Tamil Studies - History of The Tamil People Language Religion and Literature 1914

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TAMIL STUDIES
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TAMIL STUDIES
OR
ESSAYS ON THE HISTORY OF THE TAMIL

PEOPLE, LANGUAGE, RELIGION
AND LITERATURE
BY
M. SRINIVASA AIYANGAR, M.A.
FIRST SERIES
WITH MAP AND PLATE
MADRAS
AT THE GQARDIAN PRESS
'
1914
J[All rights reserved"}

G. C. LOGANADHAM BROS,
THE GUARDIAN PRESS, MADRAS

D3
T3S7
To
Tbe VConourable
SIR HAROLD STUART, k.cy.o., C.s.i., i.c.s,
/Aerober of Qouncil, /AadraS
Tb'S 9olun)e
3s by Hind pern))SSion roost reSpectfutty
Pedicatecf
By ^bs ûtbor
(Cs a bu")bte tribute of gratitude
2n5ien5io
PREFACE
A popular hand-book to the history, from
original sources, of the Tamil people has been a
want. In these essays an attempt has been made
for the first time to put together the results of
past researches, so as to present before the

reader a complete bird's-eye view of the early
history of Tamil culture and civilisation. The
several topics have been treated from the stand-
point of modern criticism, traditions and legends
being discarded or utilized with great caution.
They are based chiefly upon materials, which
have been gathered in the course of my study
of Tamil literature, ethnology and epigraphy
begun while working under Sir Harold Stuart
and Mr. W. Francis, both of the Indian Civil
Service, in connection with the Madras Censuses
of 1891 and 1901 and the revision of District
Gazetteers. Some of the theories explained
here might be open to corrections and altera-
tions in the light of further discoveries and

Vlll PREFACE
investigations. Any criticism calculated to

enhance the accuracy and usefulness of the
book will be thankfully received.
My obligations to published works especially
to the contributions in the Indian Antiquary
and Epigraphia Indica are extensive. A list of the
English books consulted in the preparation of
this work isgiven separately to avoid numerous
foot-notes and references. My sincere thanks
are due to Rao Bahadur M. Rangacharyar, M.A.^
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology,
Presidency College, Madras, for the introduction
to this volume, and to Mr. P. Subba Rao,
B. A., of the Madras Record Office, for valuable
suggestions while revising the manuscript and
correcting the proofs for the press.
————————
ENGLISH WORKS CONSULTED

Bray, Denys. The Brahui Language.
Buhler, Dr. Indian Palasography.
Burnel], Dr. A. C.- Elements of South Indian
Palaeography.
On the Aindra School of
Sanskrit Grammarians.
Caldwell, Bishop. A Comparative Grammar of
the Dravidian Languages.
Chitty, Simon Casie. The Tamil Plutarch.
Colbrooke, H. T. Miscellaneous Essays.
District Gazetteers (New Edition.^
Epigraphia Indica.
Farrar, Canon F.W. Language and Languages.
Forbes, Capt. The Languages of Further India.
Francis, W. Madras Census Report, 1901.
Gesenius, Dr. Hebrew Lexicon.
Grierson, Dr. The Languages of India.
The Linguistic Survey of India.
Gundert, Dr. H. The I\Ialayalam Grammar.
Malayalam Dictionary.
Hasting's Encyclopcedia of Religion and Ethics.
Hovelacque, M. —
The Science of Language,
Hultzsch, Dr. E. —
South Indian Inscriptions.
Hunter, Sir W. W. Non-Aryan Languages of India,
Imperial Gazetteer.
Haberlandt, Dr. M. Ethnology.
Imperial Gazetteer of India (New Edition).
Indian Antiquary.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London.
Liddei and Scott. Greek Lexicon.
Kanakasabhai, V. The Tamils 1800 years ago.
Keane, A. H. Ethnology.
Letourneau, C Sociology.
— ————————
ENGLISH WORKS CONSULTED
Macleane, Dr. Manual of Administration.

Madras Christian College Magazine, The
Max Muller, F. The Science of Language.
M'Crindie, J.
W.— Ancient India &c.
Nagamiah, V. The Travancore State Manual.
Nelson, J. H. The Madura District Manual.
Nesfield, J.
C— Theory of Indian Castes.
Oppert, Dr. G. The Aboriginal Inhabitants of
Bharatavarsha.
Pope, Dr. G. U.— The Kural of Tiruvalluvar.
The Tiruvachakam.
Quatrefages, A. The Human Species.
Rangacharya, M. A descriptive Catalogue of
Tamil Manuscripts, Vol. I.
Rhys Davids, Dr. The Buddhist India.
Rice, L. The Mysore Gazetteer.
Epigraphia Carnatica.
Risley, Sir H. H.— The Peoples of India.
Sayce, A. H. Principles of Comparative
Philology.
Seignohos, Ch. History of Ancient Civilisation.
Seshagiri Sastri, M. Report on Sanskrit and Tamil
Manuscripts, Nos. 1 and 2.
Smith, Vincent A. Early History of India Asoka.
;
Stuart, SirH. A.— Madras Census Report, 1891.

Taylor, Meadows. History of India.
Thurston, E. The Tribes and Castes of
Southern India.
Tylor, E. B.— Primitive Culture.
Vaidya, C. V.— The Riddle of the Ramayana.
Wallace, A. R.— The Malay Archipelago.
Whitney, W. D.— The Life and Growth of
Language.
Wijesinha, L. C. The Mahawanso.
Williams, Monier, Sanskrit Dictionary.
Wilson, Prof. H. H. Glossary of Indian Terras.
INTRODUCTION
It is with very great pleasure that I have, in
compliance with the wish of the author, written this

short introduction to this volume of really interesting
essays on subjects relating to the history of the Tamil
people and their culture and civilisation. The history
of the famous inhabitants of the ancient Pandya, Chola
and Chera kingdoms is in no way less edifymg or
Jess valuable as a source of inspiration than the history
of the inhabitants of any other part of India, which
is throughout highly historic. The progress of Tamil
civilisation from its primitive rude restlessness and
wild aggressive valour to its ordered sense of huma-
nity and exalted moral and religious aims of a later day
is undoubtedly the result of the operation of various
momentous influences, the chief ones among which
have naturally been religious in origin and character.
It is a fact well known to the students of the history
of civilisation that, in some of its earlier stages of deve-
lopment,nothing acts so powerfully as an advancingly
ethical religion in stimulating and sustaining progress
in human communities. Accordingly the virile
vitality and undecaying vigour of the Tamil people,

subjected to the mellowing influences of Buddhism,
Jainism and earlier as well as later Brahmanisra
gave rise in due time to their sweet, practical and
in more than one respect heart-enthralling culture, of
which the great Tamil classics, together with their

noble Saiva and Vaishnava hymnology not to —
XU INTRODUCTION
mention their mighty and majestic God-aspiring

temples —constitute even today the enduring monu-
ments of beauty and glorious divine enthusiasm. To
construct and to explain the history of such a people,
characterised by such a noteworthy progress in civili-
sation and possessed of such an enduringly valuable
and edifying culture, must indeed be always fascinat-
ing; and innumerable avenues of enquiry and research
are certain to open out before the watchful eyes of the
trained and sincerely earnest student trying to help on
this work of historic up-buildingand exposition. Here
in this field of research, criticism and construction,
there is ample scope for ethnological, anthropological,
and sociological investigations of more than one kind;
there is abundant room for the work of antiquarian
discovery and illumination in which all the various
types of archaeologists may take part to their heart's
content •
and written records of various kmds are
also available in quantities large enough to satisfy
the hunger of many voracious enquirers after historic
truth, or literary beauty or linguistic development.
The field for cultivation is both wide and well
endowed; but earnest and capable labourers are
unhappily as yet too few.
I have no doubt that these essays will act as an eye-
opener to many inhabitants of the Tamil land who
take a true and cultured pride in the history of their
own country. I am far from saying that all the
various opinions, which Mr. Srinivasa Aiyangar has
expressed on so many topics in this volume, will be
INTRODUCTION XIU
found to be absolutely faultless and acceptable to all.
It is invariably the fate of opinions, relating to the
elements of what may be called constructive history,

to undergo more or less rapid modifications as more
and more materials become available for examina-
tion and subsequent structural utilisation and employ-
ment. Moreover, in dealing with problems of cons-
tructive history, there arise very often peculiar tempta-
tions to base conclusions on insufficieni or inaccurate
data as well as to adjust the scantily available evidence

to preconceived conclusions. My reading of the
essays, comprised in this volume of Tamil Studies,
has led me to feel that their author has earnestly end-

eavoured to avoid, as far as possible, all such pitfalls,
and has calmly and courageously exercised his

judgment in the free and clear light of unbiassed
reason. That he has had adequate equipment for
dealing with the various problems, which he has
handled in his essays, comes out well enough from
the essays themselves, seeing that they are so well
calculated to stimulate thought and bring into exist-
ence that curiosity which is the necessary precursor
of all true love of scholarly investigation, enquiry and
research. The way, which he has sought and
in
gathered his varied materials and endeavoured to

put them together in the spirit of the architect and
the interpreter, is assuredly worthy of imitation by
many more students of the history of the Tamil
people and their culture and civilisation.
M, RANGACHARYA
—— ——
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE.
Preface ... ... ... ... vii
Introduction ... ... ... xi
Essay I. The Tamil People. — Introduction — the

name '
Dravida '
explained — its ethnological
meaning — its — Dravida and
social significance
Cauda contrasted — Dr. Caldwell's use the of
term Dravidian — linguistic sense — etymology
ot the word Dravida' — the word Tamil ex-
'
plained — the Tamil country — ancient limits its

— the Tamils a mixture ot three races according
to Tamil literature — Risley's theory examined
data lor determining racial varieties — (1)
language — anthropometry —
(2) archaeology (3)
— and literary traditions
(4) 1
Essay II.The Tamil People — The (continued).

place of the Dravidians the human family in
different views of ethnologists — Kisley, Hasc-
kel, Topinard and Keane — Caldwell's abori-
gines-— theories concerning the Dravidian mi-
gration— the early
(1) Aryans — the Lemu- (2)
rian theory — evidence from ethnology —
(a) (b)
from philology — from geography — Dr. Hun-
(c)
ter's theory — the Mongolian or North-
(4)
Eastern theory — Kanakasabhai's arguments
examined — the Nagas — conclusion... (3) ... 17
Essay III.The Tamil People — (5)The (continued).

North-Western origin — evidence from (a)
philology — Mr. Bray's views about the Brah-
uis— the Brahuis, the Todas and the
Vellalas — archaeological
(b) evidence — the
Dravidians and Assyrians — the word Vellala
explained — literary
(c) evidence — probable
date of migration — sea route improbable
commercial relation with the West — no early
Tamil words the ship — the Aryan conquest
lor
—— ———
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE.
of the South according to the Sanskrit epics
the theories of the neo-Timil School the Rak- —
shasas and the Vanaras' — their social and
religious customs — Summary ... ... ... 33
Essay IV. The Tamil Castes. —

Tne Tamil speak-
ing castes — the Brahmans and the non-
Brahmans —
the three types of pre-Aryans
the caste system introduced by the Aryans
but it was regional —
the Vellalas not included
their occupations —
the occupational castes
Tamil and Malayalam castes compared how —
the modern castes sprung from the territorial
tribes —
the hill tribes —
the Naga tribes the —
—
—
Maravas and Eyinas the Parayasand Idaiyas
the Pallas and Shanars —
the fishing castes the —
dissolving factors —
the Kammalas —
the caste
—
svstem created disputes the tribal quarters in
ancient towns —
origin of the Paraiyas their —
—
former greatness origin of the Kaikolas the —
Tamils not good weavers— the Panans and
—
other castes origin of the Kammalas the food —
of the Eyinas —
origin of caste pollution ... 58
Essay V. The Tamil — 'continued). — The

Castes.
caste system bred discontent and quarrels —
the
right and left hand disputes —
castes enumerat-
— —
ed the caste privileges Kammalas and Kaiko-
las— traditional origin of the division —
the social
position ot the Kammalas and Kaikolas
and Pallis or Vanniyas suggested — origins
Prof. M. Rangacharya's theory examined
the distinction not found in Malabar —
(1) poli-
tical origin —
(2) supported t5y social disputes
and (3) confirmed by religion — Summary ... 92
Essay VI. The Tamil Alphabet. —

Its impor-
tance —
the ten heads under which Tamil
letters are treated —
the Vatteluttu and the
—
Grantha- Tamil characters the age of Vatte-
luttu —date of the Tolkapyam —
by whom the
—
alphabet was introduced the two opposite
—— — —
TABLE OF CONTENTS XVll
PAGE.
theories — views Caldwell and Buhler exa-
of
—
mined arguments m support of £. Thomas's
theory — not derived from Brahmi Vatteluttu —
and Brahmi were in use simultaneously why —
supplanted by Grantha-Tamil- which was —
developed from the Pallava characters how —
much of modern Tamil characters adapted
—
from Vatteluttu the shape of vowel-con-
—
sonants described why the modern Tamil
characters are an^ûlar in form —
the number
—
and order of letters pronunciation letters
peculiar toTamil —
accent and emphasis origin —
of letters — interchange of letters of similar
—
sounds how to determine pure Tamil words
initial letters —
final letters —
and middle letters... 113
Essay VII. The Place of Tamil in Philology.

Where —
spoken^ the Tamil's knowledge of
—
geography principles of philology changes —
in the growth of a language —
Tamil an aggluti-
native tongue —
can never become inflectioKal
traditional origin it —
is one of the Dravidian
ianjiuages — Sanskrit and Tamil compared as
—
regards their vocabulary Tamil words in
Sanskrit — —
orthography Dr. Caldwell's views
— —
examined word structure word formation —
coalescence in words or Sandlii compound —
words or —
phrases etymology differences —
—
between Tamil and Sanskrit prosody in the
—
—
two languages other peculiarities of Tamil
the —
Indo-Germanic affinity the Dravidian
influence on the Sanskrit dialects —
affiliation of
—
Tamil the Dravidian and the Uralo-AItaic
languages— causes for the difference position
in the linguistic system —
early Tamil (voca-
—
bulary, grammar, style and matter) mediaeval—
— —
Tamil modern Tamil needtor prose literature. 141
Essay VIII. Periods of Tamil Literature

Tamil literature characteristic of race^ — insepa-
B
—— —
XVlll TABLE OF CONTENTS
rable from religion —

the three classes of Tamil
literature —
music and the drama the extent —
of polite literature —
mostly translations the —
ethical literature —
no Tamil literature without
the Aryan influence — history of literature wan-
ting— absence of critical among the
spirit
Tamils — examination of Damodaram Pillai's
classification — of Suryanarayana's — of Cald-
well's cycles — other western scholars — of
of
M. Julien Vinson — proposed classification — (1)
the pre-academic period — the academic
(2)
period — (3)the hymnal period — translations (4)
— the exegetical period — and
trom Sanskrit (5)
the modern period — the
(6) anti-Brahmanical
School — prose literature ... ... ... 185
Essay IX. The Tamil Academies. — Introduction

— references to Tamil academies — explanation
of the terms Sangam and aval the scope of —
the essay —
the upper limit of the Sangam
—
period the first academy —
described Agasl- —
—
yar and his students their works the date of —
the academy discussed —
the location of Dak-
—
shana Madura the second academy described
— a continuation of the first its —
date the —
importance of the third academy described—
— — —
when established and where its members
— (Thiruvalluvamalai, a forgery) —
how and
wtien broken up — religion of
its members
the value of Nakkirar's account — later aca-
—
demies literature encouraged by Tamil
—
kings summary account of the acade-
—
mies refinement of the Tamil language how —
poetical works passed —
liberal presents to poets
— the French academy and the sangams
compared -.. ... ... ... ... 231
Essay X. TheTenTens. — Description of the work

— the dates of the several — of the Chera
books
kings — difficult to get their dates — description
of certain ancient [Tamil customs — the political
— ——
TABLE OF CONTENTS xix
PAGE.
condition the country
ot — the style and lan-
guage of the work. ... ... 264
Essay XI The Vaishnava Saints Introduction

— religion Tamils Brahmanization
of the early —
of the Tamils — growth of Brahmanism among
the Tamils —
the beginning of the Vaishnava
sect —
the Vaishnava saints —
the Guruparampa-
rai — the Alvars or Saints
first iheir dates —
—
Tirumalisai Alvar his age Tiruppan Alvai —
and Tondaradippodi Alvar Kulasekhara Al- —
—
var and bis date Tirumangai Alvar his date —
Periyalvar and his date —
Andal Nammalvar, —
the last of the Vaishnava saints the age of —
Nammalvar conclusion — ... ... ... 281
Essay XII. The Origin of Malayalam. — Introduc-

tion — etymologyof the terms Malayalam and
—
M^dabar people of Kerala were Tamils— the
early Tamil poets of Kerala which was a —
—
Tamil country (1) geographical evidence— (2)
—
from religious literature the Nambis Or Nam-
—
budris and the Bhatta Brahmans (3) ethno- —
logical evidence — (4) archaeological evidence
— literaryevidence — Kannassa Ramayanam
(5)
Krishnappattu — Eluttacchan — Unnayi Variyar
— linguistic evidence — grammar
(tt) (a) (b)
vocabulary — formative causes —conclusion 340 ...
•Conclusion. — The Tamil people — the Tamil Brah-

mans — the Tamil alphabet and language
religion the Tamils — Tamil
ot — Ex- literature
hortation 377
Appen The Early Pandya kings ... 387

Note on Agastya's Grammar ... 397
Tlie Age ot Manikka Vachakar ... 401
Note on the word Tiyan ... 411
Index 419
.
ABBREVIATIONS
Agap. — Agapporul of Iraiyanar. P. T. — Periya Tirumozhi.
Agat. — Agattiyam. Pey. — Peyalvar.
Akam. — Akananuru. Ping,— Pingalandai
Cher. — Cheraman Peruinal. Poi. — Poigai Alvar.
Chin — Cintamani. P. A. — Porunararruppadai.
D. A. — Dandi's Alankaram. Pur. — Purananuru.
Ep. Ind. — Epigraphia Indica. P. V. M. — Purapporul Venba-
Ind. Ant. — Indian Antiquary. malai.
Ind. Rev. — Indian *'eview. Sik. — Sikandiyar.
J. R. A. S.— Journal of the Royal Sil. — Silappaciikaram.
Asiatic Society, London. S. F. P. or — Sirupanarrup-
Sir.
Kal. — Kalittogai or Kalladam. padai.
Kam. — Kamban's Ramayanam. Siv. — Sivavakkiyar.
Kap. — Kapilar. S. I. — South Indian Inscrip-
I.
Kur. — Kural. tions.

Mani. — Manimekalai. Tat. Sek.— Tatva Sekharam.
Mut. — Muttanayanar Antadi. T. T. — Tirugnana Sambaiidar's
Nak. — Nakkirar. Tevaram, or Tiruttondar
Nan. — Nannul. Tiruvandadi.
Ned. — Xedunalvadai. T. v.— Tiruvachakam.
Nig. — Chudamani Nigandu. Tol. — Tolkappiyam.
Pat. — Pattuppattu or Pattinappalai. Vil.— Villiputtur Alvar.
I
THE TAMIL PEOPLE

Who are Dravidians ? Whence and how did they
come to South India? These are some of the outstanding
problems in Indian ethnology. During the past fifty
years various theories have been put forward from

the point of view either of philology or anthro-
pology or literature, and it cannot be said that the
last word has been pronounced on the subject. It

is not intended in these short papers to put forth
any new hypothesis, but to bring together all the
existing theories bearing on the subject, and to ex-
amine them in the light of the evidence furnished by
ancient Tamil literature and the labours of reputed
scholars and savants.
The word Dravida is widely used as a synonym
for Tamil and at the outset it is desirable to explain
its origin and meaning. According to Sanskrit pandits
'Dravida' was the name of a particular tract of coun-
try in Southern India ; and it is so defined in the
Sabdakalpadruma on the authority of the Mahabha-
rata. The country called 'Dravida' extended along
2 TAMIL STUDIES
the east coast of India from Tirupati (near Madras)

to Cape Coraorin and for about sixty miles to the
interior. The name is also loosely applied to the
south of the Peninsula.
Prof. Wilson and Sir Monier-Williams give
three senses in which the word is used (1) the —
country in which the Tamil language is spoken; (2)
an inhabitant of the country; and (3) a class of Brah-
manical tribe calledthe '
five Dravidas '. In accepting
the meaning western scholars and Indian pandits
first
seem to agree. As regards the second, differences of

opinion exist. Whether the name Dravida was
applied to all the peoples living in that country
or only to a particular caste or tribe remains to
be settled. The Tamil-speaking non-Brahmans have
always called themselves Tamilar but never Dravidas.
And the Tamil Brahmans who called themselves
the mahajanaiii or the *
great men '
were, and even
now are, known to the other Brahmans of India
as Dravidas. Sankaracharya (A. D. 820), who was
a great Sanskrit scholar and religious reformer, refers
to Trignanasambanda, a Brahman Saivite Saint and
Tamil poet, as Dravida Sisii (Dravida child). This
use of the word obtains even to-day. A Tamil-
speaking Brahman who has settled down in the
Bombay Presidency is spoken of as a 'Dravid' and
the word is affixed to the name of the person, e. g.,
Chintaman Dravidy Natesa Dravid. But the Tamil-
speaking non-Brahmans are known by their caste
titles — Mudaliyar, Pillai, and so on. Similarly, the
—
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 3
Teliigus of the north call the Tamil Brahmans

VDravidlu' Or 'Dravidas' while the Tamil non-Brah-
mans are called Sudralu or Dakshanadi-Sudralu. These
clearlyshow that in practice the ethnological: appli-
cation of the name Dravida was restricted and limited
to a particular class, namely, the Tamil-speakin«
Brahmans.
The significance of the word Dravida in the
expression, Pancha Dravida has now to be explained.
At a very early period in the history of the Indo-
Aryan people, the Tamil-speaking Brahmans had
developed a system of social and religious customs
and practices which became a marked feature of
that community.^ They had 3 separate ritualistic
system their social code was different from that of
;
the northern Brahmans ^ and their laws also were

;
1. Dramidachar and other early commentators

Baudhayana,
on the Brahmasutras, some Aryan reformers and law-givers he.
longed to the Dravida Brahman community.
2. The religious ceremonies Dravida Brahmans are
of the five
more numerous and elaborate. Omission to perform any of them
entails degradation or even excommunication. A Dravida Brahman
cannot eat fish or meat, and cannot accept food or water from
the hands non-Brahman without losing his caste. A married
of a
woman cannot wear white cloth, and when tying it she must pass
it between her legs. A widow should remove not only her
ornaments but also her hair, a custom prevalent in the Tamil
country at least from the second or third century A. D. as will be
seen from the following lines of Kalladanar :
OjuSinrsi s®d(giJ)u:)Qm(oBr
[Trans : — Observed the cutting of the fair, soft, black-sand-like

hair of the bright-faced women to enforce their widowhood.)
»
4 TAMIL STUDIES
different. These were generally known as Dravi-

dasampradaya. So far as these habits of life, customs,,
practices and rituals tended to higher spirituality, they

were adopted by the other Brahman communities
of the peninsula— the Andhras, the Karnatakas, the
Maharashtras and the Gurjaras. This accounts for
peoples speaking Sanskritic dialects like Marathi and'
Gujarathi and people speaking non-Sanskritic dialect
like Tamil, Telugu and Kanarese being grouped to-
gether as Pancha Dravidas or the five Dravidas.
The Dravidas proper were the Tamil-speaking
Brahmans. The use of the name for other Brahman
communities is an instance of extension of its mean-
ing and application. The term was extended to all
Brahmans observing the Dvaviddchdrains, or Dravi-
dnsampradaya.
In North India the Brahmans, who did not
On the contrary in these matters the Gauda or northern

Brahmans are more lax. The Dravida Brahmans n,re generally
very conservative and the strictness in the observance of the above
customs is attributed to tfieir natural desire to maintain the purity
of their Aryan blood.
Among the Dravida Brahmans, the Nambudris ot Malabar

form an exception. They seem to have retained some of the
original trans- Vindhyan or Gauda customs and resisted the healthy
reforms of Sankara, Ramanuja and Ananda Tirtha. Their en-
forced polygamy, their free intercourse with the non-Aryans
and a few of their nnacharas or unaryan customs raise some
doubl as to the pur-ty of their Aryan descent, a doubt which
occurred to our minds in spite of the somewhat rigorous social
customs obtaining among them to-day and their fair complexion,
which are no doubt due to climatic conditions and their ways
of living.
Yi
THE TAMIL PEOPLE •'>
accept these more rigid social rules and practices

developed by the Dravida Brahmans of South India,
came to be distinguished as Pancha Gaiidas. From
the fact that the Malayalam-speaking Brahmans,
the Nambudris, are not mentioned in this classifica-
tion, it may be inferred that the division of Brahmans
into Pancha Dravidas and Pancha Gaudas had taken

place long before the evolution of the Malayalam
language in the thirteenth century.
From what has been said above it would be clear
that the term Dravida had no ethnological signifi-
cance at first, but this it acquired later on. The

definition of the word * Dravida ' quoted by Dr. Cal-
dwell from Sanskrit lexicons *
as a man of out-cast
tribe descended from a degraded Kshatriya '
is open
to question. The genesis of the Dravida castes
and tribes given here and that given by Manu cannot
be accepted as literally true. It is one of those
fictions, familar to Indian sociologists dealing with
the question of the origin of caste by which the
Brahmans got over the troubles and conflicts between
themselves and the numerically stronger and socially
more influential sections of the non-Brahmanical tribes
on whom they imposed their culture and civilization
To Dr. Caldwell is due a further extension of the
meaning of the term Dravida. When the comparative

study of the South Indian languages was first started by
him, the glossarial and grammatical affinities between
them were so marked as to lead him to the conclusion
.that they were allied languages of the non-Aryan
6 TAMIL STUDIES
group. He called these languages of South India

Dravidian and the people speaking them Dravidians.
His extension of the word as a generic term for the
South Indian group of languages is convenient and
has been accepted. Linguistic evidence alone, however^
cannot be sufficient, and by itself is unreliable to
establish any theory about the origins of castes or the
ethnic affinity of peoples. Thus the application of the
name Dravidian or Dravida to all tribes, Brahman as
well as non-Brahman, inhabiting the extreme south
of the Peninsula is unwarranted, inaccurate and mis-
leading.
Tlie derivation of the word Dravida is doubtful.
It is purely of Sanskrit origin and may be a com-
pound of two roots dra, to run, and vid, a piece (of
land). It might mean a place to which one runs as
a place of retreat, the extreme south of the peninsula
being the last place to which any race could betake
itself when driven by a stronger race from the north
of India. This is only a plausible suggestion. Sanskrit
pandits, however, think Dravida is a corruption or
Sanskritised form of Tamil. But whether this bold
derivation could be supported by any linguistic pro-
cesses known to philology seems doubtful.
The origin of the word Tamil is not very clear,,
and native grammarians are silent on this points

Agreeing with certain Tamil and Sanskrit pandits. Dr.
Caldwell derives it from Sanskrit Dravida. Mr. Da-
modaram Pillai> however, questions the correctness
of this etymology and asks — Is it possible for a
—
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 7
language to have no native name until one was given

to it by Aryans, especially when it was the mother
tongue of a tolerably civilised race which had a fairly
cultivated literature and which had commercial rela-
tionship with the ancient nations of the West ? He

derives Tamil from the root Tami iî^) lonely, and
believes that Tamil means the '
peerless ' language.
In the Pingalandni it is explained thus :
(Tamil means sweetness and mercy).

We find tantil used only once in the sense of
'sweetness' in Tamil literature, and that was by the
author of Chintamani (about A. D. 950) ; but we do
not see it used in this sense in the earlier Tamil works.
Ot course the expressions î^tdltp (the sweet-), QsrrQîi
^Lî^ (the fat-), Q^^mpî^^ (the honeyed-) and êsm

i_uJ75f. (the cool-Tamil) very often occur; but the
word Tamil is not by itself used in this sense except
in the solitary instance above noted. However, fol-
lowing the Pingalaudai, the author of the Dravida

Prakasika and a few other Indian scholars explain
Tamil as meaning the sweet language. This conno-
tation ot sweetness seems to have long lingered among
Tamil writers, for theNaishadam
royal author of
speaks of his heroine as one the sweetness of whose
speech was sweeter than Tamil, ûSl^^ uSeafliu^(^
QisFnpoapiueon&r. Mr. Kanakasabhai thinks it to be an
abbreviated form of Tamra-litti, but this etymology
seems to be rather fanciful. It may not perhaps be
rash to suggest here what appears to be a reasonable
—
.8 TAMIL STUDIES
derivation. The word Tamil may be taken as a com-

pound of ta)n + izh tain is a reflexive pronoun which
;
has given rise to a very interesting class of words

like tain-appan (father), tay or tam-ay (mother), iam-
aiyaii (elder brother), tani.kai (younger sister), tani-
akkai (elder sister), iajn-pi (//), iam-piran &c. ; izJi
(which is the root of Izhm or Izhum, Izhudu-&c.)

means sweetness. Hence Tamizh or Tamil is " that
which is sweet " or the sweet language.
It may be observed that this word is used in early
Tamil w'orks to denote the language, the people and

their country.
That part of the Indian peninsula which the

Indo-Aryans called the Dravida was known to ancient
Tamils as the Tamil-akain or the abode of the '
Tamils'. The extent Tamil-akamof was not,

this
however, alwa3's the same. Tolkapyar, a Tamil gram-

marian, probably of the fourth century B. C, Ilango-
adigal, the royal ascetic and reputed author of Silap-
padikaram, and Sikandiyar, a pupil of Agastyar and
the author of a treatise on music, roughly fix the
boundaries of the Tamil country, as may be seen
from the following quotations :
(1) suL— Qeuihai—k Q^skc^LXufl ujnuSss>i—^
îA)i^ <9S-^ tBsO^ eosij). — Tol.
(The good world of the Tamils which lies
between the northern Venkatam and the southern

Kumari.)
(2) QiBis^QtuiT(oisr (^m pQfi Q^nt^Qojn&r QueireuQfiii
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 9
(The cool country ot the Tamils bounded by

Vishnu's hill and the bangled lady's sea— Kumari).
(3) (cQjias!—iii (^LDtf! ^LDLêsr jb QusfreuQinesT
iîsmGS)^ Qseo'ieo ^lSIl^^ qji^sCcS. —Stk.

(Tamil prevails within the four limits ot Ven-
katam, Kumari and the seas.)
The Tamil-akam or the land of the Tamils thus

seems to have extended east and west from sea to sea,
^nd north and south from the Tirupati hills to Cape
Comorin, and to have also included the modern
states of Travancore and Cochin and the British
district of Malabar.
The Tamils in who were cut off
the west coast
from the main body and who were much under the
control of the Brahman hierarchy, developed a dialect
of their own, a patois of Kodum-Tamil and Prakritic
Sanskrit, which has been known as Malayalam since

the beginning of the thirteenth century. And this
isolation accounts also for some of the ancient
customs and manners of the Tamils bemg better pre-
served to this day m the west coast than in the
eastern districts.
The loss of this western strip from the Tamil-
akam was, however, soon made up for, new districts ;
were added to it by the colonisation by the Tamils of

the northern portion of Ceylon, beginning from the
time of Parantaka Chola lA. D. 907-946) or even
•from an earlier date. They may be found also in
Burma, Sumatra, Java and wherever they could lind
food and labour.
10 TAMIL STUDIES
All the Tamil speaking inhabitants of the

southern districts do not belong to one and the same
race. Any layman can easily distinguish the Dravi-
dian Tamils from the Aryan Brahmans. The physical
characteristics of the hill and forest tribes, such as the
Kadars, the Soiigas and the Kurumbas differ from
those of the Vellalas and the Todas. Dr. A. H. Keane
and other ethnologists recognise at least three distinct
races in the population of Southern India. This

hypothesis seems to receive some countenance and
support from ancient Tamil literature and tradi-
tions. The well-known classification of rational
beings {ûjit^^ssst) by the Tamil grammarians into
inakkal (^mss^), devar (Q^qjit) and narakar {(bctsit) or
71 a'gar (iB IT sit) points to the existence of three types of
people in the Tamil land, namely, the Dravidian
Tamils (Makkal), the Aryan-Brahmans (Devar) and
the aboriginal tribes (Na'gar). 'Na'ga' is a word loosely
applied to all the aborigines who used to inhabit the

forests, the low regions and other unknown realms
(Narakam). Even so late as the eleventh century when
the process of the capture and absorption of the
aboriginal peoples by the superior Dravidians was
going on, the more powerful of the Na'ga tribes seem
to have struggled hard to maintain their sturdy inde-
pendence and to preserve their racial integrity." For
1. With this remarks of the Madras Government
compare the
Epigraphist ; '' The mythical account of the Epic hero Arjuna
marryinj; a Nag:t queen and similar stories current about the early
Chola kings in Tamil liteiature, combined with what is stated of
the Naga connections with the first Pallava kingt; . . . contirrti
p
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 11
we find in the early Tamil works that the Nagas are

described as a race of dark people with curly matted
hair. The ancient Tamils were acquainted also with
a tribe of naked nomads (jBsasîrn&mn)^ probably a sec-
tion of the Nagas living in an eastern Island. They
were cannibals and spoke an unknown language.
(1) eua(Siu&iLiLpi^ SmssBQ^LDQuQarTsa^Q&oa®. — P. A.
(With your starving, dark and large relations)
(2) eij&S(ifi<5srL3<osr<s>J60 Q&)mpiu!TS<ss)SLj uêSQiBirsQ
jfjppuo urriT^êv (^fEJs(SiEj ssmLDp(Si}iT. —Kal.

(The cruel-eyed, curly-haired and able-bodied
Maravas (robbers) with tiger-look and banded bows
waiting on the roads to harass the travellers).
iî) QonmrSQeup Sleir&fld(g iBiTsiBiri—ireir Qsutrdsr
pair LDSofT iSsêuêfiîresrunjih^
L\ejsB pfSlefriB(^LfieSL — Maili.

(The tender infant which Pilivalai, the daughter of
the ruler of Naganadu, bore for Killi (Chola) who
wields the victorious lance).
From the first quotation we learn that the Panans

— the ancestors, or rather, a sub-caste of the modern
Paraiyas — were an aboriginal tribe of dark men from ;
the second that the Maravas — not the present caste

of that name — w'ere a tribe of hunters and robbers
with tiger-look and curly matted hair ; while the third
the accepted belief that the Nagas were the original indigenous
rulers of Southern India and that they were subdued in course of
time by the powerful kings from the north, eventually losing their
individuality by intermarriages with the foreigners''. Report dated
28-7-1911. 1
13 TAMIL STUDIES
points to the fusion of the Tamils with the aboriginal

tribe of Nagas even so early as the first or second
•century of the Christian era. It might also be learnt
from Pattuppattu or the Ten Tamil Idylls and the
Mahabalipuram inscriptions of Rajendra Chola (A. D.
1012-1044) that there were among the Nagas at least
four sub-divisions, viz., Oli-Nagan, Mugali-Nagan,
:Sanka-Nagan and Nila-Nagan. The Paraiyas, who
•constitute nearly a seventh of the Tamil population
and who will be shewn hereafter to be the descendants
of the ancient Eyina tribe dislike to call themselves
Tamils, thus suggesting that they belong to a different
race altogether. Further, the various modes of dispo-
sing of the dead prevalent among the Tamils of anci-
ent times, namely, cremation, interment and exposure,
could not have been practised at the same time
by one and the same race. These facts clearly go to
prove that there were in the Tamil country at least
three distinct races namely, the aborigines (whatever

may be their names), the Dravidian Tamils and the
Aryan immigrants. Though there was a free inter-
mixture of the aborigines and the Dravidian Tamils

and though some isolated instances of the fusion of
the second and third are noticeable, the existence of
three different types is clear.
Sir Herbert Risley, however, considers that
all the South Indians are Dravidians —a dark-com-

plexioned, short-statured people with long head,
broad and thick-set nose and long fore-arm. Doubtless
this description applies to some of the hill and
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 13
forest tribes and some low caste Hindus, but it
cannot apply to the population of Southern India as

a whole. It will be admitted that three types of
physical character are observable in the Tamil
districts corresponding to the three different races
already noticed. First, there are the Aryans with a
somewhat fair complexion, tall stature, aquiline nose,.
small smooth and flowing

lips, hair. Secondly, the
pure Dravidian like the Todas of the Nilgiris, tall,
brown complexioned, with thick prominent nose,^
hairy body, well-proportioned limbs, receding fore-

head and of Jewish appearance. And thirdly, we have
the aborigines like the Kadars, with African face,
flatfish and broad nose, thick lips and dark com-
plexioned; and the pot-bellied Kurumbas with wild
matted hair, large mouth, prominent outstanding
and prognathous. Although
teeth, thick lips there
must have been intercrossing and shuffling of races
from a time long anterior to the Christian era, it is
extremely doubtful whether any tribe of the pure
Mongolian race had at any time found its way into
the Tamil country, as Mr. Kanakasabhai seems
to think.
The only data available for determining the

racial varieties are, (a) Language, (b) Anthropometry,
(c) Prehistoric arch;êology and (d) Traditions and
customs. None of these, however, can independently
prove the racial type oneway or the other.
(a) No comparative philologist will now admit
that language is a safe test of race. Languages have
14 TAMIL STUDIES:
their rise, growth and decay, and languages once well

known are entirely forgotten, foreign languages
taking their place as though they were native. Thus
Keltic IS extinct in Cornwall ; Sclavonic has disap-
peared in Prussia ; Accadian, the home speech of
a highly civilised Turanian race in Asia Minor, was
completely rooted out by the conquering Semites.
Coming to our own country, we find the Brahman
settlers in the Tamil land speak only a Dravidian
language forgetting their Sanskrit dialects. The entire
native population of the Tamil-akam — aborigmes,

Dravidians as well as Aryans — speak either Tamil or
an allied language of the Dravidian family. No suc-
cessful attempt has yet been made to analyse the
Tamil language and to write its history in a purely
philological spirit. Dr. Caldwell was the first to trace
some Tamil with the Uralo- Altaic

distant affinity of
languages. Some philologists, however, seem to think
that he was not quite successful in the attempt. We
shall discuss this question more fully in its proper place.
(b) Anthropologists place rather too much confi-
dence m the absolute certainty of the nasal and
cephalic indices, of hair and colour as permanent
tests of racial distinction. Sir Herbert Risley, Sir
William Turner and Dr. Topinard rely on the

constancy of cranial measurements, assuming the
form of the head as a persistent character that is
not liable to be modified by the action of artificial
selection. These scientists, however, do not agree

among themselves in certain important respects.
THE TAMIL PEOPLK 15
Professors Flower, Lydekker and Huxley classify
mankind according to the smoothness or roughness

of the hair, while others like Quatrefages add to
these colour, odour &c. Nevertheless, the value of
all these data is being seriously doubted by equally

eminent scientists. Professor Cox has brought to-
gether all their objections forcibly in a very interesting
articlethat appeared in the Modern Revieiv {Calcuita)

for 1911. He says 'the cephalic index separates races
closely allied and is almost identical for races widely
apart/ '
In almost every nation we find almost every
cephalic index.' As for the nasal index, M. Colignon
after elaborate researches thinks it of minor impor-
tance. Rome says 'the method of
Professor Sergi of
indices ismethod only in appearance and it inevita-
a
bly leads to errors and can produce no satisfactory
results.' Professor Ridgeway thinks these osteologi- '
cal differences are but foundations of sand.' And

above all a writer in the Miienschener Medizinische
(quoted by Mr. G. A. Gait, I.C.S.,) asserts that the
numerous head measurements collected with endless
assiduity by anthropologists have been shown to be
worthless. Thus we see that neither the cephalic
nor the nasal index is of much value in determining
race. The same may be said of hair and colour, as
these can be changed in course of time by climate,
food and other artificial means and methods. It
would therefore be unwise on the part of anthropolo-
gists to think they could correctly interpret these
physical differences as indications of inferioritv or
IG TAMIL STUDIES
otherwise of a race, especially in a country like

India, where there has been for ages past an inter-
mingling of diverse races — autochthonous, Turanian,
Semitic or Aryan.
(c) The evidence of pre-historic archêology con-
sists of weapons, implements, and human bones
which are found buried in the earth, and the megali-
thic monuments like the dolmen, cromlech {and the
kistvaens. Such remains abovuid in Tamil districts.
But in India the science of archaeology has not yet
advanced, and no excavations on a large scale have
till now been undertaken. The finds hitherto brought
to light are therefore very limited and do not afford
data for any reliable inference concerning ethnic
problems.
(d) The fourth source from which we may
derive some help for determining racial varieties
consists and ancient customs described

of traditions
in early Tamil works. Some of them may have been
distorted, exaggerated or even wrongly stated. The
Ramayana and the Mahabharata in Sanskrit, the
Tolkapyam, the Purananuru, the Pattuppattu, the
Kalittogai and other works in Tamil furnish plenty of
evidence. But all these will have to be sifted and
considered in the light of other evidences. And this
will be attempted in the next chapter.
II
THE TAMIL PEOPLE— (continued).

The home of
original the Dravidians and their
place in the human family are still subjects of discus-

sion. The various views that have been held by
anthropologists in this connection will be passed
in review.
'
The Dravidian race,' says Dr. Grierson, '
is
commonly considered to be the aborigines of India

or at least of Southern India, and we have no
information to show that they are not the aboriginal
inhabitants of the South.' Sir Herbert Risley says,
* Taking them as we find them now it may safely be
said that their present geographical distribution^
the marked uniformity of physical characters among
the more primitive members of the group, their
animistic religion, their distinctive languages, their
stone monuments and retention of a primitive
system of totemism justify us in regarding them as the
earliest inhabitants of India of whom we have any
knowledge.'
It will be seen from the above extracts that Dr.
18 TAMIL STUDIES
Grierson and Sir H. Risley do not take the ques-

tion deeper than saying that the Dravidians are the
aboriginal inhabitants of Southern India. The former
as a linguist says that the question of the origin and
migration of the Dravidian race cannot be solved by
the philologist and the latter as a leading Indian
;
ethnologist tries to 6nd out some connection between

the Dravidians and tlie Australians; but he is opposed
in his conclusion by Sir W. Turner, who has found
no cranial connection between the two races. After
criticising the other theories concerning the origin
and dispersion of the Dravidians, Sir H. Risley comes
back to the same ground on which his colleague stood.
According to H deckel,
the Dravidians, the Cauca-
sians, the Basques and the Indo-Germanic races re-
semble one another in several characteristics, especially
in the strong development of the head, which sug-

gests a close relationship between them. Professor
Huxley includes ihem in the smooth-haired division
with the North Africans and South Europeans, as-
suming Australia as the land of their origin. While
agreeing with them generally Professors Flower and
Lydekker put the Dravidians in the white division of
man and observe that in Southern India they are
largely mixed with a Negrito element.
This last point is supported by Dr. Topinard who
says that the remnants of the black people are at the
present day shut up in the mountains and that the
ancient inhabitants of the Deccan were identical with
the Australians, who probably come from a cross
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 19
between a ieiotrichi race from outside and a Negrito

autocthonous race.
Lastly, Dr. Keane thinks that he is able to prove
that the Dravidians preceded the Aryan-speaking
Hindus and that they are not the true aborigines of
the Deccan, they being themselves preceded by dark
peoples probably of an aberrant Negrito type.
The question now is '
who are the aborigines ?
'
The tirst Scholar who discussed this problem from the

stand point of philology was Dr Caldwell; and he
arrived at the conclusion that even the lowest castes
including the Paraiy;is are Dravidians and that they
were reduced by conquest to tlie condition of serfs
and jungle tribes. He held also that the Dravidians
entered India from the North-West. These two hy-
potheses of Dr.Caldweli's seem to conflict each other,
as it is extremely improbable that a very large body
of the so called Dravidians consisting of the dark
complexioned Paraiyas, and the several
Pallis, Kallas
hill and forest tribes could have come from north-

western Asia, which has been peopled by the fair
complexioned Semitic tribes. There is no philological
evidence to show who the aborigines v.'ere. Dr. Cald-
well does not tell us that there were no people m
Southern India before the advent of the Dravidians.
If there were no people, the Dravidians should be
regarded as the aborigines ; otherwise they are not.

He leaves all this an open question. It was, however
taken up by ethnologists.amongst whom Drs. Haddon
and Keane are decidedly of opinion that the
20 TAMIL STUDIES
Dravidians are not the aborigines, but that they were

preceded by a Negrito race akin to the people of the-
Malay Peninsula and the Australians, the remnants

of whom may be found among the jungle and
mountain tribes of Southern India. And this is the
view accepted by scholars intimately acquainted with
the South Indian people, notably by Mr.R. Sewell, who
says that '
at some very remote period the aborigines
of Southern India were overcome by hordes of
Dravidian invaders and driven to the mountains and
desert tracts where their descendants are to be found.'
If the Dravidians are not the aborigines, then
what was their original home and by what route did
they come into Southern India ? According to
one theory, they were the earliest or the first Aryan

settlers. Another theory places their home some-
where in the ** submerged Continent" in the Indian
Ocean whence they are supposed to have migrated
northward to India. According to some, their
original home was somewhere in Central Asia and
they entered India (a) by the north-east through
Assam and Burma, or (b) by both the north-eastern
and north-western gales. Yet another makes them
immigrants from Western-Asia either by (a) the north-
western mountain passes, or direct by (b) the sea
route. Each of these may be considered at some
length.
The Eaply Aryan Theory : Like the Celts
and Cymri in Ireland, the Tamils were supposed by
some to be the representatives of the earliest band of
—
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 21
the Aryan immigrants in India. So far as we are

aware this theory was never seriously advanced or
advocated by any ethnologist. Dr. Caldwell traces
some affinity between Tamil and the Indo-European
languages, even though their grammar and vocabulary
are radically different. Further it was believed for a
long time that the megalithic tombs found in some

parts of India and England belonged to the ancient
Gauls or Celts, which had led to a mistaken idea that
the original inhabitants of India, to whom these
monuments (dolmens) were attributed, were Aryans
akin to the Celts of Europe, But the fact remains that
the Tamils themselves called the Aryans Mtechchas or
foreigners ((i?(?6\)i^^j/r//?aj/f. Ping, 797) in spite of any
social, linguistic and other influences each might have
received from the other.
The Lemurian op Selater's Theory :
Accordmg to this theoiy.the original home of the

Dravidians was the now submerged continent of
Lemuria, which was somewhere in the Indian Ocean
before the formation of the Himalaya Mountains.

This continent is supposed to have extended from
Madagascar in the west to the Malay Archipelago in
the east, connecting Southern India with Africa on
the one side and Australia on the other. If so, the
Dravidians must have entered India from the south
long before the submergence of this continent. In
support of this theory the following arguments have
been adduced:
Ethnology : The system of totems prevailing
—
42 TAMIL STUDIES
among the half-civilized castes and tribes of India,

and the use of the bomerang bv the Kalians of
South India are found nowhere except among
certain Australian tribes; Dr. R. Wallace's description
of tree climbing by the Dyaks of Borneo applies
equally \ve!l to the Kadars of the Anamalai hills ;
and the chipping of all or some of the incisor teeth

by the Kadars and Mala-Vedans may be found
among the Jakuns of the Malay Peninsula.
Philology : Linguistic afSnities, especially some
doubtful resemblance between the numerals in Mun-
dari and in certain Australian dialects have been
noticed by Bishop Caldwell and Sir H. Risley. But
it may be pointed out that the Munda language is
quite independent of the Dravidian tongue and it
mav be doubted whether the poor similarity in respect

of the numerals alone will be enough tC) establish the
theory under discussion.
Geography : The argument under this head has

already been stated and more will be said about it
further on. However, it may not be out of place

to mention here in support of it a tradition which had
currency among the early Tamils and has been pre-
served in their literature. That is,
(^ riflsQsrrQfsi 0srT(SrEJ^L^6\) Qaam&r. — Sil.
(The cruel sea swallowed up the P.ihruli river
and the Kumari peak with the chain of mountains).
And the commentary of Adiyarkunallar on the

above lines runs thus : {^) ^ssneoi^ êufr miL®^
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 23
Qpisbr Ui7'2e\) iBirîMSji^ iSleir ut^so isrT®iM S7tp (^sisrp istrQiii (5ji^
(g,vsarsfT<5S)J iBfT®!}) <s]i^ (^îiMu'êsT [btQu) sKokîLD @/5^ isrrpu^

Q^ni,bru^ ihfi(Slih (^LDtFloia,iTs\)s\).Jj (tppsSlm ussr LD'2e\) iBrrQiii strQih
'BîLjih uîLjti) <suSiT<s(ûD!fl (oUL-Q LJ(ir)rEjQ an LLisf.€sr srrpiLo slSo

QanmsrQi—rriSlôOfrp (^LDrfliutrQuj QuofrojQLDvSTQr/'Qfriâ — S//,
198. Cape Comorin is spoken of in early Tamil

mountain and even as a sea.
literature as a river, a
And the ancient Tamils, who weie acquainted with

the Island of Java and generally with tiie Eastern
Archipelago, appear to have had some vague notions
about the existence in the remoter past of a vast
country in continuation of Cape Comorin. But, the
geography of this submerged continent as given in
the above excerpt looks very suspicious. And their

tradition about the change of capital of the Pandya
country from South Madura to North Madura (the mo-
dern Madura) seems to indicate the Tamilian's theory
of an early migration of some race from the South.
Hunter's Theory In his account of : the
non-Aryan races Dr. W.W. Hunter thinks there '
are
two branches of the Dravidians — the Kolarians and
the Dravidians proper. The former entered India by
the north-east and occupied the northern portion of
the Vindhya There they were conquered
table land.
and split into fragments by the main body of Dravi-
dians who found their way into the Punjab through
the north-western passes and pressed forward towards
2i TAMIL STUDIES
the south of India'. Yet in another place the same

scholar writes as follows : * It would appear that
long before the Aryan invasions, a people speaking
a very primitive Central Asian language, had entered
by the Sind passes. These were the Dravidas or the
Dravidians of later times. Other non-Aryan races
from the north pushed them onwards to the present
Dravidian country in the south of the peninsula...
The extrusion of the Dravidians from northern
India had taken place before the arrival of the
Aryan-speaking races. The Dravidians are to be
distinguished from the later non-Aryan immigrants,
whom the Vedic tribes found in possession of the
valleys of the Indus and Ganges. These later non-
Aryans were in their turn subjugated or pushed
out by the Aryan new comers; and they accor-
dingly appear in the Vedic hymns as the 'enemies'
(Dasyus) and 'serfs' (Sudras) of the Indo-Aryan
settlers. The Dravidian non-Aryans of the south, on
the other hand, appear from the first in the Sanskrit
as friendly forest folk, the monkey armies who helped
the Aryan hero Kama on his march through
Southern India against the demon king of Cevlon.'
As Sir H. Risley has remarked, the basis of this
theory is obscure and neither philology nor ethnology
;
supports it. It will be shown in the sequel that the

Dravidians were not driven from Northern India bv
later non-Aryan immigrants and that they were not
the monkey armies who helped the Aryan hero Rama.
The Mongolian Theory According to :
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 25
this theory the Dravidians had hved somewhere on the

plateau of Central Asia along with the Mongolians
before they entered India by the North-eastern passes
from Tibet or Nepal, or by the way of Assam and the
Tennaserim provinces. This theory has been very
strongly supported by Mr. Kanakasabhai in his Tamils
Eighteen Hundred years ago. According lo him the
aboriginal inhabitants of Southern India were the
Villavas and Minavas. They were conquered by a
highly civilised race called the Nagas who hailed
from Central Asia. They were very good weavers
and from them the Aryans learnt their alphabet which
thencefortli was known as Deva-Nagari. He is of
opinion that the Maravas, Eyinas, Oliyas, Oviyas,
Aruvalas and the Paratavas mentioned in the Tamil
works of the academic period belonged to the above
Naga race, and that they had always been hostile to
the Dravidian Tamils. Nagas
Subsequently, these
were in their turn conquered by a Mongolian race
called the Tamralitti.s or the Tamils who had
migrated from the Tibetan plateau. They came to
the south of India along the east coast in four bands
the earliest of whom he considers to be the Marar
who founded the Pandya kitigdom. The second
were the Thirayar tribe of the Cholas and the third
the Vanavar, a mountainous tribe from Bengal, who
were the ancestors of the Chera kings ; and the
fourth and last, the Kosar tribe of the Kongu country,
In thisway he accounts for the origin of the four
ancient Tamil kingdoms.
—
26 TAMIL STUDIES
Further on, the same writer observes as follows:

'As the Tamil immigrants came into Southern India
at distant intervals of time and in separate tribes and
were fewer in number than the aboriginal Nagas and
DravidianS; they had to adopt the ancient Dravidian
language and in course of time they modified and
refined it into the language now known as Tamil.
The peculiar letter zli (i-g) which does not exist in
the other Dravidian languages was doubtless brought

in by the Tamil immigrants. This letter occurs in the
Tibetan languages. It indicates most clearly that the
primitive home of the Tamil immigrants must have
been in the Tibetan plateau'. And in support of his
theory that all the Tamils are of Mongolian origin he
goes on to say that the existence of very many words
ingn (a), jn (gj) atjd n (soar) in Tamil, Burmese
and Chinese, and tlie siinilarity between Malayalam
and the Mongolian languages, clearly confirm the
North-eastern or the Mongolian origin of the Tamil
people.
In attributing a Mongolian origin to the Tamils
Mr. Kanakasabhai relies partly on literary evidence
and partly on the similarity of sound in certain words.
He seems to misinterpret some passages in Tamil
works and distorts current traditions so as to support
his preconceived theories would be fallacious
; and it
and unwarrantable to draw any inference from words

like Tamra-litti and Tamil, Mranmar and Maran,
Koshan or Kushan and Kosar &c., which are similar
only in sound. He has entirely ignored the testimony
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 27
of archaeology, philology and anthropology. It is
necessary to examine his statements more fully.
He says the Villavas and the Minavas were the

aborigines of Southern India, citing the Bhils and the
Minas of Central India in support of his assertion.
Villavân is a bowman and Minavan is a fisher-man
and these are some of the titles applied honorifically
to the Chera and Pandya kings. There is no caste or

tribe bearing either name
Tamil districts.
in the
Further, the Bhils and the Minas do not speik a
Dravidian language. How they were ethnically
related to the Tamils and to what race they had
belonged he quie'ily passes over.
Again, he says that the Nag'is were a highly

civilised aboriginal race from whom the Aryans
learnt their Sanskrit alphabet. Before entering upon
any criticism of these statements we shall enquire
who these Nagas were. There were Nagas in
Northern India as well as in Southern India, About
the former Capt. Forbes writes as follows in his
Languages of Further India: — 'It is now acknow-

ledged that prior to the irruption of the Aryans
into India from the west across the Indus, the
valley of the Ganges was occupied by various races
of Turanian origin. The Arvans came in contact
with two races : one of fierce black degraded savage
tribes whom they called Asuras, Rakshasas, &c. ; the
other a people who lived in cities and possessed
wealth, and whose women were fair, whom they
termed the Nagas or serpent worshippers, and who
28 TAMIL STUDIES
doubtless belonged to the great Takshak or '

Serpent
race ' of Scythia. Under the continued pressure of
the advancing Aryan invaders, these Turanian tribes
were driven back carrying before them in their turn

the feeble and scattered remnants of the black
aboriginal race, who were either exterminated or
found a last refuge in the most inaccessible forests
and mountams.' Nothing definite is known about

the South Indian Nagas except what is mentioned in
the Aianimekalai and the occasional references in the
Pattuppattu and in the inscriptions. In the early
Buddhistic 'Jamil literature the name of this tribe
occurs very often.
(The four hundred yojanas of the good country of
the Nagas will be destroyed by sinking into the broad

netherworld).
iBSS SÎTITSamiT I'STSIT •SJfTL^LD'êO. — Sll.
(The mountain inhabited by the naked nomads and

the Nagas.)
The Naga Nadu or tlie country of the Nagas is
described as a vast island situated in the east or rather

south-east of the Tamil country ; and the Nagas were
a half civilised tribe, some of whom were naked
nomads while others were cannibals. They spoke a
language not understood by the Tamil people. From
this description it might be easily surmised that the
country referred to was Ceylon and that the people

were the Veddas or Vedas. Nilan and Nagan were
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 29
names quite familiar among the Kalian and the

Vedan or Vettuvar tribes of the Tamil districts. Nilan
was the name of the Vaishnava saint Tirumangai
Alvar, a Kalla by caste, and of the donor of the fine
cloth to Ay a hill king ;
rieo iSfTssar ibsoSlu ssSlihsii. —S.P.P.

(The fine cloth presented by Nilan of the Naga tribe.)
Nagan was the name of a Veda chieftain and

the father of the famous Saiva saint Kannappa
Nayanar. From these it will be seen that the Nagas
were not so highly civilised as is represented by Mr.
Kanakasabhai ; but doubtless they were a martial tribe
of hunters from whom, as we have shown else-
where, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Pallavas

recruited their armies. It seems, therefore, that
'Naga' was the name given by the Aryans to any
aboriginal tribe in Southern India and Ceylon, and
it might be remarked that the Nagas of the south
were distinct from the Nagas of Northern India who
are describedby Capt. Forbes in the above extract.
The South Indian Nagas were probably the abori-
gines, while their North Indian namesake were
Turanian or Scythian immigrants from Central Asia
belonging probably to the Mongolian race.
As regards the origin of the Nagari alphabet the
conclusions of Dr. G. Buhler and other eminent
authorities on Indian Paleography are certamly
opposed to the bold assertion of Mr. Kanakasabhai
that the Aryans learnt it from the Nagas. The v/ord
Nagari' is derived from nagar, a city, but not from
30 TAMIL STUDIES
^Naga ' the name of a tribe, as he seems to think

and the Nj^gari or the Deva Nagari was the alphabet
formerly used by the Aryan city folk.
Again, Mr. Kanakasabhai says the Tamil immi-
grants were a Mongolian tribe quite independent
of the '
aboriginal. Nagas and Dravidians '
; and in
suppoit of his theory he cites the existence of the
peculiar letter tp Tamil and in some of the
(zh) in
Tibetan languages, but which does not occur in '
the other Dravidian or Sanskrit languages.' Elimi-

nating the Nagas and the Mongolian tribe of Tamils
from the population of the Tamil districts, one
would be anxious to know who these Dravidians
were. Were they his Villavar and Minavar abori-
gines or some other tribe which had its existence only
in his imagination? Then, adverting to the peculiar
letter we must say that it did exist in the ancient
tp
Kanarese and Telugu languages though it had

disappeared owing to the continuous Sanskrit influ-
ence for centuries. In modern Kanarese and Telugu
it has been dropped or its place taken by m (1) and
i_ (d). As Dr. Caldwell has rightly said this letter has
sometimes the sound of err (1) or tu (y) or is even
omitted as in modern colloquial Tamil. And it
might further be remarked that ê which has the

sound approaching the English zh (as in pleasure) or
the French J (as in J'ai) may be found in some of
the languages of the Uralo- Altaic group. The mere
fact therefore that it is found to prevail equally in
Tamil and throughout the aboriginal Indo-Chinese

THE TAMIL PEOPLE 31
tongues of the Himalayas and Tibet is by itself
insufficient to establish an ethnic relationship be-

tween the two races, especially when there are so
many and so strong arguments to the contrary.
Further, there is not the slightest affinitv between
Tamil and the Tibetan tongues, nor the least resem-
blance in the physical characters of the Tamil people
and the Mongolian tribes.
We have already stated that '

Tamra-litti '
had no
connection with 'Tamil'. Kosar seems to have been a
hill tribe more or less akin to the Koyas and the
Eyinas (Paraiya) of theTamil districts, which name
is still preserved in the word Koyan-puttur (Coimba-
tore) meaning the new village of the Koya or Kosar
sribe. It is not connected with that powerful and
civilized race, the Cushites of antiquity, as Mr. Kanaka-
sabhai seems to think, but rather allied to the Telugu
speaking hill tribe of that Maran is he who
name.
barters ; it is a title assumed by the Pandya kings on
account of their earliest commercial relationship with
the Egyptians, Chaldeans, ancient Arabs and other
Western nations. The traditional origin of this word
from Mani (to beat with a tamarind swdtch) given
in the Madura Tiruvilayadal-Purana, in order to
connect it with one of the Siva's 'sacred sports'
betrays the imaginative flights of the Brahman Purana

writers. And we may say that this word Maran has
greater connection with the Hebrew Mara to sell or
barter, than with the Burmese Mran-mar.
32 TAMIL STUDIES
The weightiest of all objections to Mr, Kanaka-

sabhai's theory seems to come from the pen of Sir
H. Risley. He says 'It is extremely improbable that
a large body and conspicuously long_
of a very black
headed type should have come from the one region
of the earth which is peopled exclusively by races with
broad heads and yellow complexion. With this
we may dismiss the theory which assigns a trans-
Himalayan origin to the Dravidians,' This objection
seems sound, although it is too much to admit that
all the inhabitants of Southern India belonged to a
* very black and conspicuously long headed-type' of
the human species.
Of the several theories set forth above, those of
the Early-Aryan and Mongolian origins may be dis-
missed as altogether untenable, as they are supported
neither by tradition nor by science. The feeble
support which Sir William Hunter's theory has
received at the hands of scholars in spite of his magic
name shows what little substratum of probability
there is under it. The Lemurian theory can cover, if
at all, only a very small part of the problem and
apply only to the primitive aboriginal sections of the
people. The bold conclusions of Mr. Kanakasabhai
seem to be based on fanciful philological musings
and a feverish desire to show originality. In the
following chapter an attempt will be made to collect
together a few facts and ideas that may constitute
what appears to be a more probable solution of this
interesting question.
Ill
THE TAMIL PEOPLE.— (continued ).
The one other theory that remains to be con-

sidered is that a large number of emigrants from
Western Asia came into the country either by a
direct sea-route or by land through the Western
mountain passes, and became superimposed on the
aboriginal stock, probably of the Lemurian origin,
before there was any Aryan influence in South India.
The original home of these people should have been
Assyria and Asia Minor and they should have lived
with the ancient Accadians and other Turanian races
before they migrated to India through the North-
western passes. This theory seems to have much
to be said in its favour, although apparent objections
have been raised against it by Mr. D. Bray, Sir H.
Risley and other scholars. We shall as in the case
of the other theories collect together all the argu-
ments regarding it under the three main heads of
philology, archaeology and literary tradition.
Lingttistic evidence : Dr. Caldwell thinks that

34 TAMIL STUDIES
the Dravidian languages may be affiliated morpho-

logically to the Uralo-Altaic or the Finno-Tartaric
family of tongues which comprise the Samoyedic,
the Finnic, the Turkic, the Mongolian and the Tungu-
sian groups. To the same family belonged Accadian
—a fully developed language spoken by a highly
civilised Turanian race that had lived in Assyria,
Chaldea, Susiana and Media. The learned bishop
pomts of resemblance in grammar
after indicating the
and vocabulary between Accadian and the Dravidian

languages, comes to the conclusion 'that the Dravidi-
an race though resident in India from a period long
prior to the commencement of the Christian era,
originated in the Central tracts of Asia —the seed plot
of nations —and
from thence after parting com-
that
pany with the Aryans and the Ugro-Turanians, and
leaving a colony in Baluchistan, they entered India by
way of the Indus.'
In the language of the Behistun tablets
(Accadian) we find largely used the consonants

of the cerebral class, /, d, n\ the genetive termination
a j>i as in na^ nina,and dative ikka or
or inna,
ikki (Tarn, o, kn) ; im (Tam. =îi)
ordinals ending in
mw); and the second person pronoun ni, nin (Tam.
i,Sasi), There are other points of linguistic affinity
between Tamil and the Altaic languages and the
reader is referred to Dr. Caldwell's invaluable Com-
parative Grammar which ought to be in the hands of
every student of the Dravidian languages. The con-
nection of the Tamils with Asia Minor is further
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 35
confirmed by the identity in form and meaning of

•several important words in the Semitic, Altaic and
Tamil languages. For example,— Tam. akkan, Ugr.

iggcn = t\dQv sister ; Tam. aiinai, Fin. anya = moihtT\
Tam. appan, Fin. Hung.
appl, //)«= father ; Tarn.
amma, Samoy. /7;;i)«a= mother ; Tam. attaly Fin.
^^/^z = mother Tam. am, Vogoul. am=yes Tam.

; ;
4itivai, Mordvin. ava=moihQx Tam. kattn, Hung. ;
*o/=to bind, to tie Tam. kel, F"in. kitl-en=to hear

; ;
Tam. ko, Behistun tablets, ko=3. king Tam. kozhi^ ;
Vogoul. kore=3. cock; Tam. ti, Samoy. /i=Hre Tam. ;
tol, V';goul. towl=skin Tam. jnayiru (the sun)

;
Hung. ;i_yar=summer; Tam. pidi,F\n. pidan=to catch;

TBm.pira, Fin. pera=iiiter; Tam. uianai, Sam. maii=
a house; Tam. may-am, Lap. i«o/'=a tree Tam. velich- ;
am, Hung. velega=\\gh\. &c. We may trace similar

affinities with Turkic languages also, both in gram-
mar and vocabulary.
Of course, we must bear in mind the axiom
that no account should be taken of mere resemblan-

ces in sound and meaning of words for linguistic
considerations ; but in the above case such coinci-
dences do not seem to be so purely accidental as to
vitiate our conclusions, as there are other collateral
evidences to strengthen them, notwithstanding the

opinion of M. Hovelacque that *
Dr. Caldwell has
not been more successful with his assumed Dravidi-
an affinity.'
It was for a long time supposed that the cradle of

the Aryans was somewhere in Central Asia,which was
86 TAMIL STUDIES
likewise considered the original home of the Dravi-

dians. Dr. Caldwell must have held this view when
he said that the Dravidians '
after parting company
with the Aryans in the Central tracts of Asia entered
India by the way of the Indus'. He has also proved
some Dravidian influence in Sanskrit and vice versa in
order to support his theory that the Dravidians and
Aryans lived together before their dispersal from
Central Asia. But scholars are now agreed that the
original home of the Aryans was somewhere in the
Scandinavian Peninsula and that no traces of any
Aryan influence can be found in the Accadian
language.
And this must afford us a clue to determine
the approximate date of the Dravidian migration to
Southern India. As pomted out by Dr. Caldwell*-
the Dravidian languages have had some influence
from the Aryan languages. It should have taken
place only after the Dravidians had left Central Asia
and settled in the Punjab, before the arrival of the
Aryans. The migration of the Tamils to Southern

India should have taken place long after their
sojourn in Upper India with the Sanskrit-speaking

Aryans and it will be shown in the sequel that the
;
Dravidians had separated from the Aryans in the

trans-Vindhyan Aryavarta sometime after the Maha-
bharata war about the eleventh century B. C.
The North-Western origin and migration of
the Dravidians receive an additional support and
confirmation from the Brahui language which has
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 37
been the home speech of a Dravidian tribe in Balu-
chistan. The latest verdict on that language is that

of Mr. Denys Bray, I. C. S. In his monograph on
that tongue he says that 'it is sprung from the same
source as the Dravidian language group; it has freely
absorbed the alien vocabulary of Persian, Baluchi,
Sindhi and other neighbouring languages ; but in
spite of their inroads its grammatical system has
preserved a sturdy existence,' Mr. Bray goes on to
give us a word of advice so that we may not identify
the Brahuis with the Dravidians. He says '
We can
no longer argue with the child-like faith of our fore-
fathers from philology to ethnology, and assume
without further ado that this race of Baluchistan
whose speech is akin to the languages of the Dravi-
dian peoples of Southern India is itself Dravidian ;
that it is in fact the rear guard or the van-guard

according to the particular theory we may affect
of a Dravidian migration from North to South or

from South to North.'
The term *
Dravidian '
means one thing for an
ethnologist and another for a philologist. Sometimes
both are confounded. The peoples whose home-
speech at the present day is a Dravidian language, are
not necessarily Dravidians by race ; and there are
non-Aryan tribes who speak an Aryan language.
To avoid further confusion and misapprehension
which have unnecessarily led to conflicting theories,
it must be said once for all here that the term *Dra-
Aîdian '
does not include the very black hill and forest
38 TAMIL STUDIES
tribes, the low castes of Southern India who had

migrated thither from the submerged continent and
the Tamil speaking Aryan Brahmans, but only the
hi^h class Tamils— the and the Chetti castes
Veilalas
— who were more or brown complexioned, fairly
less
civilized, of good physique and of martial habits like

the Semitic or Iranian tribes of North-Western Asia.
These people, we presume, are now represented by
the Todas of the Nilgiris, though there had been on
the plains a complete fusion with the aboriginal races
and the later Aryan immigrants, as the proverb says,.
Quxsnetr OiCOTsrr G)eusir(ofrfT&r<our,
(A Kalian became a Maravan, the Maravan be-

came an Agambadiyan, and the Agambadiyan be-
came a Vellalan.)
F'urther.the mental and physical characteristics of
the Brahuis as described by Mr.D. Bray agree so well
with those found in the literature of the early Dravi-^
dian Tamils, that one will be justified in regarding
both as ethnically related to each other. Thus, we see
that this theory is supported by philological as well
as ethnological evidences, and we cannot observe any
contradiction between them. The Brahuis must,
therefore, be regarded as the rear guard in the Dravi-
dian migration and the Todas its van-guard. We may-
say that the connection between Brahui and Tamil is
so great that no other inference than that of the ethnic

relationship between the two peoples seems possible,
in spite of Dr. Grierson's assertion that the Brahuis
.
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 3^
do not belong to the Dravidian race but are anthro-

pologically Iranians. And the existence of such
words as ba, eumii, vay, (mouth) ;
pii, Lj(Lp, puzhu,
(worm) ; bei, emoj, vai (straw); khal, sdo, kal, (stone) ;
bil, <a5<rj, vil (bow); kh'in, ssm, kan, (eye) ; inits, Qp^(St
mukku (nose): ielli, (?^srr, tel (scorpion) ;
palh^ urreo,
pal, (milk); ingh, M^îS, tungu, (sleep); gcil, êir, kal-

(plural termilnation) ; irat, iîT'sm'Si, irandu, (two) ;
&c., and the sentences like, / nnrnto bareva, fsrrasr îh

QmrrQ sii(i^Q<siim, irresistably lead us to the same con-
clusion.
Arachceologlcal Evidence : 'The Indian oblong sar

cophagi,' says Mr. V. A. Smith, 'discovered at various
places m the Madras districts of Chingleput, Neliore,
North and South Arcot. are practically identical in
form with sunilar objects found at Gehrareh near
Bagdad. This fact is one of many indications con-
necting archaic Indian civilization with that of Baby-
lonia and Assyria,which suggest tempting ethnologi-
cal speculations.' The author of Manimckalai enume-
rates five methods of disposing of the dead as preval-
ent in his days among the Tamils, that is about the
third century A. D. They were (1) cremation, (2) ex-
posure in an open place to be eaten by jackals and vul-

tures, (3) burial, (4) stuffing the corpse in natural pits,
and (5) covering it up with big earthen jars, {^"i^).
m-®Qisu!T ffKSQeuira Qît(S(^lû uQuQuair

ÎTipQJuS (SST'SSiL-LJÛljir ÎTLûS/b SisS uQ UlT IT
So far as we know, the only early nation who ex-

posed the dead in this fashion was the ancient
40 TAMIL STUDIES
Persians. The Tamil Dravidian, in his march towards

India, must have lived in Persia, and moved with
Persians sufficiently long to adopt the above custom.
Again some of the Tamil districts abound with
peculiar tomb stones called *
Virakkals.' They
were usually set up on the graves of warriors that
were slain in battle, chiefly in skirmishes following
cattle raids.l The names of the deceased soldiers and
their exploits are found inscribed on the stones,
which were decorated with garlands of peacock
feathers or some kind of red flowers. Usually small
canopies were put up over them.
(1) &-^ld(?u...
uS i-.ldl9 nriiT QsiT&refrrT^ QgU'SuLû
(2) ulLQlîtit Quaj0 LDtTjD/D^ Qldqp^
We give below a specimen of such an epitaph

dated 936 A. D. 'Prosperity! In the twenty-ninth year
of King Parakesari Varman who conquered Madura
when cattle were lifted at Muttukur by the Peru-
manadigal, Vadunavaran Varacian Tandan having
recovered them fell.'
A careful study of the Purapporul Venbamalai

will doubtless convince the reader that the ancient
1. In ancient India the lifting of the enemy's cattle usually
a nnounced the commenceuient of hostilities between neighbouring
tribes or provinces.
— —
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 41
Tamils were, like the Assyrians and Babylonians, a

ferocious race of hunters and soldiers armed with
bows and lances making war for the mere pleasure of
slaying, ravaging and pillaging. Like them the Tamils
believed in evil spirits, astrology, omens and sorcery.
They cared little for death. The following quotations
from the above work will bear testimony to the
characteristics of that virile race:
(2) Qmaaûij euenisfTLLemL-s
(3) 3k.i—fTiT Qp'êmQairen'^Fv s'lrp^
(4) Qpisf.^ 3,'îu QuiSlp \3i—h^Si%sci^^ni^^

Q^rru^^ QsifTLL® (SuiSn) êsiLpîu &imQs=iT^
LD/DuQuiL euiT^suesi euuSisaifjSih ^lLl— Sil.
(l) Garlanded with the entrails of enemies they

danced with lances held in their hands topside down.
(2) They set fire to the fertile villages of their enemies;
(3) and plundered their country and demolished their

houses. (4) The devil's cook distributed the food
boiled with the flesh of the slain, on the hearth of
the crowned heads of fallen kings and stirred with

the ladle of the bangled arm.
With these compare some passages from the
Assyrian stories of compaigns. '
I had some of them
flayed in my presence and had the wall hung with
their skins. I arranged their heads like crowns and
their transfixed bodies in the form of garlands ... I

42 TAMIL STUDIES
raised mountains of bodies before his gates. All his

villages I destroyed, desolated, burnt ; made the
I
country desert. I changed it into hills and mounds of

debris'.
And yet the early Dravidians are considered by
Dr. Caldwell as the framers of the best moral codes,
and by the new school of non-Aryan Tamil scholars
as the inventors, independent of the sliahtest Aryan
or other influence, of grammar, philosophy, theology
and in fact of every science and art. It is enough for
the present to remind them that the earliest gram-
marians of Tamil were Brahmans, their first spiritual
instructors were Brahmans, and iheir first teachers of
philosophy were also Brahmans.
The first Tamil grammarian, an Aryan sage,
found the customs, polity and even thought of the
ancient Tamils so completely at variance with those
of the Aryans that he thought it prudent to leave
a description of them for the information of their
posterity and with a view, no doubt, to satisfy the
;
incorrigible and refractory early Tamils and to give

them a permanency at least in books, he codified and
varnished them with a thin veneer of Aryan religious
sanction. These now form the subject matter of the
third book of the Tolkapyam.
We have said that the Vellalas were pure Dravi-
dians and that they were a military and dominant
tribe. If so, one would naturally ask *
How could
the ancestors of peaceful cultivators be a warlike
race ?' The term '
Vellalan '
is ordinarily derived by
,
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 43
some from vellam, flood, and alaii, a ruler, hence a

cultivator ; while others derive it from vdlanmai,
cultivation. Neither seems to be quite correct, for the
right form of this word is Vellan and it occurs in
early Tamil inscriptions. In Tamil the words allied
to it are vcl, the god of war ; vel-ir, the ruling class

among the ancient Tamils ; vel-akkaraii,2i foot-soldier
(now obsolete, but found in the inscriptions of

Raja-raja Chola) ; vcly help ; vel-anmai, truth ; and
Vell-alan, a cultivator. The last two are rarely to be
met with in early Tamil literature, while m the others
we hear the sound of the war-drum. Compare the
word padai [usmiJ) which meant an army, a weapon of
war and a plough ; and to distinguish 'a plough' from
the other implements now called a-(zûs3)i_ or a
it is
ploughing weapon. Audit may be pointed out that

all the modern cultivating castes — the Bants, the
Nayars, the Pallis and the Telagas or Velamas — were
formerly martial tribes like the ancient Vellalas.
Literary evidence: {(i) The artificial irrigation of
the soil by constructing large reservoirs and canals
on an extensive scale was encouraged by the early
Tamils.
îlSoi—T [Tilt LBsSi'SuLLL-LLQi^nQ rr — Piir.
(Verily, he who has turned the bent (low) land into a

reservoir to arrest the flow of the running water is one
who has established a name ip this world.)
This system, says Meadows Taylor, 'existed probably
in no other country except Babylon.'
44 TAMIL STUDIES
(b) The kings of all the three Tamil dynasties

traced their ancestry to one or the other of the
North-Indian kings. The Pandyas claimed to be an
offshoot of the Pandavas and styled themselves the
*
Panchavans'; and the Chobs called themselves
'Sembyan' or the descendants of Sibi,a North-Indian
Emperor. These kings are said to have assisted the
Pandavas in the Great War,
L^wLj€isrjb ULpsGiu LjSfTiTiBsiT Qisuis,m. — Sil.

