pick up anything close by, which can
distort the sound you want.
Mixers these days come with computer software that gives sensitive readouts of recording levels.
Let someone who is going to have a speaking part do some test vocals first, and get the sound
recording level down to where they can speak with gusto but without giving you ambient sound.
Pre-set that setting for them once you get it down.
If you are shooting documentaries, never underestimate the importance of recording appropriate
background sounds that reflect the settings. It's best to use DAT recorders for this.

Q. Different types of film lighting instruments.

Lighting instruments can be broadly separated into two categories: floodlights, which illuminate a
wide area, and spotlights (sometimes known as profiles), which produce a narrower, more
controllable light beam. The distinction has to do with the characteristics of the light produced by
the instrument. Spotlights produce a potentially tightly focused light, while floodlights produce a
much more diffuse light.

INSTRUMENT TYPES:
Instruments fall into several categories, but all are either floodlights or spotlights.

Floodlights are any lighting instrument WITHOUT a lens.

Spotlights are any lighting instrument WITH a lens.

1. Floodlights
Floodlights are not quite as common as they use to be, but there are still many in use. Since they
have no lens, they are basically a reflector and a lamp, and a way to put color media in front of it.
Floods are primarily designated according to the shape of the reflector used.
Ellipsoidal Reflector Floods (ERF or "Scoops"): uses an ellipsoid (a 3D ellipse) as a reflector.
Efficient at covering a large surface area, like a drop or cyc, from a fairly close distance.
Striplights: Basically a row of small floods arranged in either three or four circuits so that every
third or fourth lamp is on the same circuit. All lights on the same circuit are given the same color,
usually Red, Green, and Blue, the primary colors of light, for additive color mixing of light. Amber
is also often used, since it is a difficult secondary color to make.

__________________________________________________
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|R|G|B|A|R|G|B|G|A|R|G|B|A|
|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|___|
Older striplights use spherical reflectors, or R-lamps and newer ones use a lineal reflector parabolic
in one plane and flat in the other. Often colored using roundels, curved bowls of colored glass
placed over the lamps and reflectors. There are also striplights that use MR-16 high intensity lamps
to make a bright but compact strip. Striplights are also used to light large flat surfaces from close
range, like drops and cycs.
Far-cycs and Cyc floods: Four floodlights arranged in a rectangular array. Each individual bay is
one a separate circuit. Used in groups to light drops and cycs. Similar to strips in that four colors
are additively mixed to make other colors, but since they use sheets of color media, they can easily
be other than the primary colors usually found it striplights.
Beam projectors: Floods using a parabolic reflector, which project a very compact parallel beam
similar to a narrow spotlight. Still popular in Europe but has been replaced by PAR-cans in the
US.
PAR Units (PAR-cans): basically a self-contained Parabolic Aluminized Reflector and lamp
combination with some rudimentary lensing built into the front to shape the beam, and placed in a
tin-can to contain some of the spill. In many ways just an updated beam projector. Quite efficient
and very popular for concert work. Recently have been updated again by making the lamp
replaceable, as in a Source 4 PAR and the Altman Star PAR. In some ways they sort of recreate
the Beam Projector but with PAR's lensing added.

2. Spotlights
Lenses in striplights are used to gather and control the light produced by the lamp. Like floods, the
different types are defined by their reflector as well as their lenses.
PC Spots- an obsolete type, but worth examining as the prototype theatre spotlight. A lamp with a
spherical reflector in back and a Plano-Convex lens on the front. A PC lens is a flat plane (the
Plano- part) on one side and Convex (curved out) on the other. A very important theatre lens type
and the basis of most lenses. Adjustable from flood to spot like a Fresnel (see below).
Fresnel- a modified PC-Spot, has a spherical reflector like a PC, but uses a Fresnel Lens instead.
A Fresnel lens is planar on the back, but it cut away on the curved side in concentric rings. The
result has the same curve as a PC lens, but removes most of the glass between the surfaces, making
the lens thinner and lighter, and less prone to breaking from the heat. A 1/2" thick Fresnel lens is
about the equivalent of a 2" thick PC lens. However, to keep the rings from showing up in the
projected image, Fresnel lenses usually have a dappling added to the planar side as built-in
diffusion.