(The king of Pukar —Cauveripatnain — the city of
lovely gardens and sweet water, who from on his throne

of audience distributed the '
great food ')
QuQ^(^QfiTpgn tAl(ûû)6uesi!rLurr^QsiT(S)^Q ^mu. — Pur.

(Thou art the king that gave the 'great food'
hberally at the battle field till the '
one hundred '
fell.)
This they could have done when

(jnly they were
reigning over small districts in Upper somewhere
India ; because, would be improbable and impos-
it
sible that the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas, had they

actually been in the south at the time of the war,
could have sent their large contingents all the way to
Kuruksheha the Punjab through impenetrable
in
and mountains. And in support of the

forests, rivers
above statement we may quote an extract from Mr. J.

W. M'Crindle's Ancient India. The kingdom of '
Pandion, which was situated on the southern extremi-

ty of the Indian peninsula,was founded by an Aryan
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 45
race whose ancestors had occupied the regions

watered by the Jamna. This may be inferred both
from the name of the king and that of his capital
which was called Madura after the celebrated city
which adorned of old, as it does still the banks of
that great tributary of the Ganges.' The kingdom is
mentioned by Pliny by the author of the

(A. D. 77),
Peripins of the Eryihnvan Sea and by Ptolemy.
'In his commentary on the prefatory sutra to the
Tolkapyam, Nacchinarkiniyar describes a tradition
relating to the migration of the Dravidian race, which
is as follows: —The sage Agastya repaired to Dwarka
(Tatn. Tuvarapati) and, taking vvith him eighteen
kings of the line of Sri Krishna, eighteen families of
Vels or Velirs and others, moved to the South with
the Aruvalari tribes. There, he had all the forests
cleared and built up kingdoms settling therein all the
people he had brought with him. One of the princi-
oalities thus founded bv him was Dwarasamudram in
the Mysore State. Kapilar, a Brahman poet probably

of the second century A. D,, addresses the reigning
The Aruvalars seem- to have been
1. the ancestors of the
Kummbas. They were not Hked by the Vehrs or Vellalas as will be
evident from the bad meanings which these Tamil words acquired
in later times and from the following quotation.
f^gu^fT irrSs^ esii—tuirfr.
(The wise will not approach the Vadugas, Arnvalas, Karnatas

the burning ground, the devil and the buffalo.)
—
46 TAMIL STUDIES
chief of this place as the forty-ninth in descent from

the original founder of that dynasty.
S-Qjuit eSstsis^ êussnT luiremQ
iBfT pu^ QîTiSsru^ suip](Lpssip eurs^
Qeue(fl(rf,<3(r QeuQetr. — Pur.
(O The Velir of Velirs that governed Tuvarai
!
—
Dwarasamudram for forty-nine generations.)
Allowing the usual twenty-five years for each genera-
tion, the above kingdom must have been established
about B.'J. 1075 ; and this may be assumed as the
probable date of the migration of the Tamils to
Southern India.
Within the hst fifteen years a new school of
Tamil scholars has come into being, consisting mainly
and castemen of the late lamented pro-
of admirers
fessorand antiquary, Mr. Sundaram Pillai of Tri-
vandram. Their object has been to disown and to
disprove any trace of indebtedness to the Aryans, to
exalt the civilisation of the ancient Tamils, to distort
in the name of historic research the current traditions
and and to pooh-pooh the views of former
literature,
scholars, which support the Brahmanizalion of the

Tamil race. They would not even admit that the
early Tamils had ever lived in Upper-India by the
side of the Aryans. One of them writes thus :
'
It is
my view that Tamilians were not derived directly

from the settlers in the north during the Indian Vedic
days, and that the Tamilians did not immigrate from
the north of India to the south by choice or by force ;
that they are not to be identified with the people whom

THE TAMIL PEOPLE 47
the Vedic settlers encountered and called Dasyus ; that

if they did settle in the south from outside, they did
so by the sea and not by land and through mountain
ranges, and that they came from Assyria and Asia-
Minor, the oldest seat of ancient civilisation. I further
think, that once they entered India by the Western
sea-gate they spread themselves rapidly over the whole
of South India up to the Dandakaranya and the
Vindhya, which at that time must have been impas-
sable, and that they developed their letters, and arts,
and sciences, and law, and government which at the
time they came in contact with the Northern settlers

must have been in a sense perfect'.
If the above theory be correct, the migration
must have taken place earlier than the twelfth century
B. C; and to accomplish such a huge undertakmg
the Dravidian Tamils must have had an immense
naVy. But we know of no ancient nation who had
it at this remote penod.i The Egyptians were an
agricultural race ; the Assyrians were mountaineers;
the Hebrews were shepherds and the Phoenicians
alone, but of later date, were a maritime race of
merchants. As a matter of factwe know that these
last, the lonians and the Romans and very lately

1. Prof. Sayce believes he has proved the existence of com-
merce by sea between India and Babylon bo early as 3000 B.C. by
the finding of Indian teak in the ruins of Ur. But this conclusion
is not accepted by all si-holars. Mr. J. Kennedy has deci-
sively shown in a very learned paper that he can find no archaeo-

logical or literary evidence for a maritime trade between India and
Babylon prior to the seventh century B. C.
—
48 TAMIL STUDIES
the Arabs had commercial intercourse with the early-

Tamils. Their ships came to South India with gold,
wine and lamps and bartered them with the Tamils
for pepper, pearl, peacock-feathers and agil as the
following quotations will show:
cueuissriT î^ <sSêsr LDrremasr sgOld
(The stately vessel of the Yavanas (lonians) will

come with gold and go with pepper.)
LUQjssr SajpfSiu eSlêsr LofTsm unssisu
easQiLii^ sssfleoi/Diu Q:?ajQsîTifli^. — Ned.

(Poured oil in the lamp held by the statue made by
the Yavanas.)
(BasTseotJD ^k^ êaarsLDj^ Q^jsso, — Pur.

(The cool sweet-scented wine brought by the fine
ship of the Yavanas.)

When their acquaintance with the ^Tamils had be-
come closer the Romans began to settle in some of
the principal Tamil cities. A Pandya king in return
sent an embassy to Augustus Caesar in B. C. 20. He
might have been Mudu-Kudumi-Peruvaludi whose
name occurs both in Tamil hterature and inscriptions.
The Roman settlement in Madura probably continued
till about 4.50 A. D. There was also a Greek colony
at Kaveripatam in the second century A. D.
The words used in ancient Tamil literature to
denote the '
ship '
are navay {iBrranTih), Gr. Naus, Lat.
Navis, Skt. Nav, and kalam or kalan {ssoim). Ion..
— -
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 49
Kalon (a wooden houê). These are not Tamil words,

and tliey might have been borrowed from the lonians
or Greeks who had, as already stated, commercial
relationship with the ancient Tamils. We know that
foreign nations carried on trade with the Tamils and
settled in The Tamil countries ; but we do not find it
said anywhere that the Tamils ever visited

any foreign
countries for the purpctse of commerce, though in
later times they had ships and were experts in navi-
gation. Their voyages, however, seem to have been

confined mostly to the East as the following extract
will show :
ia£_LO?s« ulSIjdibs insmfiiLjil) QuiTisarîEi
@i_LD?lsy UlS/DIS^ (SUlTITQp ldQîb

QaeisrsL-eo Qp^^w (^ssarsL^p ^Qqîsi
sfSjioiDS tsufrfftiLjisi aaeSfflu ulu^

iBi^^êmeiîsi aiTLpt^ â&s(LpLD, Pat.
(The gold and gems of the Himalayas, the sandal

and agil of the Western ghats, the pearls of the
Southern ocean, the coral of the Eastern sea, the pro-
ductions of the Ganges and the Cauvery, the eatables,
from Ceylon and the spices from Burmah).
As Mr. Smith has rightly observed,
Vincent
* Ancient Tamil literature and the Greek and Roman
authors prove that in the firsttwo centuries of the
Christian era the ports on the Coromandal or Chola
\. The Tamils had words to signify a boat, but not a ship-
Patai, padakti (Gael. bata)*2mnai, a catamaran, iollai (that which
is made hollow), &c. The Tamil lexicographers made no distinc-
tion between a raft, a boat and a merchantman.
4
50 TAMIL STUDIES
coast enjoyed the benefits of active commerce with

both the West atid East. The Chola fleets did not
confine taemseives to coasting voyages, but boldly
crossed the Bay of Bengal to the mouths of the
Ganges and the h-rawaddy, and the Indian Ocean
to the islands of the xMalay Archipelago'. Dr. Caldwell
thinks that the ancient Tamils '
had no foreign com-
merce, no acquaintance with any people beyond the
sea except Ceylon, and no word expressive of
geographical idea of island or continent'. We might
say that Dr. Caldwell was not altogether just in his
estimate of the ancient Tamil civilisation. But he

might be correct with regard to the Tamils before
they had come in contact with the Aryans either in
Upper India or in the extreme South.
In this connection it may be observed that most

of the capitals of the a-icient Tamil kingdoms were
inland towns, a fact which militates against the
theory of their having been of a daring sea-faring
slock.
Again if we believe in the theory that the Tamils

migrated to Southern India by the sea and not by the
land, how are we to account for the location of the
Brahuis — a tribe allied to the Dravidian Tamils — in
Baluchistan? And how are weAryan to explain the
elements in the early Tamil language? History and

traditions are against it, philology is against it, and
in fact everything is against it.
Some glimpses of the Aryan conquest and

THE TAMIL PEOPLE 51
colonization of Southern India will be obtained from

the two great Sanskrit epics the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana. The evidence furnished by thetn on
minute details is, however, extremely questionable.
Neither of them has come down to us in its original
form. Additions, interpolations and alterations seem
to have been made from time to time to the Maha-
bharata till the tenth or eleventh century A.D., and
to the Ramayana at least up to the second or third
century, which have given rise to many contradictory
statements and anachronisms. It would, therefore,
be hazardous to start any theories from incoherent
statements, or to cite them in support of one's pre-

conceived theories concerning the civilisation of the
aboriginal tribes and the geography of the tracts they
inhabited, as has been done recently by the mem-
bers of the New School of Tamil Research whose
love of their language is more than their regard for
historic truth.
The present writer cannot preten d to have the
boldness or the requisite scholarship in Sanskrit to
derive the name * Rama ' from Tam. Inil, darkness
to say that the Rakshasas and Vanaras were more
civilized than the Aryans, to call the ancient Tamilians
Asuras, to assert that Svayamvaram was the form,
of marriage prevalent among the aborigines, and to
proclaim from the house-tops that
Rakshasas '
the
were monotheists' and worshipped Siva and Siva only
with incense and flowers while the Aryan worship
;
'
of natural phenomena and their unmeaningsacrifices

—
52 TAMIL STUDIES
appeared to the philosophical Tamils — Rakshasas of

the Ramayana — to be sacreligious.'
Leaving these theories severely alone, it is our
duty in the interest of scientific truth to set forth
what we have gleaned from the two great epics and the
writings of the ancient Tamils.
Of the two grand epics, the Mahabharata alone
seems to have been widely known and regarded, in
the Tamil country, as a sacred work. Som.e of the
Mahabharata stories and the divine personages men-
tioned therein like Sri Krishna and Bala Rama occur
very often in the early Tamil works of the academic
period prior to the hfth or sixth century A. D. On
the other hand, the Ramayana was almost unknown
to them, except probably to certain Tamil poets of
that period as a quasi-historical composition. The
author of Silappadikaram (A.D, 220) while describing
Kaveripatam, after it was left by Kovalan and
Kannaki, compares it to Ayodhya after its desertion
by Rama and Sita as in the following lines :
And Ravana is mentioned by the author of Madurai

Kanji (A. D. 150). He says that owing to the diplo-
matic skill of Agastya, the royal priest of the Pandya,
their Tamil country was saved from being conquered
by Ravana.
Q(yrj>m (i/>^ si—ei\L- LS(5sr6miT Qldlu

THE TAMIL PEOPLE 53
Again both the names Rama and Havana occur

•in an example for the logical method of immediate
inference cited by Sattanar.
(To infer that 'Ravana suffered defeat' from the pro-

position '
Rama won '
is what is called mitchi)
Thus we Ravana was not a TaraiHan
see that
and that he and Rama had been regarded by the
early Tamils as pure historical personages, till we
come to the Puranic period, when the Vaishnava
Saints {û^suirn) following the impetus given to
Brahmanism in Upper India, began to deify Rama
as an Avatar of Vishnu. And the Ramayana of
Valmiki, which Rama is described as a great
in
—
national hero a typical Aryan of noble, pure and
sublime life worthy of divine respect — appears to
have been recast with vast additions in imitation of
the Mahabharata, probably, during the third or fourth
century A.D. Even so late as the seventh century,
the Ramayana did not secure such a hold on the
Tamil mind as the Mahabharata. The following
extract from the Kuram grant of the Pallava king
Paramesvara Varma I. (AD. 660) will be to the point :
(One share to the reader of the Mahabharata at this

matitapam.)
And itwas one century later that the first Tamil

^translation of the Mahabharatha was made by
54 TAMIL STUDIES
Perum-Devanar, the celebrated compiler of the Eight

Tamil anthologies. The Ramayana was translated
for the first time in A. D. 1185 by the immortal
Kamban.
Now the Ramayana is a quasi-historical epic
poem which describes the migration of the Aryans
to Southern India prior to the fifteenth century B.C.
It gives an account of the tribes that were living in
the various regions of the Indian Peninsula. The

description of the Pandya and other countries given
in the modern recensions of that epic are only later
interpolations. The Tamil kingdoms did not come
into existence during Rama's time. These provinces
were then dense forests inhabited by wild and savage
tribes, whom Valmiki called Rakshasas, Yakshas and
Vanaras (monkeys) on account of their strange, un-
familiar non-Aryan physical features and customs.
In later Sanskrit works the Asuras are sometimes con-
founded with the Rakshasas ; but it is not correct, as
the Asuras were a section of the fair-skinned Aryans,
now represented by the Parsis, while the Rakshasas
were a dark-complexioned cannibal race of hun-
ters and fisherman modern Andamaners and
like the
the Australian aborigines. The Yakshas of Ceylon

and the Rakshasas ot Southern India belonged to the
same race of people called Yatudanas in the Vedas
and Nagas in the later Buddhistic and other lite-
ratures. They might have been the ancestors of the
modern Paraiyas, Pallas, Idaiyas, Maravas and
Kallas. It will be interesting to note that one of the
— n
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 55
Marava chieflains under a Pandya king was called

lyakkan or Yakshan.
They were demonalators and hated Siva, an
Aryan deity, and their king Havana who treated Siva
with contempt had his ten heads cut off by that deity,
Q^rrOieiriT® udêumLjih QsiTê\}^î— esiQcihsisi^'oai/iS
tLirrememixLqLiD £u&9LL!i îruumrsLiT £ii6\)ixii-i!reiiieu)Qir.
The custom of carrying off women for wives was

prevalent among them hence this kind of marriage
;
lias come to be known as Rakshasam. This form of
j^CAual alliance which is very common among some of
the modern hill tribes and largely practised by

the ancient Tamils has left its trace in tl e social rules
called the 'be.eging for a girl '

ira^l L.ff^<5/7(g^ and
*
refusal to give a girl' Lcsemws)'^^ Qu l£^ ^&}.Thty c^ve
explained in the Venbamalai thus:

sjiBâsLQ ujitlLi—0 Qsesi^LD
(To see an enemy in the king who begged the gift
of a jewelled maiden.)
QeutMQpo' (emani-D'SBSfr Qeuemi—
(They in the fort refusing the hand of a damsel to
a bitter foe.)
This kind of marriage by capture seems to have

led to frequent bloody quarrels between neighbour-
ing villages. As to their cannibalism and excess of,
flesh-eating and drinking of liqucr more will be said
—
56 TAMIL STUDIES
in the following pages. So much for the Rakshasa

ancestors of our non-Aryan friends.
We shall now enquire who the Vanara or mon-
key allies of Rama were. Even the early Tamils of
the second or third century believed that they were
actually monkeys. A poet of that period has said,
Qs=LbQpsLj QuQîEiSi'^. — Piir.
In reality they were not monkeys,but only an aborigi-

nal race, darkcomplexioned, short statured, but strong
and of monkey-like appearance like the Negritos.
They lived upon roots and fruits; and they used only
stones and clubs in their fights with the Rakshasas
whom they ahviys disliked. This description of
the Vanaras leads us to infer that they should have
been the ancestors of the modern hill and forest
tribes like the Malasars, Soligas, Paliyas, Kadars

and the Irulas. We have said before that these hill
and forest tribes had their own kings like Vali and
Sugriva, the monkey chieftains of the Ramayana.
All that we have discussed in the preceding pages
may be summarized thus. The present population of
the Tamil districts is composed of four distinct races,
namely (1) the Negritos, (2) a mixed leiotrichi race
allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the aborigines of
Australasia, whom, for the sake of brevity, we may

€all the Nagas, (3) the Dravidian race, and (4) the
Aryans. The first two — the Vanaras and the Kakshasas
THE TAMIL PEOPLE 57
of the Ramayana —had had their original home in
the submerged continent before they entered India

from the south. Of these the Negritos must have
been the earlier immigrants, and they must have been
driven to the hills and forests by the mixed race of
Nagas who came after them and occupied mostly the
maritime districts. Tiie date of their migration cannot
be given as we have no data for it. Thirdly, came the
Dravidians from Upper India about eleven hundred
B.C., who carved out three or four small kingdoms by
subduing the petty chieftain? of the Naga tribes. Their
original home Seems to have been Asia-Minor,
and Ihey entered India by the North-Western gate
long before the arrival of the Aryans; and before they
marched southward both the races should have lived
together in Northern India at least for some cen-
turies. And lastly, came the Aryans not as con-
querors but as teachers of religion and philosophy
to the semi-civilized Dravidians, mostly on the
invitation of their kings.
58 TAMIL STUDIES
DISTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL TAMIL CASTES.

(In Thousands).
Tamil popiiIalion~16, 647.
IV
THE TAMIL CASTES
An examination of the South Indian inscriptions
shows that, from time to time, small bands of
Brahmans from Northern India were invited by the
Tamil kings and made to settle in their countries.
Even at that remote period the Dravidians were
snfliciently civilized and the Brahmans felt no neces-
sity to bring with them either the Kshatriyas or the
Vaisyas. We have neither heard nor read of any

extensive immigrations, within historic times, of
other races from outside the Tamil country. Of
course, we leave out of consideration the handful of
'Skilled artisans from Magadha, mechanics from Ma-
ratam, smiths from Avanti and carpen'ers from Ya-
vana (Ionia or Europe)'i who were found in the city
1 "The name 'Yavana' was derived from the lonians or descend-

ants of Javaii, the first Greeks with whom the Hindus became ac-
quainted, and ill the ancient Tamil and Sanskrit period denoted the
Greeks in general. In subsequent times, when the Greeks were
succeeded by the Arabs, it was the Arabs that were denoted by
this name; so that in the later Sanskrit of the Vishnu Purana We
ai e to understand by the Yavaiias not the Greeks but the Arabs of
more widely the inhabitants of both sliores of the Pei'sian Gulf, as
that work speaks of the national custom of the Yavaiias shaving
their heads entirely without leaving a lock. The name Sonagan
by wliich these Muhammadans of Arab descent are sometimes
called in Tamil, is merely a corruption of the Skt. Yavana or
Yavanaka "— See Ind. Ant, for 1876, p. 110.
'60 TAMIL STUDIES
of Kaveripatam before its destruction which occur-

red in the early part of the second century A. D.
We do not nickide in this all later immigrants of

comparatively recent times
the Telugu such as
castes and Sourashtra weavers who followed the Vija-
yanagar Governors, the stray Kshatriyas and Vais-
yas v.'ho hailed from the North during the Mogul
rule, and the Mahratta Sudras who came in the
train of the Mahratta leaders. We are concerned
here only with the Tamil speaking castes and tribes
of an earlier period. It is therefore certain that even
those Tamil castes who trace their ancestry straight
to the Vedic and Pauranic gods, calling themselves
' Viswa-Brahmans,' '
Dravida Kshatriyas' and '
Arya
Vaisyas,' must have grown out of the Tamil tribes
and castes which are described in ancient Tamil
literature and inscriptions.
Broadly speaking, the Brahmans and the Sudras

of the Tamil country belong each to a distinct race.
In a way each had its own system of thought, religion,
and ethical and social rules, so that an attempt to
engraft the one on the other must look strange and
preposterous. This fact has rightly been grasped by
the English educated portion of the non-Brahman
castes, who, as already pointed out, have been endea-
vouring to assert an indigenous Dravidian civili-
^sation. This is only natural ; and they merit the

THE TAMIL CASTES 61
sympath}' and suppoit of scholars if they confine

themselves to a rational scientific enquiry.
It has been said in the last essay that there were

at least three distinct types of pre-Aryans in the Tamil
country, namely, and Forest tribes, (2)
(1) <lie Hill
theNagas and (3) the Vtlir or the Vellala tribes. For
want of a better name these are called collectively
Dravidians, though, strictly speaking, '
Dravidian '
should be applied only to the Vellalas, who were

the latest of the pre-Aryan mimigrants in Southern
India. Sometimes the moie significant compound
* Naga Dravidians' has also been used.
Before the arrival of the Aryans there was

no caste system in the Tamil country. The
earliest Brahman settlers tried, however, to intro-
duce their four-fold division of people, and before
they could succeed in it they met with much oppos-
ition. No Dravidian was considered worthy of being
classed as Brahmans. The Tamil kings alone were
elevated to the rank of Kshatriyas in spite of their
marriage connections with the ancient Velir or Vellala
tribes. These Velirs were on that account called
Ilangokkal or the 'minor kings'. The Brahmans got
up for them very decent geneologies which traced their
ancestry to the sun, the moon or the tire. This rendered
the position of the Vellalas who had to oscillate bet-
ween the Vaisya and the Sudra castes dubious and
unsettled. Their greatest difficulty, however, was with
the hill and forest tribes and the Nagas, who constitu-
,
52 TAMIL STUDIES
ted the bulk of the South Indian population. They could

not put these earlier Naga inhabitants in the Sudra
division along with the Diavidian Vellalas for fear of
injuring the feelings of the Tamil kings and the Velir
nobility. To get over this difficulty they had to devise
a new scheme of classification on an altogether
different principle, which depended on the nature of the
soil or region i in which the tribes happened to live.
REGION. TRIBE.
1. Neijtal or maritime, j
Paravas, Nulayas
t and Valaiyas.
2. Marutam or fertile. Mallar (Pallar) & Kadaignar.
3. Mnllai or pasture. Idaiyarand Toduvar.
4. Palai or desert. Maravar and Eyinar.
5. Knriujl or hilly. f
Kuravar, Irular, Savarai
1 Vedar and Villiyar.
This regional classification of the non-Aryan

Tamil tribes is conspicuous by the absence of the
Velir or the Vellala caste. It must, therefore, refer
only to the pre-Dravidian tribes mentioned in Groups

I and II given above. Palai is sometimes omitted or
amalgamated with Kurinji and the tribes of these two ;
regions consequently interchange.

The earliest Tamil works inform us that there
were two sections among the Velirs or pure Dravidi-
ans, namely the cultivating and the non-cultivatmg.
As a rule the latter section furnished statesmen and
1. Tlie i amil grammarians and lexicographers have classified the
Soil as five ^/w/v.—Neytal, Marutam, Mullai, Palai and Kurinji, or
as four iiilaiiis making Palai common to the other four.
THE TAMIL CASTES 63
generals to the Tamil kings. Its members were

generally recipients of high titles like Kizhan,
Udaiyan, Rayan or Arayan, Vel or Velan and Kaviti ;
and such Tamil names as Kudal-udai. Arisil
kizhan and Kalinga-rayan appear now as the go trie
names ot the Karkatta Vellalas. They have ninety-

six gotras or exogamous septs, thirteen ot which end
in Thirai, or Thiraiyan, fourteen in Rayan and sixty-
nine in Udai or Udaiyan. The first designates the

clan or tribe to which that section of the Vellalas
originally belonged ; the second is the title conferred
on them by the Chola or Pandya kings ; while the
third appears to have been the names of villages of
which they were the chieftains. Kaviti was a
special distinction bestowed upon the ministers
of state. Most of these gotric names may be found
in the ancient Tamil inscriptions. No traces of the
Tamil kings are to be found at present in this country,
and it is highlv probable that they should have merged
in the pure Vellala caste. We say pure because the
Vellala caste as a whole appears to have been receiving
additions from time to time from other tribes as the

following extract will show : QwiL^surflio Qsustrrrssr
srHi!jtT(eu)€sr L0(3^-E/«G'QjswyT53r.i Most of the Konga Vellalas

were formerly Vettuvans. The
preceding statement
will show that the Coimbatore District contains an
unusually large number ot Vellalas —a fact which

casts a serious doubt on their pure Dravidian or
Vellala origin.
1. .ôutli Indian Iiircriptions, Vol. Ill, p. i5.
—
64 TAMIL STUDIES
The occupations of the cultivating section were

as given below,
S-Qp^ LJiumQsrrem Qi^rr&9iSss3!r QiurrmLSu
u(ips)e\}iTU u^mi—LD usri^ — QpQpêssnT

(SS)^ su'SsiSsfT.i srrs?, —P. V. M,
(1) tilling, (2i cow-breeding, (3) trade, (4)

studying the Vedas, (5) worship of sacrificial'
fire, and (G) giving aims. Here the Vellalas are

spoken of as Bhu-Vaisyas. These occupations were,
however, never confined to particular castes. Tilling
was and has been done by the Mallars (Pallars)^
Maravas and others; cow-breeding by the Idaiyas and
Kurumbas ; trade in grains was formerly followed
by a class of Vellalas called Kuia-Vanikar or Vellan-
Chettis and now by any caste ; and giving alms by
all the non-polluting castes. Vedic study and
worship of sacrificial fire do not appear to have at
any time been practised by the non-Brahman Tamils,

except probably by an extinct section of the Vella-
las known as the Vaidyas.' This name which
'
occurs in a Vatteluttu inscription dated 7 70 A.D.

should not be confounded with the Boidya caste of
Bengal or with the class of native physicians called
'
Vaidyan as is sometimes done.
'
Pre-eminently '
charming in manners, a resident of Karavandapura,

theson of Maran, and a learned and illustrious mem-
ber of the Vaidya family, Madhurakavi made this-
stone temple of Vishnu'. The Vaidyas were minis-
V
( Vatteluttu )
"^ o 3 l7 r) -tb t( d:p + ^

U« -^ *»T L»fr <»W M^ »^ ^J 9> GO ^* \
0'p!>_'^C) ly J5 7 3 3*^
S3- :r7.
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 65
ters under the Chola and Pandya kings and were

good Sanskrit scholars well versed in the Vedas.
Their royal title was Per-Arayan,' while
as ministers '
that of a Brahman minister was Brahma- Arayan.' '
It will be interesting to observe that the great Vaish-

nava Saint Nammalvar and probably the Saiva ascetic
Tayumanswami also belonged to this section of the
Vellala caste.
In the Sendan-Divakaram, a work probably of

the eleventh or twelfth century, the occupations of
the Vellalasi are given, as (1) tilling, (2) cow-breedings
(3) trade, (4) playing on drums and musical instru-
ments, (5) weaving, &c., and (6) service to Brahmans.
Obviously, many inferior castes like the Kaikolas and
Pallis mcluded here in tiie great Vellala tribe.
are
And agreeably to it the word 'Kaikolan' makes its first
appearance m this work as a caste name, and 'Pallava'
is expunged therefrom, taking in the word 'Kavandan'
to denote a man of the servile class. The Brahmans

depended upon the Idaiyans for the supply of milk,
ghee and butter, which were necessary for their sub-
sistance and sacrificial oblations, and they were conse-
quently elevated to the rank of V^îsyas, though they
were never granted the privilege of wearing the sacred
thread, to perform the Vedic rituals and to live within
their villages. They had to live in a Clieri far remov-

ed from the village like the Paraiyas, Izhavas and
1. About the end of the eleventh century the occupations of the
Vellalas were, —giving ahns, tilling, cow-breeding, trade, music and

sei'vice to Brahmans. Virasoliyam, 85.
6
;
66 TAMIL STUDIES
Kammalas. What a strange fitting of these non-

Aryan tribes to the procrustean bed of the Brahmani-
cal caste system !
Turning once more to the early Tamil literature

and inscriptions, we find the following names of
occupational castes mentioned: — Ambattan, Izhavan,
Kammalan or the five artizans, Kani or Kaniyan,
Kaviti, Kusavan, Marayan, Navisan, Panan, Panikkan,
Pidaran, Sekkan, Sakkai {Mai. Chakkian), Uvaichan,
Vannan, Vannattan, Valluvan, Variyan and Velan.
All these castes now exist in Makibar though their
occupations have since undergone slight change

while in the Tamil districts Kani, Kaviti, Marayan,
Sakkai, Vannattan, Variyan and Velan have altogether
disappeared. Most of these occur in the Tanjore
inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola (A. D. 985—1013).
Kani or Kaniyan was an astrologer ;
Kaviti, an
accountant (but formerly a minister) ; Marayan, a
title conferred on the royal musician of a temple ;
Pidaran is the reciter of the Devara-hymns, audit

corresponds to the present day O'duvan ;
Sakkai is a
temple actor ; Vannattan is a high class washerman ;
Variyan an overseer in temples ;

and Velan a
•dancer in Subrahmanya the hill deity
honour of ;
Ambaltan was a medicine man and now a barber ;
Panan was a low caste minstrel and now a tailor ;
Panikkan was a teacher or instructor in gymnastics

and now the name of a mure advanced section of
the Izhava or Shanan caste to which also belonged
Enadi Nayanar the famous Saiva saint and athletic
THE TAMIL CASTES 67
teacher of a Chola king. Shanan has taken the place

of Izhavan in the Tamil districts, for reasons which
have not yet been ascertained.
Many of our readers must no doubt be faraihar
with the tribes enumerated in the regional classifica-
tion given above. For a better understanding of the

process of formation and growth of the numerically
strongest Tamil castes which account for more than
80 per cent, of the Tamil population, we shall exhibit
them in the subjoined table.
Original trihes. Modem castes.
(1) Paravan and [

ParaVan, Valaiyan,
Valaiyan. \ Sembadavan, P'atlanavan,
( Karaiyan &c.
(2) Mallar (Pallar). Pallan, Shanan, Panikkan.
(3) Idaiyan. Idaiyan.
Maravan, Agambadiyan,
Pî'-^'Y''^"' Kaikolan, Kam-
il\
^^ Maravan and '
< ™^''^"' Kurumban, Palli

Fvimn
^y^"^"-
j
or Vanniyan, Kalian, Mutti-
riyan and Ambalakaran.
J
(5) Kuravan, Irulan, \^TT'' Kadai,

J'h^''"' Malasar
J","^^"'
^
Vedan^ndVilliyan.^^^l'^y'^"'
ând mmor hill tribes.
•^
The other important castes like Ambattan, Vaniyan

and Vannan were originally occupational guilds
consisting of peoples from various tribes, which have
in course of time hardened into distinct castes*
Even now in Malabar the Brahmans have their own
barbers and washermen, while the Nayarsand Tiyars
.68 TAMIL STUDIES
have each their own. * Vaniyan '

is another form of
'
Vanijyan '
which means a *
merchant.'
All the hill and forest tribes of the present day, do

not belong to the Negrito race alluded to in Group I,
Some of them like the Kurumbas, the Malaiyalans

and the Malayamans are emigrants from the plains.
During the dynastic convulsions and terrible civil
wars of the early Tamil period, several bands of the
Naga who were driven from the low lands took
tribes
shelter on high mountains and in inaccessible forests,

which had from the earliest times been under the rule
of petty refractory chieftains called Kuru-nila-Mannar.
Early Tamil literature tells us that there were feuda-
tory chiefs on the Vengadam (Tirupati) hill, Kolli-
malais, Malainad, Tomimalai, Kudirai-malai and
Mudiram. Some of them are eulogized by ancient
Tamil poets as the most benevolent of rulers ; while
of the seven third-ratei Vallals {<sumsfr&)) or grantors
of docenr some were hill chiefs. They had always

been the allies of one or another of the three Tamil
kings, like their remote monkey ancestors who had
helped Sri Rama in his war with Havana.
A study of the various sub- castes returned during

the Census of 1891 supplemented by the latest ethno-
logical researches should lead one to the irresistible-
1. Three grades of donors are mentioned in Tamil literature.
Those who give any present unasked belong to the first class;,
those who offer what is asked belong to the second class and ;
those who give grudgingly after much importunity belong to the:
bird class.
THE TAMIL CASTES 69
inference that Ambalakkaran, Muttiriyan, Kalian,

Kurumban and Vanniyan belonged to the race of
Nagas who inhabited the Northern Tamil districts,
which constituted the ancient Pailava country or
Tondaimandalam, When the power of the Pallavas
was in its zenith, that about the sixth and seventh
is.
-centuries A. D., their conquests extended to the

south as far as Trichinopoly , and it must have been
then that the Kalian and the Muttiriyan sections of
the great Pallava, Palii or Malla tribe migrated to the

Chola country — Tanjore and Trichinopoly. As a
caste name neither Palii nor Kallani occurs in
early Tamil literature or inscriptions, but this exten-
sive tribe was known as Pallava, and Mallava (uajevjaj/f
Qmm, P. T.). The Pallava army was recruited from
this martial tribe of Pallis or Kurumbas, and some of
them were also feudal governors under the Pallava

kings. Like the Paraiyas some of them claim their
descent from Sambu or Siva, while all Pallis style
themselves Vahni Kshatriyas, One section of the

Palii or Pallava tribe, called the Muttarasar (Tel.
Mutracha) ruled in the Chola country, first as feudato-

ries of the Pandya kings
Pallava and then of the
during the eighth century A.D. It was during this
period that Naladiyar was composed under the aus-
pices of the Muttarasa governors. The Pallavas
were the hereditary enemies of the three Tamil
—
kings Chera, Chola and Pandya and their subjects —
1. There is a doubtful reference to the kalvars or kallar in the
Agananuni, and it corresponds to the 'Dasyus' of the Indo-Aryans,
70 TAMIL STUDIES
were regarded as intruders in the southern districts^

Hence, the term Pallava has come to mean a *
rogue'
in the Tamil language, while a section of the Pallava.
subjects who settled in the Chola and Pandya coun-

tries received the undesirable appellation of Kallaj.
or thieves. All these doubtless belonged to the Naga

race, as one subdivision oi the Palli caste called the
agavadam, Nagapasam or Nagavamsam and the oc-
currence of such names as Mugali-Nagan, Oli-Nagan
and Sanka-Nagan in the Mamallapuram (the Seven
Pagodas) inscriptions will show; and they must have
migrated from the Telugu and Canarese districts as
soldiers of the early Pallava kings during the second
or third century A. D. For this reason the Pallavas
were always considered as strangers to Tamil districts
and were never mentioned favourably m ancient

Tamil works. As regards their connection with the
Kurumbas and Pallars enough has been said by Mr.
(now Sir) H. A. Stuart in the iMadras Census Report
of 1891.
Maravan and Eyinan occur very often in ancient
Tamil works, and they are said to have been skilful
bowmen and soldiers^ The Maravas were and even
now are very numerous in the Pandya country, and
the habitat of the Eyinas appears from time imme-
morial to have been the Pallava and Chola countries.
Prior lo the tenth century, the Kaikolas and
Agambadiyas did not come into existence as dis-
tinct castes, and the origin of the former will be-
given presently.
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 71
Mdaiyan' means a 'Middleman,' because

literally
in the regional he came to occupy

grouping
the middle or the pasture land. He had to live
next to the Eyinas on whom he depended for the
supply of cows and buffaloes.i As late as the tenth
century A. D. a man ot any other tribe might become
an Idaiyan or cowherd by following that profession.
The Kallaand Samban sub-divisions of this caste con-
nect them with the Kalians and Paraiyans. The
latter sub-division which is by far the most numerous
not only bears out their origin from Sambu or Siva,
but also justifies the proximity of their residence to

the Cheri of the Eyinas or Paraiyas in ancient Dravi-
dian villages. The following description of atypical

Idaiyan of old is very suggestive:
LDiT'SfÛ^dsms LD u^ <su ij uS SO) I— Lu ear. — Pui'.
(The shepherd with his thick (turned down) lips, dirty
cloth and garland of green leaves.)
There was no such caste as Pallan, but in its stead

we tind in early Tamil literaluie IV'allan and Kadai,
gnan, the latter appearing as a sub-division of the
Pallan caste. They are found chiefly in the Pandya
country and correspond in their traditional occupaticn
to the Palli or Vanniya caste of the Tondainadu. These
people were agricultural labourers and soldiers.
The origin of the lei m Shananismuch disputed and
it is found nowhere in Tamil literature in that form»
1. In this CLrnection lines 130-180 of the Penimlavarnip^
fadai might be read with advantage.

72 TAMIL STUDIES
As late as Shanans were known

the 13th century the
as Izhavans, and a tax called tlie Izha-piitchi was
levied by Tamil kings on all toddy-drawers. They
were surely a polluting caste in those days as now,
and it would therefore be absurd to derive it from
Sanron, the sun, as the educated section of the
Shanar caste is attempting to do. According to a
tradition current in Malabar, the toddy-drawers are
considered immigrants from Izham or Ceylon. If this
theory be correct, they may be regarded as a more
civilised section of the Veddahs. And if Izham is
taken to mean *
toddy,' Shanars must be a class
the
of Pallars, allied t > the Vedar c-v Vettuvar, leading
the settled life of palm cultivators, wuiie the other
continues a nomadic huntmg tribe. In either case,
it is to be observed that the Pallar and the Shanar
castes are most numerous in the Tamil districts which
are adjacent toCeylon— the abode of the Veddah,
Yaksha or Naga tribes.
The caste names Valaiyan (net-man), Sembadavan,
Pattanavan and Karaiyan do not occur in early
Tamil books. Sembadavan is a boatman, Patta-
navan is an inhabitant of a sta-coast vilhige, and
Karaiyan is a man o^. the beach. The absence of any
of these fishing castes from the maritime district of
Tinnevelly is noteworthy. Probably they must have
returned their caste name as '
Native Christian '
in the census of 1911. All these hshing castes form

part of the great Naga race who lived on the South
Indian sea-board.
THE TAMIL CASTES 73
About the middle of the fourteenth century there

were, it seems, only eighteen principal castes or
tribes among the non-Aryan Tamils as might be
inferred from the saying usfr(ûusiap u^QesriL® îtû^ld
(the 18 castes inclusive of the Pallas and Paraiyas).
Within the hundred years they have increased
last five
tenfold, on account of various causes which will be

explained below.
The elements which contributed to the break up
of the few Dravidian tribes into iiinumetable castes
were, (1) food, (2) occupation, and (4)
(3) religion,
locality. The Dravidians of antiquity like the Vedic

Aryans used to eat beef, pork, venisjn, mutton and
fish, and as late as 250 A. D. even Brahmans of
South India appear to have been meat-eaters. But
under the humane influence of Jainism, the Brahmans
had ceased long before the Pauranic period to eat
any animal ford, and some of their Dravidian neigh-
bours followed suit. This, by the way, may be ob.
served as a remarkable case, quite unique in the socio-
logy of a whole people —
the Brahmans— changing its
habitfrom meat eating to vegetarianism. Killing of
animals was condemned as a sin, the gravity of which
increased according to their usefulness to the Brah-
man's personal comforts and religious offerings.
Thus, the cow became the most sacred animal, because

of her five products, panchagacyain, which were
necessary for their food and sacrifice, and the killing
of such an animal was and is still being considered
one of the greatest of sins. It has given rise to an
74 TAMIL STUDIES
imprecatory saying usually appended to all grants,

VIZ, SEJGmsdssmn'uSleo smrfTihusfisaieiis Qi£n(S5T pu!TQi^î&) Qufreu
jrrrs&^m (may he incur the sin of having slaughtered a

black cow on the banks of the Ganges). The Dravi-
dians, chiefly the fighting classes, indulged very freely
in intoxicating drinks and the manufacture and sale of
liquor was not considered a mean occupation by the
ancient Tamils. The simple fact that the word
* toddy ' has at least eighty equivalent words in the
Tamil language proves the extensive use of that
beverage throughout the Tamil land. It was only
after the advent of the Jains and Brahmans that
drinking was condemned, and its sellers and produ-
cers came to be shunned as polluting castes.
The five artizans, potters and weavers were
much requisitioned by all castes high and low, and
these industries consequently tended to bring them
in closer contact with the Brahmans. And with the
rise of temples and other religious institutions, the
social status of these classes began to improve.
The Brahmans conferred on the;n flattering distinc-
tions, high titles, and fabricated for tiiem divine
origins, which, besides elevating their social status,
humoured them and made them willing workers in
thenew social organisation. Thus, the seeds of all
subsequent quarrels and dissensions were sown. All

these Dravidian castes were granted the privilege of
wearing the sacred thread.
The power of a religion to rend asunder large
tribes and races is too well known. The want of easy

THE TAMIL CASTES 75
and quick communication of any kind in the Tamil

country at the time, and the geographical conditions
of the country accelerated this splitting up of larger
castes and favoured the crystallisation of the smaller
communities.
The introduction of the Indo-Aryan caste
system in the Dravidian country produced severe
social troubles for many centuries. If the Brah-
mans of olden time were responsible for the super-
imposition of their own social organization, the
measure was one of doubtful expediency. As already
pointed out it had been the cause of serious and
unceasing disputes, particularly among the artizan
classes, which those Br ah mans had to decide with
reference to their Dharmasastras. An inscription'
of Kulottunga Chola, dated 1118 A. D,, records the
decision of a curious question w^hether the Kam-
malas are entitled to wear the sacred thread. In
support of their decision allowing the Rathakaras
(Kammalas) to perform '
only the Upauayana (thread
wealing ceremony) without quoting the mantras",
the Brahmans had first to grant that they were
the sons of Mahishyas by Karani women. A
Mahishya is the offspring of a Kshatriya male
and a Vaisya female, and Karani of a Vaisya
male and a Sudra female. In the Dravidian country
whence did the Brahmans get so many Kshatriyas
and Vaisyas as to bring forth by illicit unions about
650.000 Kammalas ?
1. The Madias (jovernment'Epigraphist's Report, dated the
28th July 1909, p. 95.
'76 TAMIL STUDIES
It will be a huge task to attempt to trace the origin
and development of every Tamil caste. We shall

therefore take only the Eyinas or Paraiyas, which is
perhaps the third largest of Tamil castes, and examine
what other castes have evolved from them and how
they managed to secure their present social-position.
But, by way of introduction, it is highly desirable to
present before the reader a description of the consti-
tution of an ancient town or village, in which the
regional classification of tribes explained above is
clearly discernible.
We Kanchipuram as des-
shall first take the city of
cribed in the Perum-panarruppadai^ a Tamil work of

the third or fourth century A. D. In the heart of the
town were the Brahman' quarters where neither the
dog nor the fowl could be seen'; they were flanked
on the one side by the fishermen's {sn'^js^^ff) streets and
on the other by those of traders (susssflaiT), and these
were surrounded by the cheris of the Mallas or Pallas
(&,Lê>jiT) and toddy-drawers {amea^Suoiefflir). Then, far
removed from them were situated at one extremity
of the city the pallis of the Idaiyans; and beyond
these lay the isolated piini-clietis of the Eyinas and
their chiefs. Next to th.e Malla {^.l^suit) streets were
the temple of Tiruvehka and the royal palace of king
Ilam.Tiraiyan.
By the end of the tenth century the social position

of certain tribes was somewhat changed. The Idai-
yans had come to occupy a higher rank on account.
THE TAMIL CASTES 77
of the diffusion of the Krishna cult, while the toddy-

drawers and the live artizan castes were still regarded
as polluting castes and assigned separate sites
by the side of the Paraiyas. And these may be

illustrated by a few extracts from the Tanjore inscrip-
tions of the great Rajaraja Chola (1004 A.D.):—
*
The village site, the pond, the sacred temples, the
burning ground, the Vannaracheri, the pool of the
Paraiyas (S,/./., II. i-L). The village site, the ponds,
the sacred temples, the burning ground, the Kammala-

cheri, the Izhacheri, Paraicheri (lb. 50). The temple
of Pidari and its Court, the village pond and its banks,
the temple of Aiyanar and its court, the village
granary, the burning ground of the Vellalas, the
burning ground of the Paraiyas, the Paraicheri,
the Izhacheri '
(lb. 55). What relative social
rank each of these castes held we carinni now
definitely But it is tolerably certain that
say.
the Paraiyas, Kammalas, Izhavas and Vannans were

all considered polluting castes as these are at present
in Malabar and Travancore. Thus, the above
arrangement in the constitution of a Dravidian village
is specially noteworthy, as it combined with the
circumstances described below to degrade the social
position of the Paraiya descendants of the Eyina tribe.
Of the six servile tribes Paraiya, Pulaiya or —
Cheruma, Mala, Holaya, Palla and Madiga which —
constitute nearly one-sixth of the population of the
Madras Presidency, the Paraiya is by far the most
important and interesting. They are found chiefiy
78 TAMIL STUDIES
in the districts of and Tanjore

Arcot, Chingleput
where the Eyinatribe had formerly hved and where
numberless cromlechs and kistvaens abound to this

very day. The term Paraiyan as a caste, or more
correctly an occupational, name first occurs in a
poem of Mangudi Kilar, second century A. D.
^LîLKSsr urremeisr ussipiussr si—ihuQsmek
fBiBiBiT&sr s&)&.)^ (ûûûSe\)'2e\}. — Pltr.
Here *
Tudiyan '
means one who plays on the
Tudi or a kind of drum peculiar to the hill or jungle
tribe; 'Panan' is a minstrel ; 'Paraiyan' is a drum"
mer and 'Kadamban' is a hill man.
;
All these are
occupational names and seem to refer to four sections
of the Kurinji (hill) or Palai (jungle) tribes. Besides

this casual reference, we do not find the name
Paraiyan mentioned either in early Tamil literature
or in the inscripti(3ns, until we come down to the

time of the great Rajaraja Chola (A. D. 10.13), from
which! period it evidently obtained currency as a
caste denomination. It is commonly derived from
parai, a drum by Dr, Caldwell and native writers.
This etymology though plausible and tempting seems

unsatisfactory, as it is inconceivable that the beat-
ing of drums could be the occupation two
of nearly
and a half millions of labourers, while the Murasu or

the drum-beating section of that comprehensive
caste forms only j}îh part of it. The more accu-
rate derivation seems to be that of Col. Cunningham,
M. Letourneau and Dr. Oppert from the Sanskrit
pahariyn, a hill man, or from Tamil Poraian, which
THE TAMIL CASTES 79
is more in keeping with the regional division assign-

ed to the Eyinas by the ancient Tamil grammarians.
According to the inscription already referred to,
the Paraiyas were divided in ancient times into at

least two sub-divisions the Ulavu (ploughing) and
Ncsavu (weaving) ; and there probably existed many
more occupational groups among them, like Panan
&c. Some of the most significant of the sub-divisions
returned by them in the Census of 1891 were, — Valluva,

Kottai, Kottakara, Jambu, Virabahu, Panikka, Koliya,
Saliya, Kurava and Ambu. The Valhivas are the
priests to the Paraiyas, and were formerly superinten-
dents of religious ceremonies (more probably con-
ductors of funeral obsequies) in a kmg's household :
This may not look strange if we only remem-

ber that the Marayans, (a barber caste) officiate as
pnroliits at the funeral rites of the Nambudri or Vedic'
'
Brahmans of IMalabar. The Valluvas were also

heralds under the Tamil kings.
!Bmusap ujsmnoiBêariT. — Kci^ll.
(The Valluvan proclaimed the news beat of

drum from the back of an elephant.)
KottiU is a fort ; Kottakarmn is a granary, for in
ancient days the land-tax was levied in kind as well
as in money ; Saiiibn is Siva and Virabahu is one of
the mythical commanders of Siva ; Panikkan is a
teacher ; Koliyan and Saliyiin are weavers ; Kunivan
80 TAMIL STUDIES
is a hill man ; and Ambit is an arrow. The Eyinas-

were considered good archers.
All these point to their former greatness, the
vestiges thereof still survive in the form of rights
and privileges which cling to them in the village
organization. The settlement of a land dispute by
one Vesali Paraiyan and his councillors regarding
the ownership of a field belonging to a temple at the
village of Mudepakavar is mentioned in an inscription
of the eleventh century; and the Paraiyar's decision
was deemed final and absolute.i
The Eyinas or hunters of the above districts
were the earliest of the Naga-Dravidian tribes

to clear the forests of Dandakaranya and Shada-
ranya for purposes of cultivation and to build
small forts therein for their safety. Such of them
as had been employed in the clearing of jungles
came to be called the Vettiyan (hewers), while others
engaged in the sinking of wells and the digging of
tanks for irrigation grew up into the tdii {tondit, to
dig) or digger caste. As early as the third or fourth
century A. D. they had their chieftains reigning at
Ambur, Vellore and other places. The Eyinas had
well supplied granaries {kotlakaram) and strong forts
{eyil) with deep ditches and lofty walls they had ;
musicians and dancers (Panans) to amuse them when

out of work; they had priests (Valluvans), carpenters,
masons, weavers (Koliyans), gymnastic instructors
1. The Madras Government Epigraphist's Report, dated the
25th July 1910, p. 94.
THE TAMIL CASTES 81
(Panikkans), shoe-makers (Semman), barbers, washer-

men and what not. The Paraiyas, or the modern
representatives of the ancient Eyinas, as Dr. Caldwell
rightly observes, thus constituted 'a well defined, dis-
tinct ancient caste independent of every other'. The
high honour of founding villages in the south during
the remote period belonged to the sylvan ancestors
of the despised Paraiyas. They were the mayors and

aldermen of the villages they had established, and
this is even now recognized by all other castes in the
old custom of referring any boundary dispute to a
Paraiya, Toti or a Holeya Kulavadi, And in almost
all tlie ancient village ceremonies of a communal
nature, the Paraiyas play an important part. For
example, on the occasion of any festival of Siva at
Tiruvalur in the Tanjore district, a Paraiyan has an

hereditary right to precede the god's procession
holding a white umbrella. A detailed account of
the existing customs observed in various places
cannot, however, conveniently be given here.
So much for their forgotten greatness. But with

the advent of the Indo-Aryans about the second
century A.D. there came a change in the constitution
of the Paraiya tribe, their food and occupation
contributing largely to their self-degradation. It lias
been said above that there were amongst them people
following all sorts of pursuits. The social standing
of those men w^ho had been following occupaaons
indispensible to the well-being of the Brahmans rose
high in the long run and they now pass for high
^2 TAMIL, STUDIES
caste Hindus. Of course, learned Brahmans dis-

covered decent Hindu pedigrees for the low but
highly serviceable tribes and stamped them with the
seal of sanctity in the name of pnmnas.
The Kaikolas, who trace their descent from
Virabahu, one of the nine commanders of god
Subrahraanya, seem to have been originally (before
the tenth century A.D.) Eyina weavers like the Koliya
Paraiyas, though some of them have very recent-
ly caught the infection of wearing the sacred thread
to claim an equal position with the high caste Hindus.
Five reasons may be adduced in favour of this origin:
(1) They are chiefly found where

in the districts
the Paraiyas and Brahmans are most numerous S. —

Arcot, Tanjore, and Trichinopoly.
(2) The word Kaikolan is simply the Tamil

equivalent of the Sanskrit '
Virabahu', a mythological
hero from whom both the Kaikolas and a section of
the Paraiyas claim descent.
('.')) It is said that they were formerly soldiers
like the Eyinas and Paraiyas, under a monkey-faced

king named Muchukundan; and that the art of weav-
ing was taught to them by Tiru-Valluvar at the com-

mand of Subrahmanya, the patron deity of the Kaiko-
las and other Xaga trioes. Two of the Tillaistanam
(Neyltanam) inscriptions of Gandaraditya (A. D. 960)
record the gifts made by Samara
' Kesari-terinja Kaiko-
lar, Vikrama-Singa-terinja Kaikolar and Virachola

terinja-Kaikolar'.i They were natives of Tanjore and
1. The Madias Government Epi^jraphisl's Report dated the
29th July 1912.
THE TAMIL CASTES 83
served as soldiers under the Chola king Parantaka I.
(A. D. 90G-949). Other inscriptions of a later date

speak of the Rajaraja-termja-Kaikular and the Kaikola-
Perumpadai. All these clearly prove that the word
•*
Kaikolar,' like '
Velakkarar '
and '
Viliiyar ' (archers),
which occur in the inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola I,
was the name of the regiment enlisted or selected

(terinja) by Parantaka, whose titles were Samara Kesari
(the war-lion), Vikrama-Singa and Vira Chola and by
Rajaraja I. One of the soldiers of the above regiment
was a Kadikavan Kalian. They were known also as
Sengundar or the Red Lancers.' '
(4) In the inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola, (A. D-
1013) the loom {iarJ) of the Kaikolas does not occur

though the Parai-tari, Tusa-tari (washerman) and
Saliya-tari are given.
(5) In ancient Tamil literature the weavers wêre
called Kammiyan, a term which also included the

present Kammaias.
simjSujit luQJssr QjirsSujIr eS^^siT

SLDUiiTefriT ûîuiT QufTûQuLuiT ^LLQstaiT. — pi/i<^. 788.
It Will be interesting to learn that the earjy

Tamils were never good weavers. They had to
depend upon Telugu neighbours for cloths of
their
finer texture. Thus superior cloths have come to be

called in Tamil kaUngam, In the Tamil country
coarse weaving was done by a section of the Paraiyas

or Eyinas. Dissatisfied with the quality of the work
.turned out by the Tamils, probably Rajaraja Chola
84 TAMIL STUDIES
brought the Saliya-weavers from Kalingam, the moderm

Telugu districts of Vizagapatam, Godavariand Kistna.
From them probably the Eyina weavers or Kammi-
yans learnt during the eleventh century A. D. how
to weave finer cloths. Since the earliest mention of
Kaikolan as a caste name is found in a Conjeevaram
inscription of the fourteenth century, it is highly
probable that this class of weavers began to be
recognised as a distinct Hindu caste of some stand-
ing, between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries,
when the greatest Kaikola poet, Ottaikuttan, com-
manded a great influence at the court of Kulottunga
Chola (1150 A. D.)- And it happened probably a few
years after the Kamnialas were granted the privilege
of wearing the sacred thread-
Again, to take another instance, the Panans-

were minstrels under the ancient Tamil kings,
and with the extinction of the latter in South India their
profession as bards ceased to exist, most of them find-
ing their way into Kerala.theLand of Charity, for a live-
lihood. The descendants of these emigrants are now
found in Malabar and Canara as devil-dancers and
basket-makers. On the other hand, the Panans of the
Tamil country, especially those living in Madura and
Tinnevelly style themselves Pandya Vellalas and earn

their bread as tailors.They are also called Mestris,.
which is a Portuguese word introduced by the early
Roman Catholic Missionaries, under whom the Paraiya
Panans served as workmen. The low origin of th&
THE TAMIL CASTES 85
Panans is, however, betrayed by about 5 per cent, of

that caste who Hve in out-of-the-way villages of the
Madura district returning Paraiya as the name of
main caste.
their
The Semman is anotbef important sub-division of

theParaiyas, whose existence is almost unknown out-
side the districts of Madura and Tuineveily. It was
once a numerous caste of Tamil leather-workers,
{Ljs<sfrnoQ^fr/r)_^êsriT Q^sîmld.jit. — Nig.). Since the immig-
ration of the Telugu and Canarese Madigas or Chak-
kiliyans, sometime after the fifteenth or sixteenth cen-
tury, the Semmans have almost entirely given up
their traditional occupation, and adopted, like the
Panans, menial services in villages and tailoring and

lime selling in towns.
We shall content ourselves with one more instance

furnished to us by the artizan castes, whose social
status has undergone within the past nine centuries a
thorough change which never could have been
dreamt of by their humble ancestors.
The Kammalas assert that they are the descend-

ants of Visvakarma the architect of the gods, and in
many parts of the country they wear the sacred
thread calling themselves Visva-, Deva-, or Devagna-
Brahmans and deliberately refuse to give precedence
to the Brahmans. Without going into the details of
their origin we shall simply indicate a few reasons to
prove that they are one of the undoubted Naga
86 TAMIL STUDIES
tribes, i forming an advanced section of, or closely

allied to, the Eyinas of the Tamil country.
(1) The Dharma Sastras, a social code common
to all Hindus, assign no place to the Kammalas in the
Hindu caste system, purely because they stood out of
the Aryan pale ; and this fact has been clearly brought
out by the author of the Ramayana. Further, it is
said that the artisans were supplied by the mixed

classes —a theory strongly confirmed by the ancient
decision already quoted.
(2) It is generally supposed, even in Upper

India, that all the artisan castes and weavers were
begotten of a Sudia woman by the celestial
architect Visvakarma, from whom also the Kolis

of the United-Provinces, a weaver caste allied to
the Koliya Paraiyans of Madras, trace their descent.
^ They worship Sakti and village deities and are, as a
rule, considered undesirable neighbours in a village.'
(3) Tamil inscriptions prove that as late as A. D..

1013 the Kammalas were regarded as a polluting
caste like the Izhuvans and Paraiyans and were not
allowed to live within the villages, or to blow con-
ches and beat drums on the marriage and funeraJ
occasions, or to plaster their houses with mud or
chunam, or even to wear shoes. And it appears that
1. With this compare what Mr. Charles Johnston, I. C. S,

sajs on the subject: 'It is probable that among them [black Dravi-
dians] first grew up the system of trade guilds which gradually
developed into hereditary caste of artisans and craftsmen, the chief
of which are the workers in gold, brass, iron, stone and wood'. The
black Dravidians' are our Nagas.
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 87
they were regarded as slaves and given from time to

time certain privileges since the twelfth century A. D.i
(4) In Kerala (Malabar and Travancore), a country
first colonized largely by the Tamils, a country where
caste rules and observances have been scrupulously
maintained for several centuries, the Kammalas
occupy a low position in the social scale and are
regarded by the other people of that district (probably
on the authority of the Vaikhanasa Dharmasura) as
a polluting caste like the Tamil Kammalas of the ele-
venth century. They are allowed neither to wear the

sacred thread as in the other parts of the Presi-
dency, nor to enter the houses of castemen, except
during construction, which when completed undergo
purification, a custom still followed in the Tamil
districts. As late as the fourteenth century the
Kammalas and the Vaniyans (oil-pressers) were con-
sidered as slaves in Malabar. This we learn from the
Kottayam plates of Viraraghava Chakravarti wherein
it is stated thus :
(We have given the Vaniyas and the five Kam-

malas as slaves.)
The Kammalas of Malabar and of the Tamil dis-
tricts must hîve descended from the same stock of

the Naga-Dravidian artisans mentioned in the early
Tamil literature and inscriptions already referred to,
though, on account o-f difference in circumstances

which will be explained hereafter, the former have
1 South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. Ill, p. 47.
^8 TAMIL STUDIES
retained their original '

distance pollution/ while
the latter have risen so far in social scale as to claim
equality with the Brahmans.
(5) The custom of burying their dead, partiality
to the worship of Kali anrl other village deities, and
the entire absence of Vishnu worship seem to
connect them with the pre-Dravidian or aboriginal

Naga tribes.
Thus it will be seen that the claims of the Kam-
malas for Brahmanhood are not based upon any re-
cognised Veda, Sastra, Itihasa or Purana, and that
their arguments in its favour are opposed toto ccelo
to customs and usages prevalent at any period of

Indian history.
Now with regard to the fo-)d of the Eyina tribe of
hunters, the 'Ten Tamil Idylls' and the Purananuru
say that they ate pork and the flesh of the wild cow
and freely indulged in spirituous liquors.
sruSismiT î^ QiSuiLLcrTQssrjjS^smsû
(oS3U(^(^sa!srujQu(VTj^^ ua^-Qeum sttlo^. — Pill'.
^The new white rice boiled with the flesh of the

swine just killed by the Eyinas.)
^maesr (^lLl^sst <ss)LDSu(ruQuî^(sSliT^ — Sir.
(Thou shall get the hot cooked by the

rice
Eyina women with sweet tamarind and roasted beef.)

Even after a lapse of nearly fifteen centuries we see no
change in the food of their Paraiya descendants. Some
of them are said to eat frogs, a strange habit which
connects the.ii with the V'anadis of Nellore.
THE TAMIL CASTES 89
To the Hindus the cow is a sacred animal as

well as the bull, the Vahana of Siva, the killing and
eating of which are abominable. Not less hateful is
the use of intoxicating drinks. It was therefore
natural that the people who ate beef and drank liquors
should be treated by Brahmans as a filthy polluting
Caste. From the Brahmanical standpoint the best
recommendation for a non-Aryan tribe to rise higher
in the social scale was the giving up of the above
practice. The Kaikolans, Panans, Semmans and
Kammalas did so, and we can see the good relation
between ihem and the Brahmans.
But above all, the primary cause of the revolution
in the organisation of the Paraiya tribes seems to
have been the Brahman exclusiveness. They did not

allow the Paraiyas and the polluting castes generally
even to enter their agmharams and villages. A
careful perusal of *
Nandan's Life' will give our
readers some idea as to how these Paraiya labourers

were treated by the Tamil Brahmans. The influence
of the Brahmans is now gone and their power is ;
crippled by the stronger Anglo-Saxon race, who

have assumed, as Leyden naively remarked, the
character of Kshatriyas in the estimation of the
subdued Brahmans, while the beef-eating Paraiyas
are still looked down as being outside the Hindu
social system thougii admitted to be Hindus in
religion.
Among the Paraiyas the sub-division that first suf-
fered from the Brahman domination was the Ulavu
90 TAMIL STUDIES
Paraiyans, who now form about 50 per cent, of that

labouring class. They had to work in the fields
all day long without having any access to the

Brahman lord. They, toiling and moiling on the
which were once their own but were wrested
fields,
from them by the Tamil kings to encourage and

support the Brahman advisers and their religious
institutions, became as it were, a part and parcel of
their rice fields. Their masters changed with the
change of ownership of land. Thus arose the predial
slavery which, however, was put down when the
country passed luckily into the hands of the British.
With the exception of the dog-eating Navadis-

of Malabar, the Paraiyas are supposed to carry
with them a high degree of pollution, so that
even the Pulaiyas and Holayas of the West Coast
and the Khonds of Vizagapatam think they will
be defiled by the mere touch of a Paraiya.

What is pollution then according to the Hindu
notion ? something imaginary, flowing out of
It is
the social gravitation which exists between an Aryan

and a non-Aryan Hindu. The degree of the pollu-
tion varies mversely with the degree of adoption of

the Brahmanical customs and manners. The Parai-
yas were stubborn and the least inclined to adopt
them, and consequently their approach within a
radius of thirty yards has been considered polluting
to a high caste Hindu. The hatred which existed
between the early Dravidians and Aryans is best
THE TAMIL CASTES 91
preserved in the Kuricchan's (a hill tribe in Malabar,

corresponding to the Kuravas of the Tamil country)
custom of plastering their huts with cow-dung to
remove the pollution caused by the entrance of a
Brahman. During the past three centuries the Jesuit
and other Missionaries on the one hand, and the
Siddhar School of Tamil philosophers on the other,
we are glad to observe, have been working to elevate
these classes and alleviate the evils arising out of
their social degradation, which has rendered their
position anything but happy.

THE TAMIL CASTES— (continued).
In the last chapter it has been shown that among the
ancient Tamils there was no caste system similar to
that of the Aryans ; that most of the Tamil castes of
modern times, probably with the exception ot the
Vellalas, could be traced to the ancient Nagas and

to some of the hill and forest tribes ; that it took
at least five centuries for these castes to attain their
present position in the social economy of the
•country ; that the present diversity of castes was
caused by the differences in food, occupation, religious
beliefs and the physical condition of the countries

inhabited by them ; and that the Brahmans were in-
strumental in bringing about this result, though the

precise extent to which their influence prevailed is a
matter not easily determmable. This applies to all
the non-Aryan castes and tribes of Southern India.

The introduction and expansion of the caste system
;among the Dravidian Tamils had in course of time
bred discontent, jealousy and mutual hatred in their
social life, which in the end culminated in the dis-
putes of the '

right and left hand factions,' into which
the whole Dravidian society was divided. A.nd this
division has been the cause of endless feuds and

mischief from the time of its inception.
About the middle of the fifteenth century
i(1449 A. D.) the inhabitants of the kingdom of
Padaividu in the North Arcot District appear to
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 93
have been divided into three factions irrespective

of their nationality, creed or occupation isjeoiisias
LLju) ^LîKiss)3iLjii) LDsrr^sisr(ip}i — (the right-hand, the

left-hand and the mahajanam, t. <?., the Brahmans).
Again, on the 5th November 1G52, that is within fif-
teen years after the foundation of Fort St, George,,

the inhabitants of Madras were fighting for certain
privileges and disturbing the public peace and
safety to such an extent that the authorities of the
East India Company were obliged to call on the
heads of the respective factions to draw up an agree-
ment settling all the diflferences between the right-
hand and left-hand castes. Some sixty years after
this, the same tragedy was enacted once more at
Chintadripetta, a suburban colony of artizans and

merchants, the dispute arising out of the right claim-
ed by certain Chetties or traders to recite Sanskrit
Mantras before the idol of Vignesvara. Now coming
to the last century, the contest was fought with
renewed vigour among the impoverished inhabitants
of Seringapatam. This town, shortly after it had
fallen into the hands of the English, was found
divided into two portions, one occupied mainly by
the adherents of the right-hand faction and the other
by the upholders of the left. And it is also said that
the faction feuds were so rampant there, that the
British Government was driven to the necessity of
prohibiting for a time marriage and other proces-
sions within the Fort in order to preserve public
peace and tranquillity. About thirty years ago another
-94 TAMIL STUDIES
quarrel ensued at Dummagudam in the Godavari

district, which, however was immediately put down.
It was on the occasion of a marriage in the Kamsali
caste, the ring-leader being a Madras Paraiyan.
Moreover, this jealousy in guarding the rights under-
lying the factious feud has very often led to painful
litigation and prosecutions in the Civil and Criminal

Courtsof Chittur, Salem and Chingleput. Unlike other
segregating forces it extended its evil influences
even among members of the same families while the
caste system has only divided the people into
ethnic, territorial, professional or sectarian classes. It
is no wonder then that it has attracted the attention
of ethnologists ; but none has yet been able to throw

sufficient light on its origin or subsequent history.
An enquiry regarding the probable date of the

genesis ot the faction and its subsequent growth will
not, it is hoped, be uninteresting to the reader and ;
not without some confidence that the following

it is
explanation based on a rather prolonged and careful

study of the subject is offered, in the belief that it
carries with it at least the merit of historic probabili-

ty. And in order to get a correct idea of the minute
details of this curious distinction, an accurate his-
torical account of each and every caste comprised

within the division is highly desirable.i But the lists
1. Brief historical notices of some of the most important castes

which are given in the statement will oe found in Chapter X of the
Madras Census Report for 1891, and in the Caste Glossary appended
to the Report on the Census of 1901.
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 95
we have examined <*ive conflicting accounts of the

several castes, which will be noticed later on.
Nevertheless, we subjoin a tolerably correct state-
ment which exhibits the names of important caste

^nd the traditional occupations followed by the
members thereof prior to their division into these
social factions :
Occupation : Right-hand. Left-hand.
Balija, f Beri Chetti,

Banajiga, I
Vaniyans
Traders. (who yoke two
Komati,
Vellan Chetti. (^bullocks).
Jandra, Devanga
Weavers. Saliyan, and
Seniyan. Kaikolan.
Kammalan,
Artizans. Nil. Kamsali,
Panchalas.
r Madiga or
Leather- J Chakkilian. (Males.)
workers (females)
[
f
Malaiman,
Field I
Nattaman,
labourers Falh (females), f
Bedar,
J
and ]
Vedan or Vettuvan^ Palli (Males)
soldiers. [
Paraiyan, Mala [ Pall an,
(_and Holeya.
Of these the Mala, Holeya and Paraiyan were raost-

iy held labjar^rs and the Kaikolans were soldiers.
;
As a rule, m )st of tue lab jurin4 classes and hunters

were enlisted as sepoys by the Tamil kmgs. All the
96 TAMIL STUDIES
other South Indian castes not mentioned in the

above table belong either to the right-hand faction
or to the left, or hold with the Brahmans a neutral
attitude in the dispute. It will be curious to note
that later immigrants in South India such as the
Musalmans, Guzaratis, Marwaris and Patnulkars are
classed with right-hand castes. This strange dissen-
sion, which is confined only to South India, exists
in no other part of the country. Similar distinctions
may still be found among the Sakti worshippers of
Bengal ; but this religious sect does not seem to
have any connection whatever with the social division
of the non-Brahmanical castes of the Madras Presi-
dency. The members of the two divisions struggle
for certain honorary distinctions, such as the use of
twelve pillars in the marriage pandal. the beating of
five drums on certain ceremonial occasions, the
big
rideon horse-back or the carrying of a monkey flag.
These privileges are claimed by the right-hand castes
on all public and festive occasions, and whenever
any of these privileges are exercised by a member of
the left-hand faction, fights usually occur.
The Pancham Banajigas of the Canarese pro-
vince, the Paraiyas of the Tamil districts and the
Malas of the Andhra country are the strenuous sup-
porters of the right-hand division. They are assisted
by the Holeyas in Mysore and Canara, and by the
weavers in the Tamil and Telugu districts. The left-
hand division is commanded throughout the presi-
dency by the Kammalas^ Kamsalis or Panchalas with
—
THE TAMIL CASTES 97
the indefatigable assistance of the Madigas or Chakki-

lians. But for the zealous support of these degraded
classes, this enemy of public peace would have dis-
appeared from the land several centuries ago. J
Yet SLich a distinction, notwithstanding Dr. Mac-
leane's statement to the contrary, is not maintained
with so much zeal and pertinacity in the Tamil dis-
tricts as in the Canarese and the Telugu parts of
Southern India. The Pallis or Vanniyas have, in
their fond hope of becoming Kshatriyas, forgotten all
about the feuds ; many Kaikolas have, in order

to wipe off the so-called tribal or rather the social
indignity still clinging to the left-hand faction, be.
come within the last six centuries dancers and singers
in Hindu temples as the following Kanchipuram
inscription will show :
Qsii'SirsfTS SLêuiT ^ssiju). — (S. /. /. I. 122.)

[May sell ormortgage the head-ship, the right of
lease, service to god (dancing, &c.), and weaving.]
Again the Kammalas in asserting that they are
the Deva-or Visva-Brahmans not only try to conceal
their Naga origin but also take shelter in a tradition
that all the above privileges were granted to them
by Kali, and that 'they are of the highest rank hav-
ing been placed by that goddess on her left-hand
side which in India is the place of honour.' Further,
before the introduction of this distinction in iVIalabar
by the later settlers from the surrounding Tamil and
T
98 TAMIL STUDIES
Canarese districts, this inter-caste dispute was a thing

quite unknown to the Malaiyahs, and even now it
exists only among the weavers and Canarese immi-
grants. Thus as a matter of fact the dispute is practi-
cally confined only to the lowest castes — Paraiyas,

Holeyas and Madigas — occasionally encouraged by
the Kammalas.
The origin of this distinction is involved in obscur-
ity; but it is clear that it is purely a Dravidian schism,
though countenanced, and even sometimes fomented
covertly, by the later Aryan immigrants in the south.
Many traditions, however, have been manufactured
either by the Brahmans to elevate the status of the
low but serviceable tribes of the Dravidian race, or
by the busy and ingenious artizans, who scarcely let
slip an opportunity to elevate their low position.
And in proof of it we give below a story current

among the Kammalans. The tradition, perverted and
mutilated though it be, so as to support their chimeri-
cal claims for a higher social status, is not alto-
gether devoid of an historical interest, as it seems
to suggest the probable age and origin of this
endless dispute. ' The Panchalas (artizans) say they

were the hereditary priests for the royal family
of the Cholas. During the reign of Parimalan,
Vedavyasan waxed jealous of their influence in the
kingdom and devised a scheme to them from oust
their spiritual office. Accordingly he murdered the
king while out hunting and raised his illegitimate son
to the throne. This event was followed by unpleas-
THE TAMIL CASTES 99
ant results. The people refused to cultivate, and

tumult and disorder ruled everywhere. The king
therefore declared that ;iU people who supported him
should be called the right-hand people. A neigh-
bouring Rajah hearing of this, invaded Kalingam and
carried off its king as captive, for dismissing the
Panchalas and appointing Vyasan, and for dividing
the people into the right-hand and left-hand castes.'
Another old tradition of equally historical value says

that the division into the right-hand and left-hand
castes took its from the
origin command of the god-
dess Kali at Kanchipuram (the seat of so many religi-
ous and political changes) where, it is said, exists
to this day special halls for the two parties call-
ed the eueosaasLDsmi—ULD and ^L-iW'SSiSLDsmLÛLh. It
is further stated that the pagoda at

Conjeevaram
has a copper-plate bearing inscriptions which give
the origin of this queer distinction of castes.
Though both parties referred to it, neither of them,

it appears, could produce this important document
before the Zillah Court of Salem or Chittur in the
course of litigation between the two irreconcilable
factions. It appears, however, that the Kammalas
have forged a series of copper plates (dated 1098 SS.)
in favour of the left-hand faction to justify its prefer-
ence over the right-hand in matters social, l
All that we can infer at present from the above

stories is, that some Dravidian castes such as the
Valluvas, were priests or pnrohits to tha Tamil kings
1. The Madras Govt. Epigraphist's Report dated July 1910.
100 TAMIL STUDIES
before the arrival of Brahmans, and that the arrange-

ment of the Dravidian castes into two grand divisions
(the right and left hands) took place at Kanchipuram
under the royal command of a Chola king. In this

connection it would be well remember the origin
to
and former social position of the Valluvas which have
already been explained.

Various suggestions have been made concerning
the probable origin of the dispute between the right-
hand and left-hand factions. One writer in the Indian
Antiquary (Vol. V) says *
it does appear to have been
caused by some person or persons who were strang-
ers to South India '. But who that person or persons
could have been he does not say. Another writer
tells us that it is a dispute between the principal
artificers and the agricultural, mercantile and other
classes ; while a third observes that tlie '
distinc-
tion arises primarily from the land-owners and their

serfs being the heads of one class, and the Brahmans,
the artisans and other interlopers, form the other '.

The last view is maintained by the Superintendent of
Census in Mysore (1891) who goes on to say
that the origin of this irreconcilable faction is due
to the professional jealousy that existed between the
indigenous mercantile community and the larger and
more powerful traders. This is, no doubt, borne out
by the alternative names of the factions, Desa
(foreign) and Peta or Nadu (native) which are cur-
rent only in the Mysore State. But the quarrel
is fqund throughout the presidency and is not
THE TAMIL CASTES 101
confined to the circumscribed limits of that pro-

vince ; and there are no grounds to assign to it
a western origin. Since co-operation and combined

effort are necessary to the wellbeing of a nation why
should the cultivating classes be always at enmity
with the Kammalas ? We leain from the inscrip-
tions already referred to that the Brahmans adhered
to neither side, though some lists erroneously mention
them as partizans. The serfs of the cultivating castes,
namely, the Pallis, Pallars &c., were included in the
left while their masters, the Vellalas, espoused the
right-hand division. The very fact of the inclusion
of theTelugu and Canarese Madigas and Bedarsand
the Tamil Pallars and Pallis in the left-hand faction
goes to confirm the origin of this dispute from out-
side the Kalinga, Karnataka, Pallava and Pandya
countries and the exclusion from it of the corres-
;
—
ponding Tamil castes Malaiman, Vedan and Paraiya
— seems to point out the Chola kingdom as the land
of its origin.
To call into existence such a powerful and

wide-spread social division, a single cause of smal^
magnitude would never suffice. It has, therefore, been
suggested by Rao Bahadur M. Ranga Charyar that
this division originated from the Dravidian family
organization during its passage 'from the matriarchal
to the patriarchal state'. He says that 'in their families
...the mother seems to have been the head thereof
and property seems to have descended from the
mother to the daughter '. And in proof of the
—
102 TAMIL STUDIES
universal existence of this matriarchal system among

the early Dravidians he adduces two facts : (1) In
the Dravidian languages ' the name for the father-
in-law and the maternal uncle is the same for ;
the mother-in-law and the paternal aunt is the same '.
(2) 'The division is unknown in Malabar, because its
people never passed from the matriarchal to the

patriarchal condition'. ' The eighteen communities
of the right-hand side seem to have approved of the
change, while the nine communities of the left-hand
side seem to have opposed it'. Mr. Rice also observes
that there is a 'doubtful passage in the Mahawanso
which may be supposed to refer to it, and if so, the
institution would seem to be of great antiquity '; and
in support of it he quotes a tradition that '
when the
Pand5'a princess was sent from Madura to Ceylon, in
response to an embassy from Vijaya soliciting her
hand in marriage, she is said (according to one version)
to have been accompanied by a thousand members
of the eighteen castes and five different clans of
workmen '.
With due deference to the two high authorities

quoted above, I doubt very much the tenability of
their arguments in support of the origin and antiquity

of the dispute for the following reasons :
It has been shown in the last essay that

there was no among the ancient Dravi-
caste system
dians like that which we find amongst them in
modern times. Then how did the 18 panas or castes
of the right-hand and the 9 panas of the left come
into existence so early as the sixth century B. C. ?
The above tradition, therefore, seems to us a post facto

concoction of the Canarese people; and in the
whole range of Tamil literature, especially of the
early period, there is no reference to this 'ancient'
social division, though it was of such vital importance.
Further, there is not the slightest vestige of the
matriarchal system in South India except in Kerala
and in the Pendiikkii Meykki sub-caste of the Idaiyans
of the Madura District.
In the Dravida country, as everywhere else,
the lowest castes and the hill and forest tribes are the
least affected by, or are very slow to adopt, the Aryan
civilisation, and even amongst them the matriarchal
system was unknown. Malabar and Travancore are
no exceptions to this principle. Here the transition
from the patriarclial to the matriarchal state is
in various stages. Most of the polluting castes and

all the aboriginal tribes follow the Makkatayam
system as in the other parts of India, while the
Ambalavasis, Saliyans, Tiyans and others, who may
be said to be in a state of transition, follow both the
Makkatayam and the Marumakkatayam system of
inheritance. This is doubtless due to the influence

of the Nayars and to a desire to imitate the custom
of higher castes. Among the non-polluting (by
distance) castes it is only the so-called Kshatriyas
and the Nayars, whose females had and still have
Sanibandani or marital relationship with the Nam-
budri Brahmans, that have adopted completely the
104 TAMIL STUDIES
Marumakkatayam system. It is thus clear that the

matriarchal system of Malabar should have come
into existence only after the arrival of the Brahmans
into the Kerala country, and that the patriarchal
system alone has been in vogue for ages everywhere
in South India since the earhest historic times.
Whether the matriarchal system was entirely due to
the influence of the Nambudri Brahmans or
whether there had been other causes at work in that
direction, it is beyond the scope of this essiy to

determine.
As for the absence of this division from Kerala,
it may be said that this disaffection did not find its
way amongst the non-Brahman castes of that country

on account of the iron-hand of the Nambudris,
which kept them down under its strong grip. Fur-
ther, the people of Kerala led a comparatively simple
life, as at present ; there was no building of large
temples; and there was no such demand for skilful
labour of the artizans and weavers as in the Tamil

districts.The Kammalas, therefore, never aspired for
Brahmanhood, nor did the Nambudris invest them
with the sacred thread as the Brahmans in the other
parts of India did.
The forms of marriage prevalent among the
ancient Dravidians weie gandharvaut (Tarn, sotraii)
and rakshascim or marriage by capture as we have

shown in a previous essay. And the marriage tie
was so loose that it could be broken at tlie will of
either party as we now see among the lowest castes.

In this state of connubial relationship there was no

need for terms to express the idea of a 'father-in-law'
or a 'mother-in-law.' The early Dravidians had no
words for father's sister, mother's brother, &c.,
their relationship being confined only to father,
mother, brother and sister. Thus the term niaina
(Tam. miTLDrr) was borrowed from Sanskrit, and the
meaning of aitai (Tamil, ^êw^), which is also not a
Dravidian word, is so vague and indefinite that it
meant in Tamil mother, elder sister, mother-in-law,

father's sisterand the teacher's wife. Similarly akka
and aminai are both mother and elder sister aiyan, ;
father-in-law, mother's brother, etc. Then, these

words do not help us in the least to infer one way or
the other regarding the matriarchal or the patriarchal
theory, except that the Dravidians were in a very
primitive state destitute of terms to express any rela"
tionship other than father, mother and children.

Turning now to the origin of the dispute, we find
from a careful study of the Tamil inscriptions and the
history of the South Indian castes that there are three
obvious causes. The first and the most important is
the political dissension which led to the final over-

throw of the powerful kingdoms of the Pallavas(wliich
besides other provinces then embraced the modern
state of Mysore) and the Pandyas. They were the
hereditary enemies of the Cholas ; the very name
Pallava was hateful to them ; and the Pallava gods
of Kanchipuram shared the miserable fate of the
Pallava kings and their subjects. As the Kanchi-
106 TAMIL STUDIES
puram inscriptions of Kampana Udaiyar will show,

the Pallava temples were closed for a long period of
nearly three centuries, and their lands alienated by a
Choliyan edict. About the ninth century A. D. the
Pallavas were defeated by the Chola and Chalukyan
kings in a series of battles, after which the vast em-
pire was broken up into small principalities such
as Gangaipadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadai, &c.
Agam, in the first quarter of the eleventh century
Rajaraja Chola, the richest and one of the mightiest
of the Chola sovereigns, invaded and conquered Vengi
Nadu, Rettaipadi, Gangaipadi, Kollam, Kalingam,
11am (Ceylon), Madura and other countries. To-
wards the close of his prosperous reign he seemed to
have marshalled his extensive armies, which he had
posted at different quarters to defend his newly con-
quered dominions, into two grand divisions — the one
consisting of those men who had won for him vic-
tories in all his foreign campaigns, and the other

composed of new soldiers from the Pandya, the
Telugu and Canarese countries, who had formerly
fought against him from his enemies' camps. The
former, recruited chiefly from the Vedan, Nattaman,
Malayaman and Paraiya castes, he called the right-hand
d-rrny (sijeviaeins Qt^'SefrdamriT — the right-hand infantry),
while the latter made up of the Pallans, Pallis, Madi-
gas and Bedars was called the left-hand army. This
alone, we think, could account for the anamolous
grouping of the Bedars (Canarese hunters) in the left,
while their Tamil brethren, the Vedans, were placed in

the right-hand division. The Pallans, correctly

Mallar, formed the Pandiyan army, the PalHs consti-
tuted the Pallava army, while the troops of Kalingam
and other countries were recruited chiefly from the
Bedars and Madigas or Chakkiliyans. The male mem-
bers of these military classes were put in the left-
hand, but their females who could not have naturally

taken up arms against Rajaraja were treated as belong-
ing to the right-hand faction. The inscriptions of Ra-
jendra Chola prove that this distinction was observed
by army though not so strictly as in his father's
his
time. The expression £us\)iiiss)suuifiLbusioL-si&r which oc-

curs therein means the 'old troops of the right-hand' as
opposed to the new soldiers of the conquered domi-
nions. And by the time of Adhirajendra Chola (A. D.
1065) a poll-tax i
was levied on all the male members
of both factions who were in a position to use the
implements of war. All these clearly prove that the
origin of the division was purely of a military or
political nature.
Again, the tradition already referred to informs us

that the distinction originated in the reign of a
Chola king of the Kalinga country, and we know of
no Chola kings than Rajaraja and Rajendra

earlier
Chola, v^rho invaded and temporarily subjugated

Kalingam. For these reasons the present writer is
strongly mclined to assign to this social distinction
a date not earlier than A. D. 1010.

The second agent, also in the order of time, which
1. South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. Ill, p. 115.
108 TAMIL STUDIES
tended to swell the ranks of the two factions, was

the aspiration of certain castes to rise higher in the
social scale. One of the six principal duties of the
ancient Hindu kings being the preservation of
caste rules and observances as dictated by the Sastras,
it is very likely that any violation of the established
custom by any member of a caste or tribe would have
met with tl:e severest punishment. The Kammalas
were, as stated above, a guild of Dravidian or Naga
origin, holdmg a place outside the pale of the Aryan
caste system. They were, however, skilful artificers
and as such their services were in constant demand by

the Brahmans and other classes. During the great
temple-building epoch — the tenth and eleventh
centuries — the Hindu kings not only patronized
these people, but also appointed them permanently
for the extension and repair of the temples they had
built. In this way their connection with the religious
institutions and consequently their closer contact
with the Brahmans contributed largely to elevate
their social position. And as Sir W. W. Hunter
observes, '
the Brahmanical element here finds itself
so weak, and so accustomed to compromise with the

original population, that the priests have invented a
legend, to give a semi-Aryan descent to five castes,
which everywhere else rank as Sudras'. But with-

out being content with the concessions and privileges
granted to them, they began to clamour for a still
higher status, nay, even claimed an equal rank with

the Brahmans. This offended the Chola king, pro-
bably Rajendra, the reputed conqueror of Kalingam

and other northern countries ; many were persecuted,
many were ordered to be destroyed, and the rest were
classed along with other hostile tribes in the left-hand
division.
The other castes which strive for a higher social
position are the Kaikolas and the Devangas, the
former of whom claim direct descent from Vira-
bahu, one of the nine commanders of god Subrah-
manya, and the latter, wearing the sacred thread, fight
for Brahmanhood. This kind of struggle for Brah-
manical rank is strongest in Mysore and South
Canara, but it is almost unknown in the neigh-
bouring district of Malabar. For example^ the potters
of South Canara returned their caste name at the
Census of 1891 as Gnnda (pot) Brahmana ; the
artisans as Visva-, Deva-, Surya-, and Snhrahnicinya
Brahmana ; the Kshatriya and Vaisya Brahmana ;.
and the Madigas (leather-workers) Mafanga Brah- as
mana. Encouraged by the novel and anti-Brah-

manical doctrines of Basava, which did away with all
the caste distinctions, the servile classes styled
themselves Brahmans doing have adopted
; and in so
uncouth nomenclature from the Sanskrit and Canarese

vocabularies. The names of the Lingayat septs are
legion, butsome may be given here Chikkamane : —
Sampradaya Brahmana, Dhuli Pavada Brahmana,
Gaudalike Jangama Brahmana, Hirihasube Banajiga
Brahmana, Sthavara Jangama Brahmana, &c. It
is this, we believe, that has misled Sir W. W.
110 TAMIL STUDIES
Hunter when he speaks of the non-Brahmanical ryot

class of Mysore as "the peasant Brahmans." Thus, the
high aspirations of certain low castes had provoked
the Aryan Brahmans, who out of jealousy and
anger managed with the assistance of their kings, to
class such men in the left-hand division, so that there
might crop up unceasing quarrels, in almost all of
which they were requested by the heads of respective

factions to sit as judges for settling disputes. It is
significant that this feud is very strong in the

districts where there is a large number of Lin-
gayats.
In addition to the two sources already explained.
Dr. Oppert suggests a third one. He says '
the
imminent decay of the Jaina power opened a fair
prospect to the Brahmans of which they were not

slow to take advantage. They gathered round them
their followers, while their opponents, who represent-
ed in certain respects the national party did the same
, . . The influence of Jains was perhaps strongest in
towns, where the artizan classes form an important

portion of the population, while the Brahmana
appealed to the land owning and agricultural classes'.
This is a cause, but not the cause of the dispute.
Because firstly, the struggle for Brahman supremacy
had almost been over in the south before the tenth
century A.D. and had this been the only cause for
;
the division into rival hands, it would have taken

place prior to that period. But it is not mentioned
in any work or inscription of that date. Secondly,
granting that the struggle between Brahmanism and

Jainism was the essential cause of this curious
division, the logical inference would be that most of
the would have adopted the Jaina faith, and

artizans
the Brahmans and Jains would have respectively

espoused the right and left hand factions. But the
census statistics of 1891 clearly showed that only
40 artizans were Jains, and even these belonged to the
right-hand faction, while the Brahmans occupied, as
already stated, a neutral position. Jainism was on the
decline in the south during the eighth and ninth cen-
turies, but it had not lost its strong-hold in the Pallava
andKadamba kingdoms. The Periyapuranim and the
Tiruvilayadalpuranam give graphic descriptions of
constant struggles between the Brahmans and
Jains, and of the zeal and enthusiasm evinced by
the Chola and Pandya sovereigns in putting down
Jainism in their countries. And we know how long
Sri Ramanuja had to struggle with the Jains before he
succeeded in converting Bitti Deva (Vishnu Vardhana),
the Jain king of Mysore (A. D. 1138). It is therefore
possible that Jainism, an anti-Brahmanical religion
professed by the enemies of the Chola kings, might
have acted as a third cause for the division into
the right-hand and left-hand factions. The supposition,
therefore, of Mr. Nelson that religious difference has
little or no connection with this remarkable feud
cannot be accepted, though he is very near the mark
in suggesting that the obstinacy of the Panchalas in
disputing the supremacy of the Brahmans and their
112 TAMIL STUDIES
adoption of the Brahmanical customs must have laid

the foundation for this social distinction.
We have said above that the Jains belong to the
right-hand division, although one would, on the
contrary, expect to find them in the left-hand.
The reason for the change is, says a Mysore inscrip-
tion of A. D. 1368, that the Brahmans and Jains
were fighting for the use of the five big drums
and the Kalasa, a privilege usually exercised by the
right-hand castes, when in the same year the then
king of Mysore, Vira Bukka Raya, effected a com-
promise between the Jains and the Brahmans, and
ever since that time the Jains have been admitted as
belonging to the right-hand party.
To summarise: the distinction into right-hand and
left-hand castes, now mamtained by the agricultural
classeson the one side and by the artizans on the other,
originated in the Chola country about 1010 A. D., the
cause which led to it being,(l) the enmity that had exis-
ted between the Cholas and the neighbouring kings,(2)

the aspirations of certain low castes to attain a higher
social status, stimulated by the newly inculcated anti-
Brahmanical doctrines of Basava, and (3) the struggle

between the Jaina and the Hindu religions for exis-
tence in the Pallava and the Kadamba countries. Or,

to put it more briefly, this faction dispute is the out-
come of the political, social and religious jealousies
amongst the Hindus of South India during the

eleventhand twelfth centuries of the Christian
era.
VI
THE TAMIL ALPHABET
In that classic of Tamil literature —the Kiiral —Tiru-
valluvar describes " Numbers" and " writing" as the
two eyes of humanity.
SoemQemr&sru euiTQ^ QpiiSlir<i(^, — Klir.
So high was the importance attached to these two

" Rs." hi Tamil '
ezhuttu' includes letters as well as
picture, and as a mark of distinction writing or
alphabetic letters have been called semQssmQp^^ or
signs for the eye. It is also called Qii®iis6ms(^ or the
* long account' in contra-distinction to numbers, ctsot
or ssms(^. Kanakhi is a vague term meaning account,

letters or knowledge, as in '
Samaya-kanakkan', a
thelogian.
Pavanandi, the popular grammarian of the thirteenth
century treats the subject of Tamil letters or ortho-
graphy under twelve-heads, namely, — number,
name, order, origin, form, quantity, initial, middle
and final letters (in words), similarity in sound,
8
114 TAMIL STUDIES
wordbuilding and combination, i Including his

famous Nannul there are about half.a-dozen authori-
tative treatises on grammar which were written at dif-
ferent times ; but in every one of these the history of

the Tamil alphabet has been studiedly avoided. The
fact seems to be that the native grammarians knew
little of it, and their ignorance has led some of their

commentators to bungle as regards certain points of
historical import. It is therefore proposed to deal at
the outset with the historical side of the Tamil alphabet
at some length, touching very briefly on the other
points connected therewith in the concluding part of
the present essay.
The Tamil alphabet now in use is not what it
was a thousand years ago. Its form appears to have

undergone changes from century to century until
•about the fourteenth, when it reached the present
stereotyped condition. There were, however, two
Tamil country
different kinds of writing in use in the
— one introduced by the Brahmans and the other
the
indigenous to the Tamil race. The former is known
as the Grantha-Tamil alphabet, and it was the parent
stock from which some of the modern Tamil charac-
ters have sprung, while the latter is called by pal?e-
ographists as the Vatteluttu or the Chera-Pandya

alphabet. The Tamil districts including; Malabar and
Travancore abound in inscriptions of both varieties,
1. The classification of letters by some early Tamil Scholars

into (1) graphic (c-tifoj), (2) Nominal (Quiuf), (3) phonetic (9«^) and
i\) conceptual (tyiêi) seems to rne unpsychological.
THE TAMIL ALPHABET 115
Very recently writings in the Asoka or Brahmi cha-

racters also have been discovered in the districts of
Madura and Tinnevelly.

But the introduction of all these did not take place
at one and the same period. The Vatteluttu or the
original Tamil alphabet was supplanted by the Gran-
tha-Tamil or the modern Tamil characters in the
Tamil kingdoms at different periods, which were per-
haps conterminous with the migration and settlement
of the Brahmans in these countries. In the Pallava
province (Tondaimandalam), where they settled first
before proceeding to the southern districts, the

Pallava characters — an off-shoot of the Brahmi or
the North Indian script — were in use prior to A. D.
650. We have no documentary evidence to prove at
what period the Vatteluttu was in use there. The

earliestChola inscriptions belong only to the tenth
century, and all of them are in the Grantha- Tamil
characters, which appear to be a later development
of the Pallava-Tamil used in the Kuram and Kasakudi
copper-plates of the seventh and eighth centuries.
Occasionally, Vatteluttu inscriptions may alSo be met
with in the Chola country, but most of these belong
to the Pandya kings. It is not therefore possible in
the absence of the earlier Chola records to state when
the Vatteluttu was ousted by the Grantha-Tamil
characters in the Tanjore District. In the Pandya
country, on the other hand, we have inscriptions

in both scripts going up to the eighth century A.,D.,
and from these it will appear that Vatteluttu came
116 TAMIL STUDIES
nto desuetude sometime after the conquest of

that country by the Choia king Parantaka I during
thefirst quarter of the tenth century. In Travancore
and Malabar the Vatteluttu survived some centuries
longer.
The two main questions u'e have now to consider
in connection with the earlier Tamil alphabet or
Vatteluttu are, — (1) the date of its introduction into
the Tamil country; and (2) whether it was borrowed
by the Tamils direct from the north-western Semi-
tics, or was only an earlier modification of the Asoka
or Brahmi characters as some scholars seem to think.
The earliest Vatteluttu inscriptions known to us be-
long to the eighth century A. D. and do not go fur-
ther back and the earliest description of that alpha-
;
bet is what we find in the grammar of Tolkapyar.

It is said that Agastya was the first Tamil gramma-
rian ; but we know nothing about his date or the
existence of his grammar, except that Tolkapyar was
his student, even which seems extremely questiona-
ble. The date of the introduction of the Vetteluttu
alphabet cannot for the present be carried earlier
than the age of Tolkapyar. In his monograph On '
the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians Dr, ',
Burnell assigns the eighth century A.D. as the proba.

ble date of Tolkapyar, assuming that there was no
Tamil literature before that period and that Tolka-
pyar professed Jainism or Buddhism, the predomi-
nant religions at the time, according to this writer^
in Southern India. Both these premises have since

been proved to be false. Tolkapyar was a Brahman

Rishi and belonged to the Jamadagni tribe and the ;
contemporary scholar, Athangottasan who passed

his work at the royal court of the Pandya king was
also a Brahman deeply versed in the four Vedas.
In the Colophon to the Tolkapyam the author says
that he has mastered the Sanskrit grammar of Indra.
When the epoch-making work of Panini had long

been considered the highest authority on the sub-
ject in Sanskrit, why Tolkapyar should study and
follow Indra's work in his grammar of the Tamil
language is inexplicable, unless it be that Panini was
not known to the Southern Hindus of Tolkapyar's
time. One of the sixty-four predecessors quoted by
Panini in the field of grammatical science was Indra,
and he should therefore have flourished before him.
Thus, Tolkapyar must have lived anterior to .B.C. 350
which is the date assigned to Panini by the best
authorities.
Again, it will be seen from the following sutras
that, at the time of Tolkapyar, there were in use
some Tamil words in the middle of which letter
combinations like {eouu) lya, {&tiij) lya, (@«ij) jnya, (iBtn)
nya, {ldiu) mya, {<suuu) vya and [imsu) mva, could occur,
&)sn oosn(cir Qpssresiir ujoysj/i Q ^n&srgviJo. J, 24.
iLSooSireafl p pm QunLQupmQp. I, 27.

LDoosiresr Lj&reffl Qp&saieueîs Q^tnssrjinu), I, 28.
—
1-18 TAMIL STUDIES
Commenting on these sidras Nacchinarkiniyar writes

thus, îkiEiesTLD ^SiflujiT (^p^rrisi QsîL^sSm j^ssireo^^
Not a single word of the kind referred to in
the sutras is to be found in the whole range of

the existing Tamil literature. The earliest work
of any magnitude —that is the Kural of TiruvaL
luvar — goes back to the first century A.D., and the
period when such words wêre current should have
been at least three or four centuries before the age of
that work. For these reasons, it would not be too
much to suppose that Tolkapyar flourished before
B.C. 350, that is five centuries earlier than Apollonius,
the Stoic philosopher and the first grammarian of
the Latin language. A fortiori Tolkapyar's teacher
and first Tamil grammarian and divine rishi, Agastya
must have lived before the fourth century B. C.
When these two In do- Aryan scholars began to write
their grammars, Tamil had already become a written
language.
It is said by Prof. Macdonell of Oxford that the

Katantra of Sarvavarman, the famous minister of the
Andhra king Satavahana, served as a model for the
native grammar of the Dravidians. As this is a work

of the second century A.D., Tolkapyar could not have
1. This view las, however, been questioned by the authors of

Q^fejsiuiSiui: (s^^!r(^(54^ and ^jt reSi—uiSirsfrSerisloWowing the Com-
mentaries of^sTiAyir sozr/f and G*®a(SB>/riu/r. But we are inclined te
follow B^Sif^rsQafiinir,
followed it, and if he had done so he would have

plainly said snîîriBesipiB^ instead of îâSisapih^^
It is, however, believed by Tamil scholars that
Sarvavarman's work was imitated by Buddha-Mitra
(A.D 1075) in his Virasoliyam. And the difference
in the treatment of the subject adopted by the authors
of Tolkapyam and Virasoliyam, appears to favour
the view that Katantra was not imitated in the former
work.
Thus then the introduction of the Vatteluttu
alphabet must have taken place long before the fourth
or fiftlj century B. C, and this approximates the
earliest date assigned by European scholars to the
introduction of writing in India, which was the
seventh or eighth century before the Christian era.
As to who first brought the alphabet from the

western — whether the Southern Dravidians
Semitics
or the Northern Aryans — not quite easy to settle*
it is
On this point western scholars hold contrary

opinions, Dr. Rhys Davids, the learned Bhuddhist
scholar, thinks *
that all the present available evidence
tends to show that ihe Indian alphabet is not Aryan at
all ; that it was introduced into India by Dravidian
(Tamil) merchants in the eighth or seventh century'.
And the same writer goes on to say that 'after the
merchants brought the script to India, it gradually
became e<ilarged and adapted to the special require-
ments of the Indian learned and colloquial dialects.'
This is also the view taken by that pioneer orientalist
and antiquary, Mr. E. Thomas. Dr. Burnell seems

120 TAMIL STUDIES
to think that Vattehittu had an independent source

and had nothing to do with the Brahmi alphabet of
Northern India. This alphabet, he says, 'was formed
and settled' before the Indo-Aryan grammarians of
the Tamil language came to Southern India.
In opposition to this view Drs. Caldwell, Buhler
and Grierson maintain (and on insutficent ground
as will be shown later on) that the Vatteluttu
alphabet was borrowed or rather adapted from
the Brahmi or Asoka alphabet of Upper India.
'The older Mauryan alphabet', says Dr, Buhler,

'was used over the whole of India.' He says
further 'from a palaeographical point of view,
the Vatteluttu may be described as a cursive
script which bears the same relation to the Tamil
as the modern alphabets of the clerks and merchants
to their originals ... Perhaps it may be assumed that
the " round hand ''
arose already before the seventh
century, but was modified in the course of time by
the further development of the Tamil and the
Grantha scripts. Owing to the small number of the
accessible inscriptions, this conjecture is, however,

by no means certain.' Dr. Caldwell asserts that '
the Tamil characters were borrowed from the earliest

Sanskrit, and the language of the Tamilians was
committed to writing on or soon after the arrival of
the first colony of Brahmans.' He even goes to the

length of confirming this hypothesis by saying
that the '
oldest known Dravidian alphabet (he means
the Vatteluttu) makes no difference between long
—
and short e, srand o, 9 which is one of the arguments

that may be adduced in favour of the theory of the
derivation of that alphabet from the Sanskritic
alphabet of Asoka.' All these are mere theories. So
far as we are aware, neither Dr. Caldwell, nor Dr.
Buhler, nor even Dr. Grierson has disproved the
other hypothesis by any crucial instances.
In support of the theory advocated by Mr. E.
Thomas, Drs. Rhys Davids and Burnell — on whose
side the balance of authority seems to rest —that the
Tamilians had introduced the Vatteluttu and deve-
loped it independently of the Asoka or the Brahmi
alphabet, the following arguments may be adduced :
It has been shown in a previous essay that the

Tamil people or rather the early Dravidians were a
civiized race allied to the âncient Accadians, with
whom they lived in Babylonia and Assyria before
their migration to Hindustan. They were acquaint-
ed with the Phoenicians and Egyptians as early as
the 14th jr 15th century B. C. It would, therefore,
be highly probable that these early Dravidians might
have brought with them the alphabet when they
migrated to India. And it is also probable that the
Indo-Aryans borrowed it from their Dra vidian
neighbours.
Long before the settlement of the Aryans in
South India, Tamils

had commercial inter-
the
course with the Egyptians and oiher Western nations,
as will be inferred from the existence of Tamil
words like ô^m (peacock) and agil (a fragrant wood)
—
132 TAMIL STUDIES
in the Hebrew Bible, and arisi (rice) in Greek. Like

the Banyas or the Aryan merchant caste of Upper
India, the Tamils had no caste scruples prohibiting
them from sea-voyage. In fact, among the Dravi-
dians of the remote past there was no caste system^
and they were expert seamen.
Although the Tamilians owed their grammar to
Agastya and to Tolkapyar, it should not be inferred
that they were indebted to them for the art of writing
also. The existence of pure Tamil words like ezliuttii
(letters), siwadi (book) &c, before they came to the

south disproves the theory that Agastya brought the
alphabet with him from Upper India. The gratuitous
assertion of Dr. Caldwell that '
the language of the
Tamilians was committed to writing on or soon after
the arrival of the first colony of Brahmans', therefore,,
falls to the ground.

Again, his statement that the Dravidian alphabet
makes no difference between the long and short c, sr
and 0, ^ is a mere specious argument, if by Dravidian
he meant Tamil,because the Vatteluttu alphabet of the
early Tamils did make the distinction, as the author of
the Tolkapyam has distinctly ruled that, sranQmiTsir
QmiLuLêneffl Quûa and this sutram will have no
;
meaning if no such distinction was observed in his
days.
While writing about the formation of the letter
m, w the grammarian.Tolkapyar clearly defines that,.
sîlQu£ut^miSfftLLi(Têiiii^LDQu>. What he meant by this
rule was that the form of />, u (Vatteluttu ^ ) should be
—
carefully distinguished from that of ni, ld (Vatteluttu ^ )
which received an inner dot. Here the right hand

tail of u was joined in later times with the inner dot,
which was quite natural in cursive writing on palm

leaves with an iron stylus, as Nacchinarkiniyar has
rightly observed lls!TiJd sîlQugn iên-efflssuju laSsrr^^ '^Q^^
(ev)iT. In the Brahmi, Asoka or Mauryan alphabet u
and LD were written as b and )6. There was a letter in the
Asoka script which in form approached the Vatteluttu
LD, but that was ph. and not in. It will thus be seen
that there is not the least resemblance between the

Vatteluttu and the Asoka p and ;;;, nor can we
perceive any appreciable similarity in the other letters
of both alphabets except in the case of k, p, r, I, t,
and which may after all be only accidental, both

cli,
being borrowed from the same Semitic source, as

will be seen from the comparative table of the
ancient alphabets given below :

—
English
124 TAMIL STUDIES
If Tamil borrowed and developed its alpha-

bet from Brahmi of North India like the other
cultivated languages of the Dravidian family, it
should have taken place before its grammar was

written. And in that case, the tendency should
have shown itself in an efficient and complete
alphabetic system as in the sister languages,
Telugu and Kanarese- On the other hand, the
simplicity of the alphabetic and the deficiency of
its phonetic systems, and their stationary charac-
ter for nearly 2,000 years point to a different
source for its origin. We are glad to observe
that this is also the view taken by Mr. R. Sewell, I.C.S.
He writes thus :
'
The meagre character and
simple forms of the Tamil alphabets almost certainly
derived from a Semitic source, perhaps, Araroic or
Himayaritic, point to its having been adopted and
having become fixed before the Kharoshti was known'.
Among the Dravidian races of South India the
Tamils alone made use of the Vatteluttu alphabet from
time immemorial, whilst their Telugu and Kanarese
neighbours have, so far as epigraphical researches re-
veal, been using some alphabet or other which had

its origin from the Brahmi of Upper India. The prin-
ciple of adding a dot for consonants is peculiar only
to Tamil, and is found in no other alphabetic systems
adopted from Brahmi. It is possible that the Tamils
might have borrowed it from the Semitics of Western

Asia and used it for consonants instead of for vowel
signs, as in the Hebrew and other Semitic alphabets.
The vast difference that exists between Tamil and

the Aryan languages in their vocabulary, between the
Tamils and the Indo-Aryans, the contempt which the
one had for the other, and the great antiquity and the
divine originwhich the Tamils claim for their sweet' *
—
language and its grammar all these seem to favour the
indigenous origin of the Tamil Vatteluttu alphabet.
The latest epigraphical researches have brought to
light the existence Pandya country of tht
in the
Brahmi or Asoka Rai Bahadur V. Ven-

inscriotions,
kayya, Epigraphist to the Government of India, be-
lieves that this discovery in the Madura and Tinne-
'
veliy districts proves beyond doubt that the Mauryan

alphabet was in use all over India', and that this
seems to him '
to militate against the theory of the
indigenous origin '
of the Vatteluttu alphabet. We
do not for a moment question Dr. Buhler's state-
ment that the older Mauryan alphabet was used over
'
the whole of India'; but it is extremely doubtful

whether this alphabet was used in the Tamil country
by the literates of all castes —
and creeds Buddhists,
Jains, Hindus and Animists alike. As a matter of
fact we know that the English alphabet is at present
in use from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin among
the educated classes, and even English inscriptions
are found almost everywhere in India. And yet,
do we not see side by side with it scores of Indian

alphabets? The ubiquity of an alien alphabet in a
particular country cannot, therefore, be a proof for
the non-existence of other alphabetic systems and of
126 TAMIL STUDIES
its necessity for the aboriginal inhabitants of that

soil.
History informs us that Emperor Asoka sent Bud-

dhist Missionaries to the three Tamil countries about
B.C. 250, and there is very little evidence to show
that there were Buddhists in these lands prior to
that date. The Brahmi inscriptions alluded to above
are believed to belong to the Asoka or post- Asoka
•period. It has been shown above that Tolkapyar
flourished anterior to B. C. 350, that is, at least a
century before Asoka. As it has been proved that

the description of the alphabet given by Tolkapyar
in his grammar is applicable only to the Vatteluttu
characters, but not Brahmi or Asoka
to the
alphabet, it is evident beyond any shadow of doubt
that Vatteluttu alone was in use among the Tamils
before the introduction ot Buddhism in their country.
The Brahmi was evidently used only by the Buddhist
monks and missionaries, and perhaps by Brahmans
also. This theory should hold its own against any
others, until it could be established from inscriptional
sources, that the Brahmi alphabet was universally used
by all classes in the Tamil country before the days of
Tolkapyar (B.C. 350).
The mere fact that the Brahmi alphabet was in use
all over India proves nothing concerning the origin of

Vatteluttu, any more than the use of the English alpha-
bet regarding the source of the Indian alphabets.

The Moplahs of the West Coast use the Vatteluttu
;(Koleluttu) characters to this very day, while the

Hindus there gave it up three or four centuries ago.

That is to say, the VatteUittu and the Grantha-Malaya-
1am alphabets have been in existence side by side for
at least the last three or four centuries in a particular
part of the ancient Tamil land, the former being used
by the pure Tamilians (Malayalis) and the latter by
the Aryanized Dravidians. Again, we observe in the
Vatteluttu copper plate grants of Jatila Varman, Ravi
Varman, Sri Valiuvan Kodai and others, that Grantha
characters were used freely to express pure Sanskrit
words and Vatteluttu for the Tamil ones. All the South
Indian alphabets, not excepting the modern Grantha-
Tamil, may be traced to the B rah mi script of
Upper hidia. Had Vatteluttu been borrowed and
developed from the Brahmi, like the Grantha and
other alphabets of India from the earliest times, it
would be difficult to account for the Tamils alone

using both the characters simultaneously in their
inscriptions. This anamoly is nowliere to be found
outside the Tamil country. And this one fact, com.
bined with the other considerations set forth in the
previous paragraphs, must lead one to conclude that
Vatteluttu had an indigenous origin, and that the
Brahmi characters might have been understood and
even largely used by the Brahmans, Buddhists and
Jains, while the rest of the people in
rhe Chera and
Pandya countries marie use of the Vatteluttu alphabet
And, notwithstanding the divergence of opinion
among high authorities, the above arguments compel
us to accept the theory that the Tamil alphabet
—
128 TAMIL STUDIES
(Vatteluttu) was not borrowed from the Brahmi or any

other Upper Indian alphabet, but had been introduced
directly from Western Asia by Tamil merchants,
during the eighth or seventh century B.C., who deve-
loped it independently of the northern alphabets until
it was partially supplanted by the Grantha charac-
ters in or about the tenth century.
But for the mighty influence of the Aryan Brah-
mans, such an ancient and original alphabet might
have survived among the Tamils as amongst the
Musalman Moplahs of Malabar. Before the introduc-
tion of the Grantha-Tamil characters, the influx of
Sanskrit words in the Tamil language was extremely

limited and even those words appeared in the Tamil
;
garb or in the form of tadbhavas. Thus, we find in

the Tirtivoymoli of Nammalvar tamilized Sanskrit
words like ujbursiruesTy ^/j^^treir, ^qîs^^s^Sw ,
sSiSIq^^lo^
^ffrTss^&nr, isSi^LDiMj sêeWy ld^sît, &LLL-&STy ^.(i^^îiT&sr, &c.-
But with the large influx of Sanskrit words and

phrases tadbhavas and tatsamas — in consequence
of the importation of the Aryan religion and philoso-
phy among the Tamils, the introduction of the
Grantha-Tamil characters in the Pandya and Kerala
countries became a matter of necessity.And new
rules for tlie adoption and nataralisation of Sanskrit
words in Tamil, not given by Tolkapyar, v;ere added
in the grammars of Buddha Mitra and Pavanandi,.
the former of whom flourished in the eleventh and
the latter at the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Of the thirty-one Tamil letters of the Grantha-
—
Tamil alphabet, the consonants em, ^,15 and lu only ap-

pear to have been adopted or borrowed from the
Pallava characters, the rest being moditied survivals
of the defunct Vatteluttu. In the Yanaimalai ins-
criptions of the Pandya king Jatavarman (A. D. 770),
we find some of the Pallava-Grantha characters
mixed up with the Vatteluttu. For example, in the
Tamil word Loirpm the Vatteluttu imit, m, is used, and
in the Sanskrit word wkîB the Pallava or the Brahmi
^ ; and the y, uj of the earlier Vatteluttu appears

like the Telugu «>, while in the Museum plates of
Jatavarman like the modern tripartite letter uj, r^.
Minor differences in the forms of the Vatteluttu

themselves may be noticeable in inscriptions from
different quarters.
The tacking of vowel signs to the consonants
was regular in Vatteluttu, but not so in the Grantha-
Tamil which is doubtless due to the mixture of the
two alphabets. The vowel-consonants of Grantha-
Tamil are exactly after the formation of the Nagari
characters, excepting that most of the vowel signs,
as for^, <ST, S, 9, 55 and fên- stand detached from
<5j,
the Tamil consonants. This may be made intelligi-

ble by commenting on the following note of
Nacchinarkiniyar ;
QupgUih QanCSl QupguiJo i^msffl Qupîh Lji^brftuîEi Qs!t®iJd
Quppmr. (5, <si_ (ip^sâj<oBT Q !^!sSleîEj(^ QuppesT. Qs, Qs

Qp^&Sujesr QsrrQ Quppesr. sit, isiti (Lp^(SûjicST L\&r<siB Quppesr.
130 TAMIL STUDIKS
LDSIILD &.LLQugil L^SasiBsGitJU Qj'êTT^^ STQ^0^:T. QaiTjQarr^ QlSllTy
Qiwrr Qp^s\9tassr Ljsirsfffiîi Q.sa'S^-î^mQuppsm. —'Tol- I., 17.

Here, <oSlsow(^ means a curve, Qm® is a loop or curl,
L/sffafl is a dot, and saec is a vertical stroke. Thus in @
the consonant i has received the upper curve and
in o a nether one. The letter Qs is formed by pre-
fixing a loop or coil to it. In the early stage the loop
which was only the first half of the vowel ot was at-
tached to the consonant, though now separated from it.
The case of Qsa and «»« is peculiar, and it clearly proves

that the Grantha-Tamil system of forming vowel-con-
sonant has been adopted instead of the old Vatteluttu
system. The letter Qsa is formed by the addition of a
]oop and a vertical stroke (originally the sign of long
.^), the one preceding and the other succeeding the

consonant. But the doiov i-\^€ffl was never used for
this purpose, either in the Grantha-Tamil or in the
Vatteluttu characters. The statement of Nacchinar-
kiniyar that jîq^Qs Qlupp L/»ffsr/?a»aj ^dsireo^^rrir siredirs
eiQ^0(es)iT seems, therefore, purely unauthorized. In

the Vatteluttu the stroke was horizontal, and it always
stood for a long vowel ; but in the Grantha-Tamil it
is vertical and does not always indicate a long vowel,

except in the case of =g. The long vowel ^ and the
vowel-consonants (sw), (y, ''^nd @ have received a
nether curve, while a perpendicular stroke is put after
the other consonants. This is surely un^yrametrical,
though not more anomalous than the joining of such
parts of a_ to consonants (as in o, #, and ^) as fit in
with their form. All these afford unimistakable evi-

dence for the mixed character of the modern Grantha-
Tamil alphabet. Long aai and ^m were originally
written with a vertical stroke added to a. and
9 thus &-], s?] which in the course of a few
centuries assumed the shape
of a «rr. The short or
the long was formerly distinguished by means of
s?
a dot over it. As late as A. D. 1740, no distmction

was made between the short and long vowel -co nso.
nantal signs of ct and »?, Q, Q-fr. Beschi seems to have
been the first to make this reform by rounding the
upper end of the loop for the long sound. The sign
for S in sa)s is a double loop or curl as in the Gran,
tha but joined together in later Tamil ; and the two
loops were originally placed sometimes one above
the other and sometimes side by side. The letter
rîJuîM is written with three dots like the English

symbol for 'therefore '
and it is neither a vowel nor
a consonant.
The Vatteluttu or the Tamil archaic alphabet is so

called on account of its round or circular form like
the modern Telugu alphabet, modern
while its
development has assumed the angular or, as some
would say, square shape. This angularity was due to

the facility in writing on palm leaves with an iron
stylus, or in cutting on stones or copper plates
with a chisel. Further, the left-hand vertical line or
stroke which goes to form an angle with the top
horizontal stroke in letters like a, <?, ^, m and j is a
later meaningless addition not found in the Tamil
,
132 TAMIL STUDIES
inscription prior to A. D. 1050. The letters /_, u, m^
iu, a;and tp had no angles on either side, because each

of them had only a curve at the bottom like c, ^,'^
(j;, ID and £P. In the Vatteluttu the vowel s., z^ was
half and ld was a u with an inner dot
a en, ; u is
simply another form of Hence &., u, eu, and sij. id are

almost alike both in form and sound.
So much for the form of Tamil letters. Let us
now take their number, order, and pronunciation.
There are thirty-one letters ; twelve vowels and eigh-
teen consonants and one semi-vowel. Tolkapyar
adds to these the shortened @ and s_ making them
thirty-three. As there are no separate signs to ex-
press these two sounds, the number of Tamil letters
should be taken as onjy thirty-one. Of the twelve
vowels, =gy, g), a., ot, 9, are short (@/zJ^) and ^, it-, sss,
67 ge, S and eêir are long (O/sif a') ; strictly speaking S

and epsfT are not long vowels but only diphthongs or
sîâjsarrio and they maybe represented by =gy+@ or
;
^ + Lu and =gw + 2- or +=gyia/. The letters ^ and ©. <=gy,
are called primary vowels, hence they are placed first

with their cognate long sounds, ct, sj and S, 9, ^ and
eêfT are considered in Sanskrit secondary or com-
pound vowels formed by the union of ^ and ^ and
^ and a- respectively. With this compare the exam-
ple, [BIT + îB^!iiok = fBQMii^!reisr + s^^^LDasr=i5Qa!T^ ; i5[r
înm. It Will thus be seen that there are no short

CT and 9 in Sanskrit. The arrangement of Vowels in
Tamil is, therefore, exactly after the Sanskrit model.

There are eighteen consonants in Tamil. Of these
s, 9=, I—, ^, u and p are surds ; ra, (Sj, em, (?, ld and esr
are nasals ; and (u, a, so, en, tg and an- are liquids.
The order followed in their arrangement is also that
of Sanskrit. To shew that l^, sir, p and m are letters

peculiar to Taiuil they are placed last.
Quantity or LDiTaSl<ssyiT is different from pronuncia-

tion ; the one relates to music in poetry, and the
other to the enunciation of letters and words in
speech. We are not, therefore, concerned here with

j)jsfrQuss)u., prolation or the increase in quantity,
which is applicable only to poetry. However,
among Tamil vowels ^ and e. have sometimes a
lesser quantity even in ordinary speech. Sivagnana
Swami, the uncompromising critic of ^^MssemeSlmssiM
says, the shortened ^ and a. are indicated by a dot ;
but the truth of his statement is questionable. The

dot was never used either in the Tamil inscriptions
or in the ordinary writing. Now-a-days a dot is used
in Malayalam to denote a final short q_ which in
this language approacfies a sound mid-way between

=gy and &- as in 6)QJcaicw S and epsir being diphthongs,
their quantity is shortened at times, the first in all
the three places and the second only at the begin-

ning of words. But this does not satisfactorily
account for their existence. The semi-vowel îL^ld
gets decreased in quantity when words beginning
with ^ combine with words ending in sd and ek.
All these are called sâaQuQg^^ or dependant letters

as the changes in quantity occur only in words,
but never in isolated letters themselves
134 TAMIL STUDIES
Coming to consonants, we find the Tamil alphabet

very defective, and in some cases redundant also.
Surds coming after nasals lose their hard sounds as-
in 0^157(5, ^®^» (Sjeaw®^ sih^sih and Q.rLDL9iusar ; and in
Malayalam they are changed' into nasals as in mainarr

for LDrrihsiTtL^ ^(î^ for ^Qî^ and so
(3;^(^ for ©igj^,
on. Sometimes and <? even when not preceded by
<«
nasals get the soft sound similar to the Arabic

gliayii and the Sanskrit (y^ as in Qs'(^^3, and u^^^
respectivel3^ Thu* for the thirty-one letters wê have
fifteen vowel and twenty-five consonant sounds, or
forty in ali. This is certainly a defect. But some
might say that when the alphabet was first introduced,
the Tamil language had only thirty-one sounds, and
that the remaining nine explained above crept in
during later times owing to the influence of the Indo-
Aryans- This may be accepted as partly correct, as
we find to this day, if one is careful enough to ob-
serve, slight variations in the pronunciation of the
Jaffna Tamils and the Tamil Brahmans.
The letters peculiar to Tamil are oo, ip, p and ear.
The sound of oo is midway between the Arabic ghayn

and the Sanskrit pm. It is found in no other
Indian or European languages, and it seems to
suggest some connection of the Tamil race with

the Semitic or Western Asiatic nations. The letter tp
is equally a private property of Tamil and a terri-
ble bugbear for Europeans to pronounce. It has

been variously transliterated in some of the European
languages by Ij, zj, zh, rl, 1, zy, &c. ; Dr. Pope's rule
for its pronunciation is to *

apply the tip of the
tongue as far back as you can to the palate and pro-
nounce a rou<^h r in which a sound of 2 will mingle.'
This is only an English rendering of the Nannul
siUra^ —
Even the Tamils cannot pronounce this letter
correctly, and in some districts they substitute srr, lu,
and enj for it or omit it altogether. In Madras ujand

ew are used by the lower classes, while in Madura
and Tinnevelly en- is preferred. I presume that it
was this letter which frightened Mr. J. C Molony

and led to his remark on the Tamil language, which
any Tamilian would resent, notwithstanding his in-
direct compliment to the people that speak it. '
Few
would call Tamil beautiful ;
yet its great harsh words,
that one can almost bite as they pass the teeth, the
stubborn inelasticities of its construction, suggest a
certain doggedness in the people who have subdued
such an untractable organ to tlieir daily use.' (C.R.p.7)
The letter p has the sound of a rough r and jb p that of
tr. The sounds of m and sot are almost identical and it
may be supposed that the second m is redundant. But

their origin shows a slight variation and justifies the
necessity for the existence of both, because /5 is a
dental while iot is a palatal letter.
In Tamil no distinction is made between an accent,
and an emphasis or intonation. There is only one
word in the Tamil language which changes its mean-
ing by the accent or intonation, that is ^q, iapii^

—
136 TAMIL STUDIES
When the accent on the first it means to

falls 'die'
and if it falls on the second it means to 'kill'. In-
tonation is of three kinds, — rising tone or CT®^^si),
falling tone or u(Si^^&) and level tone or is-sSlêo, Of
these, only the first two are in use. In fsu. when the
accent falls on i-, that iswhen it is uttered in a
rising tone, it denotes a command, and when the
accent falls on « or pronounced in a falling tone it
becomes a simple root. In phrases and sentences,

emphasis on particular words alters their meanings.
Thus, the phrase ^/iS^BevT^sijek may mean either *a
stupid man' or *aman as intelligent as the sun'.
Concerning the origin of letters enough has
Tamil
been said in the Tolkapyam and Nannul. The
Panniru-pattiyal — u^suflQûfTLLisûj6\) —
a grammatical
compilation, assigns a divine origin to all the letters
except o°o. It says the twelve vowels were created by
Brahma and the eighteen consonants by Siva, Vishnu,
Muruga, Indra, the Sun, the Moon, Kubera, Yama
and Varuna at the rate of two each. This is a
curious piece of information to a modern philologist.
It shows that these were the only important deities
known and worshipped by the Tamil Hindus of
Poigaiyar's time i. e. about A. D. 500.

In Tamil the interchange of letters which have
almost similar sounds is allowed. This is, perhaps, due
to wrong pronunciation and defective hearing. It
occurs mostly at the end of words, sometimes at
the beginning and middle also. These letters are,
cgy for S as in âmsk for j)jsa) [t ojisst ; ^ for is as

in Q(^5SBr® for ^smd^ ^jsk for ,^jdr ^ for ^ as in ;
lSIs^st l3^^
for m for as in Qsojld for QiB.3=ua
;
<5^ ssr, ;
for LD,
6\J and err as in .4<5\)^-a6AJ:ii, ^pio-^ piJo, uoê^-
/f
Ln^m &c. The Malayalam languajê wliich may be

taken as a highly differentiated dialect of Tamil
affords plenty of instances of this sort of interchange
in letters, technically called QufrsSI. But the reader
must be warned against confounding it with the
iingrammatical or vulgar usages pointed out by
Buddha-Mitra as prevalent in different parts of the
Tamil country even in his days : — /f/tsi/? QsneiB
^^6s(t &-efrd(^ eun^Setr ewsif^ GT.5srei\i£i, eSiiîi^ ul^]ej(^ ^L^sms
^L^ss)LD ei€meijLD...S(^£leo^<9^/b/iSear Q^^^^ff^ S&)it euiîEi(^£U!T.
Q'SjsîFi'2ei> Qp^&i£t <s#'5ij)# sresrisijLD^ i^prSiUiJoQuir^ srssreiûD^
Lcjh/iSujuD iS paapâiBjSicSl p(irj>^ iiTsmeîh. ..s^reSifluadjiBii S&)^

^<f &&)IT QJL^'5J(^ÎT. Qf5S\)e^<isiT SiSST p^ (cSiLîsa S^p^
eresT^ uueorr^ U'TiLi^ £le\)^^,f Se\}iT qjiîeiiôuit. mpîh
^Qi'2eaTLJUiTSs îisrrss jfjisisirasi sresreijtx)^ ûutsf.sQsn pp
^ uUis^sQsrT p p <si &5r iSi^LD y Q-f^^Seaui ^^^ssfr&i (sresreiîitf
eulTSSiUUUlUUO QsfT'dSQfii-LsSiU. STSSTeijlMy ^QlT LdSiT OTSSrai/LO, iSp
Vir. p. 64.
Rules are given in Tamil grammar books to

determine what 'words are of pure Tamil origin
and what are borrowed. They are highly
important to a Dravidian philologist. There are 247
letters, both single and compound ; but all are
not used in the building up of Tamil words. Some
letters may come at the beginning, while some
—
138 TAMIL STUDIES
others at the The grammarian l

end of words.
Tolkapyar took only the Tamil words and framed
his rules accordingly, while other grammarians have
included in them such of the Sanskrit words as have
been adopted in the Tamil vocabulary. The differen-
ces between the Tamil and Sanskrit words will be
pointed out as we go on.
INITIAL LETTERS : In the Tamil language there
are forty-two one-letter words, and they are
either long vowels or long vowel-consonants.
Short vowels cannot form single letter words
except with consonants. Among words of two
or more letters, any word may begin with any
one of the twelve vowels or the twelve vowel-
consonants tf, «, /5, u and LD. The letters <?=, s3j<?= and
O^sp- will not come at the beginning except in words
of Sanskrit origin. According to Tolkapyar (ejt, (J^
and 0@/r may commence a word but to ; this
Bhavanandi adds (gj. The letters etj, g^, Qisui and Qeutr
are not allowed at the beginning, ujit is the only let-
ter in the lu series that can come at the commence-

ment of pure Tamil words. The first three short
1. Mr. A. H. Keane writes about Tolkapyar as follows:

'The first in Tamil, known as the Tolkapyam, dates from about the
eighth century of our era, and is, perhaps, thft very oldest Tamil
work extant, ..The Tolkapyam, itself, however, is rather a treatise
on grammar composed in Tamil, than a Tamil grammar in the
strict sense ; and though not written in Sanskrit must still be cov.-
sidered as an Aindra work, that is the work of a disciple of the

Aindra School of Sanskrit grammarians'. This is clearly derived
from a wrong source.
vowels jij, @ and ?>- are called */-lQi_(^^^ or demon-

strative prefixes ; and g/ is the only letter in the
serieswhich may begin a word with them as jiii'rsmih

and îsiiEii^ LD but these words have no inde-
îtsEimti) ;
pendent existence without this combination. Thus,

there are in all 94 letters wilh any one of which
a pure Tamil word may begin.
FINAL LETTERS I Any vowel except ct, 9 and gssrr
either by itself or combined with consonants will
come at the end of a Tamil word usually a- and ^jm ;
will not unite with « and ©j, <S7and ep widi (sj and sjar ;
will join only with « and qj. There are, however, ex-
ceptions to these rules. According to Virasoliyam,
Tamil words may end with the following letters, em,
ii), uj, IT, So, /^, <iff, and ek^ and all vowels except ct and 5?.
To these may be added (ct, i and eu. There is only one

word in (Cj (s_//?(^), two words (Qunî and QeurFlii)
in i
and four words in eu (^<aj, ^<su, êu and Gis&j). These

words are all now obsolete. Among the words which
end in esr there are only nine in the neuter gender,
but are not moc'ifications or QufTe\9 of th. They are
CT©SD7, Q^SioSr, sSLfiSSTj (ûSlsSl ^ IMuS'Sk , ^tgOT^ ULpi^ , <«/_/r(Ssr,
and eumnm. In the @ series all except Q(^^Q(^, G(â,

Qi^rr, and 0@srr may be at the end of words. Generally,
^, sn', <a/ and e/, may not be final letters. There are
only two words ending in ^, namely, s_5f (©.(srj) and
(2/3* ((g5-/B@), and only one word ending in l/ which is
^4 (to kill or to die) ; the &- in the other words ending

in Lj is the shortened a_ or (^n)r5!uje^siTu>. Thus ac-
cording to Tolkapyar there are IGl letters that may
140 TAMIL STUDIES
come at the end of Tamil words. But as Nacchinar-

kiniyar has observed the examples for eighteen of
these (namely, Qt~, Qi—ir, Qssm, Q(^, Q^, Qld, ui/, u?, nj, Qtu,
QjTj Q&), Qip, GigT, Q&r, "Seir, Q/d, and Q^rt;) are not to be
found in any Tamil dictionary.
MIDDLE letters: In the middle of Tamil words the
letters «. -sf,
^, u, ra, (Gj, is and ld coming after the con-
sonants uJ, IT and ifi mast double. Of these it and tg will
not come after short vowels or consonants, nor can

they double in any position. In poetry isor and ld may
join together as in Qufrmuo. The lettersand u «, <?
will follow lL, p, «k) and <ar ; and lu may come

and <a;
after &> and srr. After nasal consonants will come

their corresponding surds. The seven letters «, ?=, (Gj,
u>, lu and £11 may join with em and sot. Combinations

of letters like @aj, iiu, ldiu, &)iu, enm, diuj and Loau were
tolerated in Tamil words, but are now obsolete. And
the consonants lu, it and tp may precede «, ra, <?, (Cj, dj,
/5, u, Lo, uj and su.
The remaining two subjects, namely, the word-

building and word-combination {QeneiSujiTdsLh and
i^6miTs9i\ will be dealt with in the next essay.
—
VII
PLACE OF TAMIL IN PHILOLOGY

Tamil is the language of a section of the Dravidian^
race inhabiting the extreme south of the Indian
Peninsula. The area within which it is now spokei>
has been given in a previous essay. Owing to its
antiquity and its high culture at a very early date, this

language long ago assumed two forms, the one called
thekodum or colloquial, and the other the scm or
good literary Tamil.
The which the Sen-Tamil was spoken is
locality in
not described by Tolkapyar and his commentators ;
are not unanimous on this point. Senavaraiyar and

Nacchinarkiniyar give its boundaries thus, Qs=iîSl^^
SeOLDireu^, <ssi<Sii<oSiuuujiT p^^ fijyi_<5@u3 wQ^îua jbfS'SsrQ pjb(îJD

S(7^siirflsir QLps(^LD iBQ^siiiBrnQisi p(^ld(tui. ( The "pure
Tamil" was spoken in the bounded by the
tract
Maruta-yar on the north, the Vaiga on the south,

Maruvur on the east and Karuvur on the west).
According to Tamil saints and poets the Sen-Tamil
land seems to have been the modern district of
Madura ; this seems to me to be more accurate in as.
—
.142 TAMIL STUDIES
much as the Punal Nadu or the Tanjore district and

Ten-Fandi Nadu or the Tintievelly district have been
included in the twelve Kodum-Tamil nadus or dis-
tricts which are enumerated in the following stanza :
Qit^lSIso ueis! 51^01? ml. Qi—esor.
An earlier list gives Podunga-Nadu and Oli-Nadu

instead of Venadu and Punal-Nadu. It must be
remembered that the ancient districts of Kuttam,
Kudam, Karka, Ven and Puzhi were in the Travan-
core State and in the modern district of Malabar ;
Aruva and Aruva-vadatalai were in the Chingleput

and North .^rcot districts Sitam was the Nilgiris
; ;
Maladu or Malai-Nadu was in South Arcot Panri ;
was on the north-west of Madura and Podunga ;
and Oli were probably somewhere in the ancient

Ramnad country. It cannot therefore be said that
either the Cheta Tondaimandalam,
country, or the
or even the Chola Desam was the land of pure or Sem-

Tamil, in spite of the claims put forward by some
patriotic scholars for that honour.
The media3val Tamils were entirely ignorant of
the Indian Geography, and their ignorance is betrayed

in the description of the countries which surrounded
the Tamil Nadu. Nacchinarkiniyar mentions twelve,
namely, Singalam, Pazham-divu (the Laccadives), Kol-
lam,Kupam, Konkanam, Tulu, Kudagam, Karunatam,
Kudam, Vaduku, Telugu and Kalingam. According to
—
PLACE OF TAMIL IN PHILOLOGY 143
Keralolpatti, Kapaiii was the M.ilayalam speaking

country lying between Kunnatii and Cape Coinorin.
KoUam (Ouilon) and FCupam, which formerly consti-
tuted the modern State of Travancore, must have se-
parated from the Kodam-Tamil Nadus, before the
time of our commentator and yet, without knowing
;
the geography of the West Coast, he has given

Kuttam, Kudam, Ven and other Nadus which formed
part of that province in the list of Kodum-Tamil
Nadus, following the division of nadus or districts
that existed in Tolkapyar's days. But his ignorance

of geography is not so great as that of later Tamil
scholars who have included in the list, countries like
Arabia, Bengal, Burma, China, Java, Orissa, etc. as
described in the following stanza :
QsiT'EisffmEi sseoTiosn^rsi Qsfrsoeoi Q^^îsisfki SaStiasiJa euiEisisi
Philology is mainly an historical science, because lan-

guage which is its subject matter is the work of man,
and it implies change and progress. It is the property
of a society and not ofan mdividual and its object ;
is to trace the development of human thought as ex-

pressed in the speech of that society. It cannot
therefore be the creation of any individual. It has life,
growth and death, co-extensive with the state of
the society or race that uses it. A living language

like Tamil is in a condition of constant change,
which cannot be arrested by a scholar, poet or gram-
— —
144 TAMIL STUDIES
marian by means of his writings. The condition of

Tamil any other Hving language) one thousand
(or
years ago was not what it had been a thousand years
still earlier. And its grammar, which is essentially an
empirical or inductive science, necessarily varies with
the conditions of that language. In any language^
literature always precedes grammar ; and this funda-
mental principle was not unknown to the early Tamil
grammarians, who have explained it in unmistakable
terms thus :
êodSujisi ssaaii^^jr) Ssvssesm lAliviMueo. —N ail.
(Literature yields the grammar ;

grammar follows
the literature.)
They have also recognised the principle of change

in a living language, and provided for popular accepta-
tion of innovations.
(Usage sanctifies any new word.)
euQpeueo saeo eustssaS (^Q<ssr. — Ncin.

(The order of things is for the old to give place to
the new.)
Thus the statement of Sivagnanaswami that, Q^rreoeoir
StflmtT euLpsQs <suLps(g. LSpaaeo^£j Qeij^ uLêuLpiiauu^Lorr

uSek ^(SusuLpa(^ êodsesar ^Q ^rr® QurT(rîB^n(^ê5r eSl&)i^Sy is
not only unscientific, but also an obstinate clinging

to that old superstition which believed the ancients
to have discovered all wnsdom.
—
According to Prof. Whitney changes in the growth

of a language may take the following forms :
I. Alteration of the old materials of language, which

may be either change in form, or change in meaning.
A word may change its form to any extent without
change of meaning ;
in Tamil sjbi-i and sdoeSI mean
learning; êaaiQ and î&kiL^Lo, a piece; rstr and i^rrs^, the
tongue, &c. It may take on an entirely new meanmg
without the change of form, as in ju^Sulj which form-
erly meant '
withering '
as well as the '
hearth ', but
now only the latter ; ^® was '
sheep ' and *
victory »
in old Tamil, but now only the '

sheep '; Q^trssiu. was
the body and now the *
thigh'; QL^d(g was a *
pit ' and
now the *
east ', &c.
II. Loss of the old materials of language. It may
be a loss of complete words or a loss of grammatical
forms and distinctions. There are many Tamil
words which are not used by modern authors, so
freely as the ancients did, though they have co :
down to us in poetical dictionaries. These words

may therefore be said to be practically dead to the
present Tamilians. But yet, there are other kinds
of words such as the revenue terms like SeoeurB^ ^sr&jfft,
QesrearuD, Qfimstru^, srrir ^^sasuuS^ssiS' , &c., words signify-

ing certain social customs, such as Qfi^mssiljîTL^,
^LDiDiTLULb, s/]SîJ1^^6\},&Cc the cxact mcauings o which f
are now lost. Thus with the change

of customs and
political institutions, those words went out of the peo-
ple's memory and were for a practical purposes lost.
As for the loss of grammatical forms, we may find

10
146 TAMIL STUDIES
some occurring in early Tamil, but which have now

become obsolete ; for example, past tense in q as in
/F«(5L/, future in (5 as in ^ji®, instrumental case in
îsk as in iSskssBjbjDii^, &c.
III. Production of new materials — new words and
new forms. Civilization brings with it new thoughts
and new ideas which require new words to express
them. Such words are either borrowed or coined
for the nonce out of the existing words in the lang-
uage, or by metaphorically extending the meanings
of old words. Most words relating to religion and
philosophy are borrowed from Sanskrit ; revenue
terms are adopted from Persian and Arabic;
administrative borrowed from English'
terms are
besides some colloquial words like 'gate', compounds *
'coat', 'tiffin', 'clean', etc., used in daily life. There

are not very many grammatical forms newly intro-
duced as we find in English (if we compare modern
English with that of Bede or Chaucer), because the
grammar of the Tamil language was written so early
as the third or fourth century B. C, and the conser-
vative instinct of the Tamils has been so strong, that
new grammatical forms either by coinage or by loan
have been jealously guarded against. It is a settled
principle that when a language borrows, it borrows

mostly nouns and adjectives ; verbs are rarely taken
from other languages and particles never.
;
All the above changes were due to the operations

of the principles of phonetic decay and emphasis, and
analogy, aided, doubtless, by climate, food and edu-
cation of the society but not of the individual. These

will be explained fully with reference to Tamil in the
following pages.
According to VI. Hovelacque, Tamil is one of the
five hundred principal languages spoken on the face of
the globe at the present day. Morphologically, the

existing languages are divided into four groups, viz.
isolating, agglutinative, polysynthetic and inflectional.
The morphological classification is based entirely on

the form or manner in which the roots or the final
elements of a language are put together to form words
and sentences. In the isolating languages, like Chinese,
the roots are used as words, each root preserving its
full independence, unrestricted by any idea of person,

gender, number, time or mood ; and, in fact, lan-
guages of this kind do not require any grammar.

This is called the radical stage. In Chinese, nan^
male ; niu, female ; whence nan tse — son, niu tse =
daughter, niu jin = \vovna.n. In the agglutinative lan-
guages when two roots join together to form a word,
one of them loses its independence subjecting itself to
phonetic corruption. This is called the terminational

stage. In Tamil maga, isiiue, becomes by the
addition of n and / (corruptions of avan and
aval) magan = son and magal = da.ugh.ieT, When
words blend together in a sentence by syncope
and ellipsis, it is called polysynthesis. This is a
feature peculiar to American languages. Thus in the
Algonquin, the sentence Nadliolineen=bnng us the
canoe, is made up of naten=brmg, amochol =
148 TAMIT STUDIES
canoe, / = euphonic, and neen={o us. Languages in

which relations between words are expressed not only
by suffixes and prefixes, but also by a modification of
the form of roots, are called inflectional languages.
For example, in Sanskrit Vinsati, twenty, composed
is
of two roots dvi, two, and dasati, ten ; and the Sans-
krit eti, he goes, is composed of two roots, i, to go
and ta, the demonstrative pronoun.
Some philologists do not make much distinction bet-
ween agglutination and polysynthesis, thus counting
only three forms of speech in preference to four,
which is the view accepted by recent writers on
the subject. The theory that languages must pass
through the monosyllabic and the agglutinating
phases successively before reaching the inflectional
stage — a theory current when Dr. Caldwell wrote his
Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages —
has now been given up. An isolating dialect does
not become agglutinative, or an agglutinative one

inflectional. The radical feature of a language
explained in this fourfold classification, besides being
innate to that tongue, is expressive of the racial char-
acter of the people that speak it ; it cannot change
from one class to another though it can be modified
or altered by external circumstances.
To the agglutinative group belongs Tamil, while
Sanskrit is the most ancient cultivated member of the
inflectional family. Morphologically, the one has no

connection whatever with the other. Some Tamil
scholars seem to expect that their language will, in the
— ^
ordinary course, one day or other, reach the inflectional

stage and claim sisterhood with Sanskrit. Their
expectation will, indeed, prove a baseless and dream ;
similarly, the attempt of some Malayalam scholars to

elevate their Dravidian home-speech to the dignity of
the classic inflectional Sanskrit, by purging it of its
native element in order to import therein en bloc the
grammar and vocabulary of that sacred language, may
remind one of the Jackal miracle of saint Manikka
' '
Vachakar.
Relying on the traditions narrated in the Tamil
pnranas, the non-Brahman Saiva pandits of the
orthodox school hold that Sanskrit and Tamil were
created by god Siva as his twin children, and in proof
of their divine origin they cite the Vedas and the
Devara hymns. The Kanchipurana
* '
and the '
Tiru-
vilayadalpurana ' assert that Siva taught the Tami
grammar to Agastya, as he had in former days taught
the Sanskrit grammar to Panini.
euu-QiDP Lêaiuu UfressBeaflsi^ iSij(^^^(T^sffl m ^ p@'2essr uu!r
According to a third tradition Subrahmanya was

the teacher of Tamil to that sage. Sivagnanasvami, a
conceited Saiva monk and scholar of the eighteenth
century, writes in his '
Tolkapya-sutra-vritti '
that
the Tamil grammar of Agastya was the only
Tamil work that had come into existence on the day
of the creation of the Tamil language. Qîh^sLû^
150 TAMIL STUDIES
^s^^tuQmnmQ p imrssonm. On the other hand, the

Jains beheve that Agastya learnt his Tamil from
Avalokita. Following the traditions current in their
days, the poets Kamban and Villiputturar have said

that the language itself was created by Agastya :
^s^îumtJLuis, Qg:^^Qs=iT6i)rr!resaria(^. — Vil,
All these would only amuse the school children of

modern days.
But Sanskrit and Tamil, though they may have
been the oldest, were not the only two languages
prevalent m the Bharata Varsha. In the extreme
south we have now Telugu, Kanarese and Malayalam
besides minor dialects, each being considered by
its speakers as valuable as, and even more than^
Tamil. The Telugus call Tamil aravam or 'soundless',
and the Kanarese speak oi it as the 'stammerer's lan-
guage' (iigalu). These vernaculars which are, however^
closely allied to one another are collectively known
as the 'Dravidian family'.
No definite laws for the permutation of vowels
and consonants in the allied words of these lan-
guages, like those of Grimm or Vernor, could
be framed as they had been influenced to a very
considerable extent by Sanskrit before their gram-
mars were written. Tamil is the only solitary excep-
tion. Though Malayalam has been the most un-
fortunate of the family, having been affected most by
Sanskrit, the consonantal interchanges in Dravidian
words between it and Tamil are almost trifling,
PLACE OF TAMIL IN PHILOLOGY 15 L
except such as we find between the refined Tamil and

its vulgar form. This proves the lateness of its
separation from Tamil, We below a table to

give
show some of the striking changes which the words
undergo in Tamil, Malayalam, Kanarese, and Telugu.
Tamil.
—
152 TAMIL STUDIES
or eighth century A. D., and when Sanskrit puraiuis

and other Sanskrit religious literature were in-
troduced, the of Tamil scholars began to

views
change. Mostthem were acquainted with both
of
Tamil and Sanskrit ye.t they had greater love and
;
reverence for the latter, as their Vedas and Puranas

and Agamas were written in that language and this ;
partiality or rather a sentiment verging on odiiiui
theologicum induced them to trace Tamil f^rom Sans-

krit just as the early European divines tried
to trace the Western languages from the Hebrew.

The authors of Neminadam and Virasoliam' and
' ' *
the commentators of the Tolkapyam and the

Kural countenanced the above view. Again, in the
eighteenth century the authors of 'Ilakkanakkottu'
and 'Prayoga Vivekam', both of whom were good

Sanskritists, boldly asserted that Tamil was a dia-
lect of Sanskrit with a grammar common to both.
Swaminatha Desika writes.
jH&srnSiLjfB îAlt^^jb setreiSêi) LUQjpgti
QmiT&srQ p LunaSîB ênB^fiL^ (iêearQi—tT
pztsipLuQeu sn espi eu !TfS<Si\ssii~. QuuirQwy
euL-QmiTL^ ûSi^Qld/tl^ Quj^lSIq^ QuhtlûSi^
'j^&)ss6sar QuDiTsisiQp QtueisrQp Qiuemîis.

He thinks that savants will be ashamed to say that
a language can exist, whose distinguishing feature
is the possession of only five letters, namely, ob, tg, sw,
p and <ow^ or ct, 9, £^, p and ew, and wants us therefore

to accept that the grammar is one and the same both

for Tamil and Sanskrit. This is the logic and the
acumen of a divine andthe head of a non-
philological
Brahman Saiva monastery. While another scholar
and a Brahmnan contemporary of the above has
almost upet the Tamil grammar by his indiscreet
substitution of Sanskrit terminology. His book, after
all, is a logomachy and is no improvement on its pre-
decessors. He says, — a;L_QtD/rL^/i@,5 ^Ldii^QLDiTL^s(îh
QeupôSiLD'jjiT&iiuD ^sifiii^ QqjQ p&sruasmrr QiBnsSi Qtueisrs.
In determining the affinity of any two languages

the points that must be considered are, — (a) the simi-
larity of general structure, grammar (both in form
and meaning) and signification; and {b) regular and
uniform interchange of phonetic sounds between
the languages compared. Of these, the first two
relate to grammar, and the rest to the vocabulary of
a language. We shall at the outset deal with the
vocabulary which is less important.
The vocabulary of is composed
modern Tamil
two elements only, the Tamilic or south-
essentially of
ern and the Sanskritic or northern. There are, indeed,
a few dozens of foreign words chiefly relating to
commerce and adminstration, introduced into the
Tamil language during the past two or three centuries.
Eliminating all the Sanskrit words from the Tamil
dictionary, there will be a large residue of native
words, which must have been the vocabulary of the
original Tamils. They had been a tolerably civilized
154 TAMIL STUDIES
race before they came in contact with the Aryans.

They had and still have their own terms pertaining
to agriculture, anatomy, architecture, astronomy,
commerce, domestic , economy, family relations,
fauna and flora, language and literature, medi-

cine, minerals, politics, religion, war, weights and
measures, &;c., all of course in their primitive
stage. and Qs^dj, (îtuSsu and îhsm, «b<5
«'T^
and siiOj magii and Qanm, QfBe\) and urreo, Qpjbpui
and U3.F*, îroj and ûum, Qîb(^ and 3,!T<ss)Lp -
,
and y,s35.9^, siq^^^ and Q<frr&), uit and ^Ssjrjt, Qieit

/-/6>j?
and <aus)S, Qsueneifl and Qurrm, ^'^p, ^îT and Qstr, êS
and siêij&r, j>jLDLi and eSI<s\), u)it and s!^(^s? are all pure
Tamil words, and they are not to be found in the
Sanskrit language. In fact, every word of daily
usage is Tamil. To establish any linguistic affinity,
at least words denoting the simplest and the most

ordinary family relationship must be identical.
For example, the words ' father '
and mother in
*
'
English are represented by pitri and niairi in

Sanskiit, pater and meter in Greek, pater and
mater '\w Latin, vater and mutter in German,
pitar 3.nd jnater m Zend, and so on. On the other
hand, the corresponding relations are expressed in
Tamil by appan and tay. This in itself is sufficient

to prove that Tamil has no philological affinity
with either Sanskrit or any Indo-European tongue.
There are, however, certain words apparently of
Tamil origin which may be found in Sanskrit. Dr.
Caldwell gives a list of some thirty words which, he
— —
thinks, Sanskrit has borrowed from Tamil. They are,
îsiT^ Sl^'^^, Jtji—^, ^miMT, rêesfly a®(^, a&drr , (ûf-t
QsmLisai—j i§iT, ulLl^ssotiMj urrstj), ueom, iSm, ojeirsffl &C.