The lamp and reflector are fixed on a moveable carriage. When the lamp is moved forward near
the lens, the projected pool of light gets larger ("Flood" position). When the lamp is moved away
from the lens, the pool of light gets smaller ("Spot" position).
Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight (ERS, Ellipsoidal, Leko, Source4)- uses an ellipsoidal reflector
with a PC lens or lenses in front. Most efficient spotlight type, can illuminate well from a distance,
so is the best instrument for FOH (Front of House) lighting, from the Beams, Coves, and Bacony
Fronts positions.
Ellipsoidal reflectors are unique in that they have TWO focal points. When the lamp is placed at
one focal point, the light beam can be shaped at the other focal point with shutters, irises, and
patterns called "gobos" or "cookies". This second focal point position is called the "gate".
The lens is usually one or two PC lenses. Using two lenses makes a combined focal lenth shorter
than either lens separately. The Focal Point is the point where a lamp filament will project parallel
beams through the lens.
Effectively, Ellipsoidals with a long focal length will project the same size beam on stage from a
long distance (called "throw") as a short focal length will at a short distance.
Lenses are designated by diameter and focal length. A 6x9 lens has a 6 inch diameter and a 9 inch
focal length. A 6x12 lens has a 6 Inch diameter and a 12 inch focal length. The shorter the focal
length, the wider the beam, so a 6x9 has a wider beam than a 6x12. Similarly, an 8x9 has an 8 inch
diameter and a 9 inch focal length. Generally speaking, larger lenses are brighter because they
gather more of the light.
There is another complication, though. MOST brands of ellipsoidals use a pair of lenses in 6"
instruments but only one lens in an 8" instrument. So an 8x9 has a single 9-inch focal length lens,
and a beam spread of about 12 degrees; but a so-called 6x9 has TWO 9-inch lenses which in
combination have a combined focal length of about 6-inches, and a beam spread of about 40
degrees! Even though an "8x9" and a "6x9" both have a listed focal length of 9 inches, the single
lens 8x9 has a MUCH narrow field than the double-lensed 6x9.
To help clear up the confusion (and because most of the world is metric), the trend in recent years
has been to label instruments by diameter and field angle (beam spread) rather than by focal length.

Automated Lights
Moving lights are becoming quite common. They are expensive compared to "conventionals", but
one "wiggle light" can replace several individual units. They are much quicker to focus from a
console & can be "re-focused" cue to cue. They require a power connection like any other light
AND a data line for the remote control signal. The control data may be in a proprietary language,
but most moving lights can also be run using DMX-512 as the protocol (see Dimmers).
Modern units can change intensity, focus, color, gobo, size, and sharpness and other
characteristics. These are referred to as "Attributes", and each takes one or more channels of
control from the control board to operate. As far as the board is concerned, the state of each
attribute is treated as a "dimmer" and the dimmer level is translated into an attribute state or

position. There may be as few as 5 or 6 attributes or as many as 32 attributes per unit, depending
on the complexity of the moving light.

There are two broad categories of Moving lights:

Moving body types have a body held by a motorized yoke. Stepper motors in the base are used to
pivot the yoke to control "Pan", the horizontal motion, and stepper motors in the arms of the yoke
control "Tilt", the vertical movement of the beam. Inside the unit are many small motors which
can rotate controls to iris the beam, spin one or even two disks full of gobos into place, perhaps
rotate the gobos, change colors, add diffusion effects, focus the beam for sharp or soft, and even
zoom in and out to change the image size. Examples include units from Verilight, some Martins,
Icons, Clay-Pakys, and some High-End units.
Some are units that are basically motorized fresnels (Robo-colors), PARS (VL-5s), and zoom
ellipsoidals (VL-6 and VL-7).
Moving mirror types use a body which is fixed in position, but which directs the light beam onto
a mirror attached to a stepper motor. The light is directed by changing the angle of the mirror to
redirect the angle the light is reflected from it. All the other controls, the motorized iris, the gobo
and color wheels, the focus and zoom motors are inside the non-moving body, and alter the beam
before it gets to the mirror. Examples of this system are the High-end Intellibeam, Cyberlights,
and Trackspots, and some Martins and Clay-pakys.