Some are common to both languages and a more
rational view is to believe them to have come from a
common source. They are, î^, 'j^rr, «/_, @l^, (s/^,
(short), OcS®, ^, '51—, Qedj^ USD, u/r®, uneo, Qua^, Qu3f>
L^, eueo, &c. The following canons will be of some

help to detect such words.
(1) When a word is an isolated one in Sanskrit
without a root and without derivatives, but is sur-
rounded in Tamil with collateral derivative words,
that word is of Tamil origin.
(2) When a word is not to be found in any of the

Indo-European languages allied to Sanskrit, but is
found only in Tamil, that word does not belong to

Sanskrit.
Words of this kind are very few and form too slen-
der a basis to prove the linguistic affinity or othrwise
between Sanskrit and Tamil.
now pass on to grammar.
Let us
Orthography Sanskrit has 46 : letters ov Variias —
lo vowels or Svaras and 33 consonants or Vyanjanas,
or 47 mcluding ^
which occurs in the Vedas. Besides
these there are annswara and annnasika, represented
by a dot, and a crescent and a dot respectively. Thus
there are in ail 49 letters. Whereas we have in Tamil
only 12 vowels, 18 consonants and a semi-vowel. Of
these, two vowels and four consonants (including oo)
are peculiar to Tamil and are not to be found in the
—
156 TAMIL STUDIES
Sanskrit language; deducting these six we have 25

letters which are common to both; and Sanskrit has
24 lettersthe sounds of which are not represented by
any letter in Tamil. The possession of peculiar sounds
like if, /D, and o°o exhibits the physiological charac-
iSOT
teristics of the Tamil people, differentiating their
language from the Aryan tongues : and the very fact
that Tamil possesses and largely employs the short

sounds STand 9 points to an origin, quite independent
of Sanskrit. The short ct and 9 are not peculiar to
Tamil, which every language except Sanskrit posesses
although Swaminatha Desikar and other native
scholars, blindly following Sanskrit grammarians,
seem to think otherwise. In Tamil sel is to go, and
s&l is a kind of fish; niel is to chew and niel is above;
kol is to kill and kol is a stick, tol is old and tgl i^ the
skin, noy is softness and ndy is sickness; and so on.
Dr. Caldwell states that the diphthongs S and sgarr

had no place in the Dravidian languages and that they
were placed in their alphabets solely in imitation of
Sanskrit. He further asserts that S in Tamil is a com-
pound of CT@ and ^ and ^ as in Sanskrit,
but not of
and that it is an equivalent of si in Malayalam and of
in Kanarese. As for eârr he believes that it has no
<5T
place in the Tamil alphabet except for pronouncing

Sanskrit derivatives only. As against these observe
what Tolkapyar says.
^sir ^sir (oSiLDSiTaLDrr(ûa. — I. 54.
r^&a a_<55ir QLDeirsiTinDiT(î}i. — I. 55.
U6sre!^0uS(Tr Qlditl^ qp^soit(^ld. — I. 59.
It is thus unsafe to accept Dr. Caldwell's view in
violation of the above rules, as there are pure Tami

word in S and ^<sir^ as êuesno, e^/sinsSuuiM, esijsiuso,
Q^msaoj, es)u^&), QufsirsuLJo, &c. The Tamil S becomes

=gy but not sj in Malayalam; compare ^'2e>j and ^&),
3<osyrr and <«j, S'Sev and /^su, &c.
Word Formation: —The peculiarities of structure
of Tamil words may be briefly noticed here. In
the last essay something has been said of the
initial, middle and final letters in words. That will
doubtless help the reader to settle for himself which

words are native, and which foreign. The following
additional rules are worth his careful consideration.
(1). Double consonants at the beginning, and triple
consonants of different Vargas or classes in any
position are not allowed in a Tamil word. Compare
Sanskrit trayi, vaktram and vastraui.
(2) In the middle of a word double consonants

of different classes are not, as a rule, allowed ; words
with eiiLi, Qjuj, emtu, essreij, itu, lduj, woj, &C., do not OCCur.
(3). The doubling of the same consonant is very
common in Tamil, but not so in Sanskrit. In Tamil
we have akka, attai, annan, attaii, appaii, ainmai, &c.
(4) No [Tamil word can begin with s=, <ss)s=, and

0<?^sff; but Sanskrit allows these initial letters as in -fLDLj,
(S5)9âjih and QêrriTujui. The Tamil words s^lLl^ and

sûDifi^GO are a later introduction.
(5) Only the long tun can come at the beginning

of a Tamil word, while others do not. In Sanskrit
we have uj&jewrr, a^s^, ^'-"^, (^(J-ifrsm and OajswOTru).
—
158 TAMIL STUDIES
(6) No Tamil words will end in i, s=, lL, ^, and

u. But in Sanskrit there are words like p/itakf
vach, rat, pat, and yup.
As in Sanskrit, Tamil words are either simple
or compound. Simple words are formed from
roots, which are either nominal or verbal, by the
addition of formative particles, like o, *, ®, ^, i-i
and J2/, J)l, Jljih, ^17, Jfjio, jffasr, ^, êo, ^6sr, @, ^su, a_,
sm, e_LD, S, fflo«, 0, 0, u, mLD, eSI, emsu and /^, and srr®,
urrQ, jtjfTSij and ^'êsr. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs, might be formed in this way. To prevent
hiatus SI, ii> ox: &5T is sometimes added. From the
verbal root Seo, to stand, the following words are form-
ed, iB'^, iS&)m, fSeoeij &c from V
; îl, to kill, we have
=sy®, <=gj®, sji—eS, ^(SuLj, j)jlL®, ,jyi-ii), jî—eo, îîi(^, &c;
from '^ jij/b, to cut, we get =^j2/, êap^ ^s)"ssi&i^ sjpu^,
ji/ûLj, ^jbjSLD, j)f3)i0, ^/Dso, &c ; and from V fBil, to

walk or dance, are derived isi-, tBi-^^&n, rsi—ui-i, issai—,
isi—ims, (elLl^ld, &c. The nominal root ssim (the eye)

becomes mem, to see, by lengthening the vowel.
in Tamil, roots are always monosyllabic, ending in
long vowels, or in a short vowel and a consonant.
There are 42 single-letter words, which must essen-
tially be monosyllabic, and these are either verbs or
nouns. There are other monosyllabic nouns like
Q^treo, s&), mGrn, unasr, &c. Compound words are

made up of simple words; tor example, u/fl-oj/r (horse)
is a compound of Lj^=to run, and LDrT=a. beast, <«®-
fiu/r(Zj (tiger) from <s®=rough or cruel, and Q;/r(u=raouth.
Mostly such compounds are epithets or metaphors.
—
PLACE -OF TAMIL IN PHILOLOGY 159
It will be seen from the examples given above

that the formative elements or terminations are all
post-positions, and that the roots rarely change their

forms, barring the shortening or lenthening of verbs
as in «sOT-«/7-60OT, eSQ-s^Q, and the slight consonantal
changes peculiar to Tamil euphony.
On the other hand, the terminations used to form
derivative bases in Sanskrit are of two classes :
(1) Krt or primary affixes which are added to

verbs to form nouns, adjectives, &c. For example*
karah (the hand) is the noun form of kri, to do cluir ;
(to steal) becomes chorayat, stealing tikia is the ad- ;
jectival form of vach, to speak; and ishta from yaj,

to sacrifice, &c.. Prepositions are prefixed to roots to
form nouns, &c., as in a-kash, nis-chitya, vij-kri, &c.
(2) The taddhita or secondary affixes are add-

ed to substantives to form secondary nominal bases.
One studying vyakarana is a vaiyakarani ; that
which IS made by a kulala is kaiilalakani ;
father of pita is pitamaha ; son of Dakshi is DaksJia-

yanah ; son of Agni is Agneyah ; a herd of hasttit is
hastikam; belonging to Panini is Panineya ; one

possessing vakis vachalah, &c,
A comparison of the terminations or affixes used to
form words, and of the methods of forming them, in
Tamil and Sanskrit will convince the reader that they
differ in both languages. The taddhita class, espe-
cially, is characteristic of Sanskrit, and it was only
the lack of the historic sense, so common among the
Tamil grammarians, that led the author of Prayoka
.
160 TAMIL STUDIES
vivekam to say ' €SîEms(^(3uiûQuajQrreoeonih ^^^^mj*

In consequence of the differences in the structure
and formation of words their coalescence or sandhi
(T. i-jsmiTf^.) must also differ in the two lan-
guages. This difference is observable chiefly in
vowel changes. The Tamil rule of sandhi is,
^. ff: S <3JL^ LueueijLD sj^^sTLLjuSiTQj i^ Qjojeifui. — Nan,

The short &. has the nature of a consonant. Ac-
cording to this rule, LD6S3fj+ J)jL^^z=LD€SsftuJLp<^ ;
ÎTIT +
^^g)! = ^!nTistjeer g)} •
+
ue\}fT ^?sw =ue\)frisSl'2e\>' imi -f &-!T&>=s
LDIT£ijJT60 j f5rT(^ + J>jrfl^ = IB/TSffl^ ; & gU + Jt/SST = & gVOlSSr

Whereas according to svara-sandhi they should
become LDSsaiLui^^^ âams)!^ usO/rSsw and ldQ!TIT!T&).
There are many other peculiarities in the combina-

tion of Tamil words not found in Sanskrit, which it
is in possible to explain in this essay.
Simple words join together to form compounds.

In Sanskrit there are six classes, namely, (1) Dvandva
or ^-LD(ss)LD^Qs!T(ssiSj{2) Tatpurusha or QaipgiKsiaLD^Q^nissis
(3) Karmadharaya or usotl/^Q^/tsw*, (4) Dvigu or

(srssmû^Q^TesiSy (5) Bahuvrihi or ^ssrQLOfTL^^Q^rr^s
and (6) Avyayibhava or the adverbial compounds.
Corresponding to these we have in Tamil a set- of six
compounds known as,
^mQuiiTL^ Qmesreij^ Q^!TSS)S njiT(7rf'(îh. — Nan.

^.êsiLD^Q^rresis is included in the Karmadharaya ;
and eremû^Qîrssiri or Dvigu of Sanskrit (Ex :
^jrnarr&ij umssfi(tÛL^s\)uD) is contained in ûjeanL^QîTema,
uemLj^QsTsois and jtimQuorrL^^Q^rretss of Tamil. Thus

—
eSêar ^Q ^trsBs alone remains to be accounted for and

that is peculiar only to Tamil.
The peculiarities of structure and formation of
words in Sanskrit have compelled the Tamils to
modify them,! when borrowed, so as to suit the mor-

phological features of the Tamil tongue. The
words thus borrowed are of two classes — the iatsajiias
and the tatbUavas. It is only the second

that class
undergoes change in Tamil. At the time of Tolkap-

yar the Sanskrit words in Tamil were very few, and
he felt no necessity to frame rules for their adoption.
He was content^by saying, &€a)îh^€m eirfl^ uSeauji^ssr
Qjes)!TiLiiTiT. The later Tamil grammarians, however,

observing the large influx of Sanskrit words and their
use in a variety of forms, were constrained to give
fixity them; by providing authoritative rules and
to ;
they are to be found explained in the ^^Îûul^&)u>

of Virasoliyam and in the ufisSiujeo of Nannul.
Their main object was to evade or soften difficul-
ties in pronouncing two consecutive consonants
in a word, or a'l'^word beginning with a consonant
not allowed^ by the Tamil usage, by introducing
vowels. ThuslSanskrit ratna is changed mXo o.raian-
am or irattitiam, sakshi into sakki or satchi ; yaksha
into iyakkaii, laksJiana into ilakkaua, &c. This is
evidently'a stage-more advanced than the monosvl-

labic Chinese which converts 'Christ' into 'Ki-jisu-tu'
and 'Maharashtra' into 'Mo-la-cha,' but far
below the
inflectional Sanskrit,which evinces 'the strength and
directnessôf character and scorn of difihcullies' in
the Indo-Aryan race.
11
—
^
162 TAMIL STUDIES
Etymology : There are four parts of speech or

Qsjio in Tamil, namely Qutuir (noun), sSêsr (verb),
^sroi_ (particles) and a.^ (attributives). It is an ac-
cepted principle with Tamil grammarians that all
parts of speech are ultimately reducible to only two

substantives and verbs ; and this is also the view of
modern philologists. Says Tolkapyar,
QsâeoQleo&STU u®u QuinQiT eSl'2esiQtjum

Qj/'.aSlireaar Qu-mu eutBii,QQ QiGsyâ. II, — 160.
Of these the noun and the verb require no explana-

tion. means the middle word that is a
^5S)L^s=Qs=fr&) —
part of speech common to both nouns and verbs.
It consists of all particles, terminations or post-
positions which go to change or modify the meaning
of nouns and verbs with reference to time, place,
subject, action, &c. Thus it embraces the particles
of tense, personal terminations, case endings, demon-
strative letters, conjunctions, interjections, euphonic
expletive particles, and in fact every particle that has
no meaning by itself, independent of the noun or
verb to which it is attached. îBs^Qsîtso treats of the
various qualities of nouns and verbs, and it therefore
includes adjectives and adverbs. The metaphysical
explanation of s^>f^3='^€=ai^ given by .Sivagnanamuni is,
— ^^'osnnjueanrLji) Q^ f7
i^ p u esm'^LDfr Si aj Qu^Q^LLuom^tauJLfsaarn
^(J5Q#7«jo o_n9iO<rffsu. Elsewhere, he goes on to say
that «i_, <su/r, QpsisSuj Qfi3,S2isoSiî Q^ffi^ puêmssu
u^63w/r^^@ QfirpaeaassSm oîfls^Qs^rrSo QeOiuiio. This

explanation seems to me very obscure, and it is the
merit of his commentary to make it more abstruse

and unintelligible than the text itself. It will thus be
seen that the classification of words, other than Qutu,T
and &9'2em, into ^î^fQ^rreo and p^fl^Qraso was
neither definite nor phik)SophicÎ. These words have
been variously classified and often in a conflicting
manner by later grammarians. For instance, the
author of Prayoga-Vivekam has said that Q&neoQ&iio
<si)'TLD &îfls^ Qs^fre\)QsOujfr Qldsst g ^ssafls.
The differences between the Tamil and Sanskrit

parts of speech may be briefly stated as follows :
—
(1) Like all other classical languages Sanskrit has
three numbers, while Tamil has only two. The dual
number or ^Q^smu) must have existed in early TamiL
It became mixed up with ussr^ô or the
evidently
plural number and so vanished out of Tamil
giaiUinar. g)f or which means 'two' was the dual
it
termination, and «srr for the plural. Now is reser'/ed 'T
as an honorific termination for pluralising '

high
caste ' nouns and verbs, and sik for all.
(2) All nouns denoting inanimate objects and

irrational animals are of the neuter gender {ôo pS'êssr),
and those denoting r itional beings (like man, God,
and Nagas) are of the high-caste or superior gender
s_uj/f^3sOTr. Whereas in Sanskrit no such philosophic
and sexnal distinctions are niade here the grammati- ;
cal gender is only '

a secondary accident of speech
ornamental, perhaps from an aesthetic point of view,
but practically highly detrimental.' No definite rules
could, therefore, be laid down for the determination

IM TAMIL STUDIES
of gender in Sanskrit; soma, the 'moon' is masculine,.

ruchi, '
taste '
is feminine, and jûiran, '
son' is neuter..
It will thus be seen that gender in Sanskrit depends on
the peculiar structure of words, but not on the sex or
the intelligence of the objects expressed by them.
(3) Tamil nûns are inflected not by means of
case terminations, but b^? means of suffixed post-
positions and sepaiaie particles. The inflectional
base m ilie oblique cases is the root in Sanskrit, while
in Tamil it is the nominative, except the first and
second personal pionouns /s/rear^ S, Sit and i§<sSit which
alone ch nge their forms. For example, in Sanskrit
the roots vach (speech) and raj (king) become vak
and rat in the first or nominative case, while in
Tamil the roots Gspnei' (word) and ado (stone) remain,

the sanie. In declining nouns the same case termina-
tions are added to the root for the singular and to the
plural terminations for the plural (e. g., aeu^, A/bs'Setr),
But in Sanskrit and otiier IndoGermanic languages,

the case endings of the plural differ from those of
tht singul-:ir. As Dr. Caldwell rightly observes, — 'the
imitation of Sanskrit was certainly an error, for whilst
in Sanskrit there ?re eight cases only, the number
of cases in Tamil, Telugu, &c., is almost indefinite,'
being limited only by the number of post-
positions that may be attached to the noun.

And it is this indefiniteness that has given an endless
trouble to the Tamil grammarian Tolkapyar, whohas
devoted three complete chapters for cases only ;
and these have been supplemented by another by the

au thor of Ilakkanakkottu.
—
(4) Tamil has no relative pronouns. The exis-
tence of two pronouns of the 1st person plural, one

of which includes and the other exxludes the person
addressed, is a peculiarity ot Tamil, affiliating it to
Turkic and other agglutinating tongues and differenti-
ating it from Sanskrit.
(5) There are six tenses and four moods in Sanskrit,
while Tamil has only three tenses and three raoods^

The existence of a negative and a passive voice
in the verbal system is peculiar to Tamil, the latter
being expressed- by auxiliary verbs signifying to

'
The subjunctive and the optative moods
suffer'.
are expressed by means of suffixed particles, and the

other three tenses by means of auxiliary verbs. There
is no benedictive mood in Tamil. The structure of
the verb is strictly agglutinative, the second person
singular of the imperative being an exception. The
view of Senavaraiyar and Sivagnana-muni that
^ QiusisT^t}) ~i'(m^(^'sbr(3 iBs—eai &-sanr ôt ctott" Sm pesr
&je\)Si>^ Qp^ssfl'hso'iQetr QiuiT'Sms^Qwgi uirLLc^fTisaretjeiJfT^
fSssr/DesT Qojmu^ ui—rr^ —does not seem to be accep-

table.
(6) In Sanskrit, adjectives are declined like
nouns, which they qualify in gender, number, and

case. In Tamil, adjectives which are only nouns of
quality (pîBs^Qîreo ), have none. In Sanskrit the

adjectives have degrees of comparison, while those
of Tamil have none at all. The Sanskrit adjective
priya is positive, and its comparative and superlative
are priyas and preshta.
166 TAMIL STUDIES
(7) There are no prepositions or conjunctions in

Tamil except p-w which is only a continiiative particle.
It is the peculiarity of Tamil derivatives that none of
them are formed by prefixed particles. But some
might say that in âuesr, êudr, &c,, the letters j)j, @
are prefixes. But they are pronominal words or
roots, but not particles.
Rhetoric : The Tamil rules of prosody relating

to the structure and division of syllable, foot, stanza,
rhyme, &c., are diff(^rent from those of Sanskrit.
Venba, Asiriyappa, Kalippa and Vanjippa are ail
peculiar only to Tamil. The treatment of Porul

matter) into again (subjective or amatory) and piirani
(objective,chiefiy warlike), and the division of conduct
into five ^'bssw <<ic., are not to be found in Sanskrit.
The foregoing arguments, to show the indepen-
dence of Tamil fiom Sanskrit, may be summed
up in the words of Sivagnanamuni as follows: ^tSu^
^LD Qun(rp,LLunQ,un®S(mU', (s^rSi(^^QisuLLS Qp^sSliu ^2sssru

U!T(ûn(Si.i(smLDj Qeuemurr ^su pfSeisr U(^^s^ld QpêSliu
Qi3=djiiêifl&)s3GSBrQfiiJD ^(smQîTissjsin iS/osijLh eui—QLDiTLpj'jSIp
Qu/DuuL-fT. Even the author of Prayoga Vivekam who

has attempted in the early chapters of that work to
prove the identity of Tamil and Sanskrit grammars
is obliged to admit with candour the essential differ-
ences between the two languages thus: p'Bsmiq&soriT^^giju)
<a53E37 ia?@,®J'(4U), êsmuneo Quemune^ pssojit^^ld <sSl'êsj(oS
—
With such authoritative admissions before us, the

complete independence of Tamil from Sanskrit must
be accepted, in spite of the futile attempts of later
Tamil grammarians to trace one from the other. All

that we can say at present is that Tamil occupies the
âme postition in ihe Dravidian family that Sanskrit
does in the Aiyan — that is, Tamil is the oldest and
the most cultivated of the Dravidian or South
Indian family ot languages.
But it cannot altogether be denied that Tamil or at

any rate its Dravidian parent and the Aryan languages,
though they do not possess the least morphological
ieatuies in common, did not influence one another
before their separation. Dr Caldwell gives the follow-
ing Indo-Europeanisms as discoverable in the
Dravidian languages :
(1) The use of n, ek, as in Sanskric and Greek to

prevent hiatus. Ex : Skt. a + adi = anadi ; Tam.
in + a = ninci.
(2) I'he existence of gender in the pronouns of the
third person and in verbs, and in particular the exist-

ence of neuter gender. Ex : jiteiissr, êueh and ^^.
The existence of a neuter plural, as in Latin,
(B) in
short ^. Ex: T. euiB^sm, Lat. templa (temples).
(4) The use of d or i (^) as the sign of the neuter
singular of demonstrative pronouns, or pronouns of

the third person. Ex : Skt. iai ; Tam. ^^. &c.
168 TAMIL STUDIES
(5) The formation of a remote demonstrative from

a base in jy, the proximate from a base in ^. Ex :
Skt. adah, idmn ; Tarn. =gy#7, @jp.
(b) The formation of preterites by d. Ex : Skt.

/'/, jita, Tam. 'sun^ o;®^, &c.
(7) The formation of some preterites by redupHca-
tion. Ex Skt. pash^ papacha
: ; Tam u^^, q^(5, &c.
(8) The formation of verbal nouns by lengthening

the vowel of the verbal root. Ex: Skt. nat-natya^ guh-
gildam, &c ; Tam. uSissr-i^^m , /Hi^-sî^, &c.
It is said that the Drnvidian languages m thei*" turn

exerted an equal, if nnt greater, influence on Sanskrit
and her North Indian dialects. This is what every-
body might nauirally expect, considering that the
Prakrit dialects came into existence during historic
times and that the peoples whose mother tongue
they are, have, from remote antiquity, been living in
the midst of the Dravidian races. Moreover, all those

who speak them are not Aryans.
The Dravidian influence on the grammar of the

Indo-Aryan languages has been detailed by Dr Cal-
dwell as follows : —The inflection of nouns by means
of separate post-fixed particles added to the oblique
form of the noun ; the inflection of the plural by
annexing the same sign as for the singular; the use of
two pronouns for the first person plural the one in- —
cluding and the other excluding the party addressed;
the use of post-positions instead of prepositions ; the
formation of verbal tenses by means of particles ;
the situation or the relative sentence before the indi-

cative ; the situation of the governing word after the
governed ; the use of I, err ; and the preference of

cerebrals to dentals.
Affiliation of Tamil : It is superfine us to

mention here that Tamil is the oldest member of the
Dravidian group of languages. No scholar has yet
attempted to construct the primitive Dravidian lan-
guage from which the modern Tamil, Telugu, Kana-
rese and other dialects have sprung. A comparison
of this hypothetical languaiê with the other groups
of the agglutinative family might yield satisfactory
facts for establishing its affiliation- But in the
absence of such data we must take the aid of ethno-
logy and such linguistic resources as may at present
be available.
In the chapter on the origin ol the Tamil people
we have said that the original Dravidians came to
India from Western Asia through the North-Western
passes on the Himalayas, and that they mingled
with the aboriginal races of Nagas and the Negrito
people after they had settled in the extreme south
of the Indian Peninsula. Hence the language of the
Dravidians must have undergone changes as a result
of the influence of the crude Australian dialects
spoken by the Naga and Negrito autochthones. As

however, the modern Dravidian languages have
not yet been completely analysed, it is not possible at
present to separate the Dravidian from the aborigi-
nal linguistic elements. But this much seems to
—
170 TAMIL STUDIES
be certain, that the primitive Dravidian language was

influenced by Semitic and the Aryan languages
on the one side, and by the Finno-Hungarian idioms
on the other. And, but for some broad morpholo-
gical pecuharities, there is no trace of the Aus-
tralian influence to be found in the Dravidian lan-
guages. From what has been said in the first essay
and from what follows, it will be plain that the
Dravidian languages must he allied to the Uralo-Altaic
group, though they cannot be geneologically classed

with It. No other theory can satisfactorily account
for the presence of Greek, Keltic, Hebrew and Finno-
Hungarian words in Tamil.
The following grammatical features are common

to the languages of the Dravidian family and the
Uralo-Altaic group :
(1) Words are never formed by prefixes but

always by suffixes so that the principal root may in-
variably stand first. Ex : /Fi_, isi—is^, isi—i^^, &c.
(2) Declension is effected by agglutinating secon-

dary or relational particles to the principal root.
Suffixes are added to the root or to the plural element,
that is the plural sign is always mtercalated betw'een

the noun and the post-position. Ex: ssd, «eD?sw; sjbs&r^
(3) Consonantal system is simple, and letters
approaching in eôund the Tamil ^^ will be f(jund in
some languages of the Uralo-Altaic group.
(4) The which is ameie qualifymg noun

adjective
comes always before the word it qualifies, except in
Basque, and the degrees of comparison are expressed

by words meanino 'more', 'less', &c.
(5) Tenses and moods are formed by the in-
sertion of certain elements between the root and the

personal ending. Ex : Qs=&)-\- p-{-êk=Qfm(7rj'm.
(6) There are no relative pronouns in Basque as
in Tamil.
(7) The existence of two pronouns of the first per-

son plural, one of which includes and the other
excludes the person addressed, is a peculiarity of the
Dravidian languages.
(8) Use of continuative particles in the place of
conjunctions. Ex: Qsîrîh Qsâifi^th.
(9) The crude root verb is capable of being used

in the imperative of the second person singular.
Ex: iBi—, Qj/7, etc.
(10) There are only two numbers in Turkish.

In all these languages the so-called cases are formed
by agglutination, their number being limited only by
the number of post-positions that may be attached to
the noun.
Till very recently it was usual with comparative
philologists to classify all languages which are neither
Aryan, Semitic nor Hamitic under the Turanian or
Scythian or Allophyiian family. But it has now
been proved that there cannot be such a family as
the Turanian or Scythian, as no two languages which
are brought under it bear the same geneological
relationship to each other as Sanskrit bears to Latin
or Greek in the Aryan family, except that they are
172 TAMIL STUDIES
morphologically connected. The roots of each

are different; so are their grammatical elements. The
explanation for this difference lies in the fact
that the Aryan languages — Sanskrit, Greek, Latin,

Keltic, &c — separated at an epoch when their structure
was already perfect. On the other hand, the so call-
ed Turanian or Scythian languages seem to have
parted when their was in an imperfect
structure
condition ; them was obliged to depend
and so each of
on its own resources or on borrowed elements
available at hand to complete its inner structure. It
has also been observed that in the course of formation

and growth some of the languages of the Uralo-
Aitaic group made use of incorporation
•
— a feature
peculiar to theAmerican languages. In the case of
the Dravidian languages, their development and ap-
proach towards the incorporating stage must have
been arrested at a very early period by their literary
culture, which was no doubt due to the Aryan

influence. The position assigned to the Dravidian
•languages by M. Hovelacque in tiie linjJuistic systems
seems to us quite appropriate. He says,
— ' they must
be comprised among the first in the ascending order,
that is among those i'mmediately following the
isolating system, and anterior to Turkish, Magyar,
Basque and the American languages.'
So much for the origin of Tamil and its place in

the linguistic systems of the world. Coming now to
the history of the Tamil language, it may conveni-

ently be divided into three periods, namely, (1) the
early Tamil comprising the period between the

sixth century before and after Christ ; (2) the
mediaeval Tamil, occupying the interval between
the sixth century and the twelfth century ;
and (3)
the modern Tamil, extending from the twelfth down
to the present day. It is not proposed here to
deal with it as completely as the importance of the
subject demands. We shall, iiowever, briefly indicate
the characteristics of each period to justify the

rationale of the above cla^^sification.
Early Tamil: During the first half of this period

the prevailing religion was animism or the worship
of the spirit of departed heroes and ancestors. It
was afterwards supplemented by Buddhism ;md lastly

by Jainism. Brahmanism, though it had already
been transplanted into the Tamil c( untry, was very
weak. The conflict of these religions for supremacy
had not yet commenced. All the four religions exist-
ed side by side and were tolerated.
Early Tamil was the language used by the writers
of academic and the classic periods. And the

the
peculiarities of this Tamil may be observed in the
literature of those times, the important of which being
the Agananuru, the Purananuru, the Pattuppattu, the

Padirruppattu, the Silappadikaram and the Manime-
kalai. The standard gram.mars of the epoch were the
Tolkapyam, Pannirupadalam, Usimuri, &c. In our
review of Padirrupattu, the special characteristics of
the early TamU will be described at some length.
We shall, however, say a few words here concerning

-
174 TAMIL STUDIES
them under the four-heads of vocabulary, gram na r
style and matter.
According to the late Mr. P. Sundaram Pillai's

calculation the percentage of Sanskrit words in three
of the Ten Poems (Pattuppattu) is between one and
two. In the Nedunalva;lai there are altogether but
twenty Sanskrit words, and in the Madnrai- Kanchi,
a poem of 782 Hnes, the number does not exceed fifty
five.And in fact the introduction of Sanskrit words is
strongly condemned by the be^t writers of the
academic period. It was considered by them as the
mark of an imperfect education. Two of the earliest
Kanarese poets have characterized it as '

an unnatural'
union...' or as the ' stringing of pearls along with
pepper-corns.'
Words of foreign origin were never introduced,

notwithstanding the commercial intercourse of the
Tamils with the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, whom
they indiscriminately called the Yavanas. Sanskrit
words were very sparingly used and even these were
mutilated in their form as will be seen in the following
examples: (lpq^^îm, unsîh, ^^sm ,
^ss^sn, ^s^3=si>r, fSjiuu),
ûSifi^j, p^<3!rQ, (j.T^, (&c. Some Tamil roots were used

in sentences without formative particles as snio for
arrpjpj, Qsu^ for QeuprS^ ^'Su, i§)QJ, a-ia/ and cufr for
^miw, ^5a}(si]^ s^smsn and ujn'ss)^. Some words were
used in senses which have now beom-s obsolete
For example, Qs^suso meant a horse', sosmi^ meant a
*
'he-buffalo,' meant a pig and Quirsbi was 'iron'

sefflgv '
'
&c. Relational words like CT-iyo-o)a/ = our younger sister,

^dr'2esT=my lord, s7«a»,5 = our lord or father, ^/5«ro^=

your father, and ^mr, is^dit, ^J'-ît, have all become
obsolete. Some classical words like §>:-îu, to '
die',
(ipsQ, to 'eat', îbslL®, 'there', grojdj, '

slowly', &c. have
now become slang.
Sometimes post-positions were added directly to

the roots without the euphonic particles or sînflesnw
Por example, nufBiimii for têrfl'uisisiruj, =§53537 for
êS^r, •^s\)eOfr(^s for ^sU'Sewojrr^S;, Câretfti) for QslL

i—fSQiufTixi, ûaQiDesr for sîTQ^Qmssr, ^lLu for ^(Suu, Qlduj&)
for Quiujs^sêo, una® for LBfrLLQ^Soc. The plural termination

IT is very sparingly used and «^rr never, the abstract
terms Qsuik^, ^lar^, &c., being perferred to concrete
terms to avoid number. The use of distinctive termi-
nations for the seven cases is not strictly adhered to,
one or two post-positional particles like @«3t or ^^^
being used for all the no

seven cases. In fact,
finality concerning the uses ot case terminations was
attained in practice. This ^^^ or g)sv) is a peculiar

particle and it was used to express comparison also ;
the expression usm'smu.uSljh Quiti^ meant, 'greater than

it vsras before.' The present tense did not come into
existence. The indehnite past and the indefinite
future were the only tenses in use as in Hebrew and

other languages. Andst>me of the tense particles like
ff, 22ai^ (5^ L/, -iLD, tSlm which u'ere then in use have
become obsolete, together witli a-sij? for a_LD (as in
£f(ô.is^ for ^(250). The post-position S was added

to nouns to form verbs in tiie second person singular.
The phrase snmsiBfTLJk>si lueant '
you who are the lord
—
176 TAMIL STUDIES
of the forest country.' The formation of some

causative verbs like 9(z^@-s?(iî(a5, Qêtfl-QêrRji^ (to
cause to become clear). Some verbal nouns were

formed by adding to roots the suffixes which are
used in modern Tamil to produce different senses,
©ifi@ (pit), QfimLj (strength), ump (flying), ^sv)m
(poverty), t-jseo (abode), GwriLut^ Cyuig)* '^'^H (noun),,
sîTuu (brightness), and so on.

Some of the adverbial and other particles which
were freely in use during this period have become
obsolete. They are ^so, Q/iiT<m'2esT, (si p^,\L£,ibgv, mmp,
^(â=LD^ (gswff, (dld:t^ ld^, @@"'j @^^, a-'5<^, etc.
The literature of this period is all poetry —simple

blank verse in chaste classic style devoid of rhetorical
flourishes, figures of speech, hyperbolic descriptions,
and of later prosody which mar the ex-
intricacies
modern Tamil poems; Asiriyappa, Kalippa,.
cellence of
Venba, and Kuratpa are the metres mostly used. The
descriptions of events and scenery are all faithful and
true to nature.
The subject matter of most of these works is
the panegyric of reigning kings, descriptive of their

military prowess, their liberality, and their adminis-
tration. Some of them depict poverty, chiefly of
bards, in a very pathetic manner. Some are on
morality, while only a few relate to religion. We
subjoin a few specimen of early Tamil.
(1) êo&îsas)^ ^p^^&S euBeisuMpk^smp^LD
3k.Q^(^ QfflT^lEl aiS3)i_^ ^L^

^ -
PLACE OF TAMIL IN PHILOLOGY 177"
^sirefflev su£iiiEi3e\}i ^pi^Lps ssaai®
LD/DUi-i&S uêenT^^ ujîLna 3itlLiûj
QiSTis^ssr (SfrirQ îsiDêiaaj itjeirefflu
QuiTiîîSosr QfsusS sitlLQu-Ost, — Puf. 160.

(No food in the house ; the soft-haired babies suck-
ed in vain the dried-up breast of their mother. Dis-
appointed, they turned up the empty pots, and cried.
The mother hushed them with tales of the cruel tiger,
and pointed to them the moon. Wearied and troubl-
ed she told the starving ones to let their father see
their misery.)
(2) SniTLDS6)Lp QfimtSp SOiSUffli Q^(lp^0UD

eurrasrwoeips (^Q^@ Q&5r®<Siiifl Quit pui
QiiT&jBSffl Ju iSlssiLîBfl Uoo^QT^p QiQr^Q^sl'oliun®
Q(S''SiQsiiT ^L.iEi(^ QsrtsîjjsSfr ev a uQ ut sSI i

Qfsvsif'û'R fisaBîSp siTsmi QLDmriQs. — Pad. 83.
(Like the white paddy birds flyi "g beneath the
canopy of dark winter clouds was the march of your
army — the white banners streaming from above the
herd of deadly elephants, thick shielded-men and
chariots. So pleasing was the sight.)
Medieval Tamil : It embraces the Brahmanic

and the sectarian periods of Tamil literature.
The early part of it was one of struggle for pre-
dominence between Brahmanism on the one hand
and Buddhism and Jainism on the other, in which
the former came out triumphant, Buddhism being
deprived of following in this land and Jainism crippl-
ed. From this time forward the Brahman's influence
became supreme; temples were erected for their
12
178 TAMIL STUDIES
gods ; and they themselves secured fertile villages

for subsistence. Sanskrit puranas, local as well as
general, were written and translated for the benefit of
the Tamils. Then came into prominen ce a split
among the Brahmans, which led to the formation of

the Vishnu and Siva cults. The latter with all its
attendant horrors of death and destruction became
popular among the warlike Tamils. The literature
of this epoch consists of hymns to Siva and Vishnu
and of the accounts and adventures of
of the life
Siva and Subrahmanya, Rama and

Krishna, and Jina.
The standard works on Tamil grammar during this
period were Tolkapyam, Virasoliyam, Nambi's Agap-
pcrul, Neminadam, &c.
Sanskrit words, chiefly relating to religion, were
largely introduced, and some of the Tamil words
and rorms current in the preceding epoch gave
way to new ones. Plurals in .^sir, double plurals
in ijs&r and mseir, present tense particles Qmgv and
@^ and the use of distinctive case terminations

came into existence. Some adverbial particles like
Qmm'^!tssT, ^(S^^ld^ êo, Q^tuuj, &c., Completely went
out of use.
For poetry or metrical composition, which was
still the only form of literary production, Asiriyam
and Venba metres were not so much in favour
as ihe Vrittam, Tandakam and others of Sanskrit
.prosody. These were introduced with their alan-
Maras or embellishments. Rhyme and antadi form
were introduced to render the recital of sacred songs
. —
easier. As for their style, the pure simpHcity and

the natural beauty of the academic period were gone.
Affectation and artificiahty even in excess were consi-
dered a Hterary excellence. As it was a period of
struggle for religious supremacy everyone of the four
sects attempted to excel the rest by extoUing and ex-
aggerating its own doctrines, and by fabricating
miracles to support them. Truth was thrown in
the back ground and its place was taken up by

mythological accounts of pieter-natural events,
such as one mij:;ht find in the puranas and
itiliasas. Thus Chintamani, the Ramayana, the
Skandapurana, the Tiruvilayadalpurana, the Periya-
purana and the Mahabharata came to be replete with
stories of this kind. However, a true spirit of devo-
tion and piety, though blind or fanatical it might
appear to us, pervaded the writings of this very
troublous period. We give below some extracts :
(1) ^sîBT tefêaariT £UL^d^:BfT (enuSiT Q JirrfisiT (Sffli/JT ufTsm<—QLDjb
aiTisumiT i,ifl<omsu Qujsisi /06\)iTjb SQ^Qôk Qsirir ljsjt p sirîfiu
(2) etjfr(^S)(Xissar(^m)Q sueffliurrQ Q<!i]iT<s(fliLi{TQ.
peir(es)Sl tLjuSlimS iLjssarsii>LO.LiLDiTiLi uSesreiaLDiijLciTLLj
eijiT(eB)8 Sârfssiiu <in^'siQfiT6\)oS îri^^^suQsw — T,V.

(3) Qisuear/Sl luiris&i] Qiosî euirdsîa
L£iebjfSlu-\iS) -a^'oiS QujiTL-Lfi arrdseinih
Gunm g)i(^ sîra^^ i^djQ uir qTj&t QfJjtLjQLD.

180 TAMIL STUDIES
(4) GurrmesB (SSj^ti QuTQûsmi— ujuusmu.

^sksirfl i^(^(B s/Tessfl ^/reBsfiaSp
^sisi ssx,(k srr'^s £iisi5T^êsr ^&)'^(ciu. — Chili.

lb) ^€3OTi_?Sy LLoSi^-iSiTfTL-Si filTLD(3S)!T 'sS SITSSIBÎTIEIsd [.^^'
L^sOLDus fSsoiSrfldSSfT L9sisiQ(n/'L^j euih^fT&r. — Kain.

Modern Tamil : To the Tamils the modern
period which begms from the thirteenth century \s-
important in every respect. The ancient kingdoms
of the Cholas and the Patidyas were subverted. A
powerful Telugu empire was coming into existence
on the banks of the Tungabhadra, which before
the close of the fifteenth century absorbed all the
Tamil kingdoms. Then came the Mahratta and the
Musalman hordes from the north, and lastly the Euro-
peans from beyond the sea. Though the Telugus and
the Mahrattas had come into the Tamil countries as
fortune seekers, they settled there permanently being
members of the same creed and nationality. The-
Musahnans were not so they plundered the country,
;
forcibly converted some of its people, and returned

with booty leaving behind their deputies at certain
centres of strategic importance like Arcot and'
Trichinopoly. They farmed out the desolate country
to renters,\vho oppressed and tortured the ryots. Many

had to sell their Jands for nominal prices to escape
persecution. In this way the people had suffered till
the country passed into the hands of the British,
whose advent was a god-send to the poverty-stricken
and down-trodden Tamils. 1 cannot better express
the happiness and prosperity of the Tamils which
resulted from this change of sovereignty than in the
words of Pugazhendi,
strnQupp Q^rToSisQinrr assBtQupp euiTsmQpsQLDiT
lirrQup ^'jjiTfB^ Sismpn&iQLDn — utrrrQupgu
(The king regaining his dominions enters the city
with his consort. With what shall I compare the

universal joy of the people? Is il like the joy of the
peacock at the sight of the gathering clouds, or of
the face that has got back its eyes, or of the withering
crop that quickens mto life when the rain falls ?)
Till about the end of the seventeenth century the

Tamil countries were ruled by Hindu governors.
Brahmanical influence was in the ascendent. The
learning of Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu was encour-
aged. Several original works in all these languages
were written, besides innumerable commentaries
in Tamil as well as in Sanskrit on ancient works,
-especially on the Nalayira Prabhandam, — all tending
to harden and aggravate the sectarian and the tribal
animosities, until a reaction set in during the succeed-
ing period of Musalman despotism. Then for
182 TAMIL STUDIES
about half-a-century there was a lull, which

was followed by the production of anli-Brah-
manical, Christian and Islamic literatures. And it was
only during the first half of the last century that the
vernacular literature began to revive under the

fostering care of the British administration.
With the change in government, religion and
social customs many Tamil words had gone out
of use giving way to new ones — -s/r®, s^ppn^ and
Qs.tlLi—ld as the administrative divisions of a
country, Qi?6\}eoiTUJth, sair s^^sssuuffssi^^^ Qmearu)^ ^/SuSlsmp,
Qs=s8<sm/o, LDsmsmu), &c., as names of public taxes,

^LCiT^^LULO, SlJfTfflujih^ smsS^smm, S'LCLSlfH^, &C., aS official
terms, (^gliessS, u^d(^, _îsssfl^ Qpii^rfl, SfreasBj «i^(^*,
and other wôrds of native weights and measures are

fast dying out except in out of the way villages, along
with «/T<*, ueaarih, ^lL®, enniraim^ and Other deno-
minations of old coinage. Most of the revenue and
judicial terms, names relating to office furniture and
stationery, and generally most words relating to the
administrative machinary are Arabic, Persian or Eng-

lish. The religious terms, of course, are all Sanskrit.
There is nothing new in the gammar of this period,
perhaps with the exception of a leaning towards a

greater use of Sanskrit and foreign words by the
educated classes, and the unconscious creeping in
of several English words in the home-speech of
the English educated Tamilians.

Poetry was the only medium of literary expres-
sion of thought in Tamil till about the begin-
—
rJng of the last century, excepting of course,

the extensive commentaries and copious notes on
ancient poems. However, the natural ease and
beauty of the writings of the academic and the
liymnal periods were gone The ss\}}iljsjo, uj/tBso,
î^fT^, lSsit'^^3lSIu^, udsssB and «_'5ur were the

different kinds of poesv adopted for shorter litt^rary
compositions, and the Kavya(«T j-9ij:i))f()rm for longer

and more descriptive A'orks hke tiie puranas. For
these quasi-rehgious compositions all kinds of metres
enumerated in the grammar books on prosody were
freely made use of. Learning was then confined to a
class of indolent men or relijous fanatics, who iiad
no other work than this sort of ex-rcise in prosodial
gymnastics and who depended for their precarious

subsistence on the b junties of kings and noblemen.
Their object was to display their skill in versifying
and to scare the ordinary readers by making their

stanzas obscure by the use of obsolete and am-
biguous words as the following examples will
show:
(1) iSljiDL^n^ôs^pQuLOLon QsmtMLDaesr

l3 a LD'^ J ^ ^ss) p QuLCLorr Q^ssruDLOTsisr
iSljLDLfCr^^SlSp GuLDLDfr QvSTLCLDCtaSr
l3!rLCjL^7^^SB)pQusiL£>ir QsStLD 01^. — T. T.
^T^ — D. A.
184 TAMIL STUDIES
. A word before closing this chapter. The evils of
competition are overtaking even the Indian people.

Modern industrialism and away the
city life are taking
taste for healthy reading, while forcing him to work
all day for the day's meal for hunself and his family.
Let it not be said that the scholars of this country

were responsible in any way for creating a literature
which, by being unsuited to the needs and taste

of the people,has weakened the people's appreciation
of good literature and the capacity to live a healthy
life, and to find a joy in it. The Tamilian of to-day
-can hardly find any time to rack his brains in wading
through the moth-eaten pages of the rigmarole pura-
nas of a Kachiyappa or a Minakshisundram. We have
already had enough and more poetry —sonnets, idylls,
dramas, ballads and epics; nay, even works on philo-

sophy, religion, ethics, hisfory, grammar, dictionary,
medicine and on every imaginable subject are all
poetry. Poetry and versification had their value
in the and they may still be of use in some

past,
cat-es. For our literary models let us go to the writings
of Sattanar or Ilango-adigal whose beauty, simplicity,

smoothness and grace it is a pride and glory to
approach in our efforts. But communication of
knowledge in these days is best di)ne in prose
not poetry. We want therefore plenty of prose, but
not Asiaiic prose, and little of poetical literature.
The prose should be simple and idiomatic, free alike

from pedantry and baldness.
VIII
PERIODS OF TAMIL LITERATURE

Among the Dravidian tribes of South India, the
Tamils were ihe first to cultivate a literature. Their
earliest poems, which are now extant, the Aga-n.inuru,
the Pura-nanuru and the anthologies of that kind
show that they were, like the ancient Assyrians and
the early Germanic tribes, a warlike race. Here is a
type of the ancient Dravidian woman who in response
to an enquiry about her son answered thus: — 'I know
not where my son is ;
but he will anv-h )w suddenly
appear on the battle-field, for (pointing to her
'
belly) this is the cave that gave birth to that ti-êr.
STCTTLDSSST
ujirsaurQsfr iev)6l^ LD/SKetu Q^0ih

Lj&9Q'3=iTts^ QuitSIlu S&}60'<isn(oUITeO
sSeST CD <S>JUlSI(o(ir/' iS^Qoj

(o^(T(Ssr^Qjm iorrQâ QuT'TS'setr ^^nQsar. — Pur. 86.
The dignity they attached to military pursuits,

the chivalrous attitude towards their women, their
scorn for an uneventful life and natural death, and
i86 TAMIL STUDIES
their spirit of independence and adventure are patent

in every song of the above collections. All these,
however, grew weaker under the influence of the

Buddhist and ]aina teachings, and were eventually
stamped out by the peace-loving Brahmans, who in
those days wielded such a mighty influence on the

Tamil nation as to leave an indelible mark of Aryanism
on everything non-Aryan.
Yet in every department of Tamil literature we
can stiil perceive a slender vein of Dravidian thought
running through. Its ground-work is purely non-
Aryan and its super-structure necessarily Aryan; be-
cause, it was not as conquerors that the Aryan Brah-
mans entered the Tamil country, but as teachers of
Vedic and philosophy. Unlike Islamism

religion
which carried fire and sword with it, wherever it
went, the Indo-Aryans established their spiritual su-
premacy by gentleness, refinement and persuasive
manners. Musalmans were dreaded by the con-
quered, whereas the Aryans were honoured and
respected as the '
andaiiar '
or the possessors of ten-
der qualities, and *
parpar' or the seers of the Vedas.
The early Musalman could not find a place for
anything foreign to his less cultivated taste and intole-
rant militant religion, while the Aryan assimilated

and absorbed whatever was good outside his racial
culture and exalted it by associating it with his higher
civilization. It is the characteristic of a conquering and
victorious army which is not held in check by elevated-,

national traditional culture and refined sense of
PERIODS OF TAMIL LITERATURE 187
honour to disregard, and even to destroy the Hterary

and artistic treasures of the conquered people. Such
was the attiiude of the Muhammadan invaders when
they first came to South India. So we find in the
early part of the fourteenth century, when the Musal-
man hordes poured down into South India, the
Tamils had to lament the loss of almost all their
literature. All the libraries were ransacked in the

country, and all that the Tamil genius had reared for
age* were committed to flames. On the contrary the
Brahmans, the Jains and the Buddhists actively work-
ed to found universities, literary academies and libra-
ries, and added refinement and stability to the Tamil
language and literature. And it was through the deep
interest and tender care of those people that Tamilians
were inspired with new thoughts and ideas, and their

literature enriched with new forms of expressions.
Again, during modern times, the Musalmans who had
learnt to live on friendly terms with the Hindus, and
the Christian Missionaries who had come into South
India as harbingers of western civilization have also in
a way affected, though in an impt^rceptible degree,
the Dravidian life and thought. Thus, the influence
of the Aryans — both Indian and European — was es-
sentially religious and philosophical. All these will
be explained later on in their proper places.

Indian grammarians have divided Tamil
literature into three classes, namely — lyal (belles
letters), Isai (Music) and Nataka (Drama). As this
essay is concerned mainly with the literature of the

188 TAMIL STUDIES
lyal Tamil, it will not be inopportune to first briefly

say something about the Isai and the Natakam or
kutln, before we proceed to our subject.
Tradition says that Agastya was the only gramma-
rian who wrote complete treatises on the grammar
of all the three classes of Tamil, but none of them
are now extant. During the early centuries of the
Christian era attention seems to have been paid by the
Tamils to all the three. They had their own dances
and music — vocal and instriimental. They, of course,
with the help of Brahmans, developed the art of
dancing to a high degree of perfection and many

treatises were written on this fine art ;
even their
gods had their characteristic favourite dances . Music
too, was in a state of perfection, and their pans or
tunes were sui generis to the Tamil race. The only
ancient Tamil work of ihe nature of the drama that
has come down to us is the Silappadikaram (third
century). It gives a vivid description of the stage,
the actor, the singer, the drummer, the flute-player,
the yazh-player and others of the troupe; and contain
beautiful specimens of vari {euift), pattn (uitlLSi),
kuravai (@j«a62j), ammaiiai (jfjuoiMn'êst) , usal (siss^su),
kandukain (si^suo), vallai {eustrHsfr), and other classes

of musical songs.
A brief description of the ydzh —a stringed musical
instrument, similar to the guitar, peculiar only to the
ancient Tamils may not be uninteresting. It was of
four kinds, viz — (ouifliuiTLp, manuurTiJ^, s^Qsm—iuni^ and
Qs=isiQaiTLLLâjiTifi. The Per-yazh had 21 strings; aMakra-
yazh, 17 ; Chakota-yazh, 16 ; and Sengottu-yazh, 7^

Perhaps these were the instruments in use during the
days of llango-adigal. And the Per or big 'yazh' which
is supposed to have been in use in the days of
Agastya had become extinct even before the third

century A. D, It is said to have had one thou-
sand strings,
G^LoSsard/^L/L/ QiDiTLJuear QanetrQe^.
But with ihe growing influence of the Jains and

Brahmans, spiriluaHty received more attention, much
to the detriment of the physical side of his
development, which was neglected and even
condemned. Self-mortification and abstinence
from pleasure were advocated and recommended
as the high road to saWation. And the works on
music, dancing and the drama written by ancient
Tamils, such as QuQ^rsTssîr, 0013/5/(5(5(5, u^^sûmrîuuci,
îT&reusts)s,Quurr^^^ U(^s=LD!ri-i^ ^B^tTSfrarFiujthf (êm^
^û/isLD,8iC., (on music) and uirîJo, Qpsneuio, s^-uiîi)
£iia6mrnsrTL.s^suSip^6\), &c. (on dramaturgy) were neg-

lected and left to shift for themselves; and by the time-
ol Adiyarkunallar about (1200 A.D.) most of them.
were lost. With them the Dravidian music and
dances became extinct. No one can now say what
those /)(377s and dances were like. Their places were
gradually taken up by the Indo-Aryan raganis and;
naiyains.
However, these aesthetic arts were given a religi-
190 TAMIL STUDIES
ous tone and allowed in that condition to prolong

their feeble existence for upwards of ten centuries
from about the seventh. Their sphere of exercise was
transferred from the house to the temple.' The
Saiva md Vaishnava hymns forming the Devaram
and the Nalayira Prabandam, were collected and set
to Diavidian music and sung in Hindu tem-
ples. During festivals and processions of gods,
dancing was encouraged and plays were acted to
draw large crowds of devotees. Hundreds of dancing

girls cr gandharvis were attached to every important
temple. This was the origin of the institution of
singing by Odnvans and Aralyans, and the public
representation of natakas, pallns and kuravanjis in
Hindu temples. Of these the first alone now sur-

vives. The same institution was carried to the West
Coast, and it now survives in the Chakkiyar kuttu.
The persons concerned in this institution were, as
given in the inscriptions of Raja-raja Chola, ibitisldiIj
Lu oTs> y s'fTS:saiS, sfTssTunis^y lSIi—ititssj, siTLDiruQucsairajssr, ernr^^

ujiDfTif n Luesr
y
îfliLnstun^sunfr, sai^ffsSl^ &C. It was Only
during the eighteenth century that dram.a and
music began to revive ; and Arunachala Kavi (A.D.
1712-1779) the famous author ot Rama Natakam may
be justly called the father of modern dramatic
literature, and under the Mahratta Rajahs of Tanjore
1. It is Hindu drama, like that of the Greeks, was
said that the
derived from, and formed part of, their religious ceremonies.
Lassen considers the Indian drama to be of native growth, while
Weber thinks it was influenced by the Greek dramas performed at
he court of Greek (Bactrian) kings.
a fresh impetus was given to music. We might say

that both these arts flourished in highly developed
forms about the time of Surfoji Raja of Tanjore (1780-
1830). Subsequently, plays in imitation of Shakes-
peare's dramas, Kirtans and Harikatas were written
for public performances and music came to be ap-
preciated and patronized by the middle and lower
classes, who under the British rule were rising in im-
portance, and the arts themselves were being affec ted
by democratic influences. This is a subject which the
writer does not feel competent to treat adequately.
The reader is referred to the interesting book of
Mr.Day and the illuminating contributions of Dr.

Coomaraswamy.
From the existing Tamil literature it is not possible
to determine its exact range, as it was subje ct to vicis-
situdes, one of w'lich we have already mentioned.
Several works by Jains and Buddhists, who were
among the earliest to encourage the growth of Tamil
literature, are not n ,nv forthcoming and it is believed
;
that most of them were destroyed when Buddhists

and Jains were persecuted during the seventh and
eighth centuries. As we have said elsewhere * a
good portion ot its e<tensive literature preserved for
ages on palm leaves had long ago been consum-
ed by fire and white ants... And such as had
escaped these destructive agencies remained locked up
in the dingy cellars of the lascivious Mathadhipatis
and in the thatched hjuses of penniless pandits.'
Even if all the writings of the early and mediaeval
—
192 TAMIL STUDIES
Tamil authors had come down to us in full preserva-

tion it is extremely doubtful whether Tamil literature
would be as extensive as its Sanskrit compeer. And
this has been confirmed by Dr. Caldwell who very
truly observes that 'Tamil literature as a whole will
not bear a comparison with Sanskrit literature as a
wh oie.'
Of the different branches of knowledge the early-
Tamils appear to have cultivated only the polite

literature. They knew only so much of elementary
arithmetic as was absolutely required for trading
purposes, and higher mathematics, science, philoso-
phy and theology which the Indo. Aryans excel-
in
led all other civilized nations of antiquity were

unknown to the Dravidians. Some Tamil scholars
might say that astronomy was not unknown to their
ancients and quote,

0<F@ (^rraSp^'S' Qs=6\)eii(i^ t^fTuSpgfiu
urftuLjuo urfluL-jS=(^tîd^ LCGoan^&JQ^LD
eunS^ tS'^ ^lummuQp QLDmoSsiDQj
iAl'SesT^Qôir QufTQi) QpefiQa. — Pur. 30.
One or two of them went even to the length of
asserting that 'Saiva philosophy and religion in its
original elements was purely Tamilian'. Mr.
Kanakasabhai believes that ' in the ancient Tamil
classical works, the terms relating to music, gram-
mar, astronomy and even abstract philosophy are of

pure Tamil origin', and that 'they indicate most
clearly that those sciences were cultivated by the

Tamils long before the arrival of the Brahmans or
other Aryan immigrants'. This is not good logic, as
these terms might be later Tamil translations or ad-
aptations from Sanskrit. It would be more reasonable
to ask, — Did the Tamils possess any literature on these
subjects before the arrival of the Brahmans ? So far
as we know they had none. We need not attempt to

refute these statements seriatim, but shall content
ourselves for the present with quoting the views of
Dr. Caldwell on the pre-Aryan civilization of the

Tamils. 'They were without hereditary priests and
idols and appear to have had no idea of '
heaven '
or
*heir or the 'soul' or 'sin'. ..They had numerals
up to 100 ; ...but no acquaintance with sculpture,
architecture, astronomy, astrology, grammar or
philosophy'.
The existing Tamil works, most of them, are either

translations or adaptations of Sanskrit originals. There
are, however, certain compositions which are not so.
The five major and the five minor epics, the eight
anthologies, the ten major and the eighteen minor
poems belong to this class. Dr. Caldwell thinks that
'in one department at least, that of ethical apothegms
it is generally maintained that Sanskrit has been out-
done by Tamil.' But, on the other hand,we are
inclined to think that the existence of so many works
on the ethics of daily life is an indication of the low
state of morality among the early Tamils. Because
u
—
194 TAMIL STUDIES
it was the Dravidian whose teeth were blunted by the

eating of flesh,
Qaje\)'?0i}ij^ uSrr<sij QpmfiSm^^ LD(ipiiQ. — Pat, II. ,117,

that required the advice,
QurrQêtreOso êusiioaijSesrdo, — KuK

And the following extracts will show that most of
the Tamil kings were tyrannizing over their subjects:
1. isQsSsii Q^fTiP^'siusi!fle06\}iTe!!r eSlêsreijinEisd
2. Q'fS^'-jSs QesrCc'Sijifim Qsuk^gii^^ i-js\)uiQuiTe\). — Kal.

The early Tamilians considered it an honour and
virtue in a military man to carry off other men's
wives, to devastate the enemy's fields, to destroy their
houses and to lift the cattle of neighbouring tribes.
A people with such principles of conduct really needed

books on practical morality.i
The ethical code of the Tamils is contained chiefly

in the eighteen minor poems already referred to.
None of the works on morals which our learned
bishop makes so much of, appear to have been
written by the Tamils before they had come under
tiie civilizing influence of the Indo-Aryans, be they
Brahmans, Buddhists or Jains. It is even supposed
that the Kural of Tiruvalluvar and the Acharakkovai
of Peruvayil-Mulliyar are adaptations from Sanskrit
1. The fact that Brahmans were called Qioîuir or 'truth speakers'
proves that lying was common among the early Tamil speakin g
tribes.
— ,
Mahabharata, Dharmasastras, &c., as will be seen

from the following extract :
^0sueh(eiêiJica)iT^th Qu^^îso Qji^^&dirrT iM^LoupfS

^tSlLpiT Q^^Q'asiQrj' aiTuS^LD ûSi^^6\)fs(D<striT(SLh Qurr0ii^
QuiT(r^LL uj(ûitlLu).'SioST ^pmQuiTQTf'SffissruQisKosr eui—^sdnlr
euLpi(^Ljup!]S (cUJfr^'êOfT!Ssr. ..-giip^ûufTeo eSlsLîiJias'Serr ld^
Qi pQ (ri?(Slisi (c)urr(TKii^ss)Sij^^ isui!^(Sf^suieo)iT 3^/01 ^ssrCol ireisr u^

Thus it is evident that the whole Tamil litera-
of
ture is permeated with Aryan influence and that

practically there was no literature worth the
name among the Tamils before the migration of
Brahmans to South India, and it has been boldly
asserted by M. Hovelacque that 'all the works of
which it is composed, down to the smallest fragment
are long posterior to their first contact with the
Aryans.'
The science of history isandforeign to the Hindus;
a history of literature is much more. They made no
distinction between mythology, tradition and history.
Periods of time were of no consequence ; to them
past and present in the growth of a language or liter-
ature were an eternal now and meaningless. The

Tamil scholars, ancient as well as modern, have had
no idea of the exact range of their literature. The
average Tamil scholars were mostly poets or versi-
fiers, and their acquaintance with literature was limi-
ted to some standard works on grammar, vocabulary
196 TAMIL STUDIES
and ot one or two epic poems Karoban's Rama-

yanam, Ativiraramapandya's Naishadam, Tolkapyam,.
Pavanandi's Nannul, Amritasagarar's Karigai, Dandi
Alankaram, Uivakaram and Chudamani Nigandu
together with one or two aniadis and kalanihakams
met all the requirements of these versifiers. This
easily earned scholarship and consequent self-com-
placency, blinded them to the merits of many impor-
tant Tamil works written by Buddhists and Jains,,
which were disliked on account of their authorship.

These were left in the sun and rain to decay or to be
eaten up in course of time by white-ants; while many
more were consigned to the floods of the 18th of
Adi (August)
But such a charge cannot be laid at the feet of
Nacchinarkiniyar, or Adiyarkunallar and generally of

all the erudite commentators of the middle ages.
Their study was extensive and their exposition
thoroughly logical ; and yet the critical methods of
research and investigation which characterize the

inquisitive scholar of modern times were absolutely
unknown to them ; for, as Dr. Caldwell, pertinently
reroarkSjthe critical spirit even in the west is of modern

growth. The ancient Hindus did not cultivate it,
because they had the greatest, perhaps blind, regard

and veneration for their ancestors and their works ;
and implicitly believed as sacred truths whatever their

elders said, absurd though they might be. Further,
the Science of Philology or the historical and scienti-
fic study of languages did not come into existence
—
then. Literary forgeries passed for genuine produc-

tions and the native scholars who have been duped
;
by them owing to their creduhty are miserably

incapable of detecting them. Even the so-called Tamil
scholars of the present day who profess to follow
the critical and historical methods in their researches
cannot discriminate the famous Brahman author of
Kurinjippattu from the saintly composer of the Siva-
Peruman Tiruvantadi, or even from that recent
Dravidian writer of an anti-Brahmanical song; or
the author of Gnana Vettiyan from the immortal
writer of the Kural. We give below specimens
from three different poems wrongly attributed to one
and the same Kapiiar by Tamil scholars of the old
orthodox school :
(1) j)jpiBis<oSi[rib£i} euujiwQuj srrsSl pi^ piiQuj
eamirîTeo QeusirsSl Qpisf.^^, Qs<îsSl
uuib^vSBT STQîkiseo QiMjhu SitulL
Ljp^^&siap (SuuSlifiuup sfressflssr <sijeo(c&)
QiLioo(ûeaiL- iu^^^ QsirdjSrQjp L^HisS
<ouiT(ev)d QsiTiarisioseo)iu. — Pad. VII. 64.
(2) Qurrsui^^ îsûS^riS SpiSir i^êst ^ ^n f[Qfiiif.Q m tss^s
uk^^ îh^fBiretrui Saa paSesi piu!T<ssruiuls ^ uotrsLDi?^^
îh^Lorr LceiDipQuiTasT p ld^^^ssûQuit Qns^k^^

— p
198 TAMIL STUDIES
(3) QâsrfSeaffu L/Ssvujsar Q/i_^sjD^<s Qs@

uoDsp Q&HTû uiriTUUfT ^Qjireisr
oji—êmsFU utTrfuuiKom QpmrBssiS^s QsiQasr

issai—oj^ Qsiremflu l/'Ssouj êurrm. — Agaval.
No doubt thismust partly be attributed to pre-
judice, racial feelings, and mistaken faith. With the
spread of Western culture and the study of scientific
methods they seem to be gradually disappearing..
Mr. Damodaram Pillai's Classification :— Among

the pandits of the old type we must undoubtedly
include Mr. Damodaram Pillai, the learned editor
of Tolkapyam, Virasoliyara, Kalittogai and other
works. Though a lawyer and judge by profession,
his zeal and admiration for his native literature and

his Tamil race have not only blurred his judgment but
also carried him away from the sacred precincts of
historic truth. In a lengthy introduction to his edition
of Virasoliyam he has attempted to give a brief
history of Tamil literature, besides making some

uncalled for remarks on the non-Saivites in his
violent Jaffnese style. His reputation as a good

Tamil scholar and the valuable service he has rendered
to the Tamil nation by his publications make it neces-
sarv to notice his views along with those of Dr.
Caldwell and others. According to him there were
eight periods m the history of Tamil literature
namely :
I, jijQuiTântsoih Before Agastya. There was>

(Pre-historic). then no alphabet.
PERIODS OF TAMIL LITERATURE 199^
II. ^si^trsneoiJD From Ihe date of theinven-

(Alphabetic). tion of the alphabet by Agas-
tya to the period of comple-
tion of his grammar.
III. ^&)ss6et!rsn&)u[i The period of composition

(Grammatic), of Tamil grammar by his
twelve disciples.
IV. ffQp^rrujsn&LD Period of the three Tamil
(Academic). academies(B.C. 10,150 to 150).
V. îBrr^mraneoih 200 years. After the des-
('Lethargic), truction of the third Sangam
when the Tamil literature^
was not patronised (B. C.
150— A. D. 50).
VI. s=weaBrsrT&}LD 300 years. When Chinta-
(Jain). mani, Nannul, Virasoliyam
and other Jain works were
written (A. D. 50— 350).
VI L ^^ms^meoiM 800 years. In this period

(Puranic). Puranas, Naishada, Rama-
yana and other works of that
kind were written (A. D. 350
—1150),
VIII. ^êarsneoLD 700 years. When
the Saiva
(Monastic), monks ofTiruvaduturai
and other places encouraged.
the study of Tamil literature
(A. D. 11§0— 1850).
The above classification appears to us on the

face of it unscientific and historically monstrous. It
is marked by a total want of a sense of proportion
and historical acumen. Coming as it does from the
pen of a lawyer of English training it is really pitiable.
In his opinion the age of Tamil literature must be at

—
JOO TAMIL STUDIES
least 12,000 years which is 4 or 5 millenniums older

than the known civilisation. The history of
earliest
Egypt commences from not more than 3,000 years

before Christ ; that of the Greeks ascends scarcely
to 2,700 years from to-day. It serves no good to
enter into the details of his classification; its impioba-
bilites and fanciful dates assigned to different works
will be brought out in the sequel.
Mr. Stir yanaray ana's classification : — To pass on

from the dubious field of blind faith and tradition to
the domain of reason and history, we find in Mr.
Suryanarayana Sastri saner views. His little book
on the history of Tamil language is a useful attempt
worth imitating on a larger scale by Tamil scholars
trained in the occidental methods. He devotes a
chapter to an outline history of Tamil literature
which he divides into the following periods :
I. Early. B. C. 8000 to A. D. 100.

This includes the age of the
three academies or Sangams.
II. Mediaeval. {a) First half: 100—600
A. D. The five major and
the live minor epics, Tiru-
vachakam, Divakaram,Muttol-
layirara and other works
were written during this
period.
(6) Second half : 600—1400
A.D. Tevaram, Kalladam,
Tiruvoymozhi, Agapporul,
Purapporul, Ramayanam,
Nala Venba and other works
were written.
III. Modern. From A.D. 1400. Ativira-

raraa Pandiyan, Villiputturar,
Arunagiri, Paranjoti, Sivapra-
kasar, Tatvarayar, Tayumana-
var, Viramamuni and other
poets jBourished.
The above classification, though not open to serious

objections Hke the preceding one, seems to us some-
what unsatisfactory in that it is wanting in historical
perspective ; nor is each period sufficiently explana-

tory of tiie spirit and influence of the time which it
professes to deal with. It is a strange mixture of

conflicting traditions with historical facts. His early
period, which covers a long interval of 8100 years, no
historian of any existing literature would make up
his mind to believe. He seems to accept unreservedly
the traditional account of the Tamil academies
which no scholar acquainted with the modern
critical method would do. His mediaeval period
extends over a pretty long period of 1300 years,
while his third occupies only 500. It is not under-
stood on what established data he has based his
•classification, no distinguishing land-marks being
assigned to it.
Dr. CaldivU's Classification '

— In his introduction
to 'A Comparative Grammar of the DravicHan
Languages', Dr. Caldwell aims at giving a brief
history of Tamil literature. He divides it into seven
cycles or periods citing some authors or works as
representative of each cycle. They are,
I. The Jaina cycle or the cycle of the Madura
—
202 TAMIL STUDIES
«
Sangam or College, from the eighth or ninth century

A. D. to the twelfth or thirteenth century. The
important works of this period were Kural,
Naladiyar, Chintamani, Divakaram and Nannul.
II. The Tamil Ramayana cycle — the thirteenth cen-
tury. Kamban, Pugazhendi, Ottaikkuttar and Auvai-
yar were the poets of this age.
III. The Saiva Revival cycle — the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries.The Tevaram and the Tiru-
vachakam were composed during this period.
IV. The Vaishnava cycle —
about the same period..
To this period he assigns the composition of the
Nalayiraprabandam.
V. The cycle of the Literary Revival — the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries. The works and authors
were Vasishtam, the Saiva Siddhantam, Ativirarama-
Pandyan and Villiputturar.
VI. The anti-Brahmanical cycle in which the com-
positions of the Siddhar School came into existence
seventeenth century. Agastya, Siva Vakkiyar, Tiru-

mular, Bhadragiriyar, and all the eighteen Siddhas
flourished at this period.
VII. The modern school — the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries in which Tayumanavar
Pattanattar,
and the authors oi Prabhuhngalilai and Tembavani
lived]
It will be seen from the above classification that
there was no literature in Tamil before the eighth
century A. D. Elsewhere, the same writer goes on to
say that 'the Tamil literature now extant enables us to
ascend, in studying the history of the language only

to the ninth or tenth century A. D.' And in a third
place he assigns the eighth century A. D. as the age
of Tolkapyam with the following remark: 'Whatever —
antiquity may be attributed to the Tolkapyam it must
have been preceded by many centuries of literary
culture, it lays down rules for different kinds
of poetical compositions, which must have been
deduced from examples furnished by the best
authors whose works were then in existence. A
rule is simply an observed custom'. Don't we
observe in these statements apparent contradictions ?
Whatever may be the date of the Tolkapyam,
did he endeavour to learn the names ot the best
authors who had furnished examples for that gram-
mar? The truth seems to be that, when his great work
was published nearly half-a-century ago, some of the
earliest Tamil classics like the Silappadikaram,
Manimekalai, Pattuppattu, Purananuru and several
others were unknown even to many Tamil pandits of
those days. Moreover, his division of Tamil literature
into cycles and his determination of the dates of
certain important Tamil works were based upon some
doubttul inscriptions of a Rajendra Chola or a
Sundara Pandya Deva and upon a misconception that
the Alvars were the disciples of the great Vaishnava
reformer, Sri Ramanuja Charya. But within the last
thirty years epigraphy has progressed so far and has
brought to light so many important facts, literary,,
social, and historical, as to necessitate a complete
204 TAMIL STUDIES
modification of almost every one of his statements

concerning the dates of Tamil authors. The learned
Bishop has devoted several pages of his invaluable
grammar to a vain discussion of the age of >undara or
Kun Pandya of Trignanasambandar's time, wrongly
identifying him with the Sunder Bendi of the Muham-
madan historians, in order to bring the authors of
the Devara hymns down to the 13th century A. D.
His statement that 'the poetical compositions of
seven of the twelve Alvars or Vaishnava devotees,
followers of Ramanuja, which are included in the
Nalayiraprabandam are still more numerous than
those of Manikkavachakar, Trignanasambandar and
other Saiva devotees,' might be a clear proof of his
total ignorance of the magnitude of any of these
sacred hymns. And it might be said with greater
confidence that he had not seen or even heard of
several works in the Tamil language. I do not
propose to enter into any detailed examination of
his views, as they have already been sufficiently
criticised by the late Mr. Sundaram Pillai of
Trivandram.
Classification of Sir W. Hunter and others \ — The
most prominent among the later writers on Tamil
literature is Sir W. W. Hunter. He writes thus:
•'The Saivite and Vaishnavite revival of the Brahman
apostles in Southern India from the 8th century
• onwards stirred up a counter movement on the
part of the Jains. The Dravidian Buddhists and
Jains created a cycle of Tamil literature anti-Brah-
manical in tone, stretching from the 9th to the 13th
century. Its first great composition, the Kural of

Tiruvalluvar, not later than the 10th century A. D. is
said to have been the work of a poet sprung

from
the Pariah or lowest caste. The Jain period of Tamil
literature inchides works on ethics and language ;
among them the Uivakaram literally the Day- '
making Dictionary'. The period culminated in the

Chintamani, a romantic epic of 15,000 Imes by an
unknown Jain author ...Contemporaneous with the
Jain cycle of Tamil literature the great adaptation of
the Ramayana was composed by Kambar for the
Dravidian races ... Between that period and the
16th century two encyclopaedic collections of Tamil
hymns in praise of Siva were gradually formed...
During the same centuries the Vaishnavite apostles
were equally prolific in Tamil religious songs...
After a period of literary inactivity the Tamil genius
again blossomed forth in the 16th and 17th centuries
with a poet-king as the leader of the literary revival.
In the ]7th century arose an anti-Brahmanical Tamil

literature known as the Sittar school ... The Tamil
writers of the 18th and 19th centuries are classified as
modern. The hc^nours of this period are divided bet-
ween a pious Sivaite and the Italian Jesuit, Beschi.'
The above extracts from Dr. W. W. Hunter's Gazet-

teer will clearly show that he has simply followed Dr.
Cadwell's classification, paraphrasing it in his usual
racy style. It might be said here once for all that all
other English writers on Tamil literature, including

206 TAMIL STUDIES
Dr. Grierson, Dr. Rost and Professor Frazer^, have

wittingly or unwittingly followed the learned Bishop's
statements and propagated the obvious errors he
had committed, and did not take the least trouble
to correct them, on account of his high auth(>rity and

of their total ignorance of the extent and importance
of Tamil language and literature. To these may be
added their instinctive slight for a non-Aryan race
and culture.
Notwithstanding^ the able and trenchant criti-
cism of some of Dr. Caldwell's theories by the late Mr.
Sundaram Pillai in his Some Mile-stones in the His

'
tory of Tamil Literature', some European scholars, still

draw their statements largely from the works of Drs.
Burnell and Caldwell. No doubt, European sch'>lars
have done excellent service in the cause of Compara-
tive Philology and the Indians are deeply indebted
to them for the study of their languages on critical
and historical methods. But so far as a thorough
and intimate knowledge of the Vernaculars and their
idioms are concerned, we cannot expect them all to
be Beschis or Popes. In the days of Drs. Caldwell
and Burnell the science of epigraphy was in its in-
fancy and they were not justified in being dogmatic

in their assertions relating to historical questions.
1. I am glad to find tliac Mr, F'razer has corrected most of his
views (in 1912) agreeably to the latest researches in South Indian

Epigraphy and early Tamil literature; and I believe he is the only
European scholar who is up to date in his Tamil studies. See his
-article on '
Dravida' in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.
—
Within the past quarter of a centurv epigraphy has

progressed by leaps and bounds, and the facts and
theories of these writers require considerable revision.
To quote from these writers would, therefore, be
exceedingly unsafe. One example from the Imperial
Gazetteer (New Edition) will suffice. In Volume II
of this monumental work, Mr. R. Sewell, while

speaking of the literature of the Tamils, writes thus:
*
Several Tamil poets of this age, i e., about A. D
600 — 50 are greatly renmvned, among whom may be
mentioned the Saiva devotees of Tirunavukkaraiyar,
Tirgnanasambandar and Sundaram irthi Nayanar ;
Manikka Vasagar also belongs to this period '

(p.
330). And Dr. Grierson who has devoted three preci-

ous paragraphs in thesame volume tor this ancient
literature, says
— 'The worship of Siviinthe Tamil
country found its earliest literary expression in the
Tiruvasagam or 'Holy word' of Manikka-vas^gar who
lived in the eleventh century (p. 425)... A later and
larger collection of hymns addressed to Siva is the
Tevaram Sambanda, Sundara and Appa (p. 426)...
of
After the Jain period we have the great Saiva move-
ment of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries to
which we owe the hymnologies already described
(p. 435).' It is not our object to decry the labours
of these European scholars; but it is to be regretted
that such paragraphs have found their way into the
pages of the Imperial Gazetteer published under the
authority of the Government of India.
Mr, Vinson's Classification .-
—The only other Wes-
— —
208 TAMIL STUDIES
tern student of Tamil literature whom we should not

pass over unnoticed is M. Julien Vinson of Paris. *
I
can hardly admit ', he writes, 'that Tamil literary age

began before the seventh century A. D'. He further
thinks that there were five periods in it, which for the
sake of brevity and distinctness we subjoin in a tabular
form:
I. 6th and 7th Period of essays, pam-
centuries. phlets and short poems.
II. 8th century. Period in which the
Jains predominated.
III. 9th century. Period which saw at
the same time the strug-
gle between Saivas and
Jains, and in which
Buddhists came from
Ceylon.
IV. 10th century. Period in which the
Saivas were the undis-
puted masters.
V. 15th and 16th Period in which ap-
centuries. pear the Vaishnavas.
This classification, though it is a marked improve-'

ment on the previous one, is still open to the follow,
ing objections :
(1) For the first period of essays and pamphlets

M. Vinson should have had in view Aingurunuru,.
PadirrupattUjPurananuru and other anthologies which
were collected and arranged by the third academy.
He must have either overlooked Tolkapyam, (fourth
or third century B. C), Kural (first century A. D.),
Silappadikaram and Manimekalai (third century), or
discredited the dates assigned to them by Indian scho-

lars. But I now see no sufficient reason to doubt
the chronology of these ancient classical works on
grammar and ethics, some of which in scientific
accuracy, in originality of design, in beauty of ex-

pression and thought^ and in faithfulness to nature
would stand comparison with the best works of
similar kind in other languages.
(2) The second and third periods,namely, the eighth

and ninth centuries, are characterised by a bitter
struggle between Jainism and Brahmanism. As will
be seen from the lives and works of Tirumalisai and
Tiruraangai Alvars, the Vaishnava Saints had an equal
share with the Saivas in the suppression of Jainism.
It is not, therefore, correct to call it a struggle between
Jamism and Sivaism. It may be that very few
Buddhists came from Ceylon to Chidambaram,
and had religious disputations with Manikkavachagar
about the middle of the ninth century. But this was
only a minor incident which left no permanent im-
press on either the literature or the religion of the
Tamil people. Moreover,was Brahmanism not
it —
Sivaism —
that had attamed its supremacy so early as
the ninth century, though Jainism had still a linger-
ing existence. And it was during these two centu-
ries that a great number of the Saiva N ayanmars and
Vaishnava Alvars flourished and did their proselyti-
zing work.
(3) During the fourth period (tenth century) not only
the Saivas but also the Vaishnavas were left undisput-
14
210 TAMIL STUDIES
ed masters in the religious field. It also witnessed

the collection and arrangement of the sacred hymns
of Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavachakar
and other Saiva saints into eleven Tirumurais by
Nainbiyandar Nambi, and of the twelve Vaishanava
Alvars into Nalayira Prabandam (Book of 4,000
Psalms) by Sri Nathamuni.
(4) M. Vinson assigns to the fifth period — fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries — the appearance of the
Vaishnavas. It is here, we tiiink, that his ignorance
of the history of Tamil literature, especially

of the Vaishnava religion, is most marked. He
has not studied or rightly understood the origin
and growth of the Vaishnava sect m South
India. Perhaps he was misled by the incorrect state-
ment of Dr. Caldwell, that the twelve Vaishnava

saints were the disciples of Sri Ramanuja Charya, the
great reformer of the twelfth century. We may men-
tion that the fifth period of M. Vinson is distin-
guished for the best controversial literature on the

Vaishnava religion and for the scholarly commen-
taries thereon, in the Manipravala or composite style
peculiar only to the Jains and the Vaishnava Brah-
man s.
Proposed Classification : None of the Tamil works
bear a certain date ;
yet they are not wanting in
criteria to enable the reader to ihem a

assign to
definite period in the literary development. For
first there exists a difference in language demarcating
the most important periods ; and secondly the deve-
lopment of the literature has been upon such lines

(mainly religious) that it is easy to say from content
and method of treatment to which of its epochs a
particular work might belong.

We shall now come to our classification.
The following table gives a tolerably accu-

rate outline of the important stages in the progress
of Tamil literature. As has already been explained
religion pervades almost the whole of every litera-
ture in India, and the table therefore exhibits the

several periods of the religious history also.
Period. Religion. Literature. Language
B. C. 600-200. I. Animistic. ] L Academic (Tol-

B. C. 200-A. D kappvam, K u r a
150. II. Buddhist. J
&c.)' I. Early
Grammar:
Agastyam,
A. D. 150-500. III. Jaina. II. Classic (Silap Tolkapyam.
padikaram, Man i
-
mekalai, Pattupattu
&c.)
A D. 500-950. IV. Bratimanic III. Hymnal 1

(Tevaram, Tiruva
chakam, Tiruvoy II.Mediaeval
moli, &c.) Grammar :
^Tolkapyam,
A. D. 950-1200. V. Sectarian. IV. Translations- Kalladam, I
(Kam ban's Rama Virasoliyam.

yana, Kachiyappa's
Skantham, &c.) J
A.D. 1200-1450 VI. Reforma V. Exegetical 1

tory (Commentaries by III. Modern j
.\acchi-narkiniyar, Grammar :
Adiyarkunallar, &c ^Virasoliyam

and Nannul.
A.D. 1450-1850. VII. Modem. VI. Miscelianeous

212 TAMIL STUDIES
I do not claim any logicalexactitude for the above

division. But it is and it re-
the best I could think of,
presents the different stages in the growth of Tamil

literature clearly and succinctly. No doubt one
period overlaps the other, and it would be impossi-
ble to draw a hard-and-fast line between any two
periods.
Tamil literature of course did not begin only with

the founding of Academies as indicated in the table.
This was preceded by what may be called the
pre-academic period. But to attempt any account
of it will be a groping in the dark, as all
literary evidence we now possess relates either

to the academic or to the post-academic period.
Some Tamil scholars still believe that Agastya
invented the Tamil alphabet. This is certamly
erroneous. The use of pure Tamil words like
<sT(^^^f and •sf-euujL by Agastya proves unmistakably the
existence of the Tamil alphabet and the use of books
among the Tamils long before his days. And even
the compilation of the first grammar for this langu-
age by this Aryan sage, after the Sanskrit model, is an

argument in favour of the pre-existence of literature
among the Tamils of antiquity. That literature al-
ways precedes grammar is a stern philological fact
recognized bv Agastya and later grammarians.
eretreffieaftsar Q jr)6SBr2essr Quu^LJU^QuiTeo

^lecsSiu^êaBm QnoQuQ LSIeodsssariii. —Agat.
êoa,Qiu!Si s<3ss\i—^p 86\}dsesaruSiLiihu&). — Nan,
It is therefore almost certain that some sort

of literature and also good poets must have existed
before the academic era ; but nothing can at present
be asserted about it in the absence of any literary or
other records.
The Academic Period : The real history of
Tamil literature begins with the Tamil academies

which lasted from B. C. 500 to A. D. 500. This
millennium might perhaps appear to be a very long
period ; but during the first half of it none of the
extant Tamil works, probably with the exception of

Tolkapyam and one or two others, were written.
Further, when we consider the abnormally long
period of 12,000 years allotted by native traditions to
the three academies, the above is almost a trifle. Of
the three academies the second was more or less
continuous with the first, and both probably existed

sometime between the fifth century B. C. and
second century A. D. ; while the third, and the most
important of them all seems to have lasted till A. D.
500. Whether the three academies really existed
whether they did any useful work in the cause of
Tamil literature, how long they lasted, and what
poets flourished during this period — all these are
questions which we have reserved for consideration
in a subsequent essay.
To understand aright the general spirit of the

literary productions of this period it is desirable that
there should be some previous acquaintance with the
214 TAMIL STUDIES
political, social, and religious condition of the early

Tamil people. Till about the second or third
century A. D. there were only three principal Tamil
kingdoms, namely, Chera, Chola and Pandya each of
which had, of course, three or four protectorates
under it governed by feudal chieftains. They were
constantly at war with one another losing or annex-
ing villages and districts on every occasion, till at
last there came on the scene a foreign race, called

the Pallavas, from the north-west, and usurped the
northern Tamil districts then belonging to an illegiti-
mate branch of the Cholas. Being intruders and

people of foreign extraction, the Pallavas were never
recognized as Dravidians by the Tamil nation, and
consequently they are not even mentioned in the
Tamil literature of those times. Nay, the word ' Pal-
lava '
had even acquired a bad sense,
u&}6\f<sviT sajeviT u^siT iS-fiT.—Ping.
Caste system was unknown to them. The Tamils

were, however, divided into tribes according to the
nature of the soil in which they happened to live. A
shepherd of the pasture land might become a tiller
of the rice field or a fisherman of the beach. Of the

eight kinds of marriagesmentioned by Manu, marri-
age by capture (Gandharvan), Asuram and Rakshasam,
seem to have been adopted by them and yet their ;
women-kind had much freedom. They ate beef and

all sorts of animal food and drank fermented liquor.
Thev used to burv or burn the dead and ;
—
while burying them the weapons of the deceased

were put into big jars along with the corpse.
(1) Qp^LDiTU Qun ^^ p s^Qmeoj (E^luldljiei
<Si_Sa)<5 (oSITL^ ILIIT^^
âLîLi QuQ^msn Qlîliûj (âm(S jd. — Pur. 364.

(2) sfiKSs (^sSiQ luem 3" Qs'SiQ ânu uaS(TîEj
s&r&ffiJjih upih^^so. — Ihid. 240.

The early Tamils, like the ancient Egyptians and
Romans, worshipped the manes of their ancestors,
who were also propitiated with offerings of meat
and liquor. After the advent of the Aryans from
Upper India this animism had to contend against
Brahraanism, then Buddhism and lastly
against
against Jainism. Until Brahmanism came out trium-
—
phant all these four religions animism, Brahmanism
Buddhism, and Jainism — had been struggling for exis-
tence in the Tamil country ; and in the course of
this long struggle the first was merged in the

second, which from that time forward began to ex-
pand absorbing every thing that was good and un-
objectionable in the other two. An effective check
was .ilso given to the indiscriminate eating ot meat
and habitual drinking of liquor. We may find all
these described in the literature of this epoch.
We know nothing about the works of the first and
second academies except what is contained in the brief
accounts given in Iraiyanar's Agapporul. The names
of works which passed through the third academy
will be found given in the following oft-quoted
verses :
— —
216 TAMIL STUDIES
(1) ispfS'iisem rB&ieo (^^mQ^neas etauuia^gti^
Qqt^^^ u^ Pûu^ ^^niEi(û rflum—6\)
(2) Qp(Trj(^Û!j(7^ fBT^ uaesafiiresar'S Qp6\)'^
(3) IB!T<3dlS). /BITeSruieSsfi IBfTi^pU esiîî'bsssTQfU
LJiTe\)s®siB Qsneaieu uj^Qllhl^ lluqp&ld
Besides the eight anthologies or collected works, the

ten major and the eighteen minor poems mentioned in
the above stanzas, at least two of the five major epics

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai — were written during
this period. These two most important works were
left out of account, as they were the productions of
Buddhist and Jaina authors. The famous poets of
this age together with their principal works are
given below :
(1) Tiruvalluvar (Kural) ; (2) Sittalai Sattanar

(Manimekalai) ; (3) Ilango-Adigal (Silappadikaram) ;
(4) Kapilar (Kurinjippattu, Inna Narpatu, &c.); (5)
Paranar (5th Ten in Padirruppattu) ; (6) Nallandu-

vanar (Kahttogai) ; (7) Nakkirar (Tirumurukarrup-
padai, Nedunalvadai) ; (8) Mangudi Marudanar
(Maduraikkanji) ; (9) Kalladanar; (10) Nallur Nattat-
tanar (Siru Panarruppada i) ; (11) Kadiyalur Rudran
Kannanar (Perumpanarruppadai) ;
(12) Napputanar
(Mullaippattu) ; (13) Perurakausikanar (Malaipadu-
kadam); Gotamanar (3rd Ten in Paddirruppattu);
(14)
(15) Mudattamakanniyar (Porunararruppadai) (16) ;
Peyanar (MuUai Tinai in Ainkurunuru) &c.

To these should be added Pannirupadalaiiij Mar-
kandeyanar Kanchi, Purapporul Venbamalai, Usimuri
of Idaikkadar, Muttollayiram, Nakkiiar's Naladi-nul,
Desikamalai, and the works on prosody by Mahes-
wara, Avinayanar, Kaiyanar, Palkayanar, Kakkai-
patiniyar and Narrattanar. Most of these works were
lost except a few quotations from them.
The Hymnal Period : During this period
Brahmanism came into conflict with Buddhism and
Jainism.The Brahmans were reinforced by bands
of Sanskrit theologians from Upper India, and the
battle spread like wild-fire all over the peninsula and
raged very hot. The Brahmans and Dravidians
made common cause against them, and religious
disputations took place at all Brahman
the important
centres, especially Conjeeveram, Chidambaram and
Madura. Tirunavukkarasu, Tirugnanasambandar and
Manikkavachakar fought for Sivaisra, while Tiru-
Malisai Piran, Mannan and Vishnu
Tirumangai
Chittan defended Vishnuism. The combined attack
of the sectarian leaders did not go in vain. Buddhism
and Jainism were routed; and Brahmanism was left
in entire mastery of the field. And to ensure its
stability in the Tamil country and elsewhere, the
Brahmans caused hundreds of temples to Siva and
218 TAMIL STUDIES
Vishnu to be erected all over the land. Small bands

of Brahmans from Upper India were induced by
Tamil kings to settle here. Endowments of tax-free
lands were made for their mamtenance and worship
in temples.
Durmg this period which lasted for nearly four

centuries and a half (from A. D. 500 to A. D. 950) the
sixty-three Nayanmars of the Siva sect and the twelve
Alvars of the Vaishnavas flourished. Some of these
devotees who were also fine Tamil poets visited
many of these temples, composed and sang extempore
hymns before the deities. Each hymn consists of ten
or eleven verses and is supposed to instil piety in the
mind of its reader. The prominent poet-saints of the
two sects, who have
behind them such hymns,
left
are lirunavukkarasu, Trignanasambandar and Sun-

darar, Tirumangaimannan and Nammalvar. Other
p'oetical compositions of a secular and sectarian nature
were not wanting. The best of its kind was written

by Manikka Vachakar; the other writers were Ka-
raikal Ammai, Kapila Deva, Parana Deva, Nakkira
Deva, Cheraman F'erumal, Kalladanar, and Nambi-
yandar Nambi. It may be remarked here that the
sacred literature of the Saivas in Tamil poetry was
nearly thrice that of the Vaishnavas, the hymns of
Sambandar alon e being nearly as voluminous as all
the works of the twelve Alvars put together. AH these

prove the greater popularity of Sivaism among the
Tamil people of South India.
In the above struggle the Buddhists and Jains

were not quiet; they tried in their own way to popu-
larize their rehgion by appeaHng to the hearts of the
old as well as of the young. The most useful works
on theology, ethics, grammar and language were
written by them. Three of the major (Kundalakesi,
Valaiyapatiand Chintamani) and five of the minor
(Yesodarakavyam, Udayanakavyam, Nagakumara-
kavyam, Nilakesi and Chulamanii) epics, Naladiyar,
Pazhamoli, Neminadam, Karigai (Prosody) and Chu-
damani Nigandu belong to this period. The Saivas
compiled the Divakaram and Pingalandai lexicons.
Translations from Sanskrit : Now that the Jains
and Buddhists were cleared off the field, the

Brahmans began to attend to their own religion.
Poinding more leisure and greater support from the
Tamil kings, they set about separating the various
sects w'hich lay embedded in Brahmanism in a crude
form. The Sanskrit puranas and itihasas furnished
them with mighty weapons to develop and streng-
then the different sects. And in order to popularize
each -ect among the Dravidians, the Tamil scholars
and theologians found it necessary to translate some
of the most important works, and Bud-
as the Jains
dhists had done before them to popularize their own.

The Mahabharata had already been translated by
Perundevanar; Kamban and Ottaikuttan took up the
1 This Jain work was composed by Tolamoli Devar probably
in the reign cf the Pandya king Jayantan (A. D. 650) and named
after his father Maravarman Avani Chulamani.
220 TAMIL STUDIES
translation of Ramayana ; Kacchiyappa translated the

Skandapurana ; and Puliyui Nambi and Paranjoti
Muni turned into beautiful Tamil verse the Haiasya
Mahatmya. Besides rhe translations of quasi-secta-
rian works Tamil versions or adaptations of other
Sanskrit poems were also undertaken. Pugazhendi
rendered Naishadam into excellent Tamil Venba
metre Dandi wrote for Tamil the Alankara Sastra,
;
while Buddha-Mitra composed his Virasoliyam on

Sanskrit model and Pavanandi wrote the celebrated
iSlannui as an epitome of Tolkapyam.
Again it was during this period which lasted from
A. D. . 50 to A. D. 1200 that the sacred hymns and
poems of Saivas and Vaishnavas, which had till then
remained scattered, were collected and arranged. The
Saivas assisted byNambiyandar Nambi (A. D. 1025)
compiled Devaram hymns, the Tiruvachakam
the
and other poems into eleven tirutnurais, while the
Vaishnavas assisted by Sri Nathamuni (A.D, 1025)
gathered their hymns into a single volume and call-
ed it the 'Nalayira Prabandam' or the great 'Book of
4000 Psalms'. Sekkilar (A.D. 1135) wrote the lives of
the Saiva saints and called it Tiruttondar Puranam ;
while ttie Vaishnavas wrote their Divyasuri Charitai

and Guru paramparai about that time. All temples
dedicated to Siva or Vishnu were being regularly
visited by the and festivals
respective sectarians,
were and
institutedcelebrated with scrupulous regu-
larity. Theapotheosis of pious votaries was made com-
plete and their images were set up in temples and to ;

—
enhance their rehgious importance Stala-puranas in
Sanskrit were written by learned Brahmans, some of

which were deftly interpolated in one or the other of
the Eighteen Puranas.
It was also the period of the Chola ascendancy.

From about the seventh to the begmning of the
tenth century the Pandyas and the Pallavas were
powerful in Southern India. With the decline of
these dynasties the Chola kings from Aditya I (A. D.
895) downwards not only regained their strength,
but also became aggressive and carried on wars with
the neighbouring sovereigns. These formed the sub-
ject matter of a class of war-chants called parani and
lUa, 'Farani' is a poem descriptive of a campaign the
hero whereof being supposed to have killed at least
one thousand elephants on the battle-field. 'Ula' is a
poem depicting the procession of a royal personage,

his country, flag, war-drum, &c. The finest poem of
the former class is the Kalingattupparani. It was
written by Jayamkondan in honour of one Karunakara
Tondaiman, who was probably the general of Kulot-
tunga Chola I (1069-1118) that waged war successfully
with the Kalingas towards the close of his long reign.
The rhythm of the poem is rapid and stirring and
best suited to the subject. We subjoin a stanza from
that work as a specimen :
iS7®0a)® Oo)® Qua&sT Qeu® ^^Q ÎT

iflsQ&)iT&S si—QeOfT&S iiSsdsQeu,
eS®(aSl<S 6j5® Ulft Slfld(^LQITth

—
222 TAMIL STUDIES
And the best *ulas' composed by the

are those
famous poet Ottaikkuttan on Vikrama Chola (1118-
1143) and Kulottunga Chola II (1143-1146). These
together with the one on Rajaraja Chola (1146-1163)
are known as the Muvar-UJa. The following oft-
quoted stanza confirms what we have said above :
QeueaaruireiSjh Ljs(Sifii^ uiressfidd^fr
QiMa6mu(Ts>9 îjjiTSihusk QsiT<otaîLj&)fT
euii^fT^s QsitlLi—S sk-^^îsr
seamuiTuj seo^Dus^^jb @ !T LLsmt^njiT s<sir
(oiJ<SS)<fUITL^S <SntSfr\DLD3Ui
ueamufTsu usirîi^m uuf.ssrrs'
THE EXEGETICAL PERIOD : From the table it
will be seen that this period of Tamil literature was

co-extensive with the era of sectarian reformation and
that it from A. D. 1200 to A. D. 1450. The
lasted
cleavage between the Saivas and Vaishnavas had
become permanent and each of them crystallised
into a distinct sect. Sri Ramanuja Charya rose and
laboured hard to strengthen the foundation of
Vishnuism. Sri Vedanta Desika and Sri Manavala

Mahamuni constructed two enduring edifices of
different designs on the foundation laid by Sri
Ramanuja. For Sivaism similar work was under-

taken by Meykanda Deva, Arunandi Siva Charya,
Maraignana Sambanda and Umapati Siva Charya.
The Vaishnava Acharyas wrote mostly in Sanskrit
and their works are now being studied only by

Brahmans while the Saiva Guravas mentioned
;
above wrote only in Tamil as their writings were

chiefly intended (or non-Brahmans.
Further the same table will show that we have
already crossed the mediaeval and entered the
threshold of modern Tamil. From the close of the
academic to the beginning of the exegetical period
there was an interval of nearly seven hundred vears.
In the course of such a long period, it is almost

impossible for a living language, cultivated though
it be, to remain unchanged either in its grammar or
vocabulary. Moreover, there had occurred immense
changes customs and manners of the Tamils
in the
on account of Brahmanical influence. The classical

works of the academic period, especially the collected
writings, couM not be easily understood even by
scholars without the help of commentaries. And
this want was supplied by Perasiriyar, Ilampuranar,
Senavaraiyar, Parimelazhagar, Nacchinarkiniyar,
Adiyarku Nallar and other annotators. Similar
difliculties were experienced by the Brahman
Vaishnavas in understanding the Tamil of the
Nalayira Prabandam. The Vaishnava Acharyas
from Nam Jiyar down to Periya Jiyar wrote
elaborate commentaries on them, which to a lay
student of Tamil would be more difficult than the
original itself. These commentaries were not intend-
ed for ordinary Tamil people, but only for the
orthodox Vaishnavas thoroughly conversant with the
224 TAMIL STUDIES
Sanskrit Upanishads. Itihasas and Puranas. Any

one can at a glance perceive the immense diffeience
between the easy flowing chaste Tamil of Nachchinar-
kiniyar or Parimelazhagar and the mixed style of
Periyavachan Pillai.
The Modekn Period : The latest stage in

the history of Tamil literature has been called
' modern', and it covers the interval between A.D.,
1450 and A.D. 1850. During this period the works
produced were not contined to any one subject or
department of literature. They embraced Hindu
theology, philosophy, ethics, traditions and grammar.
Islamism and Christianity also added their contribu-
tions to the Tamil literature, of this period.
Politically this was an important epoch, because

it witnessed the downfall and total extinction of the
ancient dynasties of Tamil kings and the occupation
ol the Tamil nads successively by the Telugu speak-
ing Nayaks, the Mahratta chiefs, and the Musalman
generals. Naturally these people had no sympathy
for Tamil literature.
Though Tamil had thus lost state patronage, it
did not The Saiva monasteries

want supporters.
richly endowed and managed by Tarabirans and
Pandarams, learned in the Saiva Agamas and Siddhan-
tas, were coming into existence and they served as ;
seats of Tamil learning and centres for the propoga-

tion of the Saiva cult among the Tamil Dravidians.
Ilakkana-kottu, Ilakkana Vilakkam and Suravali
Tolkapya-sutra-Vritti, Nanneri, Nitmeri-Vilakkam,
Prabhulingalilai and Dravida Mahabhashyam were all
written during this period. And the famous ascetic

Tayumanaswami composed his sweet religious
and philosophical songs Ativira Rama Pandyan
;
published his Naishadam and Vetriverkai and trans-

lated the Linga and Kurma Puranas, while his brother
wrote Kasikandam and other works. Among the

Vaishnavas, theM ahabharata
Villiputturar translated
and Pillaiperumal Aiyangar wrote his eight Prabhan-
das. Among the Muhamadans, Umaru Pulavar wrote
the Sira Puranam, and Javvadu Pulavar composed
Muhiud-din Andavar Pillai-Tamil; while the celebrat-
ed Italian Missionary Constantius Beschi (Tam. Vira-
mantuuni) rendered the biography of Jesus Christ into
a Tamil epic (Tembavani), after the fashion of

Kamban's Ramayanam, and published it in A. D.
1769, together with a work on Tamil grammar en-
titled Tonnul Vilakkam. In 1895 Mr. H. Krishna
Pillai, a native Christian poet of Palamcotta, translated
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress in fine Tamil verse.
This period is marked by the cultivation of Sans-
by the Vaishnavas as well as the Smartas.

krit learning
Settlingon the fertile banks of the sacred rivers and

streams, and congregating in agraharas around a
Vishnu or Siva shrine hidden beneath shady groves
and surrounded by extensive rice fields, the Brah-
mans formed themselves into exclusive communities,
sometimes venerated, sometimes disliked, but always
administered to by their Dravidian neighbours.
Tutored and encouraged by the Tambirans, Pan-
15
—
226 TAMIL STUDIES
darams an a such Tamil castes as the Kammalas and

Lingayats, who claimed equality with the priestly
class, some of the non-Brahmans began openly to

question the superiority of the Brahmans and their
authority in all social and religious matters. And
the advent of Musalmans and the appearance of
European Missionaries in the Tamil land during the
16th and 17th centuries, whose habits and social
opinions were opposed to the social ideal and organi-
sation of the Brahmans, only tended to aggravate
this animosity. Such was the spirit and tendency
of the people in South India during the early years
of the latter half of this eventful epoch.
The Anti-Brakmanical School : The Brahman
supremacy and vigorous exercise of the powers,
which their aggressive culture had won for them in
earlier years had their reaction ; and the circum-
stances described above led to the rise of an anti-
Brahmanical or the Siddhar school of pnilosophical

They were Yogis as well as medical men.
rhyraists.
The number of Siddhas or men who attained siddhi or
the 'conquest of nature' is ordinarily reckoned as
eighteen. Most them were plagiarists and impost-

of
ors, while some assumed the names of the great men
of antiquity like Agastyar, Kapilar, and Tiruvalluvar.

Being eaters of opmm and dwellers in the land of
dreams, their conceit knew no bounds. On the
supernatural powers of the Siddhas one of them
writes thus :
. . . LD&sari-.&)Qppîii eiasiLiiTek meiop^^QQ&jfTth, eurresr^sm^
iLjuD eSleoeoirdj eu"^ ^^(BQeuiTLD, ... Qp6eBrQi—ifliijLDdSevfid(^<sir
îreeBrtêu(^Lh QenLDLjeêtam^ ^(T dQe^QQeuirth , QsulkBili np<sst
^s\)(5(^ Q,fL£)QuiTiosriea)d(^(oeiirrLDy QîmsêisiT^ ^ssrsâas^

QfdjêS(Sl(oisuiTUD, ûQuifiuj eijeosîosi^ aSdoeomopQîuCo'SiirTih,
OT2/L_«3r s^LDLDiTS !B(7<Gt^LD Qj IT i^(^(o sij IT ih , ismssiar QfiLemsiiS^

Qouek(7i^L-iruj uitldQu.
The Siddhas did not like the Brahmans ; and they

ridiculed in their writings the Brahmans' social insti-
tutions, religious observances and Sanskrit Vedas.
(1) (BLLLâ&)'?i30 Q aUUQjQlLD&ST ^ IB!T^L^lLU(^ <f!r^^Qaj
3i-piS<3iik^ Gldh ûQmirQeaarek £i) Qîreo^LDm^trQiDî—iT 1
^Q^SQiBiT ^ Qeu^Qp QLDQg^ssiûjp QeuiT^îh

QuQ^SSli^ L^Se^ti) iSl^jbjS^LD iSlTlTSafllTITaSI.
eijiTaSQe\}(î^^;gii§<ois)!T Qujs'&Q&)eisr£i/Qs=rr&)^/]§'iT
euffoSQeo (^ÛL^Qeufi Qij)<ssnjLJu.s siêuQ^rr?
^LLuîoa)p^& îssr pêo'^jsn ilhsh giiLSlmrgtiixi Qeuûuir

îl.i^(oSips^& Lu&i&iQQjir LurrsSiaseir uem^n/jS'iT? — Siv,
(2) ^lLuîuit LSlQe\)s^^^(oi5ariT Qisisefrir
^lLi^SS)L^S^ Qff-fT&STS,IT ILKSiJioSnTêar ^ÎTIT
upu&oir ibitlLi^^ld ufriruuiTifl'îujiTiso. — Kap.

Their religion was theism; sometimes the stress they
laid on the siddhis or the powers a man can acquire
over nature gave it colour which occa-
a secularistic
sionlly comes very near atheism and may be mistaken
for it. The summiim bonum, the highest bliss or
the paramananda of their existence was to apprehend
— .
228 TAMIL STUDIES
and approach that eternal light which they termed

' paranjoti', '
peroli', * pazh-veli' or '
vetta-veli.' It will
be seen trom the above extracts that their language is
quite modern and their style simple and at times slang

Prose Literature: If we omit the commentaries
on abstruse early poems, the whole Tamil literature
including theology, philosophy, grammar and diction-
ary, is all poetry. whole range of Tamil litera-
In the
ture prose had no For a long time the
distinct place.
Tamils made no distinction between prose and poetry,

the former being regarded as a form of poetry. It might
be said that the early Tamils did not recognize
prose. The earliest form of prose composition is
what we find in the Silappadikaram, an heroic drama

of the third century A. D, The same
style was adop-
ted later in the Tamil version of the Mahabharata by

Perundevanar and in the Tagadur Yattirai. Both of
them are known as ©.s33jitfi«»L_ ^lIl-lj-tlL® or poems
interspersed with explanatory prose. To these may
be added the commentary on Iraiyanar's Agapporul
written by some unknown author (not by Nakkirar
as hitherto believed) during the early part of
the eighth century. And from the excerpts subjoined

below it will be seen that they are a sort of poetic
prose in pure Tamil, sweet and rhythmic like the
English of Hooker's 'Ecclesiastical Polity' or Ruskins'
'Modern Painters' :
aesaressîT Qs^nft ^^ QprBoSusd QsuemQasBriLKT^siTeaLciLi UDpSQpi—isiS
ujiri—iianLDLLj LDirsonoeaafi êd3,^pgft &j i^^gjiiih eu^QiQîra

—
^<S!r uQpeaarQiêsr Los'Befr QiSfTsQ u)&jnDajiEjarr(c^ in&kressfieir
LDfT^friasasHuuirQuj ssasiemQtifk^nmsrrissBr QjrrLUiTUinûSQ&)(T^Loe!ir
p^^ LDirajQJîsar jD6ar(yj<es)L^tu urreO'fifl&a^ ismsiEiêitleo
(27'srr speiaQJSssr^ ^tun i§isi(^9Qajesr(oSu. — Stl.
(2) ^sueiiiT &.LJL4^ffl(î^ SlLprriT LDS{es)SuiT'sisr 'Sl.q^^^'T sesrin
Q^STmuiTiobi y smu!Sissatsrfvat(ssr t^'sisnrittS it issr &ujiTLL<stDLÛLSlTiT!iJ^
QuaQ^^ssiiT ^^rr jh semsasFiT ajrriTii^ QloiuldlduSit '^&Sits(^lo
QmdjujiTuSesr S-faatrdQsLLu-sBi^^^. — A^Clp.

Till we come to the exegetic period we can scarce-
ly hear of any prose work. The Jains and the Brahman
Vaishnavas had some of their Puranas and religious
works translated or written in prose ; but they were
purely sectarian and in a composite or Sanskrit-
Tamil style. And in strange contrast to it the
commentaries of Gunasagara, Nachchinarkiniyar or
Adiyarkunallar were written in chaste Tamil. We
give below two extracts from these works :
(1) smtusrrQ LuiT iuu(^Quj uit^^t ewsuDsrvj sî^^tssr uoj
esr^so)^ lueai—ê^LC suiUseSsrr,f(y)ua QsaQeo QsiTe\)fr^sns\}QpL£)
QstTLiirseuiTu.eSsiânQp lditSIlu ^^fajiks(Gi^'S(r<ci}!T(^QiD&5r^
^Q^&^^€isr!T. — Chi n p. "27.
(2) L^tjistvurr ^ sQeo^ etutJauneuiG^mrsêSîTiJitTiL uirûu ^!T^

uffLDtresar eS&}3i,^6i5BrLDrTiiS(Tî^<srr<s!r f8Se\) Qeu^ îT^^^d(^LD
Q&iQ^nu LUTLDLDGSBiihseniTsar ewiM(7^^,QsifoiTewui!TrrsimisiS(ef^S(îh
^6sBul9ssids. — Tat. Sekh.

230 TAMIL STUDIES
Coming to modern times works written wholly and

deliberately in prose, not reckoning commentaries as
such,commence with Beschi's Vediyar Ozhukkam.
And we may even say that a new impetus was given
to prose composition only during the early part of
the last century by the Tamil pandits of the early
Madras University, of whom Tandavaraya Mudaliyar,
Viraswami Chettiyar, and Saravanapperumal Aiyar
deserve special mention. In the latter part of the
nineteenth century a number of Tamil prose works,
translations as well as original productions, were
published by learned Tamil scholars. The labours
of the late T. E. Srinivasa Raghava Chariyar and
Arumuga Navalar may still be in the memory of
every lover of Tamil literature. And the foremost

among the living writers of Tamil prose and scholarly
commentaries is undoubtedly Mahamahopadhyaya
V. Swaminatha Aiyar Avargal of the Madras Pre-
sidency College, who may be styled the Nachchinar-
kiniyar of the present day.
A prose literature worth the name is only a recent
growth, which is sufficient to account for the absence
of prose classics in Tamil. The influence of English
literature, the great increase in the Tamil reading
public, and the conditions of life in this age with its
forms of popular government, its commercialism

and industrial activities favour the rapid expansion of
prose literature ; and a prose style also has begun to
form.
IX
THE TAMIL ACADEMICS
One of the chief features of progressive civilisation
is the institution of literary and scientific societies.
In Western countries they began to be established
only after the Renaisance. Even so late as A. D.
1599 'modern science had not yet been born, mathe-
matics were in their infancy, the literatures of the
greai modern languages were only beginning to be
made '. The eastern nations, on the contrary, were
in their own way so far advanced in civilisation as to
found literary academies and to hold commercial in-
tercourse with the highly civilized Greeks, Phoeni-
cians and Romans. And the epigraphical discoveries
in Southern India and the critical study of early
Tamil works have disclosed many facts tending to
confirm the very high antiquity of Tamil literature,
and the tolerably advanced state of Tamil civilisation
so early as the first or second century before

the Christian era.
The ancient classics of the Tamil people frequently
refer to sangams or societies of learned men.
232 TAMIL STUDIES
Tirumangai Alvar, a Vaishnava saint who lived about

the latter half of the eighth century, speaks of 'Sanga-
muka-Tamir and '
Sanga.mali-Tamir in his Feriya
Tirumoli (III. v. 10). Manikka Vachakar, one of the
four great Saiva Saints of the ninth century, refers
indirectly in his Tirukkovai to a Tamil sangam at
Madura. Allusions to the Tamil sangams may be

quoted from the works of other poets. One of the
most trustworthy references to .the founding of a
Tamil academy prior to the eighth century will
be found in the copper plates discovered at Chin-
namanur in Madura district. And lastly there
the
are references to the Madura College in the Tiru-
vilayadal or Madura Stalapurana.
The Tamil sangam is known to some English
scholars as the Madura College' and to others as the
*
'
Madura University.' In Sanskrit the word sangam
means an association (of learned men), and it seems
to have been introduced into the Tamil language by
early Buddhists from Northern India, no Tamil
word having existed before to express that idea.
Some Tamil scholars are, however, of opinion that
avai which was in use in the days of Tolkapyar to
denote such an association or assembly is a pure
Tamil word. But avw, savai or sahhai is also a
Sanskrit word. A college ordinarily means a teach-
ing institution, and a university is also a body of
examiners. The Madura sangam was an examining
association, but it was never a teaching institute. To
designate this sort of society another word now
THE TAMIL ACADEMIES 233
widely current is '

academy'. And as the chief func-
tion of the sangam, like that of the French Academy,
was the promotion of Tamil literature, the name
'academy '
seems to be appropriate to this institution
and is therefore used in the following pages.

According Tamil writers there were three
to
sangams Pandya country at different periods-
in the
After the dissolution of the last of them spasmodic

attempts were made at various times to establish n(?w
Colleges ; but none of them were very successful.
These later academies did not attain the high rank,
distinction and influence of their predecessors, nor
were they recognised by learned Tamil scholars as
of such importance as to deserve mention.
A full account of the three academies, their dates,
the plaices where they were founded, the Pandya
kings who patronised them, the works that were
approved and sanctioned by their senatus academicus,
the number and names of the members and lastly the
influence they exerted in moulding the Tamil lan-
guage and literature will be given below and of the ;
rest only a passing notice.

Before entering upon the discussion of the ages
of the academies severally, it would be convenient
at the outset to determine approximately the
earlier and the later limits of the period during which
the three academies existed. It is admitted both by
Indian and European scholars that the civilisation of
the Tamil nation was, in the main, due to the Aryan
colonists in the south, and that the first academy owed
234 TAMIL STUDIES
its origin to Agastya, the reputed leader of the first
band of Brahman immigrants in South India. The

date of Agastya is lost in myth, and the traditions,
which are in themselves conflicting, represent him
as still living on the Pothiya mountains in the
Tinnevelly district.
Let us therefore turn our attention to other

sources to discover his date. The introduction
of the Tamil alphabet seems to afford us the best
clue to get at this date, because prior to it no
society of learned men or any seminary could have
come into existence, and because it would almost be
impossible for a race without a system of writing to
possess a literature. Undoubtedly, the Sanskrit Vedas
had been in existence long before they were commit-
ted to writing ; but the case of the Vedas is altogether
different from that of the Tamil poems, which in the
opinion of J Vinson, were *

essays, pamphlets and
short poems.' The Vedas were the sacred scriptures
of the Aryans and were, therefore, handed down
orally from generation to generation as a sacred
trust and were preserved in their memory. Even
after the introduction of writing in North India the
conservative attitude of the Brahmans resisted all in-
ducements to write down their Vedas for a longtime
which have been, for that reason, known as the 'un-
written word', or the eTQpîraQefrsiS. Whereas among
the Dravidian Tamils there was no such priestly
class, and none of their poems belonging
earlier to
the earliest or the pre-academic period was held in
such veneration as to deserve handing down by rote

hke the Vedas. Amongst the ancient TamiHans there
was, no doubt, a class of minstrels called
the panans {ufissarsar) more or less resembling the
troubadours of mediaeval whose duty it was
France,
to recite songs or lays of fightmg and adventure
before kings and nobles on festive and other occasions.
But most of these men were illiterate mendicants and
their poems and songs were in no sense religious.
They had no interest in preserving in the memory of
the people the heroic tales of temporal power and in
transmitting them orally to their posterity. It is thus
pretty clear '

that the earliest literary activity of the
Tamilians could have shown itself only after the
introduction of writing in South India, which must
have taken place long before the fourth century B. C.
We shall not therefore be wrong if we look for the
foundation of the first Tamil academy or Sangam
somewhere between the sixth and fourth centuries
before the Christian era.
Having tixed approximately the upper limit of the
age of the Tamil we may now proceed
academies,
to give a detailed history of each of them separately.
In order to follow the arguments the reader is
expected to possess some knowledge of the history of
the early Pandya kings, a brief outline of which will
be found in Appendix I.
Regarding the hrst academy the following particu-
lars are mentioned commentary on
in Nakkirar's
Iraiyanar's Agapporul, which, though meagre, is we
236 TAMIL STUDIES
believe the only earliest source of information

on the subject. According to this account the
members of the first academy were Agastya (Presi-
dent), gods Siva and Subrahmanya, Mudinagaraya of
Murinjiyur, Nitiyin Kizhavan and 544 other poets.
The number of authors who obtained the imprimatur

of the College for their works was 4449. Dakshina
or Southern Madura was the seat of the University,
and it is also stated that this city of Madura submerged
in the Indian ocean. Its patrons were eighty-nine
Pandya kings from Kaysina-valudi or Ugra Pandya to
Kadum-Kon, seven of whom were also poets Some
of the works which were approved by the academy
were Paripadal, Mudunarai, Mudu-kuruku and
Kalariyavirai. Their grammar was Agastyam. It lasted
for 4,440 years.
If the above facts be submitted to strict historical
criticism, most of them will have to be rejected as pure

myths, there being nothing to corroborate them
(either in Tamil literature or in the contemporary
annals of other countries. The number of members
of the academy and of the kings who patronized it
and the long period during which it is stated to have

lasted, are all incredible and cannot be verified. The
list of eighty-nine Pandya kings is not to be found
either in the Puranas or in any other extant works
Nor have any of the writings attributed to this
academy come down to us in their entirety, excepting

probably a few doubtful quotations from Agastyam
and one or two others. Apparently all thesehad
been lost long before the tenth or eleventh

century.
The only authors of this period about whom any
account, however scanty it might be, can be extracted
from Tamil literature are Agastya and Murinjiyur
Mudinagarayar. The rest of the members seem to be
half mythical persons. The life of Agastya is clothed
in myth but this much is certain that he was a
;
Brahman of North India and that he led the first

colony of Brahmans which settled in the Tamij
districts. According to another tradition he was a
member of the Sanskrit academy at Benares, which

was presided over by Vyasa, the compiler of the Vedas,
and, after quarrelling with his colleagues there, he
wended his way down to the Tamil country and
established the first Tamil Academy at Madura. It is
said that the Tamil language is indebted to him for

its grammar. He was the first to introduce the worship
of Siva and the science of medicme among the South
Indian Dravidians. Though most of the Tamil works
now existing on chemistry, physiology and medicine
which are commonly attributed to him are pure
forgeries, he might have been acquainted with the
art of medicine and the first Rishi to teach it to the
Tamil nation.
He is said to have had twelve students, namely,
Tolkapyan, Athangottasan, Duralingan, Semputchay,
Vaiyapikan, Vayppiyan, Panambaran, Kalaramban,
Avinayan, Kakkapatiniyan, Natrattan and Vamanan.
It is believed that they specialized their studies and
238 TAMIL STUDIES
wrote works on music, dramaturgy and prosody, and

that the lost work of Agastya embraced all the three.
The twelve desciples wrote each a chapter on Purap-
porul which collectively was known as ussisffR(rûi-.&)ih
or the 'Twelve Chapters'. Its existence is doubted, but

in its place we have now the '
Venba-Malai' of
Aiyanaridanar which is said to have been based on
the above work. According to Adiyarkunallar Sik-
handiyar was a student of Agastya ; and he is said to
have written Isainunukkam, a treatise on music,
which is now lost. Quotations from the grammatical
works of his students Kakkapatiniyan, Natrattanar and
Avinayanar may be found in the ancient commenta-
ries on Agapporul, Tolkapyam, Yapparunkalam and
other standard books. Chief of them, Tolkapyar was

also a member of the second academy like his
renowned master. About tne precise date of Agas-
tyar's migration to the South nothing definite oan
be said, but as has been pointed out above, it cannot
be earlier than the fifth or sixth century B. C.
It is believed that in the first Sangam there was a
poet by name Vanmikiyar. His work, the name of
which is not known, was considered by Nacchinar-

kiniyar as the best of its kind. From this
dubious statement and similarity in names a vi^riter
of the Neo. Tamil school jumps to the conclusion

that Valmiki, Gautama, Kapila and other famous
sages and Sanskritists of Upper India were by birth
Tamilians, and that after they had become famous

they were admitted as members of the Tamil acade-
—
mies. It is not worth entering into any controversy

with him as he claims to himself a ' sense of truth
and critical acumen '
which he may not be so
charitable as to concede to his opponents.
In Purananuru, which is an anthology or a collec-
tion of 400 lyrics compiled by some poet of the
third academy, there is a sang ascribed to Mudina-
garayarwho was a member of the first sangam.
Thispoem is a sort of epistle addressed to a Chera
monarch named Udiyan Cheraladan. The poet
here extols the king as the commissary agent or
supplier of provisions to the contending armies on
the battle field of Kurukshetra :
(iQujIT Qu0LOf
iSsDiB^'^d QairesoTL^ Quitsowljîb îhsmu
This informs us that the Chera king Udiyan Chera-

ladan, lived at the time of the Mahabharata war, i.e.
about the 10th or 11th century B. C. Among the na-

tions and tribes who ûght in the great war of the
Pandavas against the Kauravas, the Cherasand the
Cholas did not actually fight but as allies helped them
;
with armies or supervised other details of the company.

Pandiya king Sarangadwaja, a friend of Sri Krishna
and a devoted admirer of the Pandavas, drew only
one contingent of troops from each of the other Tamil
tribes. Another tradition says that Arjuna came
to Madura and married the daughter of a Pandya
240 TAMIL STUDIES
king. Some Tamil scholars endeavour to prove the

very hi^h antiquity of the Tamil civilization in
the Pandya country by quoting such references from
Valmiki's Ramayana and Vyasa's Mahabharata. In
his Maduraikkanji (40, 41) Marudanar of Mangudi
says that the Pandya country was in existence at the

time of Ravana, king of Lanka, and that the Pandyas
checked his invasion with the help of their family
priest, the divine Rishi Agastya.
But it must be remembered that neither epicwas

wholly composed by any one person and at any one
epoch. Both contain interpolations and accretions,
judging from which the dates of their present edition
have been fixed as the first century B.C. and 350 A.D.
respectively. Moreover, the Ramayana refers only to
the Greeks (Yavanas) while the Mahabharata mentions
them as well as the Sakhas (Scythians). All that
can be inferred is, that the three Tamil kingdoms in
the South were in existence from very ancient times.

No one doubts this fact, as these countries are men-
tioned in the edicts of Asoka (B. C. 250) and in the
commentaries of Katyayana (fourth century B. C).

The identilication of Dakshina Madura, the seat of
the first Academy has been a controversial point. Re.

garding the destruction of this place there are certain
allusions both in the Madura Stalapurana and in the
Silappadikaram. The learned commentator of the

—
work writes as follows

latter Between the rivers:
— '
Knmari and Pahruli there existed an extensive con-

tinent occupying an area of 700 kavadams (a Kavadam
being equal to ten miles). This land consisting of
forty-nine Jiads (inclusive of KoUam and Kumari), i n
numerable forests, mountains and rivers had been
submerged in the Indian ocean as far as the peaks of
Kumari,' by a terrific convulsion which resulted in
the upheaval of the Himalayan range. Geological,
ethnological and linguistic researches also seem to
confirm the above theory. But who can say with any
authority whether the submerged country had a town
called Madura or Kudal, whether it was governed by
precisely eighty-nine Pandya kings, or whether the
Dravidian inhabitants of this terra incognita were so
far civilized as to establish literary academies? What
seems to be reasonableis that the Madura of Agast-
yar's daysmust have been destroyed by an unusual

inundation of the Vaiga and the Kritamal rivers,
before the modern town was built at the present
locality. The old Madura must have situated five
or six miles south or south-east of the later one, and

about the same distance east of Tirupparamkunram
hill which has been described to have situated exactly
west of it-,
LDfTL^LoeSI iDgtiQjb <9s_/_ ff)@(_QyuJ?63r. Nak.

This hill is now four miles south-west of Madura.
And it is for the above reason that the old city was
called the south or Dakshina Madura.
About the second academy the same authority
16
242 TAMIL STUDIES
furnishes the following information : —The members

of the college were Agastya, Tolkapyar, Mosiyar,
Sirupandarangan, Vellur Kappiyan, Tuvaraikkoman,
Kirandaiyar and fifty-two other scholars ; and the
works of about 3,700 poets were passed by this aca-
demy. The seat of it was another submerged town,
called Kapatapuram. Itwas patronized by fifty-nine
Pandya kings from Venderseliyan to Mudatirumaran,
five of whom were also learned scholars. The
standard works ot this period were Kali, Kuruku,
Vendali, Mapuranam, Vyalamalai, Bhutapuranam,
Isainunukkam, &c. It lasted for 3,700 years.
It will be seen that the mterval between the aboli-
tion of the first and the founding of the second

academy could not have been long, as Agastya and
some of his students were represented at the latter
College-board also. Consequently the second must
be considered a continuation of the first, but held at
a different place after the destruction of the original
Madura by the flood. This supposition is strength-

ened by the statement of Adiyarkunallar in his valu-
able commentary on the Silappadikaram, that one of

the seven Pandya poet kings of the first academy by
name * Makirti' was also at Kapatapuram, as a patron
or royal visitor of the second academy. Kapatapuram
which in Sanskrit meant the 'gate city' , must have
been a village situated three or four miles east of
Madura, occupied temporarily as the king's resi-

dence before the modern city of Madura was built.
Out of the questionable mention of this Sanskrit

name as well as of Manalur (which Sanskrit scholars

think to be later interpolations) in the Rama-
yana and the Mahabharata, some Tamil pandits
are endeavouring to make much capital about the
great antiquity of Tamil culture and civilization.
As for the other particulars, we may dismiss them at
present as more fictions than facts.
To arrive at the date of the second academy the

commentator of Silappadikaram gives us an indirect
hint in his preface to that work. While speaking of
the story of Udayana he says that it was composed
in imitation of the classical works of the second
academy, and refers to it elsewhere as Perum-Kathai
(Skt. Brihat-Katha)- Evidently it is a Tamil rendering
of Gunadhya's Brihat-Katha. It is therefore obvious
that the poets of the second Sangam must have
flourished sometime before, or contemporarily with,
Gunadhya. In the opinion of Dr. Buhler the age of
Gunadhya goes back to the first or second century
A. D. He served as minister under king Satavahana
(A. D. 113) of the Andhrabhritya dynasty at Paithan
on the banks of the Godavari. *
He received,' it
is said, 'seven stories in the language of the Paisa-

chas (probably ancient Telugu) from Kanabhuti
and wrote them down in 100,000 slokas each with
his own blood.'
One of the poets of this academy, Mosiyar, has
contributed about fourteen lyrics to Purananuru.
Neither the kings alluded to by him, nor the incidents
described therein afford any clue to work out his
244 TAMIL STUDIES
date. He was a native of Uraiyur and lived in the

reign of the Chola king Perunarkillil- If Dittan the
father of PerunarkilH was identical with Dathiya
the Tamil usurper of the Singhalese annals (B.C. 90),
it may be said that he flourished about B.C. 75. Again
the present 'edition of the Ramayana which was recas^
about 100 B.C. mentions in its geography the Pandya
country and its capital Kapatapuram. Nothing further
isknown about Tolkapyar, whose Tamil grammar is
with us, than that he was a Brahman student of
Agastya and that he lived m a village near Madura
during the reign of the Pandya king Makirti. All the
works of thisacademy have also been irretrievably
lost, except the grammar of Tolkapyar and a few
poems which luckily found their way into the
anthologies compiled at the third academy.
From the foregoing it will be seen that the
first and the second academies were more or less
continuous, and that they existed occasionally

sometime between the fifth century B. C. and the
second century A. D. This conclusion seems to me
irresistable as we find ino references to the Yavanas
or Romans in any of the works composed by the
poets of these academies, especially when we know
that in the heyday of the early Pandyas there was a
colony of Roman merchants two or three miles east
of Madura from the second to fifth century A.D.
So much for the first two academies. We shall
1. The Killi line of Cholas appear to have reigned in Uraiyur

during the first century before and after Christ.
now pass on to the third, which was by far the most

important, and about which we are particularly
concerned. Almost all the best Tamil classics
we now possess are the productions of this last
Sangam. The history of this academy should

therefore be fully gone into, as there are ample mate-
rials in the shape of innumerable literary traditions,
puranas, and casual references. But the difftculties
also proportionately increase, because unfortunately

no two of them agree. An academy being an asso-
ciation of men of letters, its history cannot be sepa-
rated from their biographies; and it would be our work
in the following pages to collate such of the literary
traditions as have any bearing on their lives and to
construct a tolerably trustworthy account of this third
Sangam.
We shall first give the traditional account mainly
as preserved for us in the scholarly commentary
on Iraiyanar's Agapporul, and then discuss in detail
every point with reference to the latest researches
in epigraphy.
The members of this academy were Nakkirar
(President), Sittalai-Sattanar, Kalladar, Kapilar, Para-
nar,Ugra Pandya, Mangudi Maruthanar and forty-
two other scholars. Including them 449 poets obtain-
ed the sanction of the senate for their writings. The
seat of this Sangam was Uttara (northern) Madura.
It was patronized by forty-nine kings from
Mudattiru-maran to Ugra Pandya, three of whom
were also poets- The classical works of this period
246 TAMIL STUDIES
were Nedumtokai, Kurumtokai, Natrinai, Ainkuru-

nuru, Paditruppattu, Kurumkali, Paripadal, Kuttu,
Vari, Perisai, Sitrisai, Muttollayiram, Akananuru
and Purananuru, besides many minor poems. It
lasted for 1850 years.

Concernin<4 the foundation of the third Sangam
nothmg definite can be said. Tradition says that
it took place in the reign of one Mudattirumaran^
and this seems to have been tacitly accepted by the
commentator of Iraiyanar's Agapporul and Adiyar-
kunallar. The name Mudattirumaran appears to be
a synonym for Kun or Kubja Pandyan. If this
identification be correct, the third academy must
have been established in the reign of Sundara Pandya;
that is about 670 A.D. But this is against ail tradition
and facts. The Tiruvilayadal Purana tells us that it
was established in the reign of one Vamsa Sekhara
Pandya, who is also credited with the founding of
the Madura city after the 'deluge'. Neither of these
Pandyas is mentioned in the literature or in the
inscriptions which have been examined, and it is
therefore impossible to ascertain the precise date of

the establishment of the third academy.
It has been said that Kalladar l and Mangudi
Marudanar were members of this academy. These
two poets have sung the military exploits of Nedum
Seliyan of Talaiyalankanam fame. If these poets were
contemporaries of this king, they should have been
1. He was not that Kalladanar who wrote 'Kalladam' and 'Kannap-
par Tirumaram' (See Appendix).
living in the latter half of the second century A.D.

Again, Sittalai Sattanar another meinber of this acade-
my and the author of Manimekalai also lived at about
the same time. Had all these poets been really mem-
bers of the third academy, it must have been founded
during the first century A. D., or even long before that
time. This tradition thus militates against our conclu-
sion that the second academy existed till the second
century, and it must, therefore, be rejected as a pure
fiction.
Again according to the Tiruvalluvamalai one of the

fortynme professors of the third Sangarn was Perun-
devanar, the famous translator of the Mahabharata;
as a member of this academv the compilation of
the eight anthologies (CTilO^Q^/rea:*) is also attributed
to him. was really so, a learned scholar and poet

If it
of this reputation must have been mentioned by Nak-

kirar (oi whoever he might be) in the account of San-
gams given in iraiyanar's Agapporul. As his name is
not in the list, it is evident that he was not a member

of the third academy, and this inference is clinched
by an allusion in his Bharatam to the Pallava king
Nandivarman who won the battle at Tellar. The poet
Perundevanar must have thus lived at the latter part
of the eighth century. With it the general belief that
the compiler of tiie eight anthologies was the self-

same Perundevanar falls to the ground, unless it be
academy actually jCxisted about* that
that the third
period and that its forty-nine professors together with
Tiruvalluvar were his contemporaries — all which
248 TAMIL STUDIES
are absolutely incredible and contrary to the testimo-

nies of epigraphy and literary history.
The list of the forty-nine Pandya kings under
whose auspices the third academy thrived is not
given anywhere ; but the name of the last (Ugra
Pandya or Ugra Peruvaludi) alone occurs both in the
stala'purana and in Tamil literature. It was in the
reign of this king, according to one tradition, that the
Sangam or the famous seminary of learning at
third
Madura came to an end, when its members were
completely vanquished in a poetical contest with the
low caste Tiruvalluvar. But Tiruvaliuvar (A. D. 80)
lived at the time of the second academy, and had
therefore nothing to do with the third Sangam or its
destruction. That he was instrumental in bringing

about the downfall of the third Sangam, that all the
forty-ninemembers of it eulogized the Kural before
they were drowned in the " golden lily " tank, that
the famous Kapilar of this academy was his brother,
and that he was a Paraiya by caste all these are fig- —
ments of the Dravidian imagination. In the early years
of the Christian era there was no Paraiya caste ;
Kapilar was a Brhaman poet of Tirnvadavur in the
Madura and was the author of Kurinchipattu,

district,
Innanarpatu and several other poems none of the ;
forty-nine commendatory verses belong to the same

period, nor were they composed by poets of the same
nadu; and lastly it is not possible to believe that all
these poets conferred with one another and agreed to
extol the Kural in poems of the Venba metre and that in
—
the first century A. D. The subjoined eulogistic verse

usually attributed to Auvai, the renowned sister of
Tiruvalluvar, is enough to discredit the truth and

antiquity of the Tiruvalluvamalai:
Qpoi/T ûSqp QpssBQiDir Lîqisi — QsiretsiQi
QiDiT0eijrT ssQiDsk êmir.

In the above quotation we find references to Appar,
Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavachakar and Tiru-
mular, the latest of whom lived in the second
half of the ninth century. There are several
other verses of this sort in praise of the Kural.
This stanza makes Tiruvalluvar a contemporary of
Manikkavachakar ! What we are inclined to think
is that the Tiruvalhivaraalai or the 'garland of Tiruval-
luvar', like every other account relating to this famous-
moralist, is a strange mixture of doubtful traditions
and absurd fictions, written by some later Dravidian
author of the ninth century to popularize the
celebrated work of Tiruvalluvar. Thus, it will be
seen that the tradition which attributes the destruc-
tion of the third academy to poet Tiruvalluvar and
in the reign of the Pandya king Ugra Peruvaiudi,
is not only absolutely unfounded, but also contrary
to the statement in the Madura Stalapurana which
ascribes to the same king the foundation of the first
Sangam or academy.
For the extinction of the third academy we must
look elsewhere. If the compilation of Purananuru
250 TAMIL STUDIES
was made by this Sangam, the date of its aboh-

tion could be easily determined. In the above work
we find a poem addressed to the Chola king Kocchen-
gannan by poet Poigaiyar i. The exact age of this
poet is not known ; but the Chola king has been
referred toby the saints Trignanasambanda and
Tirumangai Alvar (A. D. 650-750) as the builder of
several temples to Siva and Vishnu. For this pious
act he has been canonized as a saint and included in
the hagiolugy of the Saivas. Granting that a period
of about a century had elapsed between this Chola
king and Sambandar, the probable date of Kocchen-
ganan would be about A. D. 580. As there is no
reference in Sambandar's work to the Tamil academy
at Madura, where the Saiva saint must have stayed
for some time before the Jains were impaled, and las
a poem addressed to this king is found in Purananuru,
there is every reason to believe that the third acad-
emy came to an end during the second half of the
sixth century.
This was the time when the struggle between

Jainism and Brahmanism was very vehement.
The kings and scholars of this transition period in
the south were completely absorbed in religious con-
troversies, and they hardly had any time to de-
vote to literary pursuits. And it was probably at this
period that the Pandya country was conquered and
temporarily held by the Kalabhras or Kalambras, till
1. This poet must not be confounded with the Vaishnava saint

Poigai Alvar who lived about A. D. 650,
they were expelled by Kadunkon about the beginning

of the seventh century. All these religious and
political disturbances contributed to the extinction
of the third academy.
The religion of the members of the three academies
it is not easv to determine, as all the accounts we now
have are from the Saiva source, and none from Bud-
dhists and Jains. However, so late, as the third or
fourth century A.D. there was no Sivaism or Vishnu-
ism as understood now. But there was Brahmanism
or the religion of the Vedas ; and side by side
with it there were also jainism and Buddhism.
The members of the first and second Sangams,
which continued up to the second century, must
have belonged to different persuasions. Agastyar
and Tolkapyar were Hindus, and presumably
professed Brahamanism. The writings of Tiruval-
luvar, Kapilar and Paranar do not show that they
were Saivas, while those of Nallanduvanar and
Nakkirar show that they were ;
yet ail these, except
Tiruvalluvar are given in the Saivite accounts as

Saivas, which is evidently unwarranted. One at least
of the forty-nine professors, that is Sattanar, was a

Buddhist.
At about the fourth or fifth century the religious
struggle made its first appearance. Buddhist and Jaina
scholars must have seceded from the Hindus and

started Sangas or colleges of their own at Madura and
other places for the advancement of Tamil literature.
One was started by Vajra Nandi in A.D. 470 in oppo-
252 TAMIL STUDIES
Hindu college, probably the third Sangam,

sition to a
which was then conducted mainly by the Saivas. The
five minor and the five major Kavyas and some of
the eighteen minor ethical poems must have been

passed by these Buddhist and Jaina Sangams or in-
stitutions, which, with the downfall of these religions,
must have come to an end. It might be noticed here
that the word sangam (Sangha) was probably of
Buddhistic origin.
It will be well at this stage of our enquiry to
examine the importance and value of the earliest
traditional account, which is attributed to Nakkirar

and upon which all the others are based, so far as
the facts revealed by epigraphy and early Tamil litera-
ture enlighten us on the subject. The entire period

of existence of the three Sangams or academies is
said to be 9990 years. This seems to us fabulous.
They were patronised by.
First Sangam — 89 kings from Kaysinavaludi

(A.D. 100) to Kadunkon (A.D. 600);
Second do — 59 kings from Vendercheliyan
(A.D. 740) to Mudattirumaran
(A.D. 650);
Third do — 49 kings from Mudattirumaran to
Ugra Peruvaludi (A. D. 100).

Of these Kaysinavaludi and Ugra Peruvaludi might
be identified with Ugra Pandya of early Tamil lite-
rature. Mudattirumaran might be the same as Kun
or Kubja Pandya, and identified with Nedumaran of
Nelveli (A. D. 650), Kadunkon lived about A. D.
600 and Ter cheliyan was a title of Arikesari Paranku-

san (A. D. 735). Thus it will be seen that the tradi-
tional account, which must have originated some-
time after the second half of the eighth century, not
only gives conflicting details about the three acade-
mies, but also throws serious doubts as to their relative
ages and their very existence.
Again, the illustrative kovai or garland of verses,

quoted m the so-called commentary on
Nakkirar's
Iraiyanar's Agapporul, frequently refers to the same
Pandya king Arikesari Parankusan (Ter-cheliyan)
and his military achievements. The commentator,
or at any rate the author who committed it to writing,
unconsciously betrays himself as Nilakantanar, the
tenth in succession from Nakkirar the supposititious
writer of the commentary. Allowing twenty years
for each generation of studentship, we arrive at A. D.
750 — 160 or 590 as the age of Nakkirar or of the
composition of Agapporul by Iraiyanar. But even this
period seems to be too modern for Nakkirar, because
the language and subject matter of Tirumurugarruppa-
dai show that he could not have lived later than the
fourth century A. D. In this connection it must be
observed that none of the members of any of these
academies, (excepting a certain writer by the name of
Nakkirar) refers to his academy or Sangam. Thus
we see that the above account of the academies is a
clear fabrication, like all other pauranic tales, out
of the names of some Pandya kings,- poets and
254 TAMIL STUDIES
institutions vaguely known to the Tamilians of those

times and foisted upon Nakkirar.
Several attempts in later times were made to estab-
hsh Tamil Sangams. The one referred to in the
Chinnamanur grant seems to have been the first and
the earliest endeavour after the dissolution of the fam-
ous third academy. It was probably the fourth, and
lasted for one century and a half from about A. D.
600 to A. D. 750. Though it was not so famous as
the third, it appears to have done some useful work
at least by way of collecting and preserving rare
Tamil works which would otherwise have perished.
Perundevanar, the author of Bfiarata Venba must
have belonged to this academyi, as his name, famous
though it was, does not appear in Nakkirar's list
of the members of the third academy. Naladiyar

(A. D. 750) and some other poems included in the
eighteen minor works (u^Q'SST^Stfisa,6ms(^) should, I
think, be attributed to this Sangam. From the ex-

pressions -fiEis^îAii^ and fiasQps^ûSi^ which occur in
the works of Tirumangai Alvar, I am inclined to
believe that the great Vaishnava apostle knew this
fourth Sangam, though he was not probably its
member.
1. According to the astronomical calculation made by Divan
Bahadur Swamikkannu Pillai Avi, from a reference in the Silappa*
dikaram, the poets Ilango-adigal and Sattanar must have flourished
in the eighth century. If so, the latter author must have been a
member of the above academy. We cannot now go deepei into
this question or accept Mr. Swamikkannu Pillat's theory, until
stronger and more convincing evidences be forth-coming.
Anotlier attempt in later times seems to have been

made by Poyyamoli Pulavar the author, of an erotic
poem known as the Tanjaivanan Kovai. He lived, it is
said, in the reign of oneVanangamudi Pandyan whose
date cannot be determined at present. From the brief

account of this poet given in the Tamil Plutarch, it
might be inferred that the poet's petition to the Pan-

dya kinglto establish an academy did not meet with
the royal approbation. But at the time of Tiruttakka
Deva (about 900 A. D.) there was, it is said, a Sangam
at Madura, and one Poyyamoli was an admirer of
the reputed author of Chintamani. If this Poyyamoli
was the poet alluded to above, we shall have every
reason to think that he did partially succeed in
founding an academy which was probably the fifth.
The Pandya and Chola kings, some of whom were

lovers of Tamil literature, might have assembled
societies of learned men at different times; but no
history ofthem has come down to us, probably because
none of them attained the high rank of the first three
academies. Yet, most of the Tamil kings from Paran-
taka Chola (A. D. 906) downwards appear to have
encouraged the growth of Tamil learning by
patronising eminent poets who adorned their courts
and by showering on them munificent presents. A
few of them like Gandaraditya (tenth century)
and Ati Vira Rama Pandya (seventeenth century)
were themselves poets, and gave an impetus in later
times to the advancement of learning in the Tamil
country.
256 TAMIL STUDIES
Before proceeding to consider the work done by

the Tamil academies which existed at various times, it
is desirable to give a brief summary of their history.

The Pandya kings were the foremost to en-
early
co.irage Tamil learning by establishing academies at
Madura. Vague and exaggerated accounts of some
of them appear to have been handed down in tradi-
tions, until they were committed to writing, first
by the commentator of Iraiyanar's Agapporul, and

then by the writer of the Madura Stalapurana,
some time after A. D. 750. Some of their members
seem to be fictitious persons, while others, probably
excepting a few, do not appear to be contemporaries.
Their constitution, function and age, as described in
these works are extremely unreliable. All what we

can now say is that the Pandya kings maintained a
Tamil academy or University at their metropolis
from about B. C. 450 to about A. D. 550, and
that it was subject to varying fortunes. When
the Pandya country was invaded and tempor-
arily occupied by the Kalabhras during the sixth cen-
tury and when the religious struggle had already
commenced, Sangam or college ceased to
the last
exist as a corporate body. From this time, the Jains
had their own Sangams, which were more or less
like the Jesuit seminaries of the middle ages ; and the
Hindus had their own academy which might have been
in existence during the early part of the eighth century.
It was at this last Sangam that Perundevanar translated
the Mahabharata and wrote his invocatory stanzas to

the eight anthologies, and it was also at this college
that the eighteen minor poems were collected. In the

above references to the Tamil Sangaros or
face of the
academies throughout the ancient Tamil literature, it
would be impossible to deny their existence in some
form or other before the eighth century A. D.
Having said so much for the history of the various
Tamil academies, we shall now proceed to consider
the amount of influence they exerted in giving shape-
to the Tamil language and literature.

The object with which the three academies were
founded was threefold, namely, (1) the purification of
the Tamil language by the writing of a grammar for it
and by enforcing strict adherence to its rules, (2) the

gradual introduction of Aryan civilisation in the
Tamil country, and (3) the regulation of literary
patronage so as to promote these ends. This task

was first up by the Brahman sage Agastya,
taken
of course, under the guidance and patronage of the
Pandya kings. With a view to carry out these plans
the preliminary measures adopted were, first the
assembling of a body of literary men from
large
different parts of the Tamil land secondly, the forma«
;
tion of a literary academy with Agastya, the tradition-

al priest of the Pandya family, as its president and ;
thirdly, the promulgation of a royal mandate prohibi-
ting the circulation of any literary production before it
was approved by the academy.

Language has life and growth, and when left to
itself sprouts out into divers dialects like the branches-
17
258 •
TAMIL STUDIES
'
of a living tree. ' The bit and bridle of literature
says Max Muller, '

will arrest a natural flow of
language in the countless rivulets of its dialects, and
give a permanency to certain formations of speech
which, without these external influences, could have
enjoyed but an ephemeral existence.' This linguistic
principle was clearly understood and fully recognised
by the founders of the Tamil academies. To secure,
"therefore, permanency to the Tamil language the
boundaries of the country where it was current were

roughly described and the particular locality in which
pure Tamil (Q5=/5^(^Lp)was spoken was sharply defined;
then the form and pronunciation of letters were
settled rules were laid down to distinguish pure
;
Tamil words from those of foreign origin, and to

determine the structure and combination of words in
sentences. These and many other restrictions on the
free grovvth of the language were dealt with in the first
Tamil grammar. Treatises were written on prosody,

rhetoric and pond (details of conduct in matters of
Jove and warfare). Poetical dictionaries or nikhandus
were compiled in order to give fixity to the form and
-meaning of words in the language, and to check the
indiscriminate and unlicensed introduction of alien
words m the Tamil vocabulary.
The canons of literary criticism were severe
and were applied nnpartially. In this connection
there is a tradition pertaining to Sittalai-Sattanar,
"a noted member of the so-called third academy and
author of the unrivalled epic Maniraekalai. When a
new poem was recited by its author before the learned

assembly, he used to strikeihis head with the butt-end
of his iron stylus whenever he found a flaw in it.
The wound thus caused by his constanf blows grew

into a purulent sore. (He was on this account called
Sittalai or '
pus-head' Sattanar). This wound, it is
said, defied all curative treatment, but healed of it-
self on hearing the Kural of Tiruvalluvar.
p'^s,^^^^ ^rroâ^n^ ^p(^.
In this way the Tamil language, which passed

through the crucible of the three academies, was
refined and given to the Tamil land as a perfect ins-
trument for the expression of the best thoughts and
sentiments of its people. The influence of these aca-
demies is markedly seen in the Tamil writings which
received their approval, their style and language arid
choice of words differing much from that of the Tamil
works of the post-academic period. The reader may
compare with advantage the Purananuru or Pattu-
pattu with the Tevaram or the Tiruvoymoli.
For the advancement of literature and acade-

mies the Tamil kings did much. Liberal pre-
sents in the shape of money, elephants, palanquins,
chariots with horses, lands and flowers of gold
were bestowed upon deserving poets. Titles of dis-
tmction like ^^ffltuir (doctor), Ljeosuir (pandit), «a9<?-

260 TAMIL STUDIES
ff-gi@s®)h^^ (emperor of poets), etc., were also con-

ferred on them. Poets were honoured and respected
to such a degree that even kings did not think it
dishonourable to act as their palanquin bearers. To

appease the wrath of a poet, a Pandya queen is said
to have borne his palanquin one whole night in the
disguise of a male carrier. Instances of the Tamil
kings hontjuring poets, and of their indirectly encou-
raging learning are only too many. One point, how-
ever, might be noticed in this connection. The Tamil
kings of Chera, Pandya were liberal
Chola and
patrons of Tamil In the Tamil work
literature.
entitled Padirruppattu, the poet Kannanar of Kun-

nattur is said to have received, for having composed
ten poems, a grant of five hundred villages and the
revenues of the southern districts for thirty-eight
years; the poet Kappiyanar obtained from the Chera
king a gift of forty lakhs of pon (a gold coin
valued at Rs. 2-8-0 each) for his ten poems ;
and
the poetess Nacchellai was given by another Chera
monarch nine iulams (Tulam=600 Rs. weight)
of gold for making jewels and one lakh of gold
coins, besides the honour of a seat by his Such
side.
was the munificient patronage of poets by the Tamil

kings.
A comparison of these ancient institutions of the
Tamil people with the modern Royal Academy of the
French will be interesting, since both of them were
alike in their constitution, work and influence. The
French Academy was established in A. D. 1635, that
is nearly two thousand years after the first Tamil

academy, and its members were fixed at forty. Its
object was to cleanse the language of the
impurities, which had crept into it through the
common people who spoke it and *
to render it
pure, eloquent and capable of treating the

arts and sciences.... It has done much by its
example for style and has raised the general standard

of writing, ..though it has tended to hr.mper and
crush originality.' It has been remarked by a Danish
scholar that academies of the kind described above
operate as a check to the liberty of speech and gene-
rally to national independence, and quotes as an
example the absence of similar institutions among
the liberty-loving British race. The same author
continues as follows :
— ' In England every writer
is and has been free to take his words where he
chooses, whether from the ordinary stock of every
day words, from native dialects, from old authors,

or from other languages, dead or living. The
consequence has been that English dictionaries
comprise a larger number of words than those of any
other nation.'
The above remarks of Dr. Jespersen apply with equal
force to the Tamil people. In the Tamil language there

are 34 synonyms for the word '
wind,' 50 for 'water,'
'
35 for 'cloud', 62 for '
earth,' 60 for ' mountains
&c, The ancient Tamils were a war-like race ; they
h ad their war songs and lyrics. Though the blazing
fire of independence and patriotism was put out by
262 TAMIL STUDIES
the magic influence of the peace-loving Brahmans of

South India, the native bellicose spirit of the ancient
Tamils makes its appearance at times among the pre-
sent day Maravar, Kallar and Shanar tribes of the
southern districts, though they have lost the grace
and dignity of the; real warrior. The war-like Nayars
of the west coast are also the descendants of ancient.
Tamil clans.
The Tamil dictionary is very copious and the num-
ber of pure Tamil words in it exceeds that of any other
Indian vernaculars. Synonyms are plentiful. Even
slang terms acquired classical merit and were made
use of in literature. We may illustrate this usage by
a concrete example. Kamban, the prince of Tamil

poets, coined the word tumi {^lAl) in his Ramayana
to rhyme with timi (ûS). While reciting his work at-
the royal court, Ottaikuttar, another poet of almost

equal ability and younger contemporary, took objec-
tion to its use and demanded his authority for its
currency. Kamban was a cow-herd's

replied that it
slang; and Ottaikuthar required him to prove it.-

Thereupon, Kamban invoked Sarasvati, the goddess
of learning, who in the disguise of an Idaiya woman
uttered the word Uwti in the sense of a 'drop' or
'spray' from an apartment in a shepherd's house, so
loudly as to be heard by the two poets when passing
along the street. This story clearly shows that the
coining of new words was never tolerated, though the.
use of slang and obsolete terms was freely allowed.

So far as the Tamil language was concerned, the;
THE TAMIL ACADEMIES 2&Z^
influence of the academies was mainly conservative ;
but it never arrested the growth of the imagination

or fancy of the Tamil race. On the contrary, it
afiordedthem unlicensed freedom to indulge even in

what would appear to a moderner as hyperboles and
anachronisms.
X
THE TEN TENS
* Padirruppattu '
or the '
Ten tens' is the fourth of
the eight poetical anthologies, the collection and
arrangement of which are attributed to the third
academy. As implied by the name it had originally
ten books, of which the first and the last are now
lost. The remaining eight books were composed by
eight different authors in commemoration of the
military exploits, the liberality and other noble quali-
ties of eight Chera kings of ancient times. It is said
that the authors of these books were given enormous
presents by these kings. Parts of this work might
have been written, so early as the end of the second
or the and Chera
beginning of the third century ;
was one of Kodun-Tamil countries according

the
to the early Tamil grammarians. The work under
review is, therefore, a museum of obsolete words and
expressions, archaic grammatical forms and termi-
nations, and obscure customs and manners of the
early western Tamil people who were the ancestors
of the modern Malayalis.
THE TEN TENS 265
The second book which was written by Kannanar

of Kunnattur is addressed to the Chera king Imaya
Varman Nedum Seraladan. In the epilogue to this
book we are informed that this king was the nephew
of Udiyan by Venmal Nallini and Veliyan, that
he engraved the 'bow' on the Himalayas and that he
conquered and subdued the far-famed Aryans and the
hard-tongued Yavanas (lohians). He was the uncle of
Senguttuvan, a contemporary of Gajabahu I (169-191)
of Ceylon. Regarding the Andhra king Viliyakura II
(113-138 A. D.) Mr. V. A. Smith writes that '

he
prided himself on his prowess in expelling the Sakas,
Yavanas and Pahlavas from his dominions on the
West-coast.' Further, it is said that '
the Scythians
from the north raided southwards and there was
war. In an inscription at Nasik the Andhra Gotami-
putra is stated to have defeated the Sakas, Yavanas
and Pahlavas, the Saka chief being the Kshatrapa
Nahapana. This was about A. D. As Imaya
125.'
Varman —a Chera king of the west coast and the

uncle of Senguttuvan — also boasts of having fought
with the Yavanas, there is every reason to
believe that this king might have had a share in
the expulsion of this Greek or Ionian people from

Western India. These two kings were probably
contemporaries, as Imaya Varman Nedum Serala-
dan is stated to have reigned for fifty-eight years.
Thus be seen that this

it will Chera king and the
Brahman poet Kannanar must have flourished during
the first half of the second century A. D.
266 TAMIL STUDIES
The third book was composed by Palai Gautama-

nar (the êmi—iû^ uxsBpQiua&sr of Ilango-adigal)
in honour of the Chera king Palyanai Chelkezhu

Kuttuvan,a younger brother of Imaya Varman. He
was a pious king and renounced the world after a
reign of 25 years. He is stated to have performed
ten Yagas or sacrifices for the sake of Gautamanar,
directed his purohit Nedura.Bharatayanar to become
an ascetic, and to have given away his king,
dom to his relatives. He is further said lo have

decorated the temple of the family deity on the
Ayirai l Hill. Gautamanar was a Brahman poet
who is believed to have ascended the heaven with his
consort after completing the tenth sacrifice. All these
facts are also alluded to in the last book of Silappadi-
karam. The Chera king Palyanaichelkezhu-Kuttu-

van and the poet Gautamanar must, therefore, have
lived during the latter half of the second century.
Kappiyarru-Kappiyanar was the author of the fourth

book, which is addressed to the Chera king Kalang-
kaykkanni Narmudi Cheral. He was born to Serala-
dan by the wife He

of Velavikkoman Padman.
conquered Puzhi- Nadu and defeated Nannan. He
succeeded Cheral Adan and reigned for 25 years.
The real name of the king is not known, and the one
by which he is known is a nom-de-plume meaning
1. This hill, now known as Aivar-malai, is near Aiyampalayam
in the Palani taluk of the Madura district. On the summit of
this hill there are many Jaina images and a temple containing ins-
criptions of Varaguna Pandiya (A. D. 862).
THE TEN TENS 267
'one who wears a garland of aefnasmb and a crown of

plantain fibre'. Nothing further is known at present
about this king and the poet.
The book is a production of the famous poet
fifth
Paranar and the hero of the poem is Senguttuvan»

;
nephew of Nedum-Cheraladan by the Chola prince

Manakkilli. This Chera king was a contemporary of
Gajabahu I of Ceylon, of the Chola kings Uruva-
Pahrer Ilamset Senni and Vel-Pahradakkai-Perunar-
killi, and of the Pandya kings Nedu-Maran
and Verri Vel-Seliyan. He was an ally of the
Satakarnis of the Andhra dynasty, and with
his assistance he defeated a confederacy of the
Aryan chiefs — and others on the
Kanaka, Vijaya —
northern bank of the Ganges, and the nine rival
princes of the Chola family at Nerivayil near
Uraiyur and fought another at Viyalur with some
unknown chief, and subdued Palayan of Mokur. He
was the elder brother of Ilangko the reputed author
of Silappadikaram and the hero of the third book of
that famous work.
Paranar has contributed some 72 stanzas to the
other collected works of this period. In Tamil
literature his name is found invariably connected with
Kapilar, another renowned poet and contemporary.
The question of the age of these poets will be
considered later on, and enough for the
it is
present to say that Senguttuvan, the Chera king

flourished between 150 and 225 A.D. His reign
extended to fifty-five years.
-268 TAMIL STUDIES
The sixth book consisting of over 210 lines was

written by a woman named Kakkai-Patiniyar
Nacchellaiyar in honour of the Chera king Adukot.
pattu Cheral Adan. He was the nephew of Nedum
Cheral Adan, by the wife of Velavikoman.and a liberal
king who gave away cows and lands to Brahmans,
and ruled his country justly from his capital at
Tondi, the modern Kadalundi in the Malabar

district. If he was a cousin brother of Senguttuvan
noticed above he must have flourished during the

first quarter of the third century A. D. He reigned
for thirty-eight years.
The seventh book, addressed to Selvakkadungo-
Azhi-Adan, was composed by Kapilar. This Chera king
was the nephew Anduvan Cheran by Porayan and
of
his wife Perundevi, daughter of Orutandai. He was

a valiant king and pious devotee of Vishnu,for whose
worship he granted the village of Okandur as devada-
yam- He fought several battles and performed many
sacrifices. He is believed to have reigned 25 years.
Nothing further is known about this king except that
he was a predecessor of Senguttuvan, and that he
rrlust have flourished before A. D. 150.
Kapilar was a Brahman of Tiruvadavur in the

Pandya country. It is not known why he has not
composed even a stanza in praise of any Pandya
sovereign in whose dominion he was born. Perhaps
he had migrated while young to the hill country and
settled there, as all his extant poems are descriptive of
upland scenery {(s/^(^^) and of hill kings and
THE TEN TENS 269'
chiefs. Other poems attributed to this author are,

— one book in Ainguru-nuru, Kurinjippattu, Inna
Narpatu, besides some poems in Narrinai, Kurungkah,
Agananuru and Purananuru. He did not errbrace
any particular sect, as he worshipped all the puranic
deities — Baladeva, Vishnu, Siva, Vinayaka, &c. It is
not therefore safe to ascribe the authorship of certain

sectarian poems on Siva or Mutta Nayanar to
Kapilar. Further, there is much difference in the style
and language of these two sets of poems (vide, p. 197).
He has been extolled by his contemporaries and
successors as one who never uttered a lie {Quadjiurrmrr
eSpsSeom) and as one most upright in his conduct.