Follow Spots
Follow Spots spots are specialized instruments meant for manually following a performer around
the space to keep them lit. They often have a parabolic reflector to project the light through the
lenses, and a gate with irises, shutters to shape the beam. The lenses may also be adjustable to
increase and decrease the size of the projected spot field.
Follow Spots use a variety of light sources. Small spots may use incandescent lamps. Bigger,
brighter spots use HMI, HTI or Xenon arc lamps. These are short-arc lamps using tungsten
electrodes to create the arch inside a high pressure glass lamp filled with a special gas. They will
last many hours before they must be replaced. HOWEVER, if they are not cooled properly before
being re-lit, the life will be drastically shortened. Therefore, once an HMI, HTI or Xenon lamp is
"struck" or turned on, leave it run until the performance is over, and let it cool AT LEAST 10
minutes before re-lighting.
Older spotlight use a carbon arc to create light. They are no longer made, and are actually illegal
in some localities, but as they are very durable, many are still in use. Essentially a carbon arc is an
arc welder in a box, fitted with a reflector and a set of lenses. Carbon arcs incorporate a transformer
to regulate the arc, usually built into the base. AC carbon arcs use two identical carbons for creating
the arc, while DC spotlights use a larger Positive carbon and a smaller Negative carbon, and use a
rectifier to convert AC to DC for the arc. Keeping the arc running properly takes practice. As the
carbons are burned up by the arc, a motor is used to slowly feed the carbons into the flame,

hopefully at the same rate they are consumed. A set of carbons will last from 45 minutes to a little
over an hour; then a new set must inserted.
Neither type of arc can be dimmed electrically. They will go out if the voltage drops lower than
about 80% of full. Therefore, all arc lights must use mechanical fader to dim the light out.
Strong Followspots is a popular brand of spotlight. There are a number of models depending on
the "throw" distance involved.
Strong spots typically have two or three control levers on top. The front lever is the Iris, which
mechanically reduces the size of the round beam. The middle lever is the Chopper, a shutter that
cuts off the top and bottom of the beam. The rear lever if the Douser, which mechanically fades
the beam. Followspots are usually an arc light of some sort, which cannot be electrically faded,
but must be mechanically faded. There is also a lever on the side, the Trombone, which adjusts the
size of the beam field optically, varying it from "normal" to very large.
Lycian Spotlights are another common brand of follow spot. Lycians have similar controls be they
are located in different places on the spot. The Iris is typically a lever located on the side rear of
the lamp head. The douser is a small lever located at the front of the barrel and at the rear, and the
chopper of a twist lever at the back, OR the controls mat be located on top like those of Strong
lights. The design seem to vary more model to model and depending on when it was made.
Lycian Midget is comparable to the Trouperette line. Available in short throw incandescents and
with HTI lamps. Short throws of about 90 to 150 ft.
Lycian SuperArc 400s are medium throw spots with HTI lamps, approx. like Xenon Troupers.
Throws of 250 to 400 ft.
Lycian Superstars longer throw spots with HMI and Xenon lamps, similar to Xenon Super
Troupers. Throws of 400 to 600 ft.

Roles and Responsibilities of FILM DIRECTOR

A good director makes sure that all parts of a film are creatively produced and brought together in
a single totality. A director interprets the script, coaches the performers, works together with the
montagist, etc., interrelating them all to create a work of art. According to Film Scholar Eric
Sherman, the director begins with a vague idea of the entire film and uses this to help him
determine what is to be done. He gains most when others are given their freedom to show what
they know.
The position of the director in the traditional filmmaking process varies greatly and is extremely
complex. The film director is seen as a leader of others, as providing a kind of guiding force.
According to this view, the final outcome is more or less predetermined by requirements of the
script, camerawork, acting, and editing; the director providing certain organizational context to the
picture.
Judging from the comments of most professional directors, there is very little agreement as to what
exactly their function is. There are some directors who say that they must concentrate primarily on
the structures of the script. If their films are to be works of art, it will be because of the inherent
beauty in the narrative and dialogue patterns in the script. Other directors are occupied primarily
with the performance of actors. To them, the beauty of the film will be correlative with the quality

of acting. These directors attend not only to the performance as a whole, but to endless minor
nuances and gestures throughout.
Some directors attend primarily to the camerawork, their chief concern being for a pictorial beauty
and smoothness of execution. There are still other directors who say that the art of film resides in
the editing process. For them, all steps prior to editing yield crude material, which will be finally
shaped and lent an artistic worth through their imaginative juxtaposition. The point is that there
have evolved nearly as many theories of film directing as there are directors.
Only the director stands apart from any one particular contributory element but lends to all of them
a sense of the pictures entirely.
We cannot, while watching a film for the first time, point out particular shots or lines of dialogue
and fully appreciate their ultimate relationship to the entirety of the picture. Similarly, the actor
concentrating on every gesture, the writer concerned with logical narrative and captivating
dialogue, the cameraman dealing with isolated images, and the editor concerned with the rhythmic
flow are not in the position that the director is to grasp the film as a whole.
Only the director stands apart from any one particular contributory element but lends to all of them
a sense of the pictures entirety. Many of the strongest directors have refrained from virtually any
function besides that of an overseer of the film.
The director, whether he explicitly controls all the subordinate work in a film or merely creates a
certain context through his very presence, is the only participant in a film's creation whose moment
of self-expression is wide enough and, thus, whose artistic vision may come to characterize the
film as a whole. The director's very role in the filmmaking process forces him to attend-explicitly
or implicitly-to the entire film.
The director approaches a film with more or less a well-defined sense of its meaning. For him, this
limits and determines what the basic drive should be of all the other contributing elements. As
previously stated, the director's concern is always conditioned by a sense of the whole. He selects
and guides all work and shapes it along the necessary route to achieve (as close as possible) what
he has in mind.
When it is said that the director approaches a film with a sense of the whole in mind, obviously it
is not meant that he has a complete knowledge of the finished product in all its parts. In fact, a
director learns, as the production of the film progresses, exactly what it was that he had envisioned.
There is no "beautiful shot" or "great cut" that has not been conditioned by the overriding vision
of the whole that only the director provides.

What and Who Is a Director?

By definition, the director creatively translates the written word or script into specific sounds and
images. He or she visualizes the script by giving abstract concepts concrete form. The director
establishes a point of view on the action that helps to determine the selection of shots, camera
placements and movements, and the staging of the action.
The director is responsible for the dramatic structure, pace, and directional flow of the sounds and
visual images. He or she must maintain viewer interest. The director works with the talent and