The eighth was sung by one Arisilkizhar in praise of
the Chera king Perum-Cheral-Irum-Porai. This king

was nephew
a of Selva-Kadumko the hero of Kapilar's
book by the wife of Velavikkoman. He boasts of
having overthrown Adigaman of Takadur, and defeat-

ed the Pandya and Chola kings of his period near the
KoUimalais. It is said that he was a contemporary
of Ugra Pandya and that he reigned for seventeen
years.
The ninth and last book is a production of
Perungunrur Kizhar, and it eulogizes the military
achievements of the Chera king Ilam-Cheral-Irum
Porai. He was the nephew of Irum-Porai noticed
above, by Maiyur Kizhan and his wife Venmal
Anduvan Sellai. He boasts of having defeated the
Chola king Uruvap Pahrer Ilamchet Senni (father
of Karikala) and Palayan Maran, a Pandya chief,
— —
270 TAMIL STUDIES
and destroyed the five hill fortresses of Vicchi. It is
said that he was a descendant of Mandaram Cheral

Irumporai (ix. 8, 10) and of the kings who had thrown
lances to cross the ocean and decorated the patron
deity at Ayirai. The author Perumgunrur Kizhar was
a contemporary of Kapilar and praises him in the fifth
agaval of this book as follows :
a.ffl;'3sw«i,/r/r<5 seu'SeauSQesr (^&
esTioweSjbumûj iBs\)eSlsai^s atSeom'.
We shall now consider en semble the dates of the

Chera kings and famous poets Kapilar, Paranar,
of the
Palai Gautaraanar, Perumgunrur Kizhar and Arisil

Kizhar. As may be gathered from the epilogues to this
work the genealogies of the early Chera kings fall into
two branches thus :
I. II.
Udiyan Serai Adan Anduvan Serai Irumporai
I I
(A) vSelva-Kadunko-Ali
(1) Imaya Varman (2) Palyanai Chelkelu Adan (r. 25 yrs.)
alias. Kuttuvan [
Nedum Serai Adan (r. 58 yrs.) (B) Perum Serai Irum-

I
porai (r. 17 yrs.)
1 \ \ i i
(3)Kalankay- (5) Adukot- (i) Sengu- Ilango. (C) Ham Serai Irum-
Kanni Nar~ pattu Serai tuvan porai (r. 16 yrs.)
mudi Serai Adan (r. 55 yrs.)
(r. 25 yrs) (r. 35 yrs.)
by Padman Devi. '

by Manakkilli Devi.
Of these the only king whose date has been definite-
ly fixed is Senguttuvani (No. 4 in Table I, A. D.

1. It is not our purpose to enter into the controversy whether the
Gajabahu alluded to in the Silappadikaram was the first or the
second king of that name, as this question has been already settled
by other scholars.
THE TEN TENS 271
175-225) and the composition of Silappadikaram

;
by his Ilango may, therefore, be placed

brother
between 200 and 225 A. D. In this work the exploits
of the Chera kings Nos. 1, 2 and 3 in Table I, and of
C in Table II are narratad (Book, xxviii, 11.
135-148). Consequently all the kings referred to in
the two genealogies must have been the predeces-

sors of Senguttuvan. The poet Paranar has sung
Senguttuvan (No. 4) and his maternal uncle
Nedum Cheral Adan (No. 1) besides Uruva Paher,
Ilamchet Senni of Pukar, father of Karikala Chola of
Kaveripatam and Vel-Pahradakkai Perunar-Killi of
Uraiyur. Summing up the duration of the various
reigns from No. 1 to No. 4, as given in Table I,
the period comes to more than a century, and this

could not surely be the age of Paranar. It is
therefore clear that the length of the reign of each

king includes the period of their viceroyalty in some
part of the Chera country before their accession to the
Chera throne, and ihat almost all kings given in the
two tables must have reigned between A. D. 125 and
225.
This, I believe, is the period of Kapilar, Paranar and

other poets mentioned above. It was the custom
in these provinces as in the north, to appoint the sons
of the reigning kings, especially the heirs apparent, as
Viceroys of different Nadus under
provinces or
their sovereignty. them styled himself a
As each of
Chera, a Chola or a Pandya king, we have a number
of such kings ruling at the same period and there ;
—
272 TAMIL STUDIES
were as many as nine Chola princes at Uraiyur durii

the time of Senguttuvan and this is one of th ;
stumbling blocks in fixing the genealogy of the Tamil

kings. Further, this difficulty is enhanced in the
case of the Chera kings on account of the Marumak-
katayam law of inheritance, which had been then as
now in vogue in the Malabar coast and it has ;
become a hopeless task to determine their relation-

ship on account of the temporary unions of the
patriarchal and matriarchal royal families of the Pand-
yas, Cholas and Cheras. It was one of the causes for
constant wars between them, and for the eventual
separation of the Cheras from the other Tamil
dynasties.
The genealogy of the Chera kings of this period
given by Mr. Kanakasabhai in his Tamils 1800 years
ago is as follows :
Athan I (40—55).
I
Athan II, m. Sonai, daughter

of Kankala Chola (55-90)
Senguttuvan (90
I
— 125) I
Ilango.
I
Yanaikkatchey (125—135)-
I
Perumcheral Irumporai (135 — 150).
It will be seen that this table does not tally with our
own, and it is not possible to say on what authority
he has based it. But at any rate it is evident that he
has forgotten the fact that succession in the Kerala.
— — —
THE TEN TENS 273
jntry was according to Marumakkatayam law.

;'iis Senguttuvan was not the son of and the
Athan II
^hola princess Sonai as he has given; but he was the

nephew of Athan as the following lines will show:
Q^fiTmesr LDosarsSeirbyfl uS&sr p Losear

» * * *
«L_6k) lS paQsaiLisf-uj Qs=ia(^LL'il(oiJGsr
On the other hand, the Silappadikaram informs us

that Senguttavan was the son of Seraladan by a Chola
princess Qûedtt ^pâ^ QsâLp^ m^sî^ peauDii^ ear Qaîa
(gtl®euair. And elsewhere in the same work the Chola

king Valavankilli is spoken of as the brother-in-law
of Senguttuvan rSsisrstOLD^êarmajen-eu^Seirerft. I am
inclined to believe that the word los&r in the first
quotation from Silappadikaram should be oiasoT-, as

otherwise the parentage given to some of the Chera
kings in the Padirruppattu must all be false, which is
improbable.
Tamil country the Aryan Brahmans had

In the
already settled in small numbers. They were
patronized by kings with grants of land. Some of
them were engaged as purohits or priests,while others
occupied themselves in teaching the Aryan religion
and philosophy to the Tamils. The Tamil poets Kapi-
lar and Palai-Gautamanar were Brahmans. There
were also poetesses like Nacchellaiyar and educa- ;
tion of women was not neglected in those days.

Besides poets of both sexes among Brahmans and
Vellalas, there was a low class of minstrels called
18
274 TAMIL STUDIES
Panans (female Patini), who lived by begging, and

whose duty it was to recite songs before kings and
chiefs. They were rewarded with elephants, chariots
and garlands of golden flowers. And they used to

accompany kings to battles and visit camps in the
hope of sharing with the victorious soldiers the
booties taken in wars.
Rice, sugarand ginger, varagu, kollu and tinai,
cocoanut and palmyra were largely cultivated. Meat
was eaten by all classes, not excepting even Brah-
mans, and the drinking of liquor was very common.
Soldiers used to wear garlands of ginger and flowers in
order to eat that pungent root at intervals while
quaffing liquor (v. 2). Rice cooked with flesh was
the favourite viand of soldiers. They observed
feasts when they returned after success in wars, or on
the birthday of kings, and fasts on full-moon days
(vi. 1).The Brahmans performed Yagas or sacrifices
for the benefit of kings. The God Vishnu at Tri.
vandrum was worshipped by all people of higher
castes (iv. i\ Females, especially the class called
eSlp&SiuiT, were in the habit of tying their locks of hair
divided into five knots like the Toda women of
modern time (ii. 8). Compare with this the following
extracts from Kalittcgai which gives a graphic des-

cription of the coiffure in vogue among the Dravi.
dian Tamil woman of antiquity.
(1) 6Too©<srot_ QîtlLl^ smrdsaSesr Qu p pssiOJLOUrr&d,

(2) ^îTS QiBfiS^^<s5r(oQr ei]p&)eSa i'Ssfrihuir
eiesafi iBeas uSss)u.uSlLi-. eêastviEJsemesdl.

THE TEN TENS 275
Kalangu or the seeds of (guilandina bonduce) were

Tjsed forcounting (iv. 2). They believed in omens
and auguries, the withering of leaves in the silk-
cotton tree being considered an evil foreboding
(iv.lO). They believed in astrology and in the appea-
rance of eleven suns to dry up the universal deluge
(vii.2). Chastity was considered the highest virtue
and sign of 'learning' in women and they believed in
the story of QTihiSm or arundhati. Among the
Tamils the ordinary custom was the burial of dead
bodies (v. 4). They used to be kept in big pots and
buried under Vahni (Prosopis spicigera) trees.
Feudalism was prevalent. The Tamil kings and

their governors of provinces were constantly at
war. Each was bent upon subduing the other

and becoming the overlord. Thus, at the battle
of Nerivayil near Uraiyur as many as nine
Chola princes were defeated by Senguttuvan,
the Chera king. A part of the Chera country, called
the Puzhi Nadu was conquered and lost alternately
by the Cheras and Pandyas. These chiefs had
small forts with deep ditches surrounded with forests,
one tree —
among which like the sluJoli (Eugenia race-
mosa) of Nannan and the Qqjldlj (Azadirachta indica)
of Palayan — was considered sacred to the ruler. This
was one of the vestiges of the Australian totemism.
In war the first business of an enemy was to cut
down such sacred trees and to make war drums
out of the wood, to burn the villages, to plunder
276 TAMIL STUDIES
their cattle and to destroy their moats and ditches

with elephants. When a fort was besieged by an
enemy, the men in the fort used to fight even
without taking food and write the number of days
thus passed on the fort-walls (vii.8). The battlements
were filled with bows and arrows, swords, anklets
and wreaths of green leaves (vi. 3) ; the two last
(worn by women) for distribution among the coward

soldiers as marks of shame. It was also the
custom to pour oil on the head of the van-
quished leader and to drag him by both hands from
behind. The victorious kings and soldiers used to
dance with raised swords on the field of battle (vi. 6)
and then give grand feasts to their men when the

severed heads and bodies of the departed heroes lay
strewn around them. This was seirQûmeS (camp
feast) and ^smiimsss;^^^ (war dance). They
knew something of surgery and used to stitch
the wounds received in battles with needles
called Nettai or Q«® Qeu&r^Q (v. 2). Thev had their
ov^n military rules of discipline, and always prefer-
red winter for military operations (ix. 2). Plunder
was not their sole object, but a desire tor power and
authority actuated the Tamil kings to carry on wars
with the neighbouring chiefs. Naval fights too were
not unknown to them.
The standard authority on grammar for this
period was Tolkapyam. The following peculiarities
may be found in the work under consideration. The
plural of high caste nouns had, /f, while the neuter
THE TEN TENS 277
nouns had no plural at all. The termination, s^,

was not in use then though Tolkapyar mentions
it in his grammar. In the matter of gender, neuters
like îasu, (?q;/5jp, ^st, srjbpuDj &c., were mostly
in use, though masculine and feminine nouns like
QtBi^Qiurresr and ^tftiueir are met with occasionally. The

post-position for all the six cases was ^sin- or '§!&), but (5
for the dative and jy for the genitive were also used.
In QuirmssBêsTmeWy SêsBpp^fi, iii(Tûi3ssiuj!T'2esT and
©6\)ti)Ly/r)jj;@«-a) we find @oir stands for 2nd, 3rd, 6th and
7th cases; and in the phrase L3u^(U(^mgiJ the termination
=gy is a genitive particle.The formation of verbal-nouns
as in Q^n-soiu. from Q^rr® to attach, in ^Tsu&i from ^/r to
suffer, in usssfli^ from uesS to bow, in ld&}iti-j from ld&iit
to blossom,in jy'PuL/from =gy® to kill, in Quinuuui from

Qu7iu to utter a lie, in jugVLj (separation) from j>i^ to
cut, in 67^ from sti£I to beat or throw, in ueap from
up to fly, in ^sap from ^^ to tarrv, and in uT/foysu
from ufTiT to see ; of personal nouns in /5/f from

verbs ^t {^(J^ît), usit (u^/f/B/f), jij .a and jy/fl {^rftsir}; con-
crete nouns from verbs ^^ — ^Pf^, Qsjot — Q^tremis.
(booty), jij3)i<ss)eu (piece of cloth), // sSp (powder)

.f j2/, ^jj/) ; and of abstract nouns from verbs as supiM
{dryness*, otpso, Qeueusufr^ &c., are all now obsolete.

Present tense was not in use at this period, the only
tenses which were frequently used are the past and
future. The particles or signs of past tense much in
use were c/ and ^ ; and those of the future were

€i\iM, <S(5, u and l/ Q.f0st}> (we will go) îri(^, ^0U,
urrQuj might be taken as examples. Causative verbs
278 TAMIL STUDIES
like e^Qpd^ (to cause to behave); infinitives in fFiuir as

in îP^LuiT (to give), imperatives in Qmir as in Q^mQinfr
and uSm as in 'S-<^L£lm gone out of use along
have all
with 0)607, Qsiresr, Qu sr and lomp which were the

adverbs of quality greatly used by the early Tamil
poets.
As in most works of this period the metre used
here is agaval.
Tolkapyar and Pavanandi have provided rules for
the going out of the old and the coming in of new
forms and words, so long as the language continues
to have life and growth. Ignoring this important
principle Tamil poets of all ages have slavishly adopt-
ed obsolete terms and expressions in their composi-
tions. This is the chief cause for the great differ-
ence between the language of poetry and the

colloquial dialect. We are not concerned here with
the obsolete words and forms as they have been
fully explained by the old commentators and in the
glossaries appended to those classical works. We
give below only such words as are current now but
have undergone change in meaning by the influence
of the psychological principles of contiguity,,
resemblance and contrast. ^® meant '
victory '
from ^® to kill, now

means a sheep 'or 'an
it '
animal that frisks' (josarq meant 'strength' and now

;
it means 'front'; a»u@(Gâja) meant the 'people', now it
means the 'green or fertile land;' âr^^&) meant

'thinking', now restricted only to 'measuring' ;
^®ul^
meant 'withering or dying,' now it means 'that in
;
THE TEN TENS 279
which anything is cooked', hence an 'oven' euirtîeias ;
meant 'property', now it means 'living' \QiuiTmi meant

'iron', hence any useful metal, but now restricted to
'gold '; seif^sii meant also a 'pig', now only an 'elephant'

L/sa) meant 'justice' rsQsiirS'ietxsio.D, now only 'mid-day';
8Lfi3(^ meant a pit or a low groui id from Si^

'
' below' '
and (^ the particle of direction, now it means the 'east/

which was believed by the early Tarailians as the
low-lying land in reference to the Western Ghats ;
Qsn® meant 'cruelty' or 'that which was bent' and now,

'
it means a 'branch' of a tree; s/bi-i meant learning '
{s&)î) and it is now restricted to chastity '; î-ij> in '
ussSli—LD meant time, as no distinction was made by
the early Tamils between time (Skt. sireouo) and space

(@t_ii)) or they had no term to express the notion of
time; eî^ meant to 'spoil or injure' generally, now it
means 'to break or cut in twain' like a stick cSsmLÛLf ;
meant 'death', now 'living' the opposite of it; Qetirnsoas

meant wealth,' or that which is 'liked', and now
'
it means 'hatred '; jifioseo meant 'staying or tarrying'
now 'leaving'; ^gui^ and ^êsioj (from ^ ^/b- to cut)

meant 'separation' and 'a piece of cloth', both of
which are now obsolete, the latter word being ousted
by another êssR of similar origin; ^rreueo meant
'begging', and it is no longer used in that meaning;
Qs=Lju is a very old word common to Tamil and
Telugu, but it has become classical in Tamil and
colloquial in Telugu.
1. In Kanarese the name for 'iron' is 'Kabbonnu' or ' Karum-
ponnu', which means the 'black gold.'
280 TAMIL STUDIES
The authors of this collection have used Sanskrit

derivatives (tadbhavas) very sparingly, and even these
relate either to religion or mythology. They are
^Q/,^ (sacrifice), usS (offering), mi^jih (spell), sireoar
(god of death), utTsuD or us^nîh (devil), ^/tlc (garland),

^(T-®^ (purification), jyai/6?Rjr/f (Rakshas or demons), and
îftiuiT (Aryas). Thus in a work of about 1,800 lines only
a dozen words of Sanskrit origin are to be found, and
it speaks of the purity of the Tamil language. It can
exist without the least help from foreign languages,
as it had and even now has sufficient elementary
words of native origin, out of which compounds can,
with a little attention to phonetic principles, be
formed to express modern thoughts and ideas.
XI
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS
The study of the azhvars or Vishnuvite saints is
beset with several difficulties. On the one hand,

religious fanatics have gathered together a mass of
legendary and superstitious accounts, often of a con-
flictingand sometimes of an incredible nature on ;
the other,the European critics, perhaps aided

by the sectarian opponents from the fold of the Sai-
vaswho form the major portion of the Tamils, have
done much to belittle the extent of their influence
and the results of their work among the Tamil popu-
lation.Foremost amongst them was Bishop Caldwell,
whose opinion always carries that weight ana autho-
rity which a life-long and sincere devotion to the
study of South Indian problems has secured for him.

But whatever claim to infallibility his conclusions
on matters of language may carry with it, il is but
natural that his inferences regarding social and
religious movements should be biassed by his mis-
sionary leanings. In the following chapter an
282 TAMIL STUDIES
attempt will be made to study the religious activities

of the Vishnuvite Alvars from a purely historical
stand-point, and special care will be taken to sub-

stantiate statements from the literary, epigraphical
and other evidences.
All over the contment of India Vishnu has been
worshipped in some form or other; but mostly in his
two latest incarnations as Rama and Krishna. He is
an Aryan deity transplanted into the Dravidian soil by
successive bands of Aryan settlers, and it would there-
fore be highly interesting to give at the beginning a
brief outline of the origin and development of this cult
in the land of its origin. The mam reasons for pre-
facing this essay with such a resume are, (1) to com-

pare its growth both in the Aryavarta and in the land
of the Tamils, and (2) to guard ourselves in the course
of the ensuing discussion against certain misapprehen-
sions that might be raised by the orthodox traditions
of the Tamil Vaishnavas.
History of religions in India tells us that
the worship of Vishnu is as old as the Vedas,

and that the doctrines of this sect had already
passed through at least two stages — ^the Vedic
and the Puranic — before they attained the present
form. During the Vedic period the religion of the
Indo-Aryans consisted in the adoration of the elemen-

tal gods like Indra, Varuna, Agni and Marut, and in
the offering of sacrifices to Agni or the lire-god.

Vishnu was then a solar deity *and held an inferior
position as a fiiend or comrade of Lndra. This epoch
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS 283
was immediately followed by the rise of Buddhism

and Jainism, which greatly influenced or modified the
succeeding period of Puranic Hinduism, when the
elemental gods of the Vedic period had come to
occupy an inferior position, the foremost rank having
been taken up by Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, which
were believed to be the triple forms of the Supreme
Being. And to popularize this triad three classes of
Puranas araountmg to eighteen m all were written by
the Brahman sages. They narrate all sorts of
legends connected with each of the above
three deities. Each Purana is devoted to the praise
of One or another of these gods who is spoken of in
that work as supreme, whilst other deities described in

other Puranas are slighted and their worship even
forbidden. They also prescribe rules for the worship of
gods by means of prayers, offerings, festivals, and
pilgrimages. The date of the oldest of these Puranas,
probably Vayu- Purana, is believed to be from about
320 A. D. and the latest to be of the eleventh century.
It was during this period that idol-worship and the
building of temples for images were substituted for
the Vedic sacrifices, which latter, however continue
to this day in a feeble form among the Brahmanical:

rites. This change is ordmarily attributed to the
overwhelming influence of Buddhism and Jainism,
which at this period were in a state of decline and
their humane but heretical doctrines had ultimately
degenerated into mere idol-worship.
In ancient times the Dravidian Tamils were a
284 TAMIL STUDIES
fighting race. From Purananuru,Kalittogai, Padirrup-

pattu and other collected works of the early
Sangams (academies) we further learn that great
honour was done to brave men as is shown by a
number of memorial stones or Virakkals still to be
seen in some Tamil villages erected to commemorate
their heroic deaths. The expressions like ^^sjS îr&srp
QjiuajiT, sir(ir,9 sâm pQs^Q^, etc. bear testimony to the
martial spirit of the early Tamils. When a king died
of sickness without losing his life in battle his body
used to be laid on a bed of kusa grass and split up
with a sword believing that men who died as
warriors could go to heaven. Heroes who died in
battle were buried on the road-side and tomb stones

were up with suitable inscriptions describing the
set
names and the military achievements of these persons.

Offerings of flower, cooked rice and liquor were
also made by iheir relations and friends. Perhaps
small temples were also erected over the sepulchres
and worshipped, h'ulan, Katteri, Nondi, Karuppan
and other deities which now form the objects of
worship by low caste Sudras and Paraiyas belong
probably to this category. Thus, the religion of the
ancient Tamils consisted mainly in spirit worship
and in the drinking and offering of liquor. They ate
all kinds of meat, including even beef, and mdulged
in alcoholic drinks.
According to Tolkapyar, the earliest Tamil gram-
marian, even gods were classified according to the
mature of the soil. Thus, Indra was the god of fertile
and, LDj^jsti) ; Murugan of the hills, (^13(^9 ; Durga of
the desert, u/t-^sw ; Vasudeva of pasture land, (josu^so ;
and Varuna of the sea-coast, QiiLîo. It must be

remembered that all these deities belong to the Aryan
pantheon, and the last were purely
nay. the first
Vedic ôds. The god who might be called

only
Dravidian was Muruga, as he was almost unknown
under ihat appellation to the people of North India.
Traces of this traditional classification migt?t still
be found in some caste names like Devendra Pallan,

Varunakulam (fishermen) and Vasudevakulam
(shepherds). Such was in brief the condition of
religion among the Dravidians when the early bands
of Aryan immigrants settled in the Tamil country.
Having âid something about the state of religion
among the Tamilians in the remote period, we shall
now proceed to notice the changes that were brought
about by their contact with the Aryans. The mate-
rials for this section will be drawn chiefly from the
Tamil works of the Sangam period, (A. D. 150 — 550)
and from the inscriptions published up to date.
The earliest Tamil author whose date could be

ascertained approximately was Tiruvalluvar. He
flourished probably about the end of the first century
A. D. and in his Kural we find no traces of his predi-
lection to any particular sect or religion. He
was no doubt a monotheist and he is now
claimed both by the Jains and the Saivas as their
savant. He is even worshipped by the Saivas of to-
day as one of their saints or Nayanars. We shall
286 TAMIL STUDIES
next take Kapilar. He was a Brahman of Tiruvadavur

in the Madura district and Hved probably during the
early part of the second century. Among his writ-
ings we find poems in praise of Tirumal (Vishnu),
Baladeva, Murugan (Subrahmanya) and Siva. With
due difference to the profound scholarship of
Mahamahopadhyaya Swaminatha Aiyar and of the

older commentators we are of opinion that none of
the Saiva poems included in the eleventh Tirumurai,
with the single exception of Tirumurugarruppadi,
were written by Kapilar, Paranar and Nakkirar of the
academic period. Though a Vedic deity Indra was

also worshipped at this time. From Silappadikaram
and Manimekalai we learn that annual festivals were
honour of this god.
also celebrated in
(1) (sSlesaressTîT ^'^su'BeaT e^Qpii ittlLuû ,
i3psiirr ujrTS(oS)iU QurftCoajfreisr QaofTuS&s
LDgfiQpS'f QfQjQev aressfi^si^ QstTuS^m

eurreoaj'Serr Qldsi^ aa/zxaflG'aj/raar QsnuSl^
Se\) (oLOSsft Q'Si^QiLifTesr QsmiS^m. — Sil.
(2) eu-f&iT^ î—i(ssis Qmi^QujiT&si (d%ituS^lL
Qunnungui QpufikisptBis. — Pur. •
Another celebrity of the later Sangam period, Nak-

kirar, informs us that during his time four gods of
the Aryan pantheon were considered as holding the
foremost rank among the South Indian deities.
(Sj pg^Qjeo ûjrfliu QeufiSiDQ^ eireiSiTfeiBL-
LDirjbp0iEl sessB^f^ LDessfluSt—jb Q^'îii

Qîreon (ssoeSlsaf iBireOSu (rêir(eiîh. —-Pur. 56,
—
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS 2S7
They were Siva, Vishnu, Balarama ind Muruga.

In his later life, however, this writer became a Saiva
and composed a poem in praise of Murugan, for

which he was canonized as one of the Saints of the
Saiva sect.
This was probably a period of eclecticism, since
the Vedic and the Puranic gods had not yet been
subjected to the process of separation, but were in a
nebulous form. Besides the four gods mentioned
above the Vedic deities India, Yama, Varuna, Soma,
Aditya, Rudra, Vasu and Marut had been adored or
respected even at that time by the Aryan immigrants.
iMakkirar tells us that the first four were 'great gods'
{mjbQuQîB Q^Lueuua), while the rest were divided into
thirty-three deities as follows —Aditya, 12; Rudra, 11;
Vasu, 8 ; and Marut, 2. These were subsequently
increased to thirty-three crores during the Puranic
period.
iBfTeoQeiJSii (0^0)0 (Beo^î^ &pui3n)

urreoQojsu Qêu(j^ lduu^ ui—itis^. — Mani.
Greater attention was also paid to sacrifices both
by the Brahmans and kings, the latter chiefly provid-
ing funds for their performance, as they had believed

that the prosperity of the country depended mainly
on such sacrifices. The following quotations will
bear testimony to the prevalence of this belief:
(1) rSjiB^ uuis^sm iTQ^tsiSL^ eirft^S'^
Qp^^ eiS<sfrd(^, —Pur.

—
TAMIL STUDIES
(2) Qeu&reiS QpptB'jj &jrrujajfreir Qeuik^.

— Pur.
(3) SiTisnesgr QisujeiiiîE}@LLi jQicemi^ssarLj usvCsulISu). — Ib^
(4) S-i5aiff<îT60 Q&ieireS Qpuf.^^ Qa&rsS. — Pad.

v(5) ujiêoBriT QsiêSKSstLQu LJiêu QiMrruîuiT^
QeuareS QeuLLiJ2esT lb.
The above is a brief account of Brahmanism in
the Tamil country as it existed and was known to

the authors of the Purananuru and other classics of the
pre-Puranic period. And an outline of the Puranic
Hinduism which follows will clearly show that none
of the Saiva Nayanars or Vaishnava Alvars ever held
the religious v'iews explained in the above works.
This one fact will in itself suffice to prove that both
the Saiva and Vaishnava Saints, probably with the
exception of one or two, flourished only during the
Puranic period, viz., after A. D. 500.
The essential features of the early Puranic period
were the setting up and the construction of
of idols
temples for them. The Tamil kings of this period
chiefly the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Pandyas
whose purohits or|spiritual advisers were Brahmans,
were imbued with devotion to Vishnu or Siva. It
appears that Brahma had no votaries, as his name
scarcely occurs in the academic works. Later on,
however, he was united with Siva and Vishnu to make
up the triad; and Indra and Baladeva were ousted
from the Hindu pantheon. Still Brahma has been
occasionally referred to in both the Saiva and Vaish-
nava hymns, though he had no temples to reside in like
his friends Siva and Vishnu; and even now he has only
—
one temple in all India, and this is at Pushkaram in

Ajmei". Vishnu and Siva alone were honoured with
shrines, were regularly worshipped, and were given
offerings three or four times a day. To propitiate
them people observed fasts and held festivals. Be-

fore the sixth century A. D. there were, however*
only very few templesi dedicated to these deities and
Muruga, as the following extracts from Pattuppattu,
Padirrupattu, Purananuru, and Silappadikaram will
show :
(1) Lj&refressH iimQant^^ Qêveu^LD Qsu&rQeir^

QpQswtS&sr QpQîQuu (ip!T6eETL^^ Qfeoeu^
^ pûu^ ^Q.iSuj /5(T/_li_^jij ^ûeO
(2) seatsiQuiTQT) ^Slffls SLDy?(^{rjb giitpir^
ine\)Ei3jh Qsê^JSuasT Qs=SiJL^ utrsS. — Pad,

(3) QpdscL QsêvsuiT tssirojeOt^ Qs=ujjb(^. — Puf.
(4) eSrfl^ssiad sfreSifJ eSlujiohQuQTfi ^(tfjSi^
^Q^QJLDIT LDrJlfu<5Sr @L^k^ Q}0SS! 6SSI (LplJb
^0LDrr6\} (^m psi^ff- 0<f6i)(g eSlirnQeo
G)LiiTp0'LDes)n'Si ^fT(^<sn<sfTti> Qurr0is^ iSlm. — Sil.

1. Srirangam, Tiruppati and Tirumal-kunram (Kalla Alagar^
appear to have been the oldest and most famous of the Vaishnava
temples in the Tamil country. The famous temple of Varadaraja at
Conjeevaram is not sung by any Vishnuvite Saint, as it is one
of modern origin like those at Mannargudi and Melkota.
19
290 TAMIL STUDIES
Temple building on was begun during

a large scale
the second half of the and early part of the
sixth
seventh centuries by Kocchengat Chola, Sundara
Pandya Deva and Mahendra Varraa Pallava. They
tolerated all sects and religions —
Saiva and Vaishnava,
Jainn and Buddha —
the last of which, however, was
then on the decline at least in the extreme south.
Though nominally worshippmg any one of these
gods, the kings were in the habit of invoking the
triad in their grants. In the same family the father
might be a Saiva whilst his son professed Vishnuism
or very rarely even Jainism. Thus the Cheia king
Senguttuvan (about A. D. 250) was a worshipper of
Siva and Vishnu, while his younger brother was a
Jaina ascetic ; the Saiva saint Tirunavukkarasu-
Nayanar was a Jain in his early days while his sister
Tilakavati was a Saiva devotee and the Pallava king
;
Simha Vishnu (A. D. 590) was a staunch worshipper

of Vishnu, whilst his son Mahendra Varman was first
a Jama and then an orthodox Saiva. It is no
wonder, therefore, that when Hwen Tsang visited

Conjeevaram in A. D. 640 there were in that city 100
Buddhist monasteries, with about 10,000 Brethren
of which belonged
and about 80 temples the majority
to Digambara Jains. And he goes on to say
the
that Molokuta (probably the Pandya territory)
in
the people were ot mixed religions. There were many

remains of old monasteries, very few being in preser-
vation. '
There were hundreds of Deva temples
and the professed adherents of various sects, especi-
—
ally the Digambaias, were numerous'-i Wr see

then, at the early half of the seventh century that
Buddhism was in its decline, and the sects of Siva
Vishnu and Jain were fighting with one another for
ascendancy. The later history of the Saiva and the
Jaina cults will be dealt with in the second volume.
As the subject matter for our immediate considera-
tion is the development of Vishnuism we shall for the
present part company with our Saiva and Jaina
brethren.
For the separation of the Vaishnava cult and its

development into a distinct sect in tlie Tamil country
the Alvars were mainly instrumental. They were the
Hrst to hymn the praises of Vishnu and to propagate
His worship. It might be gathered from their hymns

that allusions and reierencesto the miraculous deeds
of Rama, Krishna and other incarnations of
Vishnu were drawn from the two great epics
largely
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and from the —

Bhagavata and Vishnu Puranas. Their hymns were
collected, arranged and compiled by Sri Nathamuni,
probably under the editorship of Nammalvar into a
single volume called the *
Nalayira-Prabandam', or
the '
Book of 4000 hymns ',about the middle of the
tenth century A.D. Among the Tamil Vaishnavas
(especially the Tengalais) thisTamilcollection of
poems is being regarded as sacred as the Sanskrit
Vedas. Why this work has come to be esteemed
so we cannot conceive. It is neither a translation of
1. Walters' Hvven Tsang, Vol. II, p. 228.
292 TAMIL STUDIES
the holy Vedas of the Indo-Aryans, nor is it an

exposition of their contents, rather than of the two
great epics and the Puranas ; and what is more
surprising is that the four kinds of poetical com-
positions or prahmidas of Nammalvar and the six
varieties of Tirumangai-alvar's work are spoken

of by the Vaishnava Acharyas as the counterparts-
of the four Sanskrit Vedas and their six Vedangas.
This theory appear false when it could
might
be proved Nammalvar hved two centuries
that
after Kaliyan. The Devara hymns which constitute

a more voluminous collection of the non-Brahman
Saivas are not so much valued by the Smartha Brah-
mans of the Tamil districts. i This disparity m the
estimation of the two Tamil works of exactly similar
nature was probably due to the anxiety of the early
Acharyas to I make the religion of Vishnu more popu-
lar among the Dravidians, most of whom were
followers of Siva.
The collection of^ hymns and religious poems by
Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikka Vachakar and
other Saiva devoteesand their compilation into eleven
tirumiirais or series are usually ascribed to Nambi-
yandar Nambi. In|the ninth book entitled the Tiru-
visaippa we find a hymn composed by Gandaraditya
1. Concerning this the Government Epigraphist writes as
follows: —" Ihe Saiva creed. ..does not appear to have paid much
attention to Sastric karma, but taking unsullied devotion to Siva as
its basis, it received into its fold all classes of people without any
distinction of caste. This catholicity of the Saiva faith rendered
it not very popular^ with the orthodox Brat'mans".
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS 29^3
Chola (A. D. 948-960) and another on the god ot
Raja Chola's shrine at Tanjore which was built to-
wards the close of the tenth century, while a

third by Karuvur Devar refers to a temple built by
Gangaikonda Chola in or about 1015 A. D. If the
above tradition be trusted Nambiyandar Nambi
should have lived about 1025. As it is said that
the Periyapurana of Sekkilar is based upon one of
the poems ot Nambiyandar Nambi (^(5^3^/7 63ar/_'f
^QêuissiT^), Sekkilar should have been either his con-
temporary or his successor. He was a minister under
a Chola king and had the title of Uttama Chola
Pallavarayan conferred on him as a personal mark of
otttcial distinction. Inscriptions inform us that the
term Uttama was the name of Rajaraja's predecessor
(A. D. 970-985) and one of the hirndus of his succes-
sor Kajendra I. (A. D. 1012). Several shrines are

said to have been built Uttama Chola and
by the first
by his mother Sembiyan Mahadevi (queen of Ganda-

raditya). But it is said that the Periyapurana was
written under the patronage of a Chola king named

Anapaya, which, it is understood from an inscription
in the Tiruvalur temple, was the title of Kulottunga
Chola (A. D. 1070— 11 18). Taking then the reign of
Kulottunga Chola as the latest limit, it might be said
with tolerable certainty that the Saiva poets Nambi-
yandar Nambi and Sekkilari flourished between
1. It will not be out of place to mention here that Chintamani, a
Jaina work widely studied during the time of Sekkilar may have
been written by Tuuittakka Deva about the middle of the tenth
century A. D.
294: TAMIL STUDIES
A. D. 1000 and A. D. 1150, a period which bad

immediately followed one of great Saiva activity
(A.D. 950—990). Sri Natha Muni of the rival Vaishnava

sect was also a contemporary of the Saiva poet and
compiler, Nambiyandar Nambi, as will be showm in
the sequel, and he should have been inspired by the
Saiva revival of his time to render a similar service
to his sect. And the above conclusions seem to receive
support from the following statement of the Govern-

ment epigraphist :
— ' We do not know of any epi-
graphic evidence earlier than the records of Rajaraja I
where the recital of the sacred Saiva hymns of the

Devaram are {sic) referred to for the first time as being
instituted by him. Rajendra Chola I appears to have
supported the cause of Saivaism by going a step fur-
ther than his father and setting up the images of the
famous Saiva vSaints in the temple of Rajarajesvaram

at Tanjore.'i It is therefore pretty clear that the
practice of setting up images of the Vaishnava Saints
in Vishnu temples might have come into existence
some time after A. D. 1025.
The Alvars, who were elevated by the Vaishnava

Acharyas to the rank of canonized Saints, are twelve in
number; and they are being worshipped by them with

greater devotion than they would adore their god
Vishnu himself. Strictly speaking, the Alvars were
only ten, Andal and Madhiirakavi being left out of
1. Report dated 28th July 1900, page 103. Even before the 29th
year of Rajarajachola images of Sundara, Sambandar, Rajarajachola
and his queen Lokamahadevi were set up in the Tanjore temple.
—
account. From an inscription in the Vishnu temple

at Kumaralingam (Madura district), it will be seen
that all the ten Alvp.rs were canonized and wor-
shipped as early as A D. 1230. And for making
offerings to the images of these saints set up in
the temple of Kalla Alagar at Tirumalirum Solai in
Kil-lraniya Mutta Nadu lands w-ere granted by a

certain devotee in the reign of Virarajendra Deva
(S. S. 1153). 1 The word alvar medns 'one deep in
wisdom/ and any Alvai is, therefore, respected as a
mediator to secure Moksha or salvation for the wor-
shippers of Vishnu. The following table gives the
names of the Alvars. the extent of their contributions
to the Nalayira Prabandam, their birth place and
the number of Vishnu shrines celebrated by them :
'1 Poigaiyar 100 Conjeeveram 7

2 Pudaltar 100 Mahabalipuram 14
Pallava
3 Peyar 100 Mylapoie 13
4 Tiiumalisaivar 216 Tirumalisai 20
r" 5 Tiruppanalvar 10 Uraiyur 2

Chola < 6 Tondaradippodi 55 Tirumandangudi 1
(.7 Tirumangaivar 1361 Tirukkurayahir 88
Chera 8 Kulasekhara 105 Qui'.on 8
r 9 Peiiyalvar 473 ) ^ •
ir ff 16
p
tândya
, MO Andal 1/3 )
*
o
^ ^^ Nammalvar 1296 Tirunagari 30
l^-I Madhurakavi 11 Tirukkolur
The arrangement of the names of Alvars adopted in
the above table is not in accordance with the traditional

chronology, which assigns to the earliest saint 4203
1. Epigraphist's Report, No. 665 dated 28tti July 1910, p. 17.
296 TAMIL STUDIES
and to the latest 2706 B. C, but with special

reference to the four Tamil kingdoms in which they
were born.
The orthodox Vaishnavas believe that the Alvars
were the incarnations of the sacred weapons, the
sacred ornaments and the sacred vehicles of Vishnu.
Of these saints Tiruppan and Madhurakavi will not
detain us long ; because, from a literary stand-point
their contributions are almost trifling. The respective
merits and the ages of the remaining Alvars vi'ill
therefore be discussed in the following pages, leaving

the miraculous incidents connected with their birth
and life for the pious edification of the superstitiously
orthodox Vaishna\'âs.
No necessity for an essay ot this kind should have

occurred, had there been at least one reliable and
faithful biography of the Vishnava Saints ; neither in
Sanskrit nor in Tamil was there a single biographer
of the type of a Boswell or a Lockhart. Legends of
some kind or other are, however, not wanting among

the Vaishnavas. One of these named the Guntpa-
ramparai or the 'Genealogy of the Gurus' pro-
fesses to give the lives of the Vaishnava Saints
and Acharyas ; and the accounts of the Alvars
described in it appear to have been written after
the fashion of the Periyapurana of the Saivas, the
accuracy of the contents of both being highly
questionable, as they are replete with miraculous
incidents and anachronisms. We cannot expect more
than these from the religious zealots of the combative
—
sects,\vho seem to have compiled them from distorted

traditions and hyperbolic accounts which had come
down them several centuries after the death of these
to
saints. Some of these were based on the casual
utterances which are to be found in the writings of

the Alvars themselves. The admissions of the saints
which were made out of modesty and humility were,
m certain cases, taken for real facts, and afterwards
woven into long stories with embellishments drawn
chiefly from their imaginative brains. Wherever
traditions or autobiographical statements were wanting
the biographers also were silent. Thus the lives of
Poigayar, Peyar and Pudattar are almost blank, as

there are no personal references in their antadis,
while those of Tirumalisaiyar, Tirumangai-Mannan,

Tondaradippodi, Periyalvar and Andal are com-
paratively full.
And yet to impose upon the credulous disciples the

Vaishnava Acliaryas have cooked up even the
horoscopes of their saints The asterisms in which
PudattaU'ar and Poigaiyalvar were born, as given in
the Guruparamparai, do not agree with those assigned

to them by the following inscription of Vikrama Chola
(A, D. 1118) at Kanchipuram :
QÎM ^ QufTiUSmS LUTlôUfT(V^LD L3/oi^^Q^d QsLLaaU-lStTsk S\([h
QuQî^QêuQfi^^ Qs=uj^0sir &c. But it is said in

later works that Poigaiyar was born at Kacchi in
Tiruvonam and Pudattar at Mamalla in Avittam.

298 TAMIL STUDIES
The following lines which we here quote from the

writings of the above saints seem to have furnished
the data for their respective biographies :
—
(1) Tirumalisai Alvar, — (êomis&rnuj îH rrsmts^Qeomsk
p îih l3 roiB^lQeO'sk • mirsQsiTem® mrreaBu-LD uiT'Ju.<osr.
(2) Tinimangai Alvar. — Qs^LDQinQ^smisf-s, ê^2EsiQu(r^d

Q^ QîflsiosijLDfT(rF(TKiai](cLD LDQFoiS '
sm£i]Q<osr iev)(S<oar<ssr
(3) Toiidaradippodi Alvar. — (^^^liissisrrsii^Q^ ^n^^
ULLu.(Lpi^(o<stj'2ioBT , QufT^QfT QUbmgu Qs^rreosSlu q/F^
(4) Periyalvar — (dsuûulu^ Qsntsken- <si}eOoi)sSLL(ii& ^ ^s^ ;
j)jsaisfl(c sinLisûufr (csirewLSLDiresrîsia^,
(5) Andal. —QumaQuj uapst^p uêrBsOsiri^surrêmu
(?6U637 ssmi^rriL LDmnDsQesr ^ ajirH'SsarixiniiSln'iii &C.
Quotations of this nature might be multiplied

indefinitely. In our opinion some of the historical
accounts given in the Periya-purana are comparatively
more trustworthy, as the Saivas do not assign
fabulous ages to their Nayanars. Most of the
stories relating to the life of Tirumangai-Aivar,
especially the offer of treasure by Varadaraja and

the making of arrangements by this Alvar for the
recital of Nammalvar's Tiruvoymoli, are clear in-
stances 05 gross anachronism.
The first Alvars.

It is a common belief among Tamil scholars that
'north' is the direction of prosperity {ldieis&) ^<ss>s').
We shall accordingly begin with the Pallava coun-

try, the northern-most kingdom of the Tamil people
Another reason for this procedure is that it was
from Tondai Nadu that social and religious reforms
extended gradually to the other Tamil kingdoms.
In this country of the Pallavas were born the first
three Alvars — Poigai, Pudam and Pey. Each of them

was the author of an aniadi or a centum of verses in
the Venba metre in praise of Vishnu, the three
poems forming a portion of that book of the
Divya Prabandam entitled the lyarpa. Their princi-
pal tenet was,
(LpssoneiiiriT QpsufTuo ^suQfjisfri^Lo
Hence the miraculous 'sports' and performances

of Vishnu wrought during his incarnations as
Vamana, Narasunha, Rama and Krishna form the
main theme of iheir hymns.
The age of these Alvars is involved in hopeless
obscurity. Traditions assert th.it all the three were
contemporaries and that once upon a time they
300 TAMIL STUDIES
all met together at Tirukkovalur in the South

Arcot district. But for this one incident the
Guruparamparai gives no particulars regarding them.
It is believed by some scholars that Poigai Alvar was
no other than the author of Kalavazhi. If there was

any truth in this supposition, the first three Saints
must have lived during the reign of the Chola king
Kocchengannan that is prior to the sixth century
A.D. But the above hypothesis is not countenanc-
ed by other internal evidences. Of the two Poigaiyars
one was a saint and the other a famous bard. The
saint was no respecter of men as he has repeatedly
said that,
(1) eiiiTujeu'2esr in&is\)^ suiti^^ît^ ;
(2) uiTi3i.^mfSmi-js(cLp ut(E)qjisji

;
(3) LDiTujsh'2esr ujevsOiT6\)f ^}sa/D Quu^ QiD^âQ^ssTtsa.
On the contrary the other Poigaiyar appears to have

been a court poet under the Chera king Kodai Marpan
and earned his livelihood by eulogizing the Tamil
kings of the southern districts, in proof of which the
reader may be referred to stanzas 48 and 49 in the
Purananuru. the Again
language of these two
and we have no faith in the vague
writers differs;
statements of the old commentators regarding their
identity. For these and the following reasons we
are inclined to believe that the name Poigaiyar was
borne by two different authors, who flourished at
different periods.
The saints Poigai and Pey have celebrated the
god of a place called Vinnagaram:
.
THK VISHNUVITE SAINTS 301
(1) Qeu/W'^L^Qpuo) eSlssBtoemsQhLD Qsuoosnei^LCiooSiT s

LiiEjQi—iEjSleO limQsfTsu&i QunmssraQFfiJo — sBrrm
<STlir(fl^S0Qs®LD(TLlilL^!T. Poi. 11
(2) eSsmesoT'KTLD QsuooSfrsSifl^'SisitT iB'T Qsuibsi—ld
inem sum s IT ldit LrnTL-Qeut&KSSisf. — Pcy. 62.
The word Vinnagaiam is a corruption of Skt.

Vishnu Nagar and it may mean any house of Vishnu.
But from the manner in which it is used along with
Vengadam, Vehka, Koval, Agaram and Velukkai in
he above quotations, it must refer to a particular
shrine in the Pallava country or Tondai Nadu, There
is only one Vinnagaram in the whole of that
country and that is in Conjeeveram. Further,
Poigaiyar and Peyalvar were more or less local
saints and their peregrinations were confined to
Tondai-Nadu and to some of the most renowned
shrines in the further south, namely, Srirangam and
Kumbakonam Choladesam and Tirumalirum-
in the
solai and Tirukkottiyur in the Pandyamandalam. For

these reasons we are disposed to identify the Vinnagar
referred toby these Alvars with the Paramesvara Vin-
nagar of Tirumangaiyar's hymns. As it is explicitly sta-
etd that thegodof this place is in the sitting posture, it
cannot refer to Tiru- Vinnagar (Uppiliyappan) another
important shrine of the same name in the Tanjore
district. According to Dr. Hultzsch the Parames-
vara Vinnagarami was built by the Pallava king Para-
1. Mr, S. Krishnasamy Aiyangar finds fault with Dr. Hultzsch for

302 TAMIL STUDIES
mesvara Varma II (A. D. 690). These three Alvars

should, therefore, have flourished in the latter half of
the seventh century A. D. It would be interesting to
note here that the god on the Tirupati Hills (Tiru-
vengadam) had the appearance of both Siva and
Vishnu in the days of Peyalvar.
Tipumalisai Alvar.
One of saints who is stated in the Guruparamparai
to have lived in the Dvapara Yuga and to have had
some acquaintance with the first three Alvars was
Tirumalisaiyar. He was a native of the Pallava
country ;
and his Tiru-chanda-viruttam and Nan-
mugan Tiruvandadi are admired for. their harmonious
versification. He was a poet, philosopher and ascetic
(yogi). His real name is said to have been Bhaktisara
the above statement. He says that "this is not a necessary inference,
as any other Fallava paramount sovereign might have had the title
Pallava Paramesvara and the foundation when contracted might

tiave become Paramesvara Vinnagai am, t;. g., Vidya Vinita Pallava
Paramesvara m." Ind. Ant. for 1906, p. 229. We cannot quite
understand what he means, as it is not explanatory of the point
at issue. As a title the term Paramesvara like Maharaja is so
vague that none of the Indian kings seem to have had it except as a
proper name. There were Brahman settlements known by special
titles of kings like Manabharana-chaturvedi-mangnlam, Gangai-

kondan, Gunabharesvaram and Madhurantakam. In these cases we
could say with certainty what kings had these titles, while it would
be next to impossibility to hit upon a particular sovereign who had
the title of 'Paramesvara' or 'Maharaja.' Compare the names of the
following villages: Varaguna-manjjai, Gandaradityam, Nandipuram
Kulottunga Cholai.allur, &c. In all these instances the villages
were called after the names, not titles, of kings.

— —
which we think was only a title and he is beheved

to have been the son of a Rishi named Bhargava, but
brought up by a man of the hunting tribe. This latter
statement IS borne out by his own admission which
occurs in the Tiru-chanda-viruttam :
—
His writings, however, show that he should have

acquired equal proficiency both in Sanskrit and Tamil
and a competent knowledge of the sacred books of
the other sects and reHgions. His mastery of the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Vishnupnranais
displayed in both his poems. He was throughout his
life a rancorous opponent to the baivas, Jains and
Buddhists, and a devout worshipper of Vishnu :
(1) ^^(uiTiT fu.emiTijjiT^^niT ueij^îr

QfSujrTIT &S1JU ULLl—fTIT.
êsmQLL(Ssr pssii—ibsp eiiii(Lp Lnir^rrsirea.
Tirumalisai Alvar was a monotheist as he himself

admits that Q^Qîasaed Q^tsijQ^Q^sijQsmi^ûsmiruuaiT^ and
preached that that one god was Vishnu while the
other two of the triad — Brahma and Siva — were
created by him :
(sirmQpsêsT fBarriTLUossrisiT usai—^îTssr lEinssrQpsûD
Further he was a pantheist and held that Vishnu

is omnipresent and pervades the whole universe,
— ^ —
304 TAMIL STUDIES
as taught by the etymological signification of His

name. He invokes Vishnu thus :
(1) semesBimQLDiLKSUiTeSS n-psaQLnfTêmirs^&ii
lurr ûi[§ tu êsr nS QiuuolS irir ûai^ nSn'mcQissr,
(2) i§QujULêoQse^&irrui i§ssieor(Tf)Qefr iS jbuetsreuLX)
And yet this all powerful omnipresent Vishnu is
neither visible to, nor cognisable by, man.
(2) STiEi^&r Q-nkiseannoT^dso iuir<S}iTsn<5aar eusoeo'îT ?
Then to whom is this God knowable and how

are we to perceive Him ? Our Alvar says in reply :
rBski-ieoeuL^ ^/Vih^ (^Tayrrsp <9?i-.pQsiTe^
êsnSleOesr/SijjfTLûjfT'Sesi luiTGJiTsiTtmr isu&iei)Q [t,
(Vishnu who wields the sacred disc will be cognis-

able only by those who, after having closed the
narrow paths the five senses and sealed their
of
doors, opened the broad way of intelligence litting
the lamp of wisdom and mellowing their bones with
a heart melted by the intense heat of piety.)
As regards the date of this Alvar, there is no inter-
nal evidence in his writings to proceed upon with

any degree of certainty. But from their general tenor

it might be inferred that he should have lived at a
period when the Jains, Buddhists and Saivas were

fighting with one another for religious supremacy.
This age, so far as it could be ascertained was the
seventh century A. D., when the great champions of
the Saiva faith, Tirunavukkarasu and Sarabandar,
were busily engaged in the work of religious disput-
ations. Moreover, there is a tradition, which as
we have pointed above, connects him with the
first three Alvars. It is said that during his pilgri-
mage to Kumbakonam he stayed for some time at

Chidambaram or Perumpuliyur. As he has not
celebrated the Vishnu god of that famous stronghold
of Sivaism, it is almost certain that in his days the
shrine of Govinda Raja did not come into existence.
Tirumangai Alvar informs us that this god was set up
and worshipped by a Pallava king who may have, in
all probabihty, been Nandivarma I or Peramesvara
Varma II, A. D. 690. Tirumalisai Alvar should, there-
fore, have lived at least half a century before Tiru-
mangai Alvar, that is in the latter half of the seventh
century. Again in the 93rd stanza of |his antadi our
Alvar addresses Vishnu, thus.
The expression ^(êmuuam'^ reminds us of the

Pallava king Mahendra Varma I whose binulit or
title was * Gunabhara and whose inscriptions are
',
still to be seen an the rock at Trichinopoly. He

20
306 TAMIL STUDIES
was also the builder of the Siva temple called

Gunabharesvaram. His date is said to be the early
part of the seventh century A. D.i Being a stanch
Vishnuvite, our Alvar it appears was also perse-
cuted by a Pallava king, very likely the above
Mahendra Varma 1 or Narasimha Varma II (A. D.
675) both of whom were devout followers of Siva
and builders of several temples to that deity. Taking
all these circumstances into our careful consideration
we shall not be unreasonable if we assign the middle
of the seventh century A. D. to our Alwar's active
work. He should, therefore, have been a contempo-
rary of the Saiva saints Tirunavukkarasu Nayanar
and Sambandamurti Nayanar.
It is said in the Guruparamparai that he had enter
ed into all the religions of his times before he be-
came a Vishnuvite, and that when he was a Saivite
he assumed the name of Sivavakkiyar. There is such
a close resemblance in the metre and the harmonic
flow of the poems of Sivavakkiyar and the Tiruch-
make one be-
chanda Viruttam of our Alvar, as to
lieve that both the poems were composed by one
and the same author. Further, some of the stanzas

occurring in both are almost identical, and had the
present Copyright Act been in force then, either
of them should have been prosecuted under it.
1. This was the date of the Saiva saint Tirunavukkarasu Naya-

nar, It was during the reign of this Pallava that he, formerly a
Jain, was converted to Sivaism by his beloved sister Tilakavati
who was a Saiva devotee.

(Compare verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 17, 79 &c. in Tiruch-

chanda Viruttain with 308, 237, 266, 265, 264, 268 &c.
in the poem of Sivavakkiyar). But Sivavakkiyar was
a theist belonging to the Siddhar School and lived
at least eight or nine centuries posterior to our saint.
The style of Tirumalisaiyar is sublime and philoso-
phic, while that of Sivavakkiyar is insipid and at
times vulgar. The story given in the Guruparamparai

connecting the saintly Tirumalisai Piran with the
iconoclastic Sivavakkiyar must, therefore, be a later
interpolation.
Tipuppanalvap.
We shall now take Tiruppanalvar and Tondaradip-
podi Alvar for consideration. First of them was born
of a Panan family at Uraiyur, while the second was a
Soliya Brahman of Tirumandangudi in the Tanjore
district. The Panans were an inferior caste of min-
strels frequently alluded to in the Fuiananuru, Padir-
ruppattu and other works of the academic period. In
the Census of 1891 Panan was returned as a sub-caste
of Paraiyaand was always considered very low in social
scale. Like Nandan of the Saivites, Tiruppan Alvar
was a devout worshipper of Vishnu. Yet he was not
permitted to enter the Vishnu temple at Srirangam, as
he belonged to the lowest out-caste. There is a
tradition 1o the effect Ranganatha commanded
that
one Lokasaranga, a sage, to bring him to his shrine
on his shoulders. In consequence of this story our
Alvar is known also as ' Muni Vahana.'
—
308 TAMIL STUDIES
The above tradition proves the superiority of

Bhakti, and emphasizes the fact that a Vishnu bhakta
to whatever caste he might belong was worthy of
greaterhonour and veneration than a Brahman well-
versed in the four Vedas. The sanVe ider is conveyed
in the following lines of the Brahman saint Ton-
daradippodi Alvar :•—
uaDê\)fi Q<snn(Lgs&)iT pû u&)SFû Qu^LDiriraeir
®jlSI(^0O^ ^SurfsQefT&s QmLDLLisf. tu rr its err n Sled
QsifinsiL^lGiîT QsiT®(jSim QsiremuSear.
His faith in the god Vishnu had taken so deep a

root on his mind that he became intolerent of other
sects. He expresses his hatred against other religions
especially Buddhism and Jainism, thus :
(1) L-i'?ffciijp LDfT@£€mro i-f^Qsn® s^LD6amQLD6\)eoiTL£i
s'?e\iujpd s ppiDnkfih s,n<osmuQ an '^slLuQ hit ^trek

^'^cLigxu LissinQ,;^s=iTQeu(5m s^^^Luiki sn'6miAl'2ioSiLurr
(2) QsugiiuQun(Sl g:LD(am^(ip6ami—iT'6£iûSe\) îrdSiuiTsessflesruiTex)
QuiTûuifiLLi ewssaQuQeO QufnsuQ^ QisrTiSj^rrQ
^gjiuuQ^ SQFfLDikisessn^fT lusfiBiSLOT iBS(i^<sfrnQ(oBT.
There is no data in the songs of these Alvars to

determine their age. But we shall not be far from
the mark if we put them towards the close of the
eighth or the beginning of the ninth century A. D.
It is, however, said that there are references to these
Alvars in the Mukunda Mala of Kulasekhara Perumal.
The real name of Tondaiadippodi was Vipra Nara-

yana and he does not seem to have worshipped or
ever uttered the name of any Vishnu deity other than
Ranganatha of Srirangara. His Tirumalai and
Tiruppalli Ezhucchi form part of the Nalayitapra-
bandam to which Tiruppan has contributed the
decad named Amalan Adippiran.
Kulasekhara Alvap.
The next Alvar in our Hst is Kulasekhara Perumal.
He calls himself king of Kolli. Kudal (Madura),
Kozhi (Uraiyur) and Kongu (Qsrrs'js\^ sa£u&)m ,3k,L-&)
It is not known at what period
.Brrtussin, (oSfTj^sCosiTssi).
the four Tamil kingdoms Chera, Chola, Fandya and

Kongu were under the sway of a smgle sovereign.
But this much is certain according to the Kongu
:
chronicle and inscriptions the Cholas became

powerful once more in A. D. 890, when Vijayalaya
and Aditya I not only regained their lost kingdom
but also annexed to it the Kongu country (Salem and
Coimbatore districts). Kulasekhara has celebrated
the Vishnu god of Chidambaram and refers to the
shrine at Tiruvali {^sSltssirssîu^CoLu, viii. 7). We
have stated before that the Vishnu shrine at Chidam-
baram should have come into existence in the latter
half of the seventh century; and the temple at Tiru-

vali was probably one of those built by Tirumangai
Alvar in his own Nadu. From Keralolpatti, a work
of extremely doubtful authority, we learn that
310 TAMIL STUDIES
Kulasekhara was one of the successors of Cheraman

Perumal who died about A. D. 825.
Again the same traditional history of the Kerala

country says that Kulasekhara Perumal organized
the kingdom into small chieftainships to protect it
against the and that after a reign of

Mappillas
eighteen years he went to heaven with his bodv^
Kulasekhara Alvar niust, therefore, have lived between
A. D. 780 and 890. But in accepting this date there
arises one difficulty, that is, our Alvar calls himself
Kudal Nayakan or the Lord ot Madura. At this period
the Pandyas were powerful as will be seen from the
Chinnamanur grants. The only reconciliation for
this discrepancy would be that Kulasekhara was a

scion of the Pandya family who inherited the Kerala
throne under the mantinahkaiayam system. He was
known in the Chera country as Pandya Kulasekhara
Perumal.
Kulasekhara had equal proficiency in Tamil and

Sanskrit. He was the author of Mukunda Malai in
Sanskrit and 105 stanzas in Tamil which form part

of tlie Nalayiraprabandam. His Tamil hymns on
Tirupati and Srirangam are exceedingly pathetic like
the Tiruvachakam of Tvianikkavachagar and can melt

even sceptic minds ;
while his Alukunda Malai is
equally so. The similes employed by huTi in
the Vittuvakkodu hymn are quite appropriate and

convincing. Like the previous saints he was also an
uncompromising opponent to other sects. We give
. —
below three stanzas from his poems as specimen :
(1) QisidjuSsx) sufTiîs5)%5anu (olLOiiiQajesi s Q{ET(3fr(&^'^su
emmuj&)QsiT6ssr Qu.ijlîeQ^ Qsarm pek mrrg^sCcS
(2) tSismpQuj^ ^smi—iufT^LD iSlfrLD^ lAhi^jT^LD

(y.es)piuiTuj QuQ^QsuisfTsSSs (gaa popisf-uun sbr LDSsipivrT
Q(B/6llUITLUS Su.S(^LD S'?l30'JL^fSa)l—QinioS)QQjQoSr.
LDfTefTfT^ stTg^ QisiriuHTefr&siQuiTso mmv^d/S'JeO
Tipumang-ai Alvar.
The third Alvar of the Chola country was Kaliyan
or Tirumangai Mannan. He was the foremost of
all the Vaishnava saints and has left behind the
greatest number of hymns on Vishnu shrines.
Further, there are sufficient materials in his writings
to work out his date with greater certainty, and to
arrive at the conclusion that he was one of the most
learned of all Alvars. His life and work should,
therefore, be given here with fuller details.
Tirumangai Alvar was born of a Kalla family at

Tirukkurayaiur in the Tanjore district. His parents
named him Kaliyan or Kalikanri. It appears that he
held the office of generalissimo under the Chola kings
and that he was the feudal chieftain of a small district
—
312 TAMIL STUDIES
or a group of villages called Ali Nadu in the north-
eastern part of the Chola country. His head-

quarters appear to have been Tirumangai, and from
the way in which he speaks of this place (^^sjwr^/f
LDirLîas&r (îfi^Q^LD^ssos) it must have been an important
town in his days, though it could not be identified

with any of the existing villages in the Shiyali taluk.
He married the daughter of a certain Vishnu bJiakta
who belonged to the Vaidya class, a caste much
superior to his own. By her initiation and preaching
Kaliyan became a stanch worshipper of Vishnu.
Excepting Tirumalisaiyar and Satagopan he was

undoubtedly the most learned of all the Vaishnava
saints.His contributions to the Nalayirapraban.
dam amount to 1361 stanzas and consist of six
separate poems, namely, (1) QuiBiu^QTpLDnL^, (2) ^q^
d(^^.ijSiT63arL^sth^ (3) ^(n^QisQi ^rresmL^su:),[4:) &fSluu^(iT)U:>i~io^
(5) Quifliu ^(T^LDLêt) and (6) ^Q^QsijQâf^^/iS^'iems. Even

in his own life time he should have been admitted as
a famous poet, successful controversialist and great
donor of charities, as will be seen from the following
quotation :
^06mLDITfFluj!rLLl—(lpdQuJSS)U.Uj!TIT 'ÛJua
Q3Tis!(^LDe\)iTd(^L0ioSiujiT QeumtDiEisssQ suik îm
At a poetical contest he was given the title of iBfrp
a(sSuQu(i^LDrren or the '

Master of the four kinds of
poetry'; and as to the excellence of his works Kurat-

talvar speaks thus : ^l6Iu^ mmîneo ^sispser ^(^<9?<5
In his later days he resigned his office, perhaps on

account of some misunderstanding between him and
theChola king, and set out on a tour of pilgnmage
from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin. P'or the
diffusion of Vishnuism he toiled much and he is
even said to hav'e had religious disputations at Shiyali

with Trignansambandar, the greatest of the Saiva
Nayanars. Some sort of similarity which we observe
in the style and composition of Tirumangai Alvar
and his Saiva rival seems to countenance the above
supposition. Being a man of considerable wealth
and influence, Kaliyan visited all the Vishnu temples
of his time and sang hymns in praise of the Vishnu
gods. Thus out of the 108 Vishnu temples approved
as holy by Acharyas he left only twenty unvisited ;
and these twenty shrines — including SriviUiputtur and

Alvar Tirunagari (Kurugur) — were visited, a century
or two afterwards, by one or the other of the two
later Alvars Vishnu Chittan and Satagopan. We
shall revert to this question when we come to speak
of these saints.
The above fact proves beyond dispute that

these twenty temples, with the exception of Padma
nabha at Trivandram, did not come into existence at
the time of Tirumangai Alvar. Nevertheless, Mr. S.
Krishnaswamy Aiyangar considers the celebration by
Kaliyan of most of the Vaishnava temples, as a proof
314 TAMIL STUDIES
of the comparative lateness of this saint's existence.

In spite of our regard to his sagacity, we must say
with greater assurance that he is far from being
correct in this view. The paucity ot temples cele-
brated by these Alvars does not prove the antiquity

of ihe one or the modernity of the other. Accord-
ing to his theory Tondaradippodi Alvar should
have been the earliest, because he visited only one
temple ; and the order of precedence would be Hke
this: Tondaradippodi, Tiruppan, Poigai, Kulasekhara,
Andal, Putam, Pey, Periyalvar, Tirumalisai, Nam-
malvar and Tirumangai Alvar ; surely it is neither
the traditional nor chronological order.
In those days of difficult communication, of
constant wars between the Tamil kings and their
feudatories,and of the fear of robbers and dacoits

on the forest-clad highways and foot-paths, the
circumstances which could have afforded facilities to
a pilgrim in visiting a larger number of temples,
were wealth, retinue and chiefly one's religious
proclivities. Tirumangai Alvar had all these, as he
was the ruler of a small but fertile province
or nadn besides being a he
robber chieftain ;
had plenty of money and a good many followers to

cater for him in his peregrinations. The other Alvars,
probably with the exception of Kulasekhara, had
none of these accessories, and they were more or
less local saints. Tirumalisai and Nammalvar were
yogis and did not care to visit all the Vishnu temples
of their days. The former did not mention at all
Tirumalirumsolai, when his contemporaries and

predecessors have praised it ;
Tirumangai Alvar did
not visit Trivandram the god of which place is alluded
to in Padirruppattu ; and Nammalvar has not sung
Tirrukkottiyur, Tirukkovalur, and Tiruvehka which
were celebrated by the earliest Alvars. Are we then
to infer from this that the above shrines were
not in existence at the time of these saints ?
Certainly not. The theory Krishnaswamy

of Mr. S.
Aiyangar that *he (Tirumangai Alvar) was the

latest of the saints is amply borne out by the
fact that he celebrates most, if not all, of the well-
known temples to Vishnu in India while others cele-
brate only a few,'i is therefore evidently absurd as it
is not supported by actual facts.

Tirumangai Alvar expended large sums in building
the ihird prakara or wall at Srirangam, which has been
known day as Tirumangai Mannan Tirumadil
to this
or 'the sacred wall of Tirumangai Alvar while the ',
inner two are those erected by Dharmavarma and

Mahendra Varma, the latter of whom
was a Pallava
king who is believed to have ruled over the Chola
country also. To secure funds for this sacred work
our Alvar is said to have demolished a golden image
of Buddha at Negapatam which was in his days a
deserted seat of Buddhism. Like his predecessor
Tirumalisai Piran our Alvar was a bitter opponent
to the Saivas, Jains and Buddhists as the following
quotations will show :
—
1. Ind. Ant. for 1906, p. 229.
—
316 TAMIL STUDIES
(1) LSemuîLnrir LDsmstoL-Qtai^ l3 /dit uo'Bsai îfl^k^ssmûui

S-6miûjfT<sk siTuihîT^^ QeurTQ^su^jnfi', (2) Qetiensfflajfjir tSeisar
iîuaiT Qurr^mnQ iTsisi fSenQira^Sl&sr p J sehetrêo', (3^ Ljii^
iiSls\) sîMSsariT lj^ît;
He taught that Vishnu alone was God, that He

created Brahma, Siva and all other gods, that He
is self-existent, that He assumed three different forms
of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, and that He pervades
the whole Universe :
(2) ^<sm(GO)(oeo ^(ohr^Q^suLO uojih^ âiîL^
And to realize this God one should be righteous*

should subdue his five senses and fix his mind
on Him with love and devotion. Bhakti is the only in-
dispensable passport to attain salvation ; and one
need not waste his energy in austere penances and
self-mortification. Thus, as a commentator has
rightly observed, Tirumangai Alvar was one of those
devotees who suffered their souls to endure the
heat of the sun and their bodies to enjoy the coolness
of shade.
To understand aright the spirit and teaching of his

poems, a thorough knowledge of the adventures of
KrisHna and Rama and of the stories concerning the
earlier incarnations of Vishnu as narrated in the
—
Puranas and the two great epics, is expected of every

reader.
Now coming to the age of this Alvar^ we have
ample references to the Pallava and the Chola kings
and to the political events of their times. In his hymn
on the god of Paramesvara Vinnagaram our Alvar
mentions that one Pallava king, Pallava Mallan, defeat-
ed the Pandyas, Qâsiêii'2esT^ fought a battle at Man-
nai and another at Nenmeli, QiBmQuasSI. We have
said above that the Vishnu shrine called Paramesvara
Vinnagaram was built by Parameswara Varma II
(A. D. 690). Further we gather from the Udayend-
ram and Kasakudi copper plates published in the
Soutli Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, part 3, that the
Nenmeli and Mannaikudi were fought by the
battles at
Pallava king Nandivarman (A. D. 720 760). One —

of them informs us that he was a devout worshipper
of Vishnu. Nandivarman who worships the feet of
'
Hari, who split (the head of) the opposing Sahara

king, called Udayana in the terrible battle of Nelveli,
who destroyed Kalidurga which was protected by

the goddess Kali, and defeated the Pandya army at
the village of Mannaikudi.' Again in another hymn
on the god of Ashtabujam at Conjeevaram our
Alvar refers to a king named Vajra Meghan to
whom the Pallava king did homage Q^frememL-iufr
(eSiTissr eusasTEii^ SemQfu^LDrr'SisoeutiSn- QtDseisr. This was one
of the titles (birudu) of Dantidurga or Dantivarma
IJ, a Rashtrakuta king of Malkhed A.D. 7551 ; and
1. Ind. Ant. xii, p. 17.
—
318 TAMIL STUDIES
he is said to have * completed the acquisition of

sovereignty by subjugating the Lord ot Kanchi.'i
Again our Alvar has a hymn on the god of Nandi-
pura Vinnagaram. This temple must have been built
by the same Nandi Varma, as among the South
Indian kings hitherto brought to light there appears
to have been before the time of Kaliyan only one
sovereign of that name. Other references to Pallava
and Chola kings are :
(1) smULnQuiTsin ^LD Qp^ûa LastssflnfiEiQafreasririk^
(2) ê<TiEi(^ rismQfiu^tLnrffîT îsi(îBêo
Q^nsssT'oSii— LDsmeareusar ôoaru^p QeOiTQêv jb(^
£ÎElQ sir's ISITLÎoS)S <o](LgL-ssfj(rûu
(3) ^0dQeO(S](g ^Q^QiDiTLêuTQuwom Q i—tr e^ S" /b(^
Q<fiEJSi^ss)osr QarTS=Q-9=fTLîom Qs='Tt5^QsrraSls\].
It has been said in a previous section that at the

time of Tirumalisai Alvar there was no shrine to
Vishnu at Chidambaram. The Pallava king referred
to in (1) should, therefore, have been either Mahen-

dra Varma II or Paramesvara Varma II both of whom
were worshippers of Vishnu and donors of great
charities; the first of them, Mahendra Varma II, is
said to have done meritorious acts for the benefit of

1 Bombay. Gas. Vol. I, part 2, p. 389.
temples and Brahma ns, and the second was the

builder of Vinnagaram at Conjeevaram. And the king
alluded to in^^) should have been Mahendra Varma U
(A. D. 650) as he is stated to have built the second
prakara or wall at Srirangam. Lastly, the Chola king
referred to in (3) was Ko-Chengannan who has been
canonized as a Saint by the Saivites, and described
as Kocchengatchola Nayanar in the Periyapuranam.
The Saiva saint Tirugnanasambanda also refers to
this king. Like his distant successor Parantaka I
(Vira Narayana Chola of the Kongu chronicle) he

may have been an ardent worshipper of Vishnu in
his early days and afterwards changed his faith to
Sivaism, as the apostles of both sects praise him
in their works. \u a previous chapter {Vide, p. 250)
the date of this Kocchengannan has been tentatively
fixed as 580 A. D.
l-n his Siriya Tirumadal our Alvar speaks of one
Vasavadatta. This suggests that he may have been
acquainted with the Sanskrit play of that name
written by Subandhu about the beginning of the
seventh century, which must be taken as the earliest
he has a hymn on the god of
limit of his date. Again,
Tirumokur in the Madura district. Two miles near

it and at the foot of the Yanaimalai there is
another Vishnu temple, which as the following
inscription will show, was built by a Pandya
minister in A. D. 770 and endowed with a rich
agrahara for its maintenance. 'Pre-eminently charm-
ing in manners a resident of Karavandapuram the
320 TAMIL STUDIES
son of Maran and a learned and illustrious member

of the Vaidya family, Madhurakavi made this stone
temple of Vishnu. The same Madhurakavi the wise
minister of the Pandya named Parantaka also gave
away to the first born (Brahmans) this immensely
rich agraharam. When 3 871 years of Kali had passed
on the day of the sun in the month of Kartigai
this image of the god was duly set up there'.
Had this temple been in existence in our Alvar's

time he must surel}' have visited it. As there are no
hymns on this god when he has sung the deity
at Tirumokur, it is almost certain that our Alvar
must have visited this part of the Pandya country
sometime before A. D. 770.
Taking all these facts into our careful considera-

tion we cannot help concluding that Tirumangai
Alvar must have flourished between A. D. 680 and
760.
Pepiyalvap.
Let us now pass on to the Vaishnava Saints of the

Pandya country. Periyalvar or Vishnu Chittan was
a Brahman of Srivilliputtur. He calls himself lj^sissij
mssi and Lj^îTsQsfTi^; here turn and Qsrrm mean simply

an influential man and ; in our Alvar's time Srivilli-
puttur was a newly created Brahman settlement. At

the instance of Selva Nambi of Tirukkottiyur (a Puro-
hit of the Pandya king), a conference of theologians
was held at Madura. And in the religious controversy
which took place there, Periyalvar is said to have
— —
ccMTie out succebsful and establislied Vishnuism in
his part of the Tamil country. His contributions,

mostly descriptive of the life of Sri Krishna, number-
ing about 416 stanzas form part of the Nalayira-
prabandam. His style is modern and contains a large
admixture of colloquial and provincial words and

many Sanskrit tadbavas. He has not said one word
against the Jains or Buddhists, probably because by
that time these two religions had almost died out in
the Pandya country. Nor did he use any unpleasant
words against the Saivas, a fact which proves that it
had already established itself firmly in theTamil

country and that the two rival sectarians had been
reconciled. The only harsh sentiments he gives
vent to against the Saivas and which also explain his
religious views are :
^Qa^ ffl;/7#(5^ Q,? uJtiJ i^mjD ,S(T^LCJ6\}', (2) ST0^^sQsfTlS

ILj'olSU.LUIT^Lh tSlTLDîAliîr^ LD/bgHlif sS(5^d!0 L^Ln3fDsS
To determine the age of this Saint there are no

clear references in his works. But the following
combined with the tradition that he lived at
extracts
the time of thePandya king Sri Vallabhadeva must
throw some light on his date :
(1) Oa/r/E@/Ei î—issa^(LjL£ — II, vi, 2.
(2) QtB^LDfT/ossr 3^.1— jbQsrr (SOT. — IV, ii, 7.
('d) QsrrLLLîuirdsiTiosr ^LS'icirear^/BaaJr, — IV, iv 8.
(4) uQûu^s^^d suu&iQuiifSji^ utTesaLûuiT,-—W , iv 7,

21
322 TAMIL STUDIES
The Vaishnava commentator Periyavacchan Pillai

(Kumbakonam)
explains Oa'^®(5S(g(_isa)^ as Kudandai
which belonged to or was in the Kongu country. In
a former section we have said that Aditva I conquered
and annexed Kongu in or about 890 A. D. We learn
furtherfrom other sources that Kumbakonam was a

temporary capital of that newly conquered country
from which the Chola prmce or the Yuva Raja ruled
the new province. The second quotation informs us
that the Pandya king was Nedu Maran, while the
third tells us that his purohit or spiritual teacher was
a pious Vaishnava Brahman who bore the title of
Abhimana Tungan. (It was one of the customs of
those days to give the titles of a king to his favourite
ministers and purohits. Manikka Vachagar had the
title of Qjgt^ssreijm i3!TLDLD!i!Ttu(ssrj Sekkilar was called
a-^^m Q3'frLûus\)s\)s)jfriTnjesr.) The word Maravarman is
no doubt a title borne by all kings of the Pandya
dynasty; but this when combined with the name Sri
Vallabhadeva and the eponym Abhimana Meru, does
certainly refer to a particular Pandya king. From the
Chinnamanur plates referred to above we are given to
understand that Raja Simha II had the title of Abhima-
na Mera Mara Varman, that he was a grandson of
Maravarman Sri Vallabha Deva, and that he was killed
by Parantaka Chola in A. D. 910. Among the well-
known temples of the Pandya country Srivilliputtur is
one that was not visited by Tirumangai Alvar and
;
when the god of Tiruttangal, a village some eight or

nine miles distant from our Alvar's birth-place, has
been celebrated by Kaliyan, he has omitted this impor-

tant shrine. Taking into account all these facts we
are inclined to believe that Srivilliputlur or the 'new
village of Villi ' should have come into existence
only after A. D. 750, and that our Vishnu C'hittan or
Periyalvar should have flourished between A. D. 840
and 915 ; that is, he might have been a younger con-
temporary of Kulasekhara Perumal. It is worthy
of note that this Alvar who is said to have carried
the prize {Sl^]) in a religious contest held at Madura,
has not celebrated Kudal Alagar of that city, though
it has been referred to in one of the hymns of
Tirumangai Alvar. We know that Madura has always

been a stronghold of Sivaism, and it is quite possible
that this Vaishnava temple was closed temporarily
by the bigotted Saivites of that city.
On the authority of certain expressions like un-m-

<siDoU(a!^s3B7ffl;OT(y>?>@© &c. which occur in the Madras
Museum plates of Jatila Varman, the Editor of '
Sen
Tamil' is inclined to put the date of Vishnu Chittan
before A.D. 770, making him a contemporary of Jatila
Varman or Parantaka I of the Yanamalai inbcriptions.
If was so our Alvar should have been as well a
this
contemporary of Tirumangai Mannan and a predeces-
sor of Kulasekara and Nammalvar. But this was not
the case for the reasons that are given in the sections
dealing with the above saints.
One of the Vaishnava saints was a lady named
Kodai. She isalso called Andal, and believed to
have been the daughter of Periyalvar, QuiBuunuêuniT
324 TAMIL STUDIES
QupQ/oV^s QuemtSI<ar'2err, while others think that she

was a toundliag, but brouglit up by the saint Vishnu
Chittan. Her contributions to the Nalayirapraban-
dam consist of 173 stanzas ; of these the Tiruppavai
has been considered to be her finest poem. She was
no doubt an ardent worshipper of Vishnu and all her
poems are an exposition of Sri Krishna's stories. It
appears that she remained a virgin throughout her
short life and spent her days in ministering to the
deities at Srirangam and Tirumalirumsolai.
In her Varanamayiram she describes the dreams of
her marriage with Vishnu, and this song is now bemg

recited at all Vaishnava Brahman marriages. It must
be remembered that her poems, which may have been
largely influenced by the work of a contemporary the —
Tirukkovaiyar oi Manikka Vachakar — have an esoteric
significance. The marriage described by her was the
union of the atuian with Faraniatman or God and
final absorption in the God-head. The devotion and
attachment of the modern Vaishnavas to Andal is so
great that the worship of the local deity adored by
her at Srivilliputtur has been eclipsed. All the impor-
tant festivals at this place are celebrated chiefly in
honour of this lady Saint.
Nammalavap.
Conspicuous among the Vaishnava Saints was
Nammalvar or Satagopan. He has been regarded as
an incarnation of Senai Mudaliyar, the mythological
commander and foremost devotee of Vishnu. His
—
life and writings deserve, therefore, to be considered

at some length.
He was born of a Vellala family at Tirukkurukur
or 'Alvar-Tirunagari in the district of Tinnevelly,
to one Kari of that place and Udaiya Nangai of
Tiruvanparisaram in the Chera country. His parents
gave him the name of Maran ; and Satagopan was
the Sanskrit title probably given to him by his
spiritual Giini. iMoreovcr, it was customary, as now,
to have two names — one Tamil and tlie other Sanskrit.
His Tiruvoymoli, Tiruvasiriam, Tiruviruttam and
Tiruvandadi, all of which written with a definite
purpose on a preconceived plan in the antadi

form and amounting to 1296 stanzas, are included
in the Naiayiraprabandam. His songs or hymns
relate to the some thirty places, ot
deities of
which twenty-four are in the Pandya and the Chera
kingdoms. He was an ascetic or yogi and would
seem to have retired from the world in his 35th year
to; perform Yoga or meditation under a tamarind tree,
which exists to this day in Alvar-Tirunagari. Ulti-
mately he is said to have attained eternal bliss or
beatitude, about which he himself says :
He had two disciples — Sri Nathamuni and Ma-

dhurakavi — to whom he taught his Tiruvoymoli and
other prabandams. The first heads the list of the
Vaishnava Acharyas while the second has been ele-
vated to the rank of a Saint.