crew, staging and plotting action, refining the master shooting script, supervising setups and
rehearsals, as well as giving commands and suggestions throughout the recording and editing.
Could a director be compared to an architect? A bricklayer laying brick upon brick? A conductor
of a great orchestra? These descriptions fall short of the mark because what is being build is more
volatile than stable, more fluid than secure. Director Roland Joffe (The Killing Fields) stated,
"being a director is like playing on a multilayered, multidimensional chessboard, except that the
chess pieces decide to move themselves." Every director has his own vision of what they feel
directing entails.
Roman Polanski finds that "First of all, directing is an idea that you have of a total flow of images
that are going on, which are incidentally actors, words, and objects in space. It's an idea you have
of yourself, like the idea you have of your own personality, which finds its best representation in
the world in terms of specific flows of imaginary images. That's what directing is."
OR
A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a
film's artistic and dramatic aspects, and visualizes the script while guiding the technical crew and
actors in the fulfillment of that vision. The director has a key role in choosing the cast members,
production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking. In some European countries, the
director is viewed as the author of the film.
The film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which
a film eventually becomes realized. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative
visions and stay in the boundaries of the film's budget. There are many pathways to becoming a
film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, film editors or actors. Other film
directors have attended a film school. Directors use different approaches. Some outline a general
plotline and let the actors improvise dialogue, while others control every aspect, and demand that
the actors and crew follow instructions precisely. Some directors also write their own screenplays
or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners. Some directors edit or appear
in their films, or compose the music score for their films.

Responsibilities
The film director gives last minute direction to the cast and crew, while filming a costume drama
on location in London.
Film directors create an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized. Realizing
this vision includes overseeing the artistic and technical elements of film production, as well as
directing the shooting timetable and meeting deadlines. This entails organizing the film crew in
such a way as to achieve his or her vision of the film. This requires skills of group leadership, as
well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful, fast-paced environment of a
film set. Moreover it is necessary to have an artistic eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback
to cast and crew, thus, excellent communication skills are a must.

Since the film director depends on the successful cooperation of many different creative
individuals with possibly strongly contradicting artistic ideals and visions, he or she also needs to
possess conflict resolution skills in order to mediate whenever necessary. Thus the director ensures
that all individuals involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the
completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as "a
multi-dimensional jigsaw puzzle with egos and weather thrown in for good measure". It adds to
the pressure that the success of a film can influence when and how they will work again.
Omnipresent are the boundaries of the films budget. Additionally, the director may also have to
ensure an intended age rating. Theoretically the sole superior of a director is the studio that is
financing the film, however a poor working relationship between a film director and an actor could
possibly result in the director being replaced if the actor is a major film star. Even so, it is arguable
that the director spends more time on a project than anyone else, considering that the director is
one of the few positions that requires intimate involvement during every stage of film production.
Thus, the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one.
It has been said that "20-hour days are not unusual".
Under European Union law, the film director is considered the "author" or one of the authors of a
film, largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory. Auteur theory is a film criticism concept
that holds that a film director's film reflects the director's personal creative vision, as if they were
the primary "auteur" (the French word for "author"). In spite ofand sometimes even because
ofthe production of the film as part of an industrial process, the auteur's creative voice is distinct
enough to shine through studio interference and the collective process.
Different directors can vary immensely amongst themselves, under various characteristics.
Several examples are:

Those who control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow instructions
precisely. Those who control every aspect, and demand that the actors and crew follow
instructions precisely. Notable examples include Akira Kurosawa, Steven Spielberg, Ridley
Scott, James Cameron, George Lucas, Stanley Kubrick, Christopher Nolan, David
Fincher, Guillermo del Toro and Alfred Hitchcock.

Those who write their own screenplays. Notable examples include Woody Allen, Ingmar
Bergman, Stanley Kubrick, Quentin Tarantino, James Cameron, George Lucas, Francis
Ford Coppola, Sergio Leone and Satyajit Ray.

Those who edit their own films. Notable examples include Akira Kurosawa, David Lean,
Charlie Chaplin, Robert Rodriguez, James Cameron, Ed Wood and Gaspar Noe.

Those who compose the music score for their films. Notable examples include Charlie
Chaplin, Clint Eastwood, David Lynch, John Carpenter, Mike Figgis, Satyajit Ray, Robert
Rodriguez and Tom Tykwer.

Those who compose the music score for their films. Notable examples include Charlie
Chaplin, Clint Eastwood, David Lynch, Alejandro Jodorowsky, John Carpenter, Mike
Figgis, Alejandro Amenbar, Satyajit Ray, Robert Rodriguez and Alfred Hitchcock.