—
326 TAMIL STUDIES
Like all other alvars Satagopan was a Vishnuvite of

the Visishtadvaitic School of Vedanta. He believed
that Vishnu alone could offer Moksha to His worship-
pers, that He is uncreated, that He is omnipresent and
that Brahma and Siva are only His other forms
or manilestations assumed for the sake of conducting
different offices. He proves the existence of God by
means of arguments, teleological and metaphysical, in
the fashion of Descartes and Spinoza, and gives us a

clear description of His relationship with the world in
his first two padigams, and of the means of approach-
ing Him in the third. About the nature and attributes
of God he says
(1) êam€ve\>esr QlLJSsai&sans^&iesreijeotT eueSlit!LD6\)e\)isin
(2) SuniL Ssoss)iLi^ 0iurijji si7e\)rTLU QtsQeu^r bW)Lu
His idea (»f fruition or communion with God is
explained in the following stanza :
^SB\Q p ojuQuaQ^ 4£S'i_js7(?au a?® sSt-^frQu).

—
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS 3'i7
He did not recognise caste distinctions and

held that di\ me knowledge alone could make a man
high or low in the social scale :
(êviBsifrisiQ) SFa^ssir isneSlîxi Si^L^m^ sr^^'Sesi
iseOii^T insf)e\)fr^ .SFssaTLîTeir feeari—iKsnrr s<3(riT@ûD
SSoi^'TIT Jfll^lLifriT ÛDISLp-LUfT G STLLLDl^SêfT.

The question of the age of this Saint is very
much disputed. Diverse opinions are current. The
Vaishnava Acharyas take him to the begmning of
the Kaliyug or B. C. 3102 and attempt to bridge

over the wide gulf of time between him and his dis-
ciple Nathamuni (tenth century A. D.) by asserting
that the Alvar was his teacher in his archavatar or
'the idolic incarnation' ; while some of the English,
educated Vaishnavas would ascribe to him the open-

ing years of the Christian era as his probable age.
As we have in the writings of Tirumangai Alvar

there are no allusions to any king or political events
m the works of Nammalvar to determine his date.
There are, however, several other indications to prove

that he flourished about the beginning of the
tenth century A, D., and that he was the last of the
Vaishnava Saints. We shall briefly give them below
and leave the reader to judge for himself whether
the above conclusicjns are logical or otherwise
(1) The Tamil language of Nammalvar differs

from the Tamil of the poets of the Sangam or aca-
demic period. Our i4/2;(;ir makes a free use of Sans-
krit words and phrases like SlûS, euirs^sih^ sesnuLD^ &.u
—
328 TAMIL STUDIES
Qe\)irf6sresr ^ mn^fj lS^<sii, LD^rrQuirsihy îîr^jeoij}, ldits
(ssiisu(^^kûa ; while none of these will be discovered

in the early Tamil writings. The use of plurais in seir
and double plurals in ears&r as in •ssinmiSm-jD&nssfr and

of the present tense in Sl^ as in (S^LL9(nj"^ is compa-
ratively modern. With regard to the use of S)^ as a
particle of present tense, the learned commentator
Nacchinarkiniyar observes thus :
&,eam8(}/DQemsurd&^
eiesru^ Ssuîusi) (Lpssafr^î\) 'î-%nso enLpii^. {Tol. II, 204).
These were never used by the early Tamil authors
anterior to the seventh century A. D.
Philological variations of the above nature in a
living language like Tamil afford us the crucial test to
determine the respective ages of literary works of

different periods ; and yet, this test has often been
completely ignored not only by Tamil pandits, but
also by the early commentators of I'amil classics.
(2) At the time of our Alvar most of the Puranas had

alre.idy come into existence and when he speaks of
the Saivas, he refers to Linâ-Purana by name
(IV. X. 5). It is only the Puranas that contain rules
for the worship of gods by means of prayers, offer-
ings, and festivals. Nammalvar refers to some of these

observances in the following lines:
The above quotation distinctly proves that the obser-

vance of piiranic rites had been in its full swing, and
—
that a large number of temples to Vishnu and other

deities had already come into existence before the
days of Nammalvar.
(3) The chewing of betel-leaf ^ was almost

unknown to the Hindu populace prior to A. D. 500 ;
because, as one writer, observes its use is not mentioned

by any author before the sixth century A. D. Our
Alvar speaks of Qeu/b^^ a more modern form of Qsneir
sy/??isu ' which we find in the inscriptions of the ninth
and tenth The author of Silap-
centuries A. D,
padikaram (second century A.D does, however, refer )
to its use thus,
But we doubt whether the custom had been so

universal in the days of Ilango-adikal, as it was in our
Alvar's time.
(4) It seems that at the time of our Alvar the

struggle between the Vaishnava and Saiva sects
on the one hand, and Jainism and Buddhism
on the other had come to an end, that Brahmanism
— Siva and Vishnu cults — had come out triumphant
at least in the extreme south, and that a sort of recon-
ciliationhad been effected among the Saivas and
Vaishnavas. While Tirumalisai, Tirumangai and
Tondaradippodi Alvars speak very vehemently and
pour forth their invectives a<:;ainst the non-Vaishnava
1. F. R. A. S. for 1908, p. 910.
^jûpcrT/OssSlil®. — Epig. 'nci. Vol, IX, p. 90.

—
330 TAMIL STUDIES
sects and religions, Nammalvar only casually men-

tions in one place the Jains and Buddhists, besides
Brahma and Siva as only other manifestations of
Vishnu. A comparison of the following quotations
from Nammalvar's works with those cited in the
previous sections will clearly prove that Jainisin and
Buddhism had already died out in the Tamil country
and that Saivas and Vaishnavas had come to regard
each other as brethern :
(2) <SLS-SLDL^ Qsrrm&aps^ s=<oSiu.'^QoSiQiLi<ijîJD idrresrQp^s su.
Qjsms^(T^ eurrtwsCceurQiueurîx) ; (3) jfjiEi(îuii QpaiLLL3.!TiT<ssT
LSlirL£iQu(Tî£fTesrei]em li j (4) LDira^sslefTLD^tLK^ (c^0(^ s^stai-^
(5) It has been said before that Tirumangai Alvar

visited all the V'aishnava temples of his time. Those
shrines that are not sung by him are celebrated by
Nammalvar, the most important of which being
(a) Tirukkuriigur, (6) Varaguna Mangai and (c) Sri
varamangalam. If the traditional story of the ortho-

dox Vaishnavas that Tirumangai Alvar made arrange-
ments for the lecital of Tiruvoymoli at Srirangam be
true, he must surely have visited the birth-place
of a great Saint honoured and worshipped by him,
and sung hymns in praise of the god of that village.
But we see nothing of this in his work. Again,
Varaguna Mangai or Varaguna Mangalam is a village
named after the Fandya king Varaguna. So far as

the epigraphical researches have disclosed, there were

only two kings of that name, and the earher of whom
reigned about A,D. 820. Further, Srivaramangalam or
Vanamamalai, wherein there have been from tune
immemoiial an impt^rlant Vishnu temple and a
Vaishnava Mutt, came inio existence in the reign of
the Fandya king Ko-Maran-Sadaiyan (A.D. ^HO)

under the circumstances set forth in the following
extract from a copper plate grant of that king.
*
While the seventeenth year of the reign, of Nedum
Sadaiyan,...ihe most devoted follower of Vishnu, was
current... he gave with libations of water the village
of Velangudi in Tenkalavalinadu, having cancelled
its former name from old tunes and having bestowed
on it the new name of Srivaramangalam to Sujjata
Bhatta',.. From the description of the boundaries
given in the plates it is clear that the shrine and the
famous Mutt should have been built towards the
end of the ninth century A. D. This village is only
a short distance from Tirukkui ungudi another well-
known where Tirumangai Alvar spent the
shrine
remaining years of his life. Yet, he has not said one
word about this important temple anywhere in his
hymns.
{(j) Sri Villiputtur whichfamous
is one of the
shrines of modern times in the Tinnevelly district was
not visited either bv Tirumangai Alvar, because it
was not in existence in his days, '>r by Nammalvar,
as it did not come into prominence or was not
known to the Vaishnavas outside the village. Peri-
332 TAMIL STUDIES
valvar should therefore have been an elder contem-

•
porary of Satagopan though unknown to each other.

(7) The Dravidian tune or pan {usm) is invariably
prefixed padigams (decads) of Nammalvar
to all the
while m the case of the works of other Saints, especi-

ally of Tirumangai Alvar, it has been found wanting.
Probably the names of tunes assigned to theae padi-
gams must have been lost during the course of the

long period that had elapsed before their collection
and compilation by Sri Nathamuni. Had Tirumangai
Alvar flourished three or four centuries later than
Satagopan, as the Vaishnava biographeis allege the
pans of Tiiumangai Alvar's hymns should have been
preserved «/or//on with greater easiness. But the
fact was otherwise. We cannot understand why
\hese pans of Tirmangai Alvar were lost while those
of his Saiva contemporaries and predecessors, Appar
and Sambandar, were handed down to posterity.
Perhaps the Aryan Vaishnavas had not cared so
much for the preservation of the sacred writings ot
the Dravidian Saints before the days of Nammalvar

and perhaps in imitation of the Saivas, the Vaishnava
Acharyas may have got into their head the idea of
collecting the works of Alvars and compiling them
intcjone sacred volume, probably subsequent to the
laborious undertaking of Nambiyandar Nambi of
the Saiva sect.
[O) From the Elephant Rock inscriptions quoted
above we see that the builder of the Vishnu temple

was one Kari or Madhurakavi, a son of Maran and
THE VISHNUVITE SAINTS 3i53
a minister of the Pandya king. We learn further

from theGuruparamparai that the name of
Nammalvar was Maran, that he was a saint
from his childhood, that he was the son of one Kari
a Vellala by caste and that one of his disciples was
Madhurakavi, a Brahman of Tirukkoiur in the Tinne-
velly district. Obviously, confounding the names
Kari, Maran and Madhurakavi, which occur in the
inscriptions as well as in the Vaishnava biography, a

recent writer in the Indian Antiquary jumps, like Flu-
ellen, to the conclusion that Kari or Madhurakavi
was the son of Nammalvar or Maran and that both
of them were contemporaries of Tirumangai Alvar.
According to this perverted view Nammalvar should
have lived prior to A.D. 770. We cannot understand
how the Koil-olugu, on which the reviewer relies so
much for his more trustworthy than the
data, is
Guruparamparai. The work unmistakably asserts

latter
that Madhurakavi Alvar was a Brahman and that Nam-

malvar was a celibate saint. Evidently this writer
does not seem to have read either the Guruparam-
parai, or the works of Nammalvar, or even Mr. V.
Venkayya's notes on the Triplicane Inscriptions of

Dantivarman in the Ep. Ind. Vol. VIII. p. 290.
Nammalvar has one hymn on the god of Tirumokur

and four or five on the famous shrine at Tirumali-
rum-Solai ; but he has left none on the Vishnu deity
at the foot of the Yanai Malai or the Elephant Rock
which lies between these two places. Our Alwar
must therefore have lived either before or long
334 TAMIL STUDIES
after A. D. 770 ; but the impossibility of the first
has been proved in the previous pages.

The rich Agrahara referred to in the inscription
should have been deserted and the shrine itself
almost neglected at the time of Nammalvar, as it
now is, owing to the ominous death of the builder

of the temple before its completion and the
unproductive rocky soil of the surrounding country.
It is evident that a sufficiently long period, say at
least one century and a half, should have elapsed

between its creation and total abandonment; that is
this shrine and Agrahara should have fallen into

ruins only some time before A. D. 900. And this
must have been the period of our Alvar's existence.
(9) The most important argument in favour of our
theory that Satagopan was the last of all the Vaishnava
Saints is furnished by the age of Nathamuni, one of
his two esteemed disciples. Traditions relating to his

life are conflicting and even scholars do not agree
on this point. Mr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar seems to
believe the statement of the orthodox Vaishnavas that
Nathamuni was born in A.D. 582 and died in A.D.
922. He goes on to say that ' it would certainly be in
keeping with the most cherished tradition of the

Vaishnavas that arrangement made by the Alvar
(Tirumangai Alvar, A. D. 750) for the recital of
Tiruvoymoli of Nammalvar had fallen into desuetude
in the days of Nathamuni and he had to revive it at
Srirangam after much ado' i. And, Mr. T. Rajagopa-

1. Inci. Ant. 1906, p. 232.
THE VISHNUVITK SAINTS 335
lachariar says 'that the sage was born somewhere in

the first quarter of the ninth century and lived just
over a hundred years' ^.
We shall now examine these statements. Guru-

paramparai or the lives of the Vaishnava Aciiaryas
informs us Nathamuni Was born in the
(a) that Sri
agrahara of Vira Narayanapuram in the district

of South Arcot, and (bj died at Gangaikoi\da Chola-
puram in Trichinopoly, and (c) that he was the

grandfather of Alavandar, who died at Srirangam
when Sri Ramanujacharya was about 25 or 30 years
of age. Now, here are three points to be carefully
sifted in arriving at the age of Nathamuni. There
are also other traditions making him a contempo-
rary of Kamban, but these are not trustworthy and
may therefore be set aside for the present.
(a) As regards Viranarayanapurm the Kongu chro-
nicle says that '
Viranarayana iParantaka 1,906-946
A.D.) was a great devotee of Vishnu in the early part
of his life and he created many tax-free Brahman
settlements one of which was called after his own
name Viranaiayanapuram '
2. In other words this
agrahara must have come into existence some time
after 906 A. D.
(b) Sri Nathamuni is believed to have died at Gan-
gaikonda Cholapuram which was made the capital
of the Chola king Rajendra (A. D. 1011-1044) about
1. The hid. Rev, 1908, p. 280.

2. Salem Dt. Manual. Vol. II. p. 375 and Madras journal of
Sc. & Lit., Vol. xiv.
336 TAMIL STUDIES
the year 1022. Admitting that our sage died about

1025 A. D., he should have been born about 915
A. D., and this gives him an age of 110 years. This
is sufficiently a long age, and there is every reason to
believe that he, being a Yogi, could have lived for
such a long period.
(c) According to the inscriptions of Bitti Deva or
Vishnuvardhana of Mysore, the great Vaishnava re-
former Sri Ramanujacharya was living in 1134 A. D.
Even if we allow him an unusually long age of 115
years, it is certain that he was about thirty years old
in A. D. 1049, which must be assumed as the year of

Alavandar's death ; that is, he may have survived his
grand-father Natharauni some 24 or 25 years. Gran-
ting that Alavandar lived to an advanced age of
eighty, he should have been born about A.D. 969 when
Nathamuni was about 54 or 55 and it is not impro- ;
bable for a man of this age to beget a grandson. We

are therefore inclined to believe that Nathau7uni was
a direct disciple of Nammalvar and studied Tiruvoy-
moli and Yoga philosophy when he was about 20 or
25 years of age under our most revered Saint. In
other words Nammalvar must have been alive in
A.D. 935. Moreover, it is said that about the writings
of Nammalvar, Sri Nathamuni enquired one Paran-

kusadasa, a disciple of Madhurakavi Alvar (afterwards
his fellow student) who is believed to have been born
in the Dvapura Yuga !
Further he should have also been the last of the
Alvars, as one of our early Acharyas distinctly says

—
in his QirTL^p^(ff)!h(TuiiJD that Nammalvar taught the 4000

hymns to Nathamuni ibt^^s(^ [btreofniSuLoeiB^îrm
(Suitl^Cdoj. It escapes our understanding how in the
face of this clear statement Tirumangai Alvar could

have lived after Nammalvar.
(10). In one of the inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola
dated about 1004 A. D. Kurugur appears as the
name of a dancing girl. From
we are to infer that it
this village had by that time become famous as the
birth place of Nammalvar. This we suppose was due

to the propogandist work of Nathamuni who used to
visit the royal courts of Chola kings. Further it was
the custom of those times to give the names of
famous villages, of renowned Saints and of reigning
sovereigns to men and women, out of reverence or
gratitude as the following proper names will show:
^@(75<ss_/f, ^(T^rsrTisijssiTSr^ ^/'gff'T^^ eSlQpuusajirujesr, <3f-i^fr
urresanîu ^s^rriflujeisr ; and this sort of naming first took

place during the life time of these remarkable
personages or when those noteworthy occurrences
were quite fresh in their memories. An inscription of
the same Chola king calls the name of thedeily of the
temple at Ukkal asTiruvoymolidevar. From this Dr.
Hultzsch seems to think that Nammalvar 'must have

lived centuries before A. D. 1000.' But for the
above reasons this was not really the case.
Some scholars might think that a considerably

long time should have passed after the death of these
pious reformers before their deification could have
taken place. But this was not at all necessary, when
22
338 TAMIL STUDIES
we consider the spirit and the rehgious movements of

this period of sectarian reforms (A.D. 950-1150), and
the halo of divine glory which had shone even in
their own life time. We are told in the biographies
of the Vaishnava Acharyas that copper images of Sri
Ramanuja were set up, in obedience to his orders,
immediately after the termination of his earthly exis-
tence, and that Manavalamamuni gave away his
copper water pot for the making of his image just on
the eve of his departure to the other world. And it
has been said above that the custom of setting up

images for these canonized saints came into vogue
only after 1000 A.D.
The above arguments must irresistably lead any
unbiassed reader to conclude that our Nammalvar
should have flourished in the first half of the tenth
century A.D. which is full two hundred years poster-
ior to Tirumangai Alvar. It is, therefore, clear that
the traditional stories relating to these two Saints in
which Mr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar places so much
faith and the fabulous difference of 3500 years
between Nammalvar and his direct disciple Natha-
muni, on which the archavatar theory of the Vaish-
nava Acharayas rests, must be rejected as pure con-
coctions of Manavalamamuni and his predecessors,
devised in support of their absurdly cherished
beliefs.
To summarise the results of our discussions

regarding the Vaishnava Saints: (1) the reformation
of the Vaishnava sect began in the Pallava country
and slowly but steadily travelled as far as the Pandya.
desa in the South; (2) the 'First andAlvars'
Tirumalisaiyar, all of Tondai Nadu, were the earliest,
and Nammalvar of the Pandya country was the
latest; (3) Tirumalisaiyar, Tirumangai Mannan and
Tondaradippodi Alvar who were the bitterest
opponents to the Saivas, Jains and Buddhists
flourished when the two latter were
religions
struggling for existence in Tamil country; (4)
the
Nammalvar, the last of the Vaishnava Saints and
the first of the Acharyas lived when the two
atheistic religions — Jainismand Buddhism — had very
nearly died out in the Tamil country and when the
Saivas and Vaishnavas had been reconciled; (5)
Tirumalisaiyar, Kaliyan and Nammalvar were the
greatest of the Vaishnava Saints; (6) and lastly,
all the Alvars flourished during the pannmic period,
that is between A. D. 550 and 950, when temples in
honour Brahmanic deities, Vishnu and
of the Siva,
were being built in all the Tamil districts.

XII
THE ORIGIN OF MALAY ALAM

The home-speech of about seven millions of people
in Southern India is Malayalam. It is at present an
important language of the Dravidian family ;
and yet,
the exact relationship which it bears to the other

members of that family is a subject of some hot dis-
cussion among ihe Dravidian scholars. The solu-
tion of this problem is not an easy matter. Unless
one has made, an historical study of the Tamil and
Malayalam languages his conclusion must remain for
ever vague and indecisive. Some scholars believe it
to be a sister of Tamil like Telugu or Kanarese, others

regard it as a highly developed dialect of old Tamil,
while a few Indian scholars of Malabar are prone to
think that it is a dialect of Sanskrit and that it had
nothing to do with Tamil from its very origin. The
last^seems an extreme view prompted by a false sense
of patriotism ;*and the subject is interesting and im-
portant enough to deserve an examination at some
length.
THE ORIGIN OF MALAYALAM 341
The etymology of the term 'Malayalam' which pro-

perly applies to the territory and not language, seems
obscure. It does not occur either in early or mediae-
val Tamil The people of the West Coast
literature.
call their home-speech as Malayazhma or Malayayma.
These are compounds of two Malayalam or rather

Tamil words mala, a and dlam or dlma,
'
mountain '
'
government'. The latter are verbal nouns formed by
postlixing the noun terminations am (jyti) and ma or
mai (s»ld) to the verb dl {^^) to rule. '

Azhma may
'
be a mistake for *
alma '. It is not right to accept the
meaning that Malayalam is a *deep (=^teti)mountainous
region'.
The Chera or Kerala country, called also the Malai-

nadu and Malai-mandalam in Tamil and Malayalam
works, was known to the early Greeks as Dimurike or
Tamilakam and Kerobothros' or the Chera country,
'
and to the mediaeval nationsjas Malabar (Skt. Mala- *

'
var, Ar. Mala-barr) or the 'region of mountains.' From

about the beginning of the sixteenth up to the early
years of the last century, Tamil was known to
Europeans as the Malabar language. But it has

' '
been considered by Western scholars as an instance of

misapplication of the term 'Malabar' to Tamil. How-
ever, I am inclined to think otherwise, though with
reference to the present condition of the Malayalam
language itmight be an undue extension of its signifi-
cation. When the term Malabar was first applied
' '
to Tamil by the early European travellers or

missionaries there was not, as will be shown hereafter,
— '
342 TAMIL STUDIES
much difference in the colloquial or rather the vulgar

forms of the two languages, and they were justified in
calling both as the '

Malabar '
language.
The people of Kerala or Chera Desa in the third
century called themselves Tamilar and even thought
it proud to be known by that *
sweet ' name as the
following quotation will show :
siTiuQeup pi^s<ss)&& sesrs^th eSeasîuîM
Qsîsi^lL® Qj<S!rpear &ssieij^LJ uSsiîh. — Sil.
The work which we have reviewed in the tenth

essay is probably the earliest literary record relating to
the Chera kings and their subjects whose home-speech
was Tamil. And it might conveniently be taken as
containing the origins of the Malayalam language.
Another Tamil work of about the same period is the
Ainkurunuru or the Five short Hundreds'. It was
*
written by live different poets of the Kerala country

and compiled under the orders of the Chera king
Yanaikkat-chey-Mandaram-Seral-Irum-porai. A third
work of greater importance, but belonging almost to
thesame period is Silappadikaram. It was composed
by Ilango-Adikal. a younger brother of the Chera
king Senguttuvan, and forms one of the five
Tamil major epics. All these teem with '
Malabaricms
or usages peculiar to Malayalam, but which are consi-
dered as slang or provincialisms in pure Tamil. Words
like 6p&)eorr (must not), Quir^^ (he-buffalo), <5s>siQ@iih
or 6a)«/^?sw (camp), euilisf. (basket), &c., which occur in
these Tamil works of the Kerala country, are still

'
current in the spoken language of Malabar and Tra-

vancore when they had become obsolete in Tamil.
The later Tamil authors of Kerala were Aiyanarita-
nar, Cheraman Perumal and Kulasekara Perumal-
Aiyanaritanar flourished about the seventh or
eighth century A. D, He was a prince of the
Chera dynasty and wrote a treatise on grammar
entitled the 'Venba-Malai,' The other two were
kings of Malabar and flourished during the eighth
or ninth century. For their literary remains we
must refer the reader to the eleventh 'Tirumurai,
of the Saivas, to Mr, Govinda Pillai's ' History of
Malayalara Literature' and to our chapter on the Alvars.
It must, however, be pointed out here that the propor-
tion of Sanskrit words in the early Tamil works of
the Chera country, namely, Ainkurunuru, Paditrup-
pattu, Silappadikaram and Venbamalai is compara-
tively very small, while in the later writings of the
Kerala saints— Cheraman and Kulasekara — it is percep-
tibly higher, mainly owing to Brahmanical influence.
Kulasekara was also a Sanskrit poet. The latest
Tamil poet who, according to a current tradi-
tion, visited Kerala and lectured on the Rama-
yana before large audiances was the famous
Kamban (A. D. 1145-1205). Lectures in Tamil on
the Ramayana were evidently popular and much
appreciated in Kerala during this period, and
it is interesting to note that even today Kambaramaya-
nam is recited and commented upon by special mins-
trels or a class of wandenng preachers, The first works
344 TAMIL STUDIES
in the early Malayalam language are accordingly the

' Ramacharitram and the Ramayanam which are
' ' '
more after the model of Kamban's great work.

In ancient Tamil literature Chera or Kerala is in-
variably spoken of as a Tamil country; and from the

Tolkapyain it might be inferred that this kingdom had
at least seven Nadus or provinces, namely —
Venadu,
Puzhinadu, Karka Nadu, Sitanadu, Kuttanadu, Kuda
Nadu and Malayama Nadu, in all of which Kodum or
vulgar Tamil was spoken. In later Tamil literature
Malabar, Travancore and Cochin are called Malainadu
or Malai-mandalam. Hence the Chera kings were also
called Puzhiyan, Kuttuvan, Kuda-Nadan, Malayaraan
and Kolli-chilamban (Lord of the Kollimalais). For
sometime the Kongu country (Salem and Coimbatore
districts) was under them, and hence the people of
the country were known also as Kongans. Two Tamil

inscriptions in a Jain temple on the Tirumalai hill
inform us that Adigaman Ezhini of Tagadur (Salem

district) belonged to the Chera or Vanji family. Sita-
Nadu is the Nilgiris and it is needless to say that it
was within the Chera dominion.
The names of villages in Malabar and Travan-
core which have sufhxes like, seri, iir, angadi (a
bazar), hodu or kod (summit of a hill), kadii or
kad (a forest), tod or tottam (a garden or canal), padi,

karai, hirai, knlam, knricchi, kalam, vayal, erl, pattii,
ktmdu, tali, irnppUy &c., are all pure Tamil words and
indicate that they were originally built and occupied
by the Tamils. The names of Malabar villages like
Mel (west or upper)-muri, A/e/-attur, Ja^m^V-kadu, and

Kazhaui-'^d.vd.mb'a. support the theory that the ancient
inhabitants of Kerala were Tamil Dravidians. Again,
from the existence of Tamil words kizhakku (east) and
merku (west) in the Malayalam language, Dr. Cald-
well argues that '
the Malayalam is an off.shoot from
Tamil, and that the people by whom it is spoken
were originally a colony of Tamilians'. This argu-
ment confirms beyond a shadow of doubt the Tamil
origin of the Malayalam people, though it seems to
Mr. Logan fanciful and ingenious. Prior to the fifth
or sixth century A. D. the Tamil words (êaari^,
(5L_i@j (aji_<5(5 and Q^/b(^ expressed the four direc-
tions, while Sli^d(^ and Qmp(^ then meant 'down-
ward and upward.' In all these the particle © is a

' '
dative case termination meaning direction.' '

Later
on @ssari@ and @£_i(5 became classical or used
only in literature, and their place was taken by
Qipsi^ and Qiop^ which acquired that significance
with reference to the position of the Tamil country
lying east of the Western Ghauts. Notwithstanding
the strikingly reverse configuration of the modern
Malayalam and Tamil countries, the Tamil word
@Lps(^ hascome to denote the 'east on both sides of'
the Ghauts and in both languages. This is no doubt

an anomaly and can be explained only by accepting
that the early inhabitants of the Malayalam country
were Tamil immigrants from the East coast districts.
The word QiDp(^ has, however, retained in Mala-

yalam its ancient Tamil meaning '
upward ', and its
—
346 TAMIL STUDIES
modern significance is expressed by a Tamil com-

pound Liu^-i^rTuSI^ or the setting sun.' Doubting the
'
correctness of Dr. Caldwell's argument Mr. Logan

suggests that the terms Qtpi(g and Qio/bcg were coined
with reference to the rise and setting of the sun.
This seems to be very ingenious, because, if that had
been the case, the words for 'east' and 'west' should be
cognates and found in all the Dravidian languages;
and the necessity to coin a compound Tamil word
padi-jnayiru in Ithe place of a simple one, merkii,.
should never have been felt by the early inhabitants of

Kerala.
Among the towns of the West coast Tondi (modern

Kadalundi), Mandai, Musiri and Vanji occur
frequently in early Tamil literature. Tondi was
a famous sea-port and capital of a division of the
Chera country ruled by Poraiyan, while Vanji
or Karur was the metropolis of the other division ;
Musiri (Gr. Mouziris) was a famous emporium of the
West and centre of the pepper trade in India. The

following quotations from ancient Tamil literature
will be found interesting -.
(1) QsîiiQsrr/b, (^LLQeuanQ^'emL^. — Ain, 178.

(2) s<s\)ihî^ QufT puiBsîiy SL^^Q^rrsBsfl luit pS'SSi(TQsrri(^lB^
in'êo^^rTJQpik} su.pQTfnQp(s^ ^^suiJOuuJ^ (SUQîBjbûLjib
Hi5Si6\)iS)seir eSesiQuir&diB^nir (^LL®<sijeor ^ (TpLp'a(gSL—esr
QPlfisS&sr Qpsr^. — Pur. 343.
(3) ûj i)(S pas (îLQisum- euQ^L^ssreO eunuiSeoein^Q. — Pat. 3.
The above are cities of commercial and political

—
importance. Tamil religious literature is replete with
descriptions of Hindu shrines visited by the Saints,

who composed on the spot hymns about them.
Among the towns of religious celebrity come first
Gokarnara and Tirucchengunrur (near Quilon).
These are seats of famous Siva shrines which were
visited by the Tamil saints Appar and Sambandar in
the seventh century. Tiruvanjaikulara seems to be a

later one, because only one saint, Sundarar, a con-
temporary of the Chera king Cheraman Perumal
sang of it. Among the Vaishnava shrines of the
Tamil-Malayaiam country Tirumuzhikalam, Tiru-
navoy, and Tiruvallavazh, were visited by Tirumangai
Alvar about A.D. 750 ;
Nammalvar (A.D. 920) men-
tions in addition to these Trivandram, Tiruvan-
parisaram, Tirukatkarai, Tirupuliyur, Tiruchengunrur,
Tiruvanvandur, Tiruvattaru, Tirukkadittanam and
Tiruvaranvilai. Kulasekhara Perumal has sung only
Vittuvakkod. The Vishnu shrine at Tiruchengunrur
could have come into existence only after the time
of Tirumangai Alvar, that is after A. D. 750.
This last town which was built on the Chittar
river was an important Brahman settlement in the
days of Nammalvar (A- D- 920) wherein, as described
by him, 3,000 Brahmans lived. ^miri^ 9iT QfisunaSiTeuiT
Q&j^lLutTiseiT ;Sihu^ (VIII, iv. 10.) We have therefore
every reason to believe that the Nambudri i (or Na-
mbi-sri, Nambi-tiru or Nambi, Tamil ulclSI meaning 'a
1. Compare ^LJoi^rrireisr which has become in Malayalam
^thiîriTeiir and ^tJounmLi^.
MS TAMIL STUDIES
noble man') Brahmans settled in Malabar and Tra-

vancore between the sixth and eighth centuries of the
Christian era. According to Keralolpatti, a mythologi-
cal account of the Malayalam country composed pro-
bably by a Nambudri Brahman during the eighteenth
century, Brahmans were brought down by Parasu-
rama from the Punjab and made to settle first at
Gokarnam in South Kanara, where they were made
to shave their hind lock and to grow it on the front,
perhaps as it is said, to prevent their going back to
their origmal home. But we learn from other sources
that this king was —
Mayurasarma the founder of the
Kadamba family and not Parasurama.
The date of Mayuravarma is about the early part
of the sixth century. The Namburi Brahmans must,
therefore, have settled in and around Gokarnam,
during this period and their migration to the south
from this centre must have taken place during the
sixth and seventh centuries. The example of Mayu-
ravarma was followed by the Chola and Pandya kings
of the time, who invited small colonies of Brahmans
now known as the Soliya Brahmans.
But this does not mean that there were abso-
lutely no Brahmans in the Tamil country before the
sixth century.
The country was deeply plunged in Buddhism
and Jainism. The non-Brahman Saivas and Vaish-
navas, of course instigated by the few Brahmans,^
were contending against these religionists. There
were not many Brahman religious institutions ;
nor were there many powerful inducements for

Brahmans to migrate to the south. Politically the
Tamil countries were in a state of turmoil. The
Kalabhras, the Kadambas, the Pallavas, the Chalu-
kyas, the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras were
fighting with one another. Religion suffered from
the ills of political unrest. There was no definite
state religion ; each king professed the religion which
suited liis whims and Better days dawned
caprices.
during the seventh century when Brahmanism, iê.,
the cult of Siva and Vishnu, came out triumphant in
the religious struggle. The Tamil countries became
more or less quiet. And the very Brahmans who
had served as messengers and domestic servants
under the wealthy Dravidians, as now, became priests
and 'purohits to the Tamil kings, thus securing for
themselves a wider influence in the countrj'. All
these led to the construction of a large number of
temples to Siva and Vishnu, and to the invitation of
more Brahmans from the Aryavarta during the
seventh and the early part of the eighth century A. D.
for purposes of worship in temples and to serve as
purohits to Dravidians.
These Brahmans have since been known honori-

as
fically Nambis in all the three Tamil coun-
'
'
tries — Chera, Chola and Pandya — in contradistinc-

tion to later Brahman immigrants usually styled as
'Bhatta.' The former wear the tuft of hair in front,
while the latter keep it at the back of their head.
They are called the Purva-sikhai or Puraschudakula
350 TAMIL STUDIES
Brahmans. All the Brahman saints Vaishnava and —

—
Saiva and some of the Brahman ministers under
the ancient Tamil kings belonged to this Purva-
sikhai or the '
front-locked' Brahmans. The early
Tamils were indebted to them for their civiHsation,
which developed steadily under the influence of
the later Brahman immigrants from the north.
These later immigrants who were specially invited
by Tamil kings from the middle of the eighth
century downwards, kept themselves distinct as a
class and formed no social alliance with the Dravi-
dians. They, therefore, came to be considered superior
to the Nambis, Narabudris i or the Soliya Brahmans.

Most of the land grants to the Bhatta or the later
colony of Brahmans belong to this period. The early
or Narabi Brahmans seem to have entered the
Tamil-Malayalam districts from the north-west,
while the Bhatta or later Brahmans appear to have
taken the southern route through the Telugu country
When the Nambudri Brahmans settled in Kerala
the country was not unmhabited. All the lands were

not wholly theirs, nor were they the solejeiimis ; and
we see no special reason why it should be so only in
Kerala when such has not been the case in the Tamil
or Telugu country. From the Paditruppattu. we
learn that the Chera kings lavished presents upon
Tamil poets and Brahmans of Malabar and Travan-
1. It is said that the Cherumars called the Narabudris as
Chovvar' which may be a corruption of Sabhaiyar or Savaiyar a
name usually applied to the ordinary or plebeian Brahmans of the
Tamil districts.
core. Imayavarman is said to have given 500

villages in the district of Umbarkadu to Brahman
the
poet Kannanar ; Senguttuvan the revenues of Umbar-
kadu to Paranar ; Selvakkadunko all the country
within his view from the top of the hill Nanra to poet
Kapilar ; vi^hile another king gave a portion of his
country to Kappiyanar. How could then such
enormous land grants be made, had the country been
the exclusive property of the Nambudri Brahmans ?
Moreover, all these had occurred before the Nambis
or Nambudris settled in Malabar and Travancore.
The fact seems to be that the whole Kerala country
belonged to its kings, and they had a right to dispose
of it as they pleased. And out of reverence to
learned Brahmans, whom^ they brought from Upper
India from time to time, lands were granted free ot
tax as Brahmadayam for their maintenance.

But the total neglect of the native Tamil litera-
ture by the Dravidian inhabitants of Kerala, their
general ignorance and their respect for Nambudri
Brahmans gave the latter an undue advantage which
in course of time showed itselfin the Nambudri's
exclusive ownership to all the Kerala country.
And to support ihe theory of their ownership, the
Nambudris even fabricated false traditions.
The Chera, like the Chola and Pandya countries,
was inhabited by all the early Tamil tribes and
castes. The identity of some of these minor
Malabar castes with those that occur in the
inscriptions of Rajaraja Chola (A. D. 985 — 1013)
352 TAMIL STUDIES
has been noticed before, Of the remaining castes

of Kerala, the numerically most important are
the Nayars, the Tiyans, the Iluvans and the Cheru-
mans, none of which are now to be found in the east,
though the names of villages like Vellancheri, Ida-

cheri, Ayancheri, Valayanad, Parayancheri and Palli-
puram in Kunimbranad, Vailuvanad, Ponnani
the
and other taluks of the Malabar district clearly prove
that Kerala was once inhabited solely by the Tamils.
Then, how did these castes come into existence and
how are they ethnically related to the corresponding
castes of the Tamil districts ?
About a thousand or more years ago ail the modern

Tamil castes were not in existence; the Tamil people
were divided into tribes according to the nature of the
soil in which they lived and the conventional tribal
names like the Vellalas, Maravas, Idaiyans, Mallars,

Pallars, and Kuravas survive to this day in the Tamil
districts.
The word Nayar, like Vellala which includes a

largenumber of cultivating castes, is a vague name,
The present Nayar caste has grown by the gradual
accretion to it of Chakkan (oil-presser), Vaniyan
(trader or oil-monger), Eruman or Kol-ayan (Tamil
shepherd), Kanisan and Panikkan (sub-division of the
Tamil Iluvans), of Pallichan and Urali (Tamil
Pallis), and lastly of the Vellala castes. Among
the important sub-divisions of Nayars, 'Sudran' has no
meaning ; Agattucharna and Purattucharna are only
later innovations introduced after Hyder's invasion.
p
Attikkuricchi and Vattakadan are only territorial

i
names, Kiriyattils alone seem to be the descendants

of the pure Velirs or Vellaias 2 of the West Coast.
As late as A. D. 1320 we find the Vellaias as the
cultivating caste of Malabar. Thus, none of the an-
cient Nayars are of Telugu extraction as believed by
some scholars.
The armies of the Chera kings were recruited from
the people of the Kongu country who were a race of
fine stalwart warriors: — (1) ir-irmusaL^^QsmEisfTQ^rrQeu ;
(2) Q&i^n^p(^ â'^LpiTisffl (^nuSjb^'<f QfirL^mtoae^&sT

ea)LD,i^si!r Qsitesit QsîsJS'SfnhQaiiLL(Sd siaaasuQuir uufrn^s
seem QuitSlu Qs'iEi(^LL®isuesr. — Si I. xxix. 1-3.
And this is confirmed by the fact that some of the
feudal chieftains of Malabar and Travancore, like the
Zamorin of Calicut, belonged to the Pogondan sub-
division 01 the Coimbatore Idaiyans. 'Kunnala-kon',
one of the titles of the Zamorin, is a pure Tamil ex-
pression {kuriinila-kon) meaning chief cr king of a '
small country,' and *

Konatiri '
or Konan-tiru, or
konan is a title of the Idaiyans of Coimbatore, Madura
and Tinnevelly districts. In Malabar, Idaiyans are
called Kol-Ayan3 and Eruman (bu£falo-men) ; and
these are among the sub-castes of Nayars. The name
1. We are not convinced of the correctness of the etymology of
' Attikurichi' from Sanskrit Asti bone, and Tamil kura to cut.
2. The Cherumars or the natives of the soil address the Nayars

as Ilankoil, which is precisely the same title as '
Ilankokkal '
given
to the ancient Vellaias of the Tamil districts.
3. Kol is a contraction uf 'GoUa' which is the name of the

Telugu shepherd caste, while 'ayan' is that of Tamil Idaiyans.
23
354 TAMIL STUDIES
£niwm;i appears in the Tanj ore inscriptions of the e

venth century. It is not surprising that the Tan
Idaiyars are treated as a sub-caste of Nayars, when w
find some of them elevated even to the rank of Ksha-
triya Samantas. The Siviyar (palankeen bearers) and
the Agattu-Charna sub-divisions of the Tamil Idaiyani
caste are noteworthy, as affording a connecting Hnk
between Ihem and the Samantas and Nayars of Mala-
bar. The words (^^-^f and ©i—To/ and Sli—rriis&r, which in
the Tamil districts signify the 'young ones of cattle',
denote in Malabar 'children.' This shows that the

Idaiyars held a dominant place in the constitution of
the Nayar and the Samanta castes, Idaiyans, especi-
ally of the Kongu country, had their own chieftams
and they were good cavalry men. They contributed

soldiers and commanders to the Chera army after the
conquest of the Kongu country by the Chera kings
about the first or second century.
an&i)<su&> L\iT(sS ojeemi—QirnLLis^. —Pad' 88.

(Defeated the Idaiya chieftains who opposed him
and routed the Idaiyans of the swift-footed cavalry.)
The word Cheruman or Chituvan means a small
man, and the Cherumans were really so in compari-
son with the robust Kongu Idaiyans and Vellalas
who constituted the Nayar or the Nayakar caste. In
a Malayalam deed of 1523 A.D. the name of this caste
appears as Valli-Alar or Valli-Sattanmar, but not as
1. It will be curiousobserve that in one sub-caste of Idaiyans
to
in the Madura district, called the Pendukku -mekki, the Marumak-
kattayara law of inheritance is followed.
THE ORIGlisi OF MALAYALAM 355
nerumars. ' Valli ' seems to be a mistake iui 'Villi',
'ôme interesting sub-divisions of this agrestic tribe,
ike Eralan (ploughmen), Idangai (left-hand),

Kaladi (irrigators), Pallan, Paraiyan, Rolan (Irulan or
Villi), VaJluvan and Vettuvan are found among the
Tamil Pallans also. Moreover, the customs and
manners of these tribes both in Malabar and the Tamil
districts, including their laws of inheritance, agree
so completely that one might conclude that the
Cherumas and Pallans belonged to one and the same
tribe of Naga-Dravidian field labourers and soldiers.
As for the Tiyans and lluvans of Kerala, the latter
of whom are found in the Tamil districts as well,
we feel some difficulty. Whether they are strangers
or autochthones to Southern India it is not possible
to discuss here. That the great numerical strength
of the Tiyans of Malabar as well as their homogene-
ous nature seem strictly to point to the latter.
Further, the oxogamous groups of the North Malabar

Tiyans and the Izhavans of Madura and Tinnevelly
are called illams, and one of the former goes by the
name of Pazhayar which is a Tamil word meaning
*
toddy drawers '. A note on Tiyan has, however,
been appended to this volume and it will give some
interesting facts concerning this question. We need
not go further into this problem of ethnical affinity
between the peoples of Kerala and the two other an-

cient Tamil provinces. None of the early Malabar
castes had any connection whatever with the
Telugus, as is believed in some quarters.
3^6 TAMIL STUDIES
H cii all (here is any Indian province in which \itt\e
or no real archaeological work is done, it is Kerala^

Besides the publication of a few copper-plate grants
and some stone inscriptions at irregular and long
intervals of time by Burnell, Gundert, P. Sundram
pillai and others, no systematic explorations have yet
been made and no regular epigraphicali researches
undertaken. With the very few materials at our
disposal we shall attempt to trace the growth of the
Malayalam language.
Some scholars seem to think that the copper plate
grants from Malabar should not be utilised for
tracing the growth of the Malayalam language,

as the grants are in Tamil and the donors
were Perumals or kings of foreign extraction,
invited by the .-iumbudri Brahmans to rule the
Kerala country They are also of opinion that the
colloquial Malayalam was quite distinct from the
language of inscriptions and that * the early poets of
(Malabar) were no doubt much affected by influence
of the early Tamil poets, who formed a literary
school and developed a court language'. The
difference between the literary Tamil and the
colloquial Tamil— a difference due certainly to the
antiquity of its literature and the settled form of the

language— cannot be a reason for the disparity between
the colloquial languageand the language of public
documents. For, while literature, chiefly classical
1. In Travancore the archreological Department seems to be.
doing useful work under the direction of Mr. Gopinatha Rau, M. A.

—
literature, is intended only for the educated few,

copper-plate grants, stone inscriptions and similar
public records are meant for all classes. A com-
parison of the inscriptions of Rajah Raja Chola
(A. D. 985-1013) with the literature of that period
would illustrate the above principle. The Kerala
inscriptions cannot be an exception to this plain
philological truth. Moreover, how are we authorized,
in the absence of any work written in the colinquial
Malayalam of that period, to say that the colloquial
Malayalam was quite distinct from the language
of inscriptions ? Do the Malayalis really possess
any literature anterior to the tenth century
A. D. written in the so-called Malayalam language ?
If at all there be any record written in colloquial

Malayalam it must be the inscriptions.
As for the Perumals being foreigners to Kerala, we
might say that, till about the ninth century A. D.,
some at least of the Kerala kings were foreigners,
because they inherited the Kerala throne by right of
succession in accordance with the Marumakkatayam
law, but they were never mvited by the Nambudri
Brahmans as these would have us believe, in order to
enhance their importance and establish their authority
in the Kerala country. On the contrary, many Chola
and Pandya kings married Kerala princesses and their
sons became lawful heirs to the Kerala kingdom :
(1) QisQêmQ'SareSlajii^QjpQsTnFîhetS)^
to eisT pLD3>iir Qunseipojasr QuîQûS'esr/DiDsesr
Qfs\)Qjas(SiiB(DaiTiduiTL^!ijrTêk. — Pad. 70,

—
358 TAMIL STUDIES
(2) (^L^QjirQaTLDT Qis5r(S(ir) Qs^sr&ta^ p(^^
(3) The Chola king Parantaka I (A. D. 907-946)

married a Kerala princess.
(4) Kulasekhara Pandya took with him ... all the
forces of the two Kongu countries that belonged to
his mother's two brothers. Mahawanso, 239.
Matrimonial alliances among the three Tamil
dynasties seem to have continued until about the
down-fall and extinction of the ancient Pandya and
Chola houses between the 11th and 13th centuries,
when the influence of the Nambudri Brahmans
began to extend even into the Kerala royal house-
holds. The latest alliance of this kind was between
Ravivarma alias Kulasekhara and a Pandya princess
in A.D. 1299. This Kerala king defeated Vira Pandya
and was crowned on the banks of the Vaiga. He
ruled over Kerala,Pandya and Chola countries till
about 1316. Probably this was the period when
the communication between Kerala and the other two
Tamil countries began to decline ; and this was the
period when the Nambudri Brahmans laid the foun-
dation stone for the ill-planned tottering edifice of
the Malayalam tongue, by their closer touch with the
Nayar and other high caste Dravidian families.
The statement that the early Malayalam poets were
affected by the early Tamil poets seems rather surpri-
sing, the term 'early' not referring to the same age, as
both are of unequal antiquity. Malayalam had scarce-
ly any literature worth the name before the middle

of the thirteenth whereas Tamil literature
century,
datesfrom the opening years of the Christian era.
Tamil has a grammar written three centuries before
Christ, whereas Malayalam had none till so late as
A. D. 1860. Tamil, at least the literary phase of it,
had been well defined and formed two millenniems

ago, while Malayalam is even to-day in a state of for-
mation. It is inconceivable, therefore, how the early

Malayalam literature could have been influenced by
the early Tamil poets, particularly when we remem-
ber that all social intercourse between Kerala and the
Tamil country had ceased at least one century before
the birth of the Malayalam literature, unless it be
that early Tamil literature was the literature of the
early people of Kerala also'.
The statements of Dr. Caldwell that the separation
of Malayalam from Tamil evidently took place at a

*
very early period, before the Tamil was cultivated

and refined', and that Tamil 'bids fare to supersede the
Malayalam' are thus opinions which need stronger
evidence before they could be accepted.
Returning now from our digression to the copper-
plate grants of Malabar, we find in the Mamballi in-
scriptions of Sri Vallavan Kodai (A. D. 973) the lan-

guage used is pure colloquial Tamil interspersed with
a few Malabaricms like esarsrr for ^&r<sfr, s^fsitsiirek for
s'lsisiTssr, sji-LD for î—ld &c. Verbs are inflected as in
îLL^sQsiTiS^îTesr 1 ; and the datives of =gy(3o^ and
1. The word jfjLLi^ in the expressions ^LLi^dQsfT(S^ê\) and
—
360 TAMIL STUDIES
jt/sum as =gy(i^ÔT2;i@ and ^sums(^ but not as ^Qpîm^

and j)j<sijm^ as now. And in the Kottayam plates of
Vira Raghava Chakravarti (A. D. 1320) the language
is also Tamil freely intermixed with Malabar idioms
like eurrêo for eijrruS6\)^ uisL(^(^rT^ for ut^(^rruS gii , spsirsfr
and e^smLîTuiSleo for p-en-'Sir and ôwl-ZtSsu, ^(iîiidn^sfr for

^(75«^0(3»r, <srQîBis&!Bifl for sjQp.i^Q^&fl &c. ;
and verbs
were still inflected. We find also caste names like
Qsv<sir'SfnTsfnT, ff-Lpsuir, gisâ^rt and '^'uh. All these will be
made more clear in the following section which
deals evidence of the growth
with the linguistic
of the Malayalam language.
To illustrate the development of the Malayalam
language and the peculiarities of each period of its
growth, typical selections are given below from Panik-
kar's Ramayanam, Krishna-gatha, Adhyatma Ramaya-
nam and Nala Charitam, each of which may be taken
as representing a particular period in the growth of
the Malayalam language together with short expla-
natory and philological comments:
(1) G)siT6aaru.&Si(cidrfl(7Fi6m(S ^fQêm® luefsoiQi^rrefft'SuniTii^
^likiiBjLD, (îêtruiTrrQiDn® QpS)6\>(^s\)^,s)i— iAliBiss\)(currQs\)^ Ljsm
îLiûQugti 's "ot correctly understood in Malabar. The Mala-

bar Gazetteer explains jijLLtsûQugii (attiperu) as '
a parcel of
rights'. Prof. Wilson thinks that atti is the less accurate reading
of otti(s?^^) a mortgage. I think both are incorrect. Atti is a
pure Tamil word meaning poured' and it corresponds to the Skt.
'
Udagapurvam. Attiknduttal is to give by pouring water and atti

pent is the acceptance of a gift made as above. During the 17th
century its exact meaning was, however, forgotten and the redun-
dant expressions like iQ a iT(B3fîs/. îLuûQugjiuD ii(iT)ih Qsir®^
^ftasT came into use.
^ .
fiTiT^^ SibQi5it0 Qisj^^-f Q<fii&ieSliBfrm
lieossiTiT QeusasftLDiT QrreoeotrCSirrrQui.
euiTUJLJurriTih^ Sk^siiiar siriruuirewth QsiTeasi®m str
a^n uuiretvih QiniSiiS&) Qît^QûQuitq^ld.
(3) ^(nj>uSlauD sl3 s^rriLDtrir QurrssmiD

e^Qnit^&UL^ fsiTiLisiB LDrrQiriTQu).
airQsi^ QfiQ'SuS^ sesarQ sSero ldujiJdlissb' l^h sir
(g)^!i iTiT^QfBuQurTQe\} u ^ p<omea a ^Q â L-
QufT^^QuDiri iS&isSi £iSQu.<sa6saiLDrT(Sfr
ÎT^^ iBi—S(^tJD euesaruîs s^nir ^^ld (ûSeo (geOenLn
^QaiistTeîi) asiûurrSS ÛfTiwQTjQLDrt (cS(em(ct3ir.
The first quotation is from the Rjimayana of Kan-

nassa Panikkar (A. D. 1350). It does not appear
that there was any real literature in Malayalam before
this period. The language of this work is wholly
Tamil, with of course Malayali pecuHarities. In this

extract (î^sfrumriM and qsmi—i^Qs'Siêmeisr are the onlv
two Sanskrit compounds, and the rest are all Tamil
words. The grammatical terminations êbr^ s?®, ^^^,
êiT and the tense particles are all Tamil. And the
only Malayalam usages are euiriri^ for eunirih^, @i_ for
@6a5i_, QuaQeo for Qune\) and îfiQs for j)j((f,Qs and ;
362 TAMIL STUDIES
^lEitsûD (dense, thick) is only a vulgar form of Tarn. ^^}t

ii^. Most of the Tamil words used in this extract,
which are still current in Tamil, have become obsolete
in Malayalam giving way to words of Sanskrit origin.
Here the verbs are always inflected and the practice

of dropping the personal endings has not yet come
into existence. It is a translation of a Sanskrit work
and Sanskrit words and expressions are freely used to
the extent of about 50 per cent, though the grammar
is throughout Tamil. On account of these peculiar-
ities which bring it closer to Tamil, the author has
been styled by Malayalam scholars rightly, perhaps
wrongly, the Chaucer of Malayalam literature.
The second extract is from the Krishnappattu of

Cherusseri Namburi (A. D. 1550). The author uses
only one Sanskrit word [Qeues!^) in the first quotation,
which is written in pure colloquial Tamil. The only
Malayalam peculiarities are ^mQm- for ^sarSisw, îiisj
for jijiki(^ and Qs^niosî^'sir for Qs=!t^(SS)&t. A Tamilian
may not use and QsûaQto in poetry, because
<=gyt£^
they are colloquial and considered slang in Tamil.

In the second passage, the writer uses two Sanskrit
words s!TiTuurTerui}){cotton) and sîruuirewi (coat), which
no Tamil writer will ordinarily use. The rest are
Tamil words, some being slightly modified. sruQuiTQffih
is sTuQuTQfiîxi, îri^ is îri^. Though the
author wâs a Brahman Sanskrit scholar he has not
used so many Sanskrit words as Kannassa Panikkar,
because the work was primarily intended for females
and ordinary readers. The Krishnagatha is written
in the colloquial Tamil or a Tamil dialect of the

Kerala country known as Malayalam. In this work
verbs are mostly inflected, while neuter verbs have
invariably dropped their inflexional terminations.
The clipping of personal endings in verbs must have
already commenced during the early part of the 16th
century. And the forms of T amil words used here
are mostly those that we find in the vulgar conversa-
tion of the uneducated Tamilians. Q.fuS.fSf- for
Qs'iLsSl^^, us^QsîTi—Lb for u-femfuut—LDy Qeiiîi&n<5w for
Qsu^jiGiLDsirp &c. He has largely used colloquial
Tamil words like =sv@<9r«, lds^s!', LnnLg., Q^&snsmeo,
Qssua;L, ^ôblh, &c. which have become obsolete in
modern Malayalam. The dative case in sototj; or is^

has also come into usage along with other Tamil
grammatical forms. The author is now gratefully
remembered by all the non-Brahman classes of
Kerala as the pioneer of liberal education he was ;
the first Brahman who wrote for the benefit of the

Sudra castes in their own tongue, the Malayalam,
in spite of the fact that the Nambudris despised
their dialect ; and he is justly called the Morning '
Star' of modern Malayalam literature.

The next author we have to consider is Tunjat
Ezhuttachchan who flourished about A. D. 1650. All
"his works are translations from Sanskrit, and he has
freely used Sanskrit words and expressions, more

abundantly than any other writer who preceded him»
He was the first to use the Sanskrit case endings as
in orodisi, sthalopante, and adverbs like ittham, Hi,
364 TAMIL STUDIKS
pii7-a &c.; relative pronouns like tat, mat, tava, &c. He

has even added Sanskrit case terminations to Tamil
nouns as in ^Qir, <^&i£Ql^ ; and locatives in iiêo (cor-
rectly, (H(5 + êo = in the place) make their
first appearance. Awkward combinations of Sans-

krit and Tamil words like &^^siiiJdl^^ amTQeusmeisslil,
Qj<T^Q6ij6wQs'iLi±ii^ &c., and the arbitrary construction

of Tamil words so as to obscure their derivations as
in ^(giasjsjr, sTQîQiBsirsffl , s_ûjt®«, erQpi^jbgti, &c., were
introduced by this writer. He followed no rules of
grammar or vocabulary, because there was no
grammar neither before nor after him in the Mala-
yalam language. It is in his works that we find
uninflected verbs largely used, though occa-
sionally appear verbs with personal endings. It
would be difBcult for any one to read his works with-

out a good knowledge of Sanskrit. To him the study
of Malayalam meant the study of Sanskrit. We might
boldly say that Ezhuttachchan was the first Malayalam

writer who gave a death blow to Tamil his mother,
tongue. For this act of vandalism he is admired
by the people of Malabar as the '
Father ol the
Malayalam classical literature.'

The latest writer we have to deal with is Unnayj
Variyar who lived about A.D. 1750. His Nalacharitam
is an admirable production. Though he was a good
Sanskrit scholar like Ezhuttachchan, he has not spoilt
his work by introducing into it too much Sanskrit. His
setting of Sanskrit slokas is choice and his use of the
Manipravala style is graceful. In the two passages
THE ORIGIN OF MALAYALAM 365-
given above there are only about half a dozen

Sanskrit words, while the rest are pure Tamil.
The negative particle ^, the case post-positions
]êo, ^m, ST or S, Qp (a.<sroi_aj) and verbal endings
LDiTsk, unm, ^su (cgjsfr in G'«(63a;(2'sff) are all Tamil, In
QLD(Siîsires)<es^Qsfr the particle «wsar is only a contraction
of Qsinir), Sm^ or ^ssreoT- which is a sign of the
present tense; similarly sototj/ is an abbreviation of ©sir
ff)^. rhus if the Sanskrit passages are not taken intO'
account, his vocabulary and the structure of his com-
position are mainly Tamil.
It may be assumed that grammar and dictionary
tend to contribute to the fixity and permanence of a
language. The early Tamil inhabitants of Kerala
were mostly merchants, cultivators and soldiers , and
they did not care for literary excellence or even to
improve their mother-tongue. Nor did the later
Malayalis care to write one, because the Dravidians
were most of them uneducated and the Brahmans
cared little for a Dravidian That work was tongue.
reserved for a foreigner— Dr. Gundert, who was at once
their Agastya and Divakara. Owing to the curious
mixture of the agglutinative Tamil with the inflec-
tional Sanskrit, the work of bringing out a satisfactory
Malayalam grammar has become a super-human

task. The language has not yet reached its classic
stage; and it is still in a state of formation. Neither
its grammar nor its and the very
vocabulary is settled;
fact that it still retains the peculiar Tamil letters and ifi
P proves its very late separation from Tamil.

S6Q TAMIL STUDIES
Grammar : — To determine what words are of pure

Tamil origin and what not, we have definite
grammatical rules giving the letters which should
come at the beginning, middle and end of words.
This is not possible in the case of Malayalam which
has freely borrowed words from Sanskrit and foreign
languages and incorporated them in its vocabulary^
The coalescence of letters or sandhi in Malayalam,
owing to the influence of Sanskrit, follows wholly
neither the rules of Sanskrit nor of Tamil. Some-
times the one, sometimes the other is followed, and
in some cases neither. Sanskrit rules are sometimes
applied to Tamil words. The expression sS&iQpiB(^-
Q^frs=s=, if the Tamil rules are applied, must be
eSlssi(ipfS<ir,(^(o)<suns'3' and Q3'fT^&>+ 'êoeo will become
Qs'iTeoeiaSeoso and not Qs^rriosSeoeo, iior are they ac-
cording to the Sanskrit rules. Lja)4- î_Lb will be in
Tamil ueoeSt—m and not uQe\)i—Lh as in Malayalam.

In the last example the Sanskrit rules are appli-
ed to pure Tamil words. Many Tamil
of the
sandhis which existed in early Malayalam or Tamil

have now become obsolete, as in sSssmt—eoiJD, sresati^ms',
Qioppais) (now QiO^^Jih), {Qurre\)^^)i^), &c.

Qurrpgui^
In Malayalam aar + # becomes @#=, + s becomes is
tws, &r + ^ becomes sjr^^ or ^^, but these are not

allowed by the Tamil rules of sandhi. The Malaya-
lis cared more for ease and always tried to avoid
difficulties instead ot facing them boldly. Hence,

they have abbreviated severalcompounds thus, :
Qfuj^ + Qsireirefr + ûd has become Q'fuuQâefnTuD^

QsiJuuj + Qeiiem(BlLc = QfubQtju6m(Sy c^/E3@ + Seor^ + j)jisiiE/i^,
Quas -j-Qeu6m®m = (oUiTssmLD and SO on.

Most of the differences between Tamil and modern
Alalayalam as regards grammatical endings and
formation of words are attributable to this principle
of laziness or phonetic decay ;
and the dropping
of personal suffixes in finite verbs is partly due
to this cause and partly to their redundancy. In

the Tamil sentence isnm î<i^(c^6w, either isfrem or sjosr
in ^tsf-^Q^m may be safely omitted without impair-

ing the idea expressed by that sentence. Thus,
Malayalam may be said to be passing through, like
English, the analytical stage. Malayalam jtjisf.3=s?
In
will be vague without the nominative which should
be made explicit.
From the early Malayalam literature, which

extended down to the sixteenth century, we find that
verbs were inflected, and that the pronominal termi-
nations disappear in the succeeding two hundred
years. In a Malayalam sale deed of 1756 A. D.
expressions like STQp^sQssrrSl^^n-eisr and erQ^^s^^Qsireear
i—!T<ssr were freely used. In the Tamil of the infant

and the illiterate the idea of *I beat' is expressed even
to this day by masr ^t^s^Qs^ (Cor. jijis^.^Q^'m)^ '
you
beat '
i jtji^s^Qs^ (Cor. û^^îrdS), and he beat
' '
êuear
^^li<F/T (Cor. ^tsf.^^!T<ssr)_ Thus, the subjects ibtisst^ f§ and
^QjsOT are clearly given out and the personal endings
^6sr,ûj and ^dr are, as a rule, contracted or dropped.
In the East coast, however, this Tamil of the popu-
lace has been constantly subjected to corrections
—
368 TAMIL STUDIES
and modifications with reference to the approved

literary Tamil of the learned section. The same
process was certainly in operation among the
early Tamils of the Kerala country who were
mostly illiterates ; but since these grammatical and
lexicographical forms were left unrestrained by
any fixed rules, and since this process of phonetic
decay was aided by the indifferent attitude of the
Nambudri Brahmans who were quite ignorant of
literary or classical Tamil, they had come to be even-
tually accepted as correct usages in their later corrupt
Sanskritized Tamil or Malayalani literature.
This was how the personal terminations of Tamil
verbs were dropped in Malayalam. There are yet
some traces of verbal inflexions in the second person
plural as in Q^.TaroS/sar and in the first person plural as
in ânui — we will give, &c. It is not, therefore, cor-
rect to SHV, as some Malayalam scholars seem to assert,
no traces of inflexions in the colloquial
that there are
Malayalam or that Malayalam verbs were never in-
flected.
We may explain the vagaries of Malayalam language,

which IS technically called the "levelling" of inflec-
tions, and its grammar by taking one or two specific

instances :
(1) riij^'S'S^ j^îsjseO ^(rîk^..,^$l
(2) ^d6î(5«/5^ jSGfBiuiT^tftLDuiT, — Kcr,

In the first quotation the termination *i^' serves
different purposes ;
i^ in ^(5/5^ is a modified form of
Tamil .i^ (particle of past tense) ; i^ in ^îs^ is a

contraction of 6k(g (dative case suffix) ;m^ in Qujis^ is an
abbreviation of <sTesTjoi;2Hid i^ in Qs^treo^ni^ is a modi-
fication of Qimpg), (^mear^ or a_«arg» (present tense).
In the second example (îsfs^ is the same as Qsbtjd^,
but here the neuter inflexional ending is retained.
We have reasons to believe that the high-caste per-
sonal endings in verbs were gradually dropped in
Malayalam, the neuter endings taking their place

regardless of gender; and these also in course of time
disappeared. There are many such grammatical
irregularities and fluctuations, but only a few are
quoted here as illustrations.
Vocabulary : —The same uncertainty exists in the

matter of vocabulary also. It has no dictionary like
the Divakaram and the Pmgalandai of Tamil or like
the Amarakosh of Sanskrit. The following are some
of the irregularities which might be noticed in the
Malayalam vocabulary.
The same word is used
(1) in various forms. For
example, the Tamil word «go(5 (areca-nut) appears in
Malayalam as <4(jp« and seuwEi ;
<s(t^@ (vulture) as sq^
ffly/5, sQps^ sQîBisj ; muSSgn (rope) as suu^ and sl^ss ;
uQj)^^ (cotton) as uiFl^^ and uir^^l &c.
(2) Words appear in the same

of different origin
form. Tamil becomes ^j which is apt to

s-qjit
be confounded with sîtld (margin) Tamil îvs/s ;
as sjia, while szi-sii means sighing ;

Qqjs&oss (heat)
as Qojs^ and saeuds (to put) also as Qeuds ; ^&ft
is a '
temple' as well as to '
sprinkle' (Qâfi) &c.,
24
—
370 TAMIL STUDIES
(3) Sometimes ^, p and ir are indiscriminately used

as in j)\s^^s and sj^pM"^, ^pe^ and a_irei/ &c. This
is very common in the vulgar Tamil of to-day-
(4) Compounds and joined to-

are so contracted
gether that none of its component words can be iden-
tified. Tamil Qûj + iSsiap becomes in Malayalam
Q^Qjp ; ji/dQ ^îB is 'agnihotri', 'patteri' is 'Bhattasri'
&c.
(5) Vowels which necessitate the use of the lips are
usually changed or omitted; ^0 becomes ^(fl\ êear^
S-ffl (as in ?>-(flujn(Sl)

;
^Ss«, êo •
^.uSituli, eîrULj ; i-jpeii
(
pigeon) uiTfieii ; &c.
(6) Probably for the same reason when two vowels
of the same class come together either of them is
altered. Thus sisn- becomes ©(SO)®/ ; si— it, Qcîreij ; ueoir,
lSsu/tq/, &c. In all these examples the final is short or
(7) Sanskrit words when adopted are so far distort-
ed by the Dravidian Malayalis that it would be diffi-
cult to discover their correct forms: chite is '

jata ';
chattam, '
srarddham '; kotamba, '
godhuma '; chetu,
'
Sakatam'; chirta, ' Sridevi'; vakkanam, 'vyakyanam';
z;^/i, '
so forth.
bali It cannot
'
be ascertained on
;
what principle mesham becomes niedam and vesham

as vezham^ which in Tamil means an 'elephant'. The
unnatural partiality of the Kerala people to Sanskrit
has induced them to derive some pure Dravidian words
from Sanskrit ; us^êo or ua^&ouo ^'few (green leaf) îs
derived from Sanskrit patram; u>(S) or u)lL(B (honey)

from Sanskrit madhu ; aom from Sanskrit mashi &c.
(8) Surds in most cases are changed into nasals.

(5(55© becomes @@g^ ; <^ssigii, (^m^ ; ibitwlj, (sîtldli ;
U(G5(G^ ;'&C.
This change is noticeable in the early Tamil works

of the Chera poets. Malayalam has a softer and
more nasalized sound than Tamil- And this may be
due to the climatic conditions in the Kerala country,
which has an unusual rain-fall of 116 inches in a
year. The peculiarities of the Malayalam language
may be stated curtly thus :
•
it is the home-speech of
a Brahman-oppressed Dravidian whose vocal race,
organs were affected by an incessant Highly cold'.
cultivated languages like Sanskrit or Tamil are always
free from such confusions which characterize the
lower stages of a human speech.

We shall conclude this short essay with a state-
ment of the circumstances which led to the origin
of the Malayalam language. It must not be difficult
to determine them as the change has taken place

within the past six or seven hundred years.
(1) Tne natural facilities for communication bet-
ween the East and the West coasts of the Indian
Peninsula were very little. The lofty ranges of the
Western Ghats, with only a few passes between, and
the impenetrable and extensive forests down the
sides cut off the two regions.
(2) The marriage connections between the
Chera and the two other Tamil dynasties had
ceased partly on account of the extinction of the
372 TAMIL STUDIES
ancient line of the Pandyas in the twelfth and of the

powerful Cholas in the thirteenth century, and partly
owing to the wars of succession which resulted from
a conflict of the ordinary and the nepotic laws of
inheritance. The latest alliances on record are the
marriages of the father of Kulasekhara Pandya.
(A. D. 1190) with a Kongu or Chera princess
and of ihe Chera king Ravi Varma or Kulasekhara
(A. D, 1300) with a Pandya princess. To this
should be added the union of the aggressive
Nambudris with the Chera princesses to prevent
foreign intervention in their social and political
affairs.
(3) The study of Tamil literature was neglected in^
the Chera country owing to the dominating influence

of the Nambudri Brahmans, which kept the non-
Brahman Dravidians of the country perfectly ignorant
of their rich literature, and owing t(3 the extinction of

the ancient Chera line of kings who patronized it.
(4) The introduction of Judaism, Christianity and
Muhamadanism direct from Western Asia at a very
early period, the frequent internal troubles among the
feudal chiefs of Kerala, and the constant wars be-
tween them and the Pandyas and Cholas for nearly
four centuries from the eighth gradually tended to
diminish their intercourse. The Chola king Ko-Chen-
gannan is said to have defeated the Chera Kanaikkal
Irumporai and taken him prisoner. This forms the
subject of '
Kalavali Forty '
of the poet Poigaiyar.
During the middle of the eighth century the Pandya
"king Parankusan or Ko-Maran Jatavarman defeated

the Chera kings in a series of battles at Vilijnam, Pul-
andai, Kottar, Chevur and other places. Ail these
are mentioned by the commentator of Iraiyanar's
Agapporal. We need not enumerate here the other
wars in which the Cheras suffered defeat, as they are
given in the South Indian Inscriptions.
The customs and manners of the Nambudri
(5)
Brahmans and their sexual connection with the Su-

dras, which in course of time spoiled both Sanskrit
and Tamil, were looked upon with disfavour by the
East Coast Brahmans or BJiattas, who always regard-
ed the former as an mferior class on that account,
though to a lesser degree than they did the Nambi
or the 'front locked' brethren of their own country.
(6) For this reason none of the later religious re-

—
formers Ramanuja, Madhva and others did not —
care to introduce their reforms in Kerala. In a vast
country of 14,250 square miles there were in the days
of the Tamil Samts (650-950 A.D.) only one Siva
shrine and thirteen Vishnu temples, whereas during
the same period there were at least 300 temples dedi-
cated both to Siva and Vishnu in a small area of 3,259
square miles — we mean in the Tanjore district.
Hinduism, as it was understood and practised in
the North and East, was evidently at a great discount

in Kerala during that period. Even now pilgrims
from the Tamil land rarely visit these shrines in
Malabar and Travancore, exceptmg one or two, as

they are praciically unknown to Hindu devotees.
374 TAMIL STUDIES
(7) Last of all comes the climate of Kerala with its

incessant rain throughout the year and its dampness
and heat on account of the proximity of mountains,
which make the country uninhabitable for the East
Coast people.
To summarize: Tamil, Vadugu(Telugu)and Karuna-
tam (Canarese) are the only Dravidian languages which
are mentioned in the early Tamil works. Malayalam as
a distinct language does not'appear in any Tamil work
anterior to the fifteenth century. From the fact that
Tamil has not been influenced to such an extent
like the other two, and that it alone has a grammar
and literature from the earliest times, we have very
strong reasons to believe that it is the oldest of the
South Indian vernaculars. We are not prepared to
accept the opinion of Mr. Rice that '
Kannada was
the earliest to be cultivated of all the South Indian
languages', as he himself says in another place that
none of the extant works in Canarese go earlier than
the ninth century. It is quite natural to scholars,
who liavemade a special study of some particular ver-
nacular, like Dr. Gundert, Mr. Logan or Mr. Rice to
speak highly of it to the disparagement of the other
languages of the same group. But to get a compa-
rative estimate of them it would always be safer to
follow the views of Dr. Caldwell, who has made a
critical study of all the Dra vidian languages without
any bias towards any one of that group. The
map will explain graphically the order of migra-
tion of the several Dravidian races and the decree
of relationship among their languages. The gram-

mar and vocabulary Tamil and Telugu are quite
of
different, and the age when they had parted from each
other goes back to pre-historic times. These conside-
rations would favour our regarding them as sister lan-
guages. And the greater affinities of grammar and

vocabulary which exist between the early Canarese
and the early Tamil seem to point out that the for-
mer was the first born daughter or rather the youn-
gest sister of Tamil and this seems to receive an
;
additional support from the fact that the northern

limit of Tamil (Tirupati) whicli is bounded by Telugu
has for the last two thousand years remained unal-

tered, while its north-western boundary had even
before the fifth century A. D> been encroached by
Canarese from Dvarasamudram and Coorg down to
the Coimbatore district.

As regards MaUyalam which was scarcely in her
womb prior to the thirteenth century, we might say
without any fear of contradiction for the reasons set
forth above, that it is the latest dialect of Tamil which
has come largely under the influence of Sanskrit, It
is to be observed that at no period in historic times

Sanskrit was a spoken language, and it is most unlikely
that it could have been so among a non-Aryan
people as the inhabitants of Malabar and Travancore
Many Sanskrit words and idioms they might have
borrowed ;
but both in genius and in structure Mala-
yaiam remains, in spite of its Sanskritic saturation, a
Dravidian tongue in close alliance with other chief
376 TAMIL STUDIES
non- Aryan languages of South India. And in the

words of a Travancore statesman 'one could hardly
help concluding that Malayalam is nothing more than
old Tamil with a good admixture of Sanskrit words';
or, as Dr. Caldwell has said in one place, '
it might
perhaps be regarded rather as a very ancient dialect
of the Tamil than as a distinct language'. This must
be the opinion of all impartial scholars, and it must
no longer be a matter of dispute whether Malayalam
s an " old and much altered off-shoot" of Tamil
or its sister language, because it is evidently neither.
CONCLUSION
A line drawn from Mercara on the west to Tirup-
ati on the east marked the northern hmit of the
ancient Tamil country; that portion of the Indian
Peninsula to the south of this line, with the sea on
the three sides was called per excellence the Tamil-
akam or Dravida-desa. It was inhabited by three
distinct races —the Nagas, the Dravidians and the
Aryans. The non-Aryan Tamils belong to this great
Naga-Dravidiati race.
Evidence points to Nagas as the aboriginal inha-
bitants of this country. They were divided into
two sections — the earlier or the savage and
section,
the later or the semi-civilized section. The former
belonged to the Negrito race and the latter to a
mixed one. Apparently both migrated to India from
the south when it was connected by land with
Australia, the earlier tribes being driven to the
interior hills and
and the later immigrants
forests
occupying the east coast from Cape Comorin to
Vizagapatam and extending as far as Nagpur in the
Central Provinces. These were the vanaras and the
378 TAMIL STUDIES
rakshasas of the Ramayana. It is by no means

easy to say when these races entered India.
Then came the Dravidian Tamils, the word
'Dravidian' being used in this work chiefly in
a restricted sense to denote only the Velir or the

Vellala tribe of the ancient Tamils, who were
regarded as Kshatriyas, Vaisyas or Sudras accor-
ding to their occupations, and this seems to be coun-
tenanced by Manu's definition of 'Draivda' as a man
of an out-cast tribe descended from a degraded Kshat-
riya. The Dravidians were like the Brahuis and
the Todas a fine stalwart race probably of the
Aryo-Mongolian extraction. They were not dark
complexioned, but their colour has been described
in early Tamil works as that of the tender
mango leaf. Their original home was somewhere
in Asia Minor where the ancient Accadians lived.
They had entered India by the North-western passes
long before the Aryan migration. During the time
of the Mahabharata War, say about the fifteenth
century before Christ, they lived in Upper India,
occupying small detached areas. Immediately after
the'Great War' the Dravidians trekked south wards by
theway of western India halting for a time at Dwara-
samudram in the Mysore (buffalo) Province. From
thence ihey proceeded in three separate bands to the
east, south and west, and established three small
kingdoms known as the Chola, Pandya and Chera.
The Cholas and Pandyas had very often to contend
with the half-civilized Nagas, while the Cheras seem
CONCLUSION 379
to have quietly taken possession of a country along the

West coast almost uninhabited by any semi-civilized
section of the Naga tribe. In the east the close con-
tact of the Nagas and Dravidians led to a fusion of
races. In the west that could not have happened at
so early a period. And I am inclined to think that the

Nayars of Malabar and Travancore are not the
modern representatives of the ancient Nagas, but
hybrid descendants of the early Naga-Dravidians
and Aryans. The original Dravidians were a war-
like race of hunters and cattle-breeders, and their
partiality to the buffaJo may be observed in the

Todas of the Nilgiris, a pure Dravidian tribe, who
must have found their way on these mountains simul-
taneously with the other tribes at the time of their
dispersion from Dwarasamudram, probably about the
ninth or tenth century before Chrisi.
Lastly came the Aryans, who were mostly Brah-

mans. The earliest band of them might have
migrated to the Tamil country about the fifth or
sixth century before Christ; and from this period
down to the fourth or fifth century A. D. a thin
stream of Aryan emigrants seems to have flowed
southward. Sometimes it assumed larger proportions,
which it did when a large number of them came
from the north-west and spread evenly in all the
Tamil-Malayalam districts. These Brahmans are
known as Nambis in the Tamil districts and as
Nambudris in the Malayalam or Chera country. All
theseBrahmans keep the lock ot hair on the top of
380 TAMIL STUDIES
their head. Their migration took place between the

sixth and seventh centuries A. D., when Buddhism
and Jainism were receiving mortal blows from the
federal army of the Aryo-Dravidian theologians, and
when innumerable temples began to be erected for
the Brahmanical gods in the Tamil The
districts.
latest band of the Brahman settlers were known as

the and their migration from the north-
Bhattas,
eastern Telugu country must have taken place bet-
ween the eighth and tenth centuries, that is sometime
after the downfall of the great empire of Harsha-
vardhana. Before the arrival of the Bhatta Brahmans
the Nambis or Namburis of the west coast had
developed themselves into an exclusive and influen-
tial community m the midst of the uncultured Kerala
Dravidians with peculiar social and religious customs.
The Bhatta Brahmans who had formerly lived on
the banks of the sacred Ganges, Godavari, Kistna
and Cauvery did not care to cross the Western Ghats.
Few families did, however, go. They are still known
there as Bhattatiris, while the latest Bhatta immi-
grants from the Tamil country are called simply
Pattar. The Brahmans of the . East coast, though
they consider themselves purer in blood, are
generally darker in complexion (like the Brahmans of
Bengalj than the easy going wealthy and mfragam-

ous^ Namburis, which is no doubt due to the
J. I have called them 'infragamous' as there has been a kind of
social sanction to the loose marital connection of the younger
male members of the Aryan Brahmans with the women of the
Dravidian castes in the Kerala country.
CONCLUSION 38i
climatic conditions and the hardships they had been

subjected to during the previous ten centuries of resi-
dence on the scorching plains of the unprotected

East.
There was no caste system among the Nagas and
the Dravidians. It is an institution introduced by the
*COw-loving' Aryan settlers. The Tamils or the Naga-
Dravidians were first divided into tribes, not castes,
according to the territory wherein they happened to
live when, the earliest Aryans colonized the Tamil
country. The numerous Tamil castes of modern
times, with the exception of a handful of Vellalas,
must have grown out of a few territorial tribes of
Nagas. The Velirs or Vellalas alone were Dravidians.
The Viswa-Brahmans and the Dravida Kshatriyas had
no place in this system.
The home-speech of all these people, including the
Brahmans, is Tamil. It is ignorance of the elemen-
tary principles of philology on the part iof Tamil
pandits that has led them to attribute divine origin
to their mother tongue. Tamil is an ancient member
of the Dravidian family. What language the Nagas
spoke we have no means to find out. Tamil belongs
to the agglutinative group of languages and it has no
relation whatever with the inflectional Sanskrit. We
may however find some remote affinities between it
and the Indo-European languages — both in their
grammar and vocabulary —a fact which indicates that

the Tamils lived with the Aryans in Upper India
before their downward march to the Dekhan. Tamil
382 TAMIL STUDIES
is a living tongue and so the early Tamil differs

;
slightly from the mediaival and the modern forms of

it. Owing to its great antiquity and its classic
perfection with a settled grammar and vocabul-

ary, so early as the second or third century
B. C, literary Tamil differs very much from
the colloquial ; and colloquial Tamil differs from
the vulgar Tamil which gave birth to the Malayalam
language about the eleventh or twelfth century A. D.
The phonetic system of Tamil is very defective ;
and though defective, it has three sounds .*., p and

ifi
which are peculiarly its own and which are not
to be found in any other language. It had an alpha-
betic writing called the Vatteluttu, which the people

borrowed direct from the Phoenician or Himayaritic
merchants six or seven hundred years before Christ ;
and it was supplanted by the Grantha- Tamil charac-

ters during the ninth or tenth century A. D. when
Brahman influence was at its zenith in the Tamil
country. The first extant grammar of the Tamil
language was written by a Brahman about B. C. 350.
We have no data to settle what the religion of the
Nagas and Dravidians was before the arrival of the
Brahmans in Southern India. As early as the tenth
century there were in each village a Pidari or a
Sasta (Tam. fir^^&sr) temple besides one or more for
some of the puranic gods, then known as Sri Koil. All

the Siva and Vishnu shrines whose glories were sung
by the Nayanars and Alvars, belong to the latter class.
The ancient Naga-Dravidians appear to have been
CONCLUSION 383
animists or demonolators when they first came in
contact with the Aryans. Till about the third or

fourth century A. D, Brahmanism of the Vedic type,
Vat-Jh'sm and Jainism were professed in the Tamil

districts. Or, as Dr. Pope has 'said the prevailing
religion of this period was a most remarkable mixture
of Saivism, Jainism, Buddhism and the ancient
demonolatry'. I must add to these Indraism and
Vishnuism. During the puranic period when Brah-
manism came out triumphant, that is between the
fifth and eighth centuries, the cults of Siva and
Vishnu alone survived. Siva is said to have
nipped the head of Brahma, given a kick to
Yama, knocked out the teeth of the Sun, and so on I
Such was the fate of the Vedic deities.

All the extant Tamil works on religion and ethics
bear clear marks of Aryan influence, and it would be
obviously untenable to hold with Dr, Pope that the
Tamils have developed a religion of their own in-
dependent of Brahmanism from the earliest period
and that 'Saivism is the old pre-historic religion of
South India essentially existing from pre- Aryan times.'
It is urged by the same scholar that evil spirits and
blood-thirsty gods were worshipped by the early war.
like Naga-Dravidians with rude and cruel ceremonies;
and before the time of Sankaracharya even human

sacrifices seem to have been offered to them. But this
shamanism or demonolatry was surely no Saivism, any

more than hydrogen is water. Though it had some of
its essential elements similar to those of the Vedic
384 TAMIL STUDIES
Rudraism. Moreover, the words Siva and Siddhanta

are not of Dravidian origin. The Saivism or the
Saiva Siddhanta of the modern non-Aryan Tamilians
may therefore be defined as an eclectic rehgion cV,u^-
posed of the hydrogenous demonolatry of ancient
Naga-Dravidians and the oxygenous Rudraism of the
Vedic Aryans colligated together by later philosophic

Brahmanisra of the Pauranic period.
The sixty-three Nayanars or Saiva Saints including
Appar and Trignana Sambandar seem to have flouri-
shed between the sixth and ninth centuries; and the
Saint Manikka Vachakar, who is out-side that bead-
roll flourished about A. D. 875. was the
It after
twelfth century A. D. that the Saiva Siddhantam of

the Dravidian Tamils was given a philosophic basis
in imitation of the great systems of Sankaracharya
and Ramanujacharya ; and its authors were again
Saiva Brahmans.
The cult of Vishnu was equally powerful and not
less ancient than Sivaism. It has been in existence
since the Vedic times. But this humanitarian religi-
on did not attempt to take converts from among the

demonolatrous Naga-Dravidian tribes of hunters and
warriors, nor was it in their nature to embrace such a
catholic religion despite the teachings of the Vaishna-
va alvars or saints, who with the Saiva Nayanars
actively worked for the expulsion of Buddhism and
Jainism from the Tamil country. Nammalvar was
tlie last of the Vaishnava Saints, A. D. 925; then came
a line of Vaishnava acharyas or religious teachers

CONCLUSION 385
commencing from Sri Nathamuni (A. D. 905 1025) —

and ending with Manavala-Mamuni (15th century}.
It is to Ramanuja and Vedanta Desika (14th century)
that Vaishnavism owes its stability and greatness,

while the other acharyas only popularized it
by their lectures and comments. Thus, Dr. Pope's

statement that the Vaishnava system has been a
'
formidable rival of Saivism since the twelfth century,'

and Dr. Caldwell's assertion that the alvo.rz were
the disciples of Ramanuja are either perversions of
the true history of Vaishnavism, probably put into
their heads by interested Tamil Saivas, or hasty and
one-sided views formed without regard to historical
accuracy.
In Tamil there is no literature unconnected
with ethics or religion and there is no ethics or
religion in India without the Aryan influence. The
earliest literary work in Tamil to which any definite
date could be assigned is the Kural of Tiruvalluvar^
which goes up to the opening years of the Christian
era. There must have surely existed some works
anterior to that period, since the age of *he
first Tamil grammar is believed to be the
third or fourth century B. C, and the Tamilians
have been acquainted with the art of writing at least
from the sixth or seventh. Bat none of the pre-
Tolkapyam works are now extant, probably with the
exception of a few short poems included in the
Agananuru and the Purananuru.
The history of Tamil literature may be divided
25
—
386 TAMIL STUDIES
into six periods, namely, — the academic (B. C. 500

A. D. 150) ; the classic (A. D. 150—500) ; the hymnal
(A. D. 500—950) ;
the translations (A.D. 950—1200) ;
the exegetic (A. D. 1200 — 1450) and the modern or

miscellaneous (A. D. 1450 — 1850), Original works in
Tamil are not very many and they can be counted on
one's finger's ends. The bulk of its literature comp-
rises metrical translations from Sanskrit itihasas and
puranas. Short ethical poems, like Eladi and Tiri-
kadukam, intended for school children, and the huge

mass of religious hymns and songs of the Saiva and
Vaishnava devotees are honourable exceptions.
There was no prose literature before the last century,
if the prose commentaries on ancient authors be

excepted.
Alone among the Dravidian languages Tamil
possesses a literature, ancient as well as interesting.
Every Tamilian must esteem it a grand and noble
heritage, which he can call his own onlv by approach-
ing the study of it in a scientific spirit. Let us all join
hands lovingly in the sacred task of reconstructing
the best history of this people and their language, and

tracing the continuity of their development. And in
this us follow the examples of Dr. Latham, Pro

let .
Skeat and others, whose work for their English

language and literature stands unrivalled.
APPENDIX I
THE EARLY PANDYA KINGS

The materials for writing a history of the Pandyas will
be found in (1) current traditions and legends,
(2) some
of which are distorted and interlarded with miracles in

the local puranas, (3) in early Tamil literature, and (4)
inscriptions. Of these the first and second are unreliable,
chieliy owing to their antiquity and the variety of
narrow channels through which they had passed before
they attained the present form. The local puranas,
most them being obviously mythical, put us on the
of
wrong scent, and in some cases operate as counter-acting
agents in our researches. The third is entitled to some
credence ; but on account of the repetition of some
names and the absence of dates, they have to be corro-
borated by other independent testimony. Inscriptions
alone, when they are not forgeries, yield accurate and
reliable data, as they cannot easily be tampered with
like the puranic or other records.
It is intended in this note to compare and contrast
Tamil traditions, legends and local puranas with early
literature and inscriptions and show their worthlessness
ior historical purposes. As the annals of Tamil literature
388 TAMIL STUDIES
prior to the eleventh century is shrouded in obscurity^

it will be useful to take for consideration the history of
the Pandya kings from the earliest times up to A.D. 950.
The earliest available information about the Pandya
kingsis that which is contained in the Pattuppattu, the
Agananuru and the Purananuru. From the various

names of Pandyas which occur in these poems Mr,
Kanakasabhai has constructed the following genealogical
table : — Nedum Seliyan I (50-75) —Verri Vel Seliyan
(75-90)— Nedum Seliyan II (90-128)— Ugra Peruvaludi
(128-140) — Nanmaran (140-150). The exact relation-
ship of these kings and the data on which this table is
based are not clearly understood. At any rate Ugra

Peruvaludi in whose reign Tiruvalluvar and Auvai
flourished could not have succeeded Nedum Seliyan II
who won the battle of Talai-Alankanan. Further, the
dates assigned to these kings seem to be half-a-century
too early. His table has, therefore, been slightly modified
and improved as given below. It is only tentative and
must remain so until epigraphy discloses new facts some
day or other — (1) Vadimbalamba Ninra Pandya, B.
: C
450— (2) Nilandaru Tiruvir Pandya, B. C. 350— (3)
Palsalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi, B. C. 25 — (4) Ugra
Peru Valudi A. D. 125— (5) Nedum Seliyan I, A. D. 150
(6) Ham Seliyan, A. D. 175— (7) Nedum
Verrivel or
Seliyan II, A. D. 200— (8) Nanmaran I, A. D. 225— (9)
Maran Valudi, A. D. 250— (10) Nanmaran II, A. D, 275
—(11) Peruvaludi, A. D. 300. The name of the first king

means he who survived the deluge'. According to the
'
Mahawanso a tidal wave from the Indian ocean washed

off the southern shores about B.C. 450.
The above may
be a reference to this. In the reign of the second Pandya
APPENDIX I
389"
the Tamil grammarian Tolkapyar lived. The third and

the most famous among the early Pandyas was Palsalai
Mudukudumi i
Peruvaludi. He was a great patron of
learning and Brahmans and performed many yagas or
sacrifices. He might have been the king who sent an
embassy to Augustus Caesar in B. C. 25 ; and this fact
has been alluded to in the Velvikudi grant as '

going as
ambassador to the gods'. Ugra Peruvaludi is said to
have engraved the fish on the Himalayas. Nedum Seli-
yan I many tanks for irrigation, which fact

constructed
has been commemorated in a poem by Kuda Pulaviyanar,
He committed suicide for having, without a proper
enquiry, ordered the decapitation of Kovalan an innocent
merchant of Kaveripatam at the instigation of a crafty
goldsmith. The merchant's wife Kannaki committed

sati and was deified as a Goddess of Chastity. To
appease her wrath tlie king's son Verri Vel Seliyan
sacrificed one thousand goldsmiths. Nedum Seliyan II
while yet a boy defeated the two Tamil kings and five
chieftains at Talaiyalamkanam. Sattanar the famous
author of Manimekalai and a stanch Buddhist lived in
the reign of Nanmaran I and the poet Nakkirar

flourished probably in the days of Nanmaran II.
With ttie discovery of the Chinnamanur copper plates

in 1906 and of the Velvikudi grant in 1908, the mist that
enveloped the early history of the Pandyas may be said
1. The custom of keeping a on the head was pure-

tuft of hair
ly Indo-Aryan. no non-Aryan tribe or caste had

In Southern India
it. Hence the early Brahman settlers were called ©OuShj® Offsrâjt
(Kal. 71). This Pandya king was perhaps the first Dravidian who
adopted this Aryan custom on account of his having performed
many yagas or sacrifices like the Brahmans.
390 TAMIL STUDIES
to be disappearing. They have brought to light several
facts hitherto unknown, and furnished valuable data to

fix the different stages in the progress of Tamil Hterature.
The genealogical table which has been constructed from
the materials supplied by them goes up to the beginning
of the seventh century, causing a lacuna of nearly three
hundred years between it and the one given above.
Perhaps this was the period of the Jaina ascendancy;,
and the Jains might have been instrumental to the occu-
pation of the Pandya country by the Kalabhras or the
Jaina rulers from the Carnataka country.
Before giving the actual pedigree of Pandya kings, the
plates proceed to mention the achievements of the real or
mythic kings in the past without mentioning their names..
Among these may be stated, — the churning of the ocean
for nectar, appearing on the throne of Indra, mastering,
the Tamil language, bringing back the sea, obtaining the
titles of Puzhiyan and Panchavan, founding the city of
Madura, excelling pandits in learning, leading elephants

into the Bharata country after the death of the great
charioteer, absolving Vijaya from the curse of Vasu,.
engraving the fish, the tiger and the bow on Mount
Meru, constructing many tanks, defeating two kings at
Talayalankanam, translating the Mahabharata and
establishing the College of poets at Madura. To these
the Sanskrit portions of the bigger Chinnamanur plates
and the Velvikudi grant add that Agastya was their
family priest, that one of the Pandyas induced Ravana
to sue for peace, that one of them went as ambassador
to the gods and that the god Brahma requested the
Pandya who had survived the 'deluge' to take up the
protection of the three worlds.
APPENDIX I 391
Then comes the following genealogy :—
Mudukudumi Peruvaludi.
I
Kalabhra occupation.
I
1. Kadungon A. D. 600.
. I
2. Maravarman Avani Chulamani, A. D. 620.

I
3. Jayantan or Sendan, A. D. 650.

I
4. Maravarman Arikesari, fought at Nelveli, A. D. 680.

I
5. Jatavarman Ranadhiran A. D. 710.

I
6. Arikesari Parankusan Rajasimha I, Ter Seli\an or

I
Termaran, A. D. 735.
7. Jitila Varman Parantakan Srivara, A. D. 770.
I
8. Rajasimha II, A. D. 785.

1
9. Varaguna I, A. D. 810.
I
10. Srimaran Sri Vallabha Deva, A. D. 835.
II. Varaguna Varman 12. Parantakan Viranarayana

A. D, 862 — 3. A.D. 885 m a Kerala princess.
I
13. Rajasimha III, Abhiman-

a Meru; defeated by Paran-
taka Chola in A. D. 910.
Among these kings Palsalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi

was a remote ancestor of Kadungon. The name of
Kadungon occurs in the commentary on Iraiyanar's
Agapporul as the last king in whose reign the first
Sangam was abolished. In the reign of Jayantan {Tarn,
^92 TAMIL STUDIES
Sendan) Chulamani a Jaina Tamil classic was composed

by Tolamoli Devar in memory of the king's father
Maravarman Avani Chulamani. Maravarman Arikesari
(No.4) who boasts of having won the battle of Nelveli
(QrBeoCDeueSla3&} Qeum piDir pm) must be identified with

Sundara or Kun Pandya. Had the impaling of
8000 Jains by Trignana Sambanda — art event so
much exaggerated and described with pride
in the Saivapuranas —been an accomplished fact it
must have been referred to in the plates. Arikesari

Parankusan had the title of Ter Seliyan a name which —
occurs in the above commentary as Ven-Ter Seliyan and
as the founder of the second Sangam. Jatila Varman
Parantakan, known to the Tamils as Komaran Sadaiyan,
was a famous king and the donor of the Velvikudi
grant. He had the title of Srivara and granted the
village of Srivara-Mangalam in the Nanguneri taluk,
Tinnevelly district, to a Magada Brahman named Suj-
jata Bhatta. He was a devout worshipper of Vishnu.
His minister Marankari built a temple and an agra-
hara in A. D. 770 to God Narasimha at the foot of the
Elephant hill or Yanaimalai near Madura. Varaguna I
might have been the builder of the Vishnu temple at
Varaguna-Mangalam. His grandson was a staunch
Saivite, converted probably to that faith by his minister
and Saiva saint Manikka Vachakar, while his great-
grandson Rajasimha III or Siivallabha Deva was a Vaish-
nava owing to the influence of the Vishnuvite Selva

Nambi, his purohit and religious preceptor. In the
reign of this last Pandya lived the Vishnuvite saints
Pe riyalvar and Andal.
Some of these facts will be found stated in early
APPENDIX I 393
Tamil literature and in the Madura stalapurana. The

copper plates refer also to the founding of a college of
poets at Madura and the translating of the Mahabharata.
The first has been considered in our essay on the Tamil
academies. As regards the Mahabharata which in the
opinion of Prof. Macdonell attained its complete form

in Sanskrit about A. D. 350. there appears to have been
more than one Tamil translation. All the Tamil versions

must have therefore been made subsequent to A. D.
400. The first of these versions is probably the one
referred to in the grants. name is at
The translator's
present unknown and the very existence of the work is
doubtful. Whether it was identical with the Bharata-
Venba of Perundevanar (A.D. 750) or altogether differ-
ent cannot be ascertained owing to the paucity of
information. Provisionally, however, it maybe assumed
that the Bharata-Venba of Perundevanar was a second
translation. The third was by the Saivite Aranilai Visakan
Trailokyamallan Vatsarajan of Arumbakkam (1) in the
reign of KulottungaChola III (11781215). This translation
of the epic, though it does not survive to this day, might
have been undertaken when Kamban was engaged in
translating the Ramayana. The fourth rendering of the
epic into Tamil was by Villiputtur Alvar, a Vaishnava
poet of the fifteenth century. It is only a fragment or
an epitome, but completed by Nalla Pillai in A.D. 1732-
1744.
So far the history of the early Pandyas from Tamil

literature and inscriptions. From both the sources the
(1) Madras Government Epigraphist's report, dated 2nd July

1906, p. 74.
394 TAMIL STUDIES
number of Pandya kings does not exceed twenty. Oil-
the other hand, the Madura Stalapurana gives a long

list of some seventy-three Pandyas beginning with Kula-
sekara and ending with Madhuresvara, besides another
list of some forty- one ^legitimate Pandyas. The pur ana
narrates miraculous events connected with the local
deity. Most of the names in the lists seem to be fanciful
or mythical, corroborated neither by literature nor by
inscriptions. Before proceeding to compare and ex-
amine them it will be necessary to give an outline
of the salient points from the Halasya Mahatmya
so far as they relate to the Tamil academies and the
early poets, first according to the order of the '
sacred
sports' or the deeds of Sivaand secondly according to
the succession of the Pandya kings.
I. The 51st sport' was the establishment of the
*
Madura College during the reign of Vamsasekara

Pandya ; (52), in the reign of Champaka Maran the
pride of Nakkirar was subdued by Siva ;
(53 and 54)
grammar to Nak-
Siva directs Agastya to teach Tamil
kirar (55)
;
Nakkirar's commentary on Iraiyanar's
Agapporul recited before the dumb Brahman child,
Rudra-Sarman (56) refers probably to Tiruvalluvar's
;
contest with the members of the academy (57-61) ;
miracles concerning Manikkavachakar which occurred in

the reign of Arimardhana Pandya and (62, 63), the ;
Jains were persecuted by the Saivite apostle Trignana

Sambanda during the reign of Kubja, Kun or Sundara
Pandya.
II. The
fourth king was Ugra Pandya. He is
said to have performed ninety-six Asvamedha or horse
sacrifices, and he was the founder of a Sangam or
APPENDIX I 395>
academy. The seventh was Vikrama Pandya. In his

reign the elephant that came to destroy Madura at the
machination of the fains was metamorphosed into a hill
by Siva with the help of Narasimha. In commemora-
tion of this event the Pandya king built a temple for the
Vishnu God Narasimha in the Yanamalai hill. '
Qlosuq^
miT&fBs^(ssi^ aSa^^îîssr (S&}LfiS(^mi3so'. The tenth in
succession was Anantaguna Pandya. In this reign Sri

Rama visited Madura while searching for his wife Sita.
The nineteenth was Varaguna. He went to Tiruvidai-
marudur in the Tanjcre district to expiate his sin of
hrahma-halti. The was

forty-sixth Vamsasekhara
in
whose reign the third academy was established, Nakki-

rar, Paranar, Kapilar &c, being its members. Nakkirar
composed the <sias'ûtT^ siretr^ûirûjipiT^, Rudra-
sarma listened to Nakkirar's commentary on Iraiyanar's
Agapporul. The sixty-first was Arimardhana. The
saint Manikkavachakar flourished in this reign. The
last but one and the seventy-second king in the list was
Kubja or Kun Pandya. In his reign 8000 Jains were
impaled by Trignana Sambandha.
Stripping the above miraculous events of their mytho-
logical garb and considering them together it will be
seen that they are most of them stern historical facts ;
only the order of time has not been observed. The

'sacred sports' of Siva at Madura are narrated in three
Maha Purana,
or four Sanskrit puranas namely, Uttara
Kadamba Vana Purana, Sundara Pandyam and Halasya
Mahatmyam — all which were composed sometime after
the tenth century A. D. out of the current traditions and
legends. And their Tamil translations must have been
made long after that period. These accounts differ as
396 TAMIL STUDIES
regards the order and description of 'sports'. Some of

the accounts are conflicting in other respects. The
Tamil names of kings are sanskritized and are not
arranged in chronological order as will be seen
later on. Thus, the Tiruvilayadal Purana, like
all other puranas, is a compilation of traditions,
miracles and other stories, alljumbled together regard-
less of any time sequence and without any order. It
would, therefore, be extremely injudicious to use them
for historical purposes without caution.

The only king who is mentioned in Tamil literature
as having performed many Yagas or sacrifices is Palyaga
(salai) Mudukudimi Peruvaludi, He was an ancestor of
Nedum Seliyam of the Talai Alanganam fame. He
must therefore have flourished about the beginning of
the Christian era. Nowhere is it laid down that Qgra
Pandya conducted any sacrifices but one Ugra Pandya ;
or Ugra Peruvaludi is said to have attended a Rajasuya

sacrifice performed by the Chola king Perunarkilli who
lived about the first century A. D. The fourth king in
the list is Vikrama Pandya in whose reign the Narasimha
temple at the foot of the Anaimalai hill was built. From
the inscriptions that temple, we learn

discovered in
that it was constructed by Maran Kari, a minister of the
Pandya king Parantaka or Nedum Sadaiyan in A. D,
770 (No. 7). The age of Manikka Vachakar, who is
said to have lived in the reign of the 61st king Arimar-
dhana, but actually in the reign of Varaguna the 19th
Pandya king, was the second half of the ninth century ;
and the date of Trignana Sambanda has been determined

to be the latter half of the seventh. As he is believed
to have been a contemporary of Kun or Sundara Pan-
—
APPENDIX II 397
dya, who is known in Tamil religious literature as

Nedumara Nayanar of Nelveli, he might be identified
with No. 4, Maravarman Arikesari (A. D. 680) given in our
genealogical table. Thus, we find the paur ante accounts
of these historic facts are anachronous and at
grossly
variance with those which one might glean from
early Tamil literature and the epigraphical reports.
APPENDIX II
NOTE ON AGASTYA'S GRAMMAR

Quite recently there has appeared a small book, entitled
Per-Agattiya-Tirattu, which profesesto be a collection of
aphorisms from 'the great grammar of Agastya.' It con-
tains, besides, a set of rules which Pandits believe were
composed by Kazharamban at the bidding of his revered
teacher Agastya. Both these collections of excerpts
seem to be for the following reasons forgeries foisted,

like somany other works, upon that great mythical sage.
1. The style is simple and very modern it contains ;
too many Sanskrit words; and the difference between the

language of this work and that of Tolkapyar, his direct
disciple, is patent in every one of its Sutras.
2. number of Sanskrit words

In the days of Agastya the
in Tamil must have been very small, and the necessity
for framing rules for the loan of Aryan words could not
have been it was in the days of Buddhamitra and
felt, as
Pavanandi. was on this account that Tolkapyar
It
did not give any definite rule under that head, except
in a vague manner thus :
—
398 TAMIL STUDIES
On the other hand, this Per-Agattiya-Tirattu devotes

one whole chapter of some 24 Sutras to Sandhis and
word formation, which have been explained in the
seventh essay as the pecuHar characteristics of Sanskrit.
Evidently it includes in the Tamil vocabulary of Agastya's
age pure Sanskrit words and foreign or desiya words
borrowed by modern Tamil as the following aphorisms
will show:
(1) (^Srru) ^^ toT 6?Q7 QmrTLÎTUD.
(2) ujsinh ^ &.

j)j s«E ep eêir siji—^th.
With this compare the corresponding sutras in (a)
Tolkapyam and (b) Nannul.

(a) (1) <:^ <ST 6? S7OT2/ QpuSiT (^sird^^rftuj.
(2) ^QeufTLêOeO^ uusaQpêorr^.
(j) (1) ^^ CT ^(SjQsiJfr U.IT(^(^LD(ipêi).
(2) j)j SL ^- 2J^ ^ ^ST iuisiQpêo,
3. The author of this grammar seems to think that

the Tamil letter Aydam, is borrowed from Sanskrit
o°o,
as will be inferred from the following sutras.

[a) QpjSîiSliT QLodjiuirdj^ (ifiuuiTQi€S)oSTQjr). (7)
(b) 'oT e^susiiLD LppssreijihîS QL^(W^Qêsra. (54)
It is usual to say that tp, «w, /d, and sbt, which are pur-
posely placed last in the Tamil alphabetic system to
indicate their speciality to that tongue, and the letter
oo, which has neither the sound of visarâ nor that of
jihvamulya but; a sound peculiarly its own, are the
distinguishing marks of Tamil. To call Aydam a Sans-
krit letter is absurd. Moreover, the author of this work
seems to derive Tamil from Sanskrit.
4. The Quifie<a^g=(^^^!!u> attributed to Agastya's
—
APPENDIX 399
disciple Kazharamban purports to give us an outline

history of the Tamil language. It is divided according
to this writer into eight periods, namely, (1 ) Pre-alpha-
betic, (2) Alphabetic, (3) Grammatic, (4) Academic, (5)
Monastic, (6) Jaina, (7) Pauranic, and (8) Modern.

This classification, which on the face of it is unhistorical
and anachronous, has been adopted with but slight
modification by Mr. Damodaram Pillai in his introduc-
tion to Virasoliyam ;
and it has been criticized at some
length in the eighth essay. The last or modern period
may be taken to commence in the fifteenth or sixteenth
century A. D. A classification, which refers to phases
of literary activity of the sixteenth century, to have been
made by a disciple of Agastya in the second or third
century B. C. is a hard pill to swallow, even should it
come from the best of scholars. But Tamil Pandits
will readily believe it to be the work of a disciple of
Agastya. And the reader can easily understand that
this work is a clear instance of forgery. What seems
probable and believable is that Per-Agattiyam is a com-
position of a learned member of one of the Saiva mutts
or monasteries in the Tanjore or Tinnevelly district
written for the use of the Saiva students of Tamil, who

may have had in the beginning a prejudice against the
use of Nannul (being the work of a Jain) though it was
decidedly the best grammar, and that it may have come
into existence long after A. D. 12.50.
5. In the prefatory sutra to Tolkapyam it is said of

its author Tolkapyar as follows :
îSiy^sk.^ iBeo^&)s^^
400 TAMIL STUDIES
(ifii5^^s\}S6sin(B Qpsapuui— Qiajessressflu
LfeoiQîr^^Q^rrasT
QsstTeosiTULSiLKsnr.
For the purpose of dealing with the Tamil letters, words

and rhetoric as used in the ordinary speech and in poetry^
the author clearly says that he observed the usages
of the Sen-Tamil men {QsîûSLîu/beiasJ: QewssSuuSs^LD)
and carefully studied the early literature {Qpi^^&isem®)

before collecting, collating and arranging facts for me-
thodical treatment in his grammar {Qpsapuui—QajesaressFlu
L^&)iQ^!T(^^Q^!T&sT) after the model of the Sanskrit
Aindram. He has not said anywhere in his grammar
one word about Agastya, his reputed teacher. It has
been at least the Tamil custom for an author to begin
his work with a salutation for his teacher or Acharya.
In this case the teacher was a divine Rishi and the sup-
posititious writer of the first Tamil grammar. Both of
them flourished at the same period. It is not under-

stood why Tolkapyar should have taken so much trouble
to observe the usages, to study the Tamil authors, and

to deduce therefrom the grammatical rules, or why he
should have recited his work for the approval and edi-
fication of the academy before a fellow student Athan- —
gottasan — while Agastya was its president. Was it to pick
up flaws in his master's great work, and was he such an

ungrateful Tamil pandits would easily believe
pupil ?
that the two rishis were always at loggerheads-

divine
But, all these throw serious doubts as to whether
Agastya had really written a Tamil grammar and whe-
APPENDIX III 401
ther Tolkapyar was ever his disciple. The com-

ment on the prefatory sutra by Sivagnana Swami
in confirmation of the facts that Agastya had
learnt his Tamil from Siva, that he had been the author
of the first grammar of the Tamil language and that it
had served, betore was

the model for all the
it lost, as
works on grammar, seems to me very unsatisfactory

later
and even fanciful. No man has ever seen the
Agastya's grammar and the statement of Mr. Damoda-
;
ram Pillai that was a jumble of rules relating to the

it
three kinds of Tamil is purely a creation of his power-

ful imagination. What I am inclined to believe is
that every myth and tradition connecting Agastya with

the Tamil language should have come into existence
subsequent only to the seventh or eighth century A. D.
APPENDIX III
THE AGE OF MANIKKA VACHAKAR

The only Tamil poet whose date has called forth a
good deal of controversy from pandits and scholars is
Manikka Vachakar. It is, in my humble opinion, mainly
due to their sectarian bias, their superstitious belief
in the pauranic stories, their want of confidence in
epigraphy and their incorrect understanding of the
historical trend of the Tamil language, and
literature
religion. One writer thinks that Manikka Vachakar
belonged to a period subsequent to the third academy,
another puts his date long anterior to it, while a third
brings it down to the thirteenth century. Dr. Pope, the
Editor and translator of Manikka Vachakar's works,
believes that he lived '
somewhere about the seventh o;
26
402 TAMIL STUDIES
eighth century of our era,' while yet in another place he

writes that his date may reasonably be assigned to the
'
tenth century.' Thus the age of Manikka Vachakar

remains still unsettled. It is not intended to waste some
more ink and paper by launching into any elaborate
discussion [or by seriously attempting to refute their
arguments, but to briefly indicate certain grounds for a
correct determination of his date.
(1) The traditional order of enumerating the four
—
famous Saiva saints Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and
Manildâ Vachakar and the position assigned to Tiruva-
chakam and Tirukkovai in the Saiva tirumurais seem to
support the view that the last mentioned poet-saint
lived later than Appar. And this theory is confirmed by
the fact that Manikka Vachakar and Kalladar have
described in their works a considerably larger number
of Siva's sports than that referred to by Appar or
Sambandar, who must have visited Madura — the
far famed capital of the Paniyas and a stronghold of
Saivism in the South.
(2) As a rule the best annotator would quote illus-
trative passages from the contemporary writers or
from those who preceded the author whose work he
annotates. The commentator of Manikka Vachakar's
Tirukkovai — Perasiriyar, Nacchinarkiniyar or whoever
he might be — citesauthorities from Iraiyanar's
Agapporul, Tolkapyam, Kural, Kalittogai, Appar's
Tevaram and Naladiyar. Since the authors of all
these works had lived long before Manikka Vacha-

kar, he must have understood that Appar was his
predecessor.
(3) In his Koil-padigam Manikka Vachakar speaks of
—
APPENDIX III 403
Ponnambalam or the 'Golden Hall' at Chidambaram.

According to traditions this hall was first built by
Hiranya Varman, probably a Pallava king, during the
sixth century ; and we have no reason to believe that
this shrine was in existence before the days of the Chola
king Kocchengannan who is said to have built several
temples to Siva and Vishnu, and also gilded the hall at
•Chidambaram.
Q^fLoQu/resresressBi^ & p puoueo ;S^s> ^. — T. T. 82.
This Chola king lived probably in the latter half of the

sixth century.
(4) ManiUka Vachakar refers to Pey Ammaiyar,

the Saiva lady saint and poetess of Karaikal, who could
not have flourished earlier than the sixth century for
the simple reason that the andadi form of Tamil poem, in
which her ^(n^^ iTLL<sisLû)5sefft£ifT'?e\) and j>jpi-^^^^(fêui5^rT^
were written, did not come into use before that period,
as explained by Nacchin irkiniyar in his commentary on
the Tolkapyar's siitra îQîQ^^nûi,
(5) A careful and candid study of the present
work will convince the reader that the religious
doctrines expounded by Manikka Vachakar in his
Tiruvachakam, the general tenor of his writings and his
contempt for other religions and sects may not enable
him to take the poet's age beyond the hymnal period,
i. e, A. D. 500—950.
(6) One of the 'sacred sports' of Siva at Madura was
the send-off of the Pandya king Varaguna to His loka
or heaven; and this act of divine grace has been alluded
to by Manikka Vachakar:
—
404 TAMIL STUDIES
Again in his Tirukkovaiyar he refers to that king

thus :
... 6ujê!rar(65)/5
Q^mesrOiQesr p^(^'^pp\s>ue<i^^tT&sr. (306)

.., QppuaU6\}L£LIS(lp
LDUjQeOfnEjQ0iEiaefflajrr2issTena3)<3SSfQir. (327)
It is thus evident that our saint lived in or after the

reign of Varaguna Pandya. Epigraphical researches
have up to now brought to light only two Pandya kings
of that name, the earlier of whom lived in the first
quarter of the ninth century. Varaguna alluded And the

to by Manikka Vachakar must have been the Varaguna
Varman mentioned in the Ambasamudram inscriptions
{Ep. bid. Vol. IX., Pt. ii). He was a devout worshipper
of Siva and granted donations of money and land for his
worship in many Siva temples.
But the Halasya Mahatmya informs us that Manikka
Vachakar lived in the reign of one Arimardhana Pandya
who was forty-second in succession from the only Vara-
guna given in the Mahatmya list. This is one of the

many shocking anachronisms which one may find in the
above slala-purana.
(7) In the sacred sports of Siva at Madura as narra-
ted in this purana, the 'jackal miracle' which is
erroneously connected with Manikka Vachakar and
which is stated to have occurred in the reign of Arimar-
dhana Pandya, the sixty- first in the list, comes after
the sport of turning into rock the Elephant -that came
to destroy Madura in the reign of the seventh Pandya,
and the hearing commentary on Irai-
of Nakkirar's
yanar's Agapporul by the dumb child, Rudra Sarman, in
the reign of the forty-sixth king. The slender data on
APPENDIX III 405
which the first of the above sports rests did actually

take place in the Varman Parantakan»
reign of Jatila
A.D. 770. Nakkirar's commentary contains an illustra-
tive kovai addressed to the Pandya king Arikesari Paran-
kusan who reigned about A, D. 740.

It is admitted by Tamil pandits that the Tiruk-
kpvai of Manikka Vachakar was composed in accor-
dance with.the rules given in Iraiyanar's Agapporul,
and that our saint must have read Nakkirar's comment-
ary. The date of Iraiyanar's Agapporid could not be
earlier than A. D. 650. and that of the commentary by
Nakkirar about A. D. 740. Manikka Vachakar must have
therefore lived after A.D. 740. If, now, we admit that the
sports or miracles are narrated chronologically in the
stalapurana, the '
Jackal miracle ', coming after the
metamorphosis of the Elephant, must have happened
after A. D. 770. Thus even according to the writers of
the Madura Stalapiirana, Manikka Vachakar must have
lived after A. D. 770.
(8) The religious propagandism of Manikka Vacha-

kar, his visit to Ceylon and his conversion there of many
Buddhists and their king which are narrated in the
Vadavur Slalapurana, are confirmed by Rajaratnakari of
Ceylon. This occurred in A. D. 819 or more correctly
about A. D. 869.
(9) The language of Manikka Vachakar and the
various metres employed by him do not take us so far
back as the sixth or seventh century. Sanskrit words and
phrases like ^'jumiresrmj ^^QhhldiI), Qs=iTiriosrj Qîtujld, siSld
and LLiT^rreijîrLD were not used by the poets of the acade-

mic period. The resemblance between the works of
—
406 TAMIL STUDIES
Periyalvar, Andal, Nammalvar and Manikka Vachakar

in thought, language, style and form is so close as tO'
suggest their being contemporaries more or less. The
above Vaishnava saints lived between A. D. 850 and 925.
(10) In the Tiru-tonda-togai [^(j^^Q^fremi—^Qstrecos)
of Sundarar, the last of the sixty-three Saiva saints, who
lived about the first quarter of the ninth century
no mention is made of Manikka Vachakar, Yet like
the Vaishnava acharyas who twisted and miscon-
strued texts to fix the beginning of the Kaliyug as the
age of Nammalvar — the
last of their saints some — of the
more recent pandits and scholars have attempted to put
the date of our Saiva saint long anterior to that of Appar
and Trignana Sambandar, interpreting the expression
QU!TUJUJI^<SS)1£> tlS6\)e\)IT^ L/6UQJ/f 111 thC ^(TJÔ^ffSJOTi—Ô^ffSOS
as a reference to the saint, and supporting it by two vague
allusions found in the following lines from Appar's
Tevaram :
(1) isifiesiujs (^^<oS)ir Q<Fuue)jiTî}).
(2) @L_(jotg(5/5^.ySsaT QjiT<s=S'^&QsiTeaaii—rTiT.

Here the first quotation proves nothing, as the
miraculous transformation of Jackals into 'horses' though
traditionally connected with Manikka Vachakar, is an
old 'floating myth', like many others of that kind. It
was one of the many miracles performed by Siva, and to

which our saint himself refers thus,
There is a reference to this miracle in the Kalladam

also. Had Kalladanar, its author, lived posterior to Ma-
nikka Vachakar, which seems to me to be more probable,
5he Jackal miracle should be taken as one of the many
APPENDIX III 407
floating myths current during the hymnal period of
Tamil literature (A. D. 600_.950), as he has not mention-

ed Manikka Vachakar in that connection.
In the second quotation the word 6u(rs=sm has been

misinterpreted as Manikka Vachakar, and in support of
meaning the pandits quote two Sanskrit
this fanciful
puranas whose authority might be as questionable as

that of Halasya Mahatmya and other puranas. Here
Qjrrsâetr (Skt. vachakaYmeans a '
servant '
or 'messenger'
and nothing more.
Now coming to the Tiru-tonda-togai, it might be asked

— Why should Manikka Vachakar alone be referred to
in this indirect and vague fashion while the other sixty-
one saints, some of whom were comparatively less
notable, have been mentioned by their names or titles ?
There is no answer to this question. Both Sundarar and

Manikka Vachakar were Brahmans of the same sect; and
Pandya king and a great
the latter was the minister of a
religious disputant who did much for the propagation of
Saivism. If Sundarar had to refer to him, he would have

with pride mentioned the name of this saint instead
of using this round-abont expression, which may be
applied to any sincerely pious poet. He must have also
read Appar's Tevaram and noticed in it the incident of
the 'Jackal miracle' as well as the word eun-^sesr. If
Manikka Vachakar had really lived before Sundarar

and if the latter saint had interpreted eurrs^ssor to mean
Manikka Vachakar, could he not have referred to our
saint at least by that holy name in his Tiruttondattogai?
This clearly shows that Sundarar had never heard of the

name of Manikka Vachakar — the fourth great saint of
408 TAMIL STUDIES
the Saivas, because he had not yet been born in this

world.
Nambiyandar Nambi, the Vyasa of the Dravidian
Vedas, has correctly understood the expression Qurrdjujt^
<ss}LDaS6\)sorr^ ueosij IT to mean collectively the forty -nine
professors of the third academy at Madura.
uiTsaariT rssSiTiTQfi^ (^pu^QîT(Ssru^ usOLfsoQeaair.
Do modern Tamil scholars 'claim to be more

the
learned and better informed in this matter than Nambi-
yandar Nambi who lived within one hundred and
fifty years after Sundarar or Manikka Vachakar ?
It has been urged by a recent writer that Nambiyandar
Nambi has misunderstood the above expression, and that

he has wrongly calculated the total, forgetting that the
'traditional sixty-three' was the number of the individual
saints sung by Sundara Murti. A grand discovery indeed !
But was our poet so ignorant of the rudiments of arith-

metic as to merit the critic's condemnation ? Has
Sundara Murti or any writer anterior to Nambiyandar
Nambi stated that the number of individual saints was
sixty-three ? And, if not, how could he call it '
tradi-
tional' ? Perhaps, he forgot that most of the names of
the Saiva saints were almost unknown before the time of
Nambiyandar Nambi, who for the first time collected
and arranged the Devara and other Saivite hymns, and
that their apotheosis was mainly due to his works. If
we add Sundara Murti, as our poet has rightly done, to

the 62 individual saints enumerated in the ^QîQ^rresmL^
^Qâesis we get the now traditional 63. But, if we take
the above expression to mean Manikka Vachakar, we get
in all 64 which is not the traditional number of Saiva
APPENDIX III 409
saints, as we cannot by any means omit Sundara Murti

from the list.
It is therefore plain beyond any shadow of doubt

that the saint Manikka Vachakar must have been an
elder contemporary of Periyalvar and Andal of the
Vaishnava sect and lived in the reign of the Pandya
king Varaguna II (A. is two centuries
D. 870), that
later than Appar and Trignana Sambandar, half a
century later than Sundarar and about one generation
earlier than Nammalvar. And this is the view accepted
by every student of epigraphy.
KALLADANAR.
The Kalladam is an erotic poem of some one hundred
agavals, describing mostly the '
sacred sports' of Siva at
Madura. Its author Kallada Deva Nayanar was a Saiva
poet of hymnal period. Tamil pandits
the pauranic or
very often confound him with Kalladanar, an earlier
poet of the academic age. The former was a Saiva
devotee and author of ^Q^sseamemuu Q^stiH^lQîMpLJa and
a commentary on the Tolkapyam besides the Kalladam,
while the latter was a bard and wrote only a few
eulogistic verseson the Pandiya king Nedum Seliyan,
second century A. D. Thus Kallada Deva Nayanar and
Kalladanar were two distinct poets like Poigai Alvar
and Poigaiyar.
Both must have been natives of Kalladam, once a
flourishing sea-port near Ouilon on the West Coast. In

the days of Manikka Vachakar, it was probably the seat
of a Saiva shrine, seiie\}iTu.^^-i seok^ssfl^(rF,etfl — T.V. II.
11, which must have come into existence during the

ninth century A. D., as no mention is made of it in the
——
410 TAMIL STUDIES
Tevaram oi Appar or Sundara Murti. It would only be

a vain subterfuge of pandits if it was said that their
hymns on that place had been, lost along with several
others at Chidambaram.
In the Kalladam one may find references to Tiru-
valluvar, Nakkirar, Kannappar, Chakkiyar and Murti
Nayanar, Concerning the last it says,
(oSTQ^sffs^firirk^ f§<^sir(T^LLueasBijj0S)L-UU. (57)

This event happened, as we have said in Appendix I^
about the beginning of the seventh century, which must

be taken as the earliest limit of the age of Kalladam.
Again the same work refers to the commentary of
Nakkirar on Iraiyanar's Agapporul and to the commend-
atory verses of the forty-nine professors of the third
academy on the Kural of Tiruvalluvai.
(1) LOIT pÛOL^'oiliilQ^ LDUJISI(^ gH SU'hsO
su.&)QpQ^Q^^s sssiiraSeOomsu^^^CcUaeo. (3)
(2) ^0rBû9i^sS !T<om Qu(TiîûSiûuêiJ6\)

eurrsSluSpdsLLisiT (sSitnaaetr^^ssr&sr. (52)
(3) ^k^'êssmuQênn ^ suQufT^'siTQp^'Sems

(^gHQpesflQ ^ peiîJo QuQ^Qf^ pi-êOQiirs
QiiHr(cL^(LpMlUUJ0lil QsiT ^ pUUQ^SS^LD. (65)
(4) SFLcajssemssff LO^QjL^3h.(frj'
^&)@uje03k.(BLJ Qu!T(fêffl^Qaj<oi!rp
eijisiT(&T)Sii<s5r pema>(^ sijefriTsaSLii-jsOQjirQfi'oST
Qp^pssSuiTL^Lu QpsiLLQuQ^LDrr&sr. (15)

The above quotations show clearly that the Kalladam'
—
APPENDIX IV 411
is a repertory of old traditions, ghoulish [legends and

mixed miracles relating to the Saiva religion and litera-
ture, narrated in such a torm as to allure the Dravidian

mind. It is one of those religious books which are
highly valued by the Tamil Saivas and it has given ;
rise to the proverb si50&)itl-ld s^jnenQies)® m&i&nji—nQii.
(Venture not to argue with one that has studied the

Kalladam).
They prove further that the author of Kalladam was

not unacquainted with Nakkirar's commentary on Irai-
yanar's Agapporul and that he must have lived several
years after Perundevanar, one of the forty-nine pro-
fessors of the Madura College. In our essay on the
Tamil academies it has been sliown that this commen-
tary on Agapporul was written sometime after A. D. 750
and that Perundevanar, the reputed author of the Tamil

Mahabharatam, lived somewhere about A. D. 785.
Further, the number of sports played by Siva at Madura
came to be definitely fixed as 64 during the time of
Kalladar, while it was not so in the days of the last four
great saints It is thus pretty evident that Kallada
Deva Nayanar lived between A. D. 850 and 950, and that
he may have been a younger contemporary of Manikka
Vachakar whose Tirukkovayar served, according to a
traditon, as the model for his Kalladam.
APPENDIX IV
NOTE ON THE WORD TIYAN.
The word Tiyan designates a class of toddy drawers
in Malabar, Travancore and Cochin, and is com-
it
monly supposed to be a synonym for Izhuvan, which is-

412 TAMIL STUDIES
the name of another caste of palm-cultivators found in

the Tamil and Malayalam countries. The tradi-
tions current inMalabar represent them as immigrants
from Ceylon, and in accordance thereto the words Tiyan
and Izhuvan are derived by the old-school philologists
of Malabar and their European supporters, like Drs.
Caldwell and Gundert and Mr. Logan, from 'dvipam'

(an island) and Simhalam (Ceylon), This etymology,
though advocated by such high authorites and confirm-
ed also by Malabar traditions, seems to be rather
fanciful and devoid of any historical or ethnological
foundation. It is needless to mention here the utter
worthlessness of Keralolpatti and Keralamahatmya as
historical records. For the purposes of ethnological
investigations no reliance can be placed on either of
these, because they are only later compositions of the
Nambudri Brahmans of who
de facto had in
Malabar,
their hands the destiny Chera kingdom. It is
of the
not the only instance in which the Malabar people have
shown their primitive knowledge of the modern sciences
of language and ethnology. 'Embran' is derived from he-
brahman 'Nambi' from nainbu, to believe; 'Kuric'chan'
;
from kun, to mark, 'Variyar' irom varuka to sweep and

so on. Of course, these etymologies were supported by
strange traditions, short or long, which the Nambudri
Brahmans were ever ready to invent. For these vaga-
ries of etymology the language is responsible, not the
people. The mother-tongue of the non-Aryan tribes,
of Malabar was purely a Tamil dialect, and about fifty

per cei?t. of the words found in the Malayalam voca-
bulary are of Tamil origin. As, however, Sanskrit had
and even now/ have an undoubted preference in matters
—
APPENDIX IV 413
social and religious, the natural tendency has been to

derive the Tamil words from SaRskrit.
The arguments advanced by the upholders of the
'Simhala' or 'Dwipa' theory are,
(1) 'The Keralolpatti says that at one-time five arti-
ficers having provoked the Perumal's wrath emigrated,
and found refuge in Ceylon, from whence they were
brought back by the intercession of foreigners, and in
their train came the caste of cocoanut tree cultivators'.
(2) The cocoanut tree is not indigenous to India

but was introduced by the southern islanders of Ceylon.
It is suggested by some that the connecting link bet-
ween the words Tiyan and Dvipan survives in 'Divar'
of Canara. One writer goes even to the length of
tracing the Kadamba chiefs of Humcha to the children
of the islanders, 'Divara Makkalu'. (3) Mr. Logan points
out that since cocoanut is not mentioned in the list of
exports from Malabar given in the Periplus in the first
century A.D., it is palm was intro-

probable that the
duced by theTiyans (Dvipans) and Izhuvans (Simhalese)
from Ceylon before the sixth century A.D.
As to the first argument it may be remarked tffat
the South Indian Inscriptions inform us that the toddy-
drawing classes of the country from Cape Comorin to
Tirupati were called Izhuvans. In none of the ancient
works Sanror or Shanan is used to denote the modern
caste of Tamil toddy-drawers. Granting then, that all
the Shanans of the Tamil country and the Tiyans and
Izhuvans of Malabar and Travancore are the deecendants
of the original immigrants from Ceylon, we have at pre-
sent nearly two millions of this guild following the same

trade and occupation in both the countries. The popula-
414 TAMIL STUDIES
tion of Ceylon according to the Census of 1891 was near-

ly three millions. Although there had been several in-
vasions and occupations of the northern part of Ceylon

alternately by the Cholas and Pandiyas, the annals of that
island from the first century to the ninth do not speak a
word about any irruption or civil war that could have
led to the evacuation of the island by nearly two-thirds of
its useful inhabitants. We read in the Mahawanso that a
branch of the Pandiyans was ruling for a short period
in Ceylon. Moreover, the relationship between the
Singalese and Keralas wa^', in fact, so little that it is
scarcely possible that such a large immigration directly

from Ceylon to Malabar could have taken place during
that remote period. In the copper plate grants of the
Syrian Christians the names Izhuvan and Tiya-alvan,
occur ; and it is evident that the Tiyans (not Dwipans or
Tivans) were then (A. D. 132o) an organisedguild with
headmen or alvansâ.nd that the Izhuvans were iateri m-
migrants from the Tamil country. The difference in the
customs observed by the two toddy-drawing castes con-
firms the truth of the statement. The Izhuvans follow the
Makkatayam rule of inheritance while the Tiyans of
North Malabar follow the nepotic law of Bhutal Pandiya.
Being later immigrants, the Izhuvans of Malabar are
regarded by the Tiyans as of very interior status, just as
their Cherumas and Pulayas hold the Paraiyas of the
Tamil country in low estimation. The name Izhuvan is
derived by Dr. Caldwell from Simhalam, Sihalam, on the
analogy of the Greek wordlndoi from Sindhu. There can
be no necessity for thus dragging a SansJirit word through
many stages, when there is already in the Tamil langu-
age the simple word Singalam.
APPENDIX IV 415
With regard to the second argument, it may be said

that the word in 'Divara Makkalu' is not '
Divara' or
Divar, but it is 'Deva or Devara' an ordinary title assum-
ed by the South Indian kings The Kadamba kings ;
had it; the Kalian and Marava castes of Madura still

have it; and a section of the Todas called the Palais
style themselves *Der-mokh' or the sons of God. The
Kadambas are said to have been toddy-drawers, because
toddy-drawing was, and even now is, the special occupa-
tion of several primitive tribes who are found in various
parts of India bearing different local names. As sub-
jects of the Kadimba kings, the palm cultivators of
Canara assume with pride the name 'Devara makkalu;'
the Kalians and Maravasare called Tevans or Devans,
because their ancestors are believed to have been kings,
and in the last Census several of them have returned their
caste name as 'Tevan' simply ; the Palais are called
' Dermokh because they are
*
the high priests of the
Todas. According to the 'Dwipa' theory all these
castes and tribes may be said to be the descendants of
the '
islanders '! The important caste of toddy-drawers
who bear the name of Tiyan or Dvipan in Malabar
is considered in their land of nativity, Ceylon, as stran-
gers or 'Duravar', How then can we say that the
palm cultivators and toddy drawers of South India are
immigrants from Ceylon ? It is probable that a few
families of toddy-drawers may have returned from Ceylon
with the aitificers, but not in such large numbers as to
give a territorial name to an immense caste consisting of
two millions or moie members and living in various
parts of Southern India.
Now coming to the third argument, it may be urgad
416. TAMIL STUDIES
that either the cocoanut might have been omitted to-

be mentioned by an oversight, or might not have been an
article .of export. In Southern India it was certainly
valued and much used by the Tamils for drink and food
during the first century A. D.
At any rate this argument not strong enough to sup-

is
port the theory of the migration of such a numerous

caste from the tiny island of Ceylon. It is also contrary
to the general law of migration from the north to south
India during the historic times.
The argument from the Tamil name of the cocoanut
palm is more imaginary than real. The word letigu
found in the Dravidian languages, as tenkaya in Telugu

and tengina in Canarese, is derived from the root tern or
ten which means '
honey' or
,' sweetness.' Tengu is the
sweet or honey tree and not the southern tree as some
philologists would have us beheve. And ten-disai is the
sweet direction where Tamil or the 'sweet' tongue is
spoken. This direction is called in Tamil ten with
reference to the habitat of the Tamihans, just as mel
(merku) and kil (kilakku) denote 'west and east' with re-
ference to the lofty mountains of their country. Since

ten (/•) ku and tengu are derivatives of the same root ten^
it is not fight to say that tengu (cocoanut) is derived

from and call it par excellence the 'southern tree',,
terku
as if there had been no cocoanut trees in India before

the introduction of that useful palm from Ceylon by the
Tiyans,
then is the etymology of the terms Izham, Izha-
What
van andTiyan. 'Izham' means the land of Kubera or the
Indian god of gold (Izham) for which the island of
APPENDIX JV 417
Ceylon or Lanka was renowned in the Puranas. This

word is quite distinct from'Izham' which means 'toddy.'
The latter is derived from'Izhu,' to draw, and it may be
found in Telugu as 'Idiga'. It is highly probable that
'Izham' has come to denote toddy also, as a number ot
synonyms for toddy indicates the high importance of
this beverage which was esteemed in early times as

valuable as gold. On these grounds we are far from
agreeing with Dr. Caldwell and other scholars in
tracing the word 'Izham' or 'Izhavan' from 'Simhalam'
which had already found its way into the Tamil langu-
age in the form of Singalam.
Similarly we would derive Tiyan from ti-an, which
means a 'sweet man,' or one whose occupation is the
manufacture of the //or 'sweet' drink. It is an occupa-
tional but not a territorial name applied to this
class of toddy drawers. When most of the Drvidian

castes, like Nayadi, Pulayan, Cheruman, Kammalan and
Panikkan, who are supposed to carry pollution with
them, possess Dravidian names, why should Tiyant and
Izhavads alone be called by Sanskrit appellations ?
27
INDEX
(Names of Tamil authors and luorks are printed in Italics.
Aborigines, 19, 377. Ativira Rama Pandya, a poet

Academies, the traditional king, 225, 255.
account <if the, 252; later, Atti-peru, meaning of, 359 f.n.
254; work of the, 257. Augustus Caesar, an embassy to,
Accadian, its affinity with Tamil, 389.
34, 121. Ayirai hill, 266,
Accent in Tamil, 135.
Adiyarknnallar, annotator, 189. Bedar_ a caste, 101.
Adjectives, declined, 165.
not Beschi, Father, 225 ; on vowel
Agappornl, Nakkirar's commen- signs, 131.
tary on Iraiyanar's, 253, 405. Retel-leaf, use of, 329.
Agastya, 45, 150, 390 age of, ;

Bharatam^ when tr.^nslated, 247
Bhatta or later colony of Brah-
118; grammar, 188, 397; priest
mans, 349, 380.
of the Pandyas. 52 students ;
of, 237.
Biographies of saints, 296.
BittiDeva, of Mysore, 111,
Agglutinative languages, 147.
Ainknruiniru an early Chera- Brahma-Aryan, a title, 65.
Tamil anthology, 342. Brahmans. civilizing the Tamils,
Alapedai or prolation, 133. 42 ; invited by Tamil kings,
Alphabet, the Tamil, 113 et seq. 59 ; their cxclusiveness, 89 ;
Alvars, or Vishnuvite saints, their influence in Tamil liter-
218 ; names of, 295 the ;
ature, 186 in Malabar, 348
; ;
'first,' 299. when migrated, 379.

Ambalakkaran, a caste, 69. Brahmanism, early, 285-288; in
Ambalavasis, a caste, 103. Kerala, 373.
American languages, 172. Brahmi characters, 115 used ;
Anaimalai inscriptions, 319. by Brahmans and Buddhists,

Andal, a lady saint, 323. 126 and Vatteluttu compar-
;
Anthologies, Tamil, when com- ed, 123 all South;

Indian
piled, 254, 257. •alphabets traceable to, 127 ;
Anthropometry, doubted, 14. except Vatteluttu, 128,

Anti-brahman leal literature, 22 5. Brahuis, a Dravidian tribe, 50,
Appar, a Saiva Saint, 2l7, 305. 378 and the Dravidians, Dr.
;
Archaeology, 16. Grierson on, 37, 38.

Arisil ktzhar, a lamil poet, 209. Bray, Mr. Denys, 33 on the ;
Ariuiachala kavi, 190. Dravidians, 37

Aruniindi Sivacharya, a Tamil Brihat Katha, 243,
poet and philosopher, 222.
Buddhamitra, a Tamil gramma-
rian, 119,128 on mispronun-
Artizans, social position of, 74. ;
ciation, 137.
AryanSj-original home ol the, 35;
conquest of South India, 51. Buhler. Dr. G., on Vatteluttu,
Aryan theory of the Tamils, 20 120, 243.
Asoka, 126. Burnell, Dr. A. C, 116 ; on
Assyrians, 41 • Vatteluttu, 120.
420 INDEX
Caldwell. Dr. 33, 412; on the Cox, Prof. H., quoted, 15.
word Dravida
'
5; on the
', Critical spirit, 196.
aborigines, 19;onTamil civili-
sation, 50; on the Paraiyas,81;
on the Tamil alphabet, 120; Damodaram Pillai's division of
on Tamil diphthongs, 156; on Tamil literature, 198-200, 399,
Tamil literature, 201—204; on Dancing women, 190.
the Alvars, 281; on Malavalam Dandi, a grammarian, 220.
345, 359. Dead, disposal of the, 39, 214.
Dependant letters in Tamil, 133.
Case terminations, 164. Der-mokh, 415.
Castes, Tamil, 58; regional clas- Deva Nagari alphabet, 29.
sification of, 62; in Kaja Raja
Devar (Aryans), 10.
Chola's time, 66; origin" of, 67; Devara-makkalu, a title, 415.
increase of, 7.S; disputes, 74; Devar a hymns, 190; and Divya
the right and left-hands. 95. prabandam, compared, 292.
Caste system, 61 Veilalar's
;
Divakaram of Sendan, a Tamil
position in, 61; introduction of, dictionarv, 65,219.
75; among the Naga-Dravi- Dots, use of, in Tamil letters, 122.
dians, 381. Drama, 187; works on the, 189,
Cattle-lifting, before a war, 40.
Dravida, explained, 1; Manu's
Ceylon and Tiyans, 415. definition, 5; Dr. Caldwell's
Chakkiyar Kuttu, 190. use of 5; etymology of, 6; and
,
Chera custom?, early, 275. Cauda contrasted, 3

Chera kings, dates of certain, Dravidas, the five, 2; the custom
265; genealogy of, 270. of, 3; proper, 4; Nambudries
Cherumars and Pallans, names not included, 4/. ».
of castes, 354. Dravidins, 61; in Upper India,
Chidambaram, temple at, 318. 36; not a dark race, 378;
Chinese, 161. civilisation of, 60 religion of ;
Chintadripetta, 93. early, 283 various theories

;
Chijita,nani, a Jaina work, 219 concerning, 17 el seq; connec-

293; age of, 255. tion with Australians, 18.
Chtidamani Nigandu. Tamil Dravidian, linguistic and ethno-
dictionary, 219. logical applications, 37; family
Chulaviatu, a poem, 219, 392. and IJralo-AltaJc languages,
Coimbatore, derivation of, 31. 170, 171 languages, degree
;
Combination of letters, 140. of relationship among the,

Commentators, Tamil, 196 •
374 their influence in Sans-
;
names of, 223;Vaishnava, 223.' krit, 168, 169 interchange of

;
Commentaries, need for, 223. letters in, 151 migration, not

;
Communication between the by sea, 47 ; thought, 186.

East and West Coasts, 371. Drinking, 74.
Compound words in Tamil Dual termination, 163.
158; and in Sanskrit, 161. Dvarasamudram, 378.
Conjeeveram, religions 290. at,
Consonants, Tamil, 134; soften- Early Tamil, 173-177.
ing of Sanskrit, 161. Enadi Nayanar, a Saint, 66.
Copper plate grants, 115 early ,•
Ethical literature, 193-195.
Malabar, 356. Etymology, Tamil, 162.
Cow, its importance, 73. Exegetical period, 222-224.
INDEX 421
Eyinas, an ancient tribe, 12, 76. Idaiyan, history of, 71, 76, 103 ;
Ezhuttaccliaii, a poet, 361. in Malabar, 353,

llakkaiia Vilakkam, 224.
llakkana Kottn, 224.
Faction disputes, not in Mala- Ilango-Adigal, a Jaina poet, 216.
bar, 98. Images of Saints, 338.
Final letters in words, 139. Indo-Europeanisms in Tamil,
First academy, described, 235 ; 167, 168.
age of, 239. Inflection of verbs in Malaya-
Food and the caste system, 73. lam, 368.
Forbes, Capt., on the North Initial letters in words, 138.
Indian Nagas, 27. Inscriptions, on social position
Frazer, Mr. J. G., 20(;. of certain castes, 75, 77 ;
French academy, compared giving a Paraiya's decision,

with Satiâiu, 260. 80; on the Kaikolas, S2 et.
seq ; use of Vatteluttu and
Grantha-Tamil in, 127.
Gait. Mr. G. A., quoted, 15. Interchange of letters in, 136.
Gandaraditya, a king, 255, 292. Ir or r, as plural suffix, 163.
Gandharvam, a form of mar- Irrigation tanks, 43 the system ;
riage, 101 gandharvis, dan- Baby-

,•
borrowed from the

cmg women, 190.
lonians, 43.
Gatitnniaiiar, a poet, 217. 20(5. Islamism and Brahmanism, 186.
Gender, rational, 103. Isolating languages, 147.
Geosraphy, the Tamil's igno- lyakkan or Yaksha, a Marava
rance of, 142
chieftain, 55.
Guana Vcitiyaii, a Tamil work, lyal Tamil, 187.
197. Izham, meaning of, 416.
Grammars, the Tamil, 114.
Izhavas, a caste, 66, 72, 77, 413.
Grantha-Tamil characters, 114 ;
Izha-putchi, a tax, 72.
why introduced, 128 rules lor ;
naturalisation of, 128,

Jains, position of, in the caste
Grierson, Dr., 17, 39 on Tamil ;
dispute, 110 a right-hand
;
literature, 207.
caste, 112.
Gunabhara, a Pallava king, 305.
Jaina, Sangam, foundation of,
Gunadhya, age of, 243. 251 Tamil works, 219.
;
Giiniparamparai, or the lives of Jespersen, Dr., quoted, 261.

Vaishnava reformers, 220.
Johnston, Mr. C. J., 86 /. n.
Haddon, Dr., 19. Kacchiyappa, a Tamil poet, 220.

Haeckel, Dr.. 18. Kadars, a forest tribe, 13,22.56.
Hill tribes, 68. Kadunkon, a Pandya king, 25?.
Hinduism, history of, 282, 285. Kaikolan, 65, 95 as temple
;
Hiranya Varma, a king, 402. servants, 97 were Eyinas,

;
History, foreign to Hindus, 195. 82; origin of, 82, 83 not good ;
Hovelacque, Dr., 35, 172, 195. weavers, 83.

Hunter, Sir W. W., on Dravi- Kalabhras, foreign invaders, 250.
dian migration, 23, 108 on ; Kalingam, meaning of, 83.
Tamil literature, 204. Kaliiigaltnpayani, a poem, 221.
Huxley, Prof. T., 18. Kalittogai, an anthology, 216.
Hymnal period, 217. Kalladanar, 3, 216; age of, 409.
422 INDEX
Kalian, a caste, 29, 69. Kurichan, a hill tribe, 91.
Kamban, 219, 262 date of, 54
; ;
Kurumbas, a tribe, 13, 69.
lectured in Malabar, 343.
Kammalas, thread wearing bj, Language, no safe test of race,
75, 77, 108 in Malabar, 104
; ; 13; changes in its growth,
origin of the, 85,-88 their ; 145; morphol jgical classifi-
version of caste disputes, 97. cation of, 147.
Kanakasabhai, Mr. V.,his etymo- Left-hand castes, 95.
logy of the word Tamil, 7 his ; Lemurian theory, the, 2i, 33.
theory of Mongolian origin, Letters, number and order in
13, 25, 192 on Early Chera
; Tamil, 132, 137; peculiar to
kings, 272; on the Pandiya Tamil, 134; combination; 117;
kings, 388. 'levelling' in Malayalam, 368.
Kanchipuram, description of, 76; Linguistic affinity, 153.
origin of caste disputes at, 99. Literary forgeries, very common
Kannappa Nayanar, a saint, 29. in Tamil, 197.
Kaimassa Ramayanam, 360. Loan words, how to delect, 155.
Kapilar, 4 5, 216, z68, 270, Locality and communities, 73.
271; as name of three different Logan, Mr., on the derivation
poets, 197; not a Paraiya, 248. of '
Kizhakku,' 345, 412.
Kappiyanar, a poet, 266. Long CT and 9, 51, 61.
Karaikk alaniinai a saint, 403.
, LydeUker, Prof., 18.
Karaiyan, a fishing caste, 72.
Karanam, a caste, 75. Macdonell, Prof. A. A., 118.
Katantra, a grammar, 118. M'Crindle, Mr. J. VV., 44
Kaveripatam, destruction of, 60. Madigas, leather workers, 101.
Kayslna Valudi, age of, 252. Madura, the Soulliern, 240;
Kazluirambliaii, a student of Tamil learning, 256 ;
seat of
Agastya, 397. Sangams, 232; purana, 394-6.
Keane, Dr., A.H., 19; on Tolka- Mahabharata, 1 interpolations
;
pyam, 138. in the, 51; popularity, 52;

its
Kerala, a Kodum-Tamil country, translated, 256, 393 ; date of

264, 341 Nambudris owner-
;
the war, 239.
ship oi, 350- Mahawanso, on the caste dis-
Khonds, a hill tribe, 90. putes, 102.
Kings, duties of Hmdu, 108. Mahishya'^, a mi.xed caste, 75.
Kocchengannan,age of, 250,319. Makkalpravidians), 10.
Kodum-Tamil, where used, 142. Malabar, a Kodum-Tamil coun-
Kol-Ayan, a shepherd caste, 353. try, 344; castes and the
Koliyaiis, weavers, 80. Tamils, 351; temples in, a47.
Konatiri, meaning of, 353. Malaiman, a caste, 101.
K'jftayam plates, 360. Malaspir, a trmc, 56.
hill
Krishiiagata, a poem, 360. Mala>alain, a dialect of Tamil,
Kshatri\as, 59, 103. 9, 375; not an iiiflectiQnal
Kudumi'or tuft of hair. 389. language, 149; meaning of,
Kulabckliaralvdr, a Chera-Tamil 341; early literature in, 357 ;
saint. 309,'343. and vulgar Tamil, 367; gram-
Kuji(ialakesi,n Jaina work, 219. mar, 365, 366-369 ; levelling
Kunnalakon, meaning of, 353. process in, 368 ; vocabulary,
Rural, 113; Sanskrit miluence in 369-371 ; why separated
the, 194. from Tamil, 371-6.
INDEX 423
Mamballi, copper plates, langu- Nacchiiiarkiniyar, a Tamil

age of, 359. commentator, 45, 118, 123,
Manavalamainiini, a Vaishnava 328 ; on Vowel-consonants,
reformer, 22J, 385. 129.
Mangudi-kisliar, a poet, 78 ; Nagas, 10 ; their connection
Marudanar, 21(5. with the 10 f.n.] with
Pallis,
Maiiikka Vachakar, 392; et seq. the Cholas, 11; described, 27;
Maniiiickalai, :i Chera-Tamil in S. India, 28, G9; tribes, 61.
epic, 39. Naga-Dravidians, 377.
Manipravala, 229. 'Nagakiimara kavyam, a Jaina
Maran, etymology of, 31. work, 219.
Maravas, a caste, 11, 70. Naidatam, a Tamil classic, 225.
Maratgruinasiiinhauda, a Saivite Nakkirar, 216, 395; his account
philoôpner, 222. of Academies, 252.
Marayan, a caste, 00. Naladiyar, date of, 69, 219, 254.
Marriage, ti:e Rakshasa form Nalayiiaprabandam, 291.
of, 55 ; among the early Nallandni'aiiar, author of
Tamils, 214 ; connection Kalittogai, 216.
amoiiiit the Tamil kings, 372. Nambis or Nambudris, early
Marumakkatayam hw, 103. Hrahmans of Tamil country,
Mathematics, Tamil, 192, 349, 379.
Mauryan alphabet, ]25. Nambudris, 103; meaning of
Max Muller, quoted, 258. 347; not the sole Jenmis, 350;
Mayura Varma, a king, 348. influence of, 358 ; and Bhatta
Medi.-eval Tamil, 177-180. Brahir.ans, 373.
Meykaiuia Deva, a Saivite Nanihiyandar Nanibi, a .roet,
philosopher, 22-2. 220, 407; age of, 293.
Middle words, 140.
letters in Name giving, 337.
Modern Tamil, 180-; 83; charac- Naiiimalvar, a Vishnuvite Saint
ters, 129, why ;mgular, 131. 65 ; Sanskrit words in his
Mo.iern, Tamil prose, 230. works, 128; life and writings
Molony, Mr.J.C, on Tamil, 135. of, 324; age of, 327-338; on
Monastic learning, 224. the Chera temples, 347.
Mongolian theory, 24. Naiiiml,i\ Tamil grammar, 161.
Moods, 165. Napputanai', a poet, 217.
Mostyar, a Tamil poet, 243. Nasalisation in .Malayalam, 3'!.
Mutattama Kaiitiiyar, 217. Nathamuni, 220, 291; 327, 334.
Mudukudumi Heravaludi, a Nattaltanar, a poet, 216.
Pandiya king, 388, 391. Nayadis, a low caste, 90.
Mudattirumarnn. a king, 252, Nayanars or Saiva saints, 218.
Mukundamalai, a poem, 310. Nayars, 103; composition of the
Mussalmans, attitude towards caste, 352.
foreign literature, 186, 187, Negritos, 56.
Music, 187; works on, 189; his- Neniinadam, a grammar, 219.
tory of, 189, 191. Nelson, H., Ill,
J.
Musiri, an ancient town, 346. Nilakcsi, a Jaina or Buddhist
Muttatasa, feudal chiefs, 69. work, 269.
Muttiriyans, a caste, 69. Nouns, 162; of quality, 162.
Muttollayiram, a poem, 217.
'âcch'Jlaiyar, a poetess, 268. Occupation and castes, 73

424 INDEX
Orthography, Tamil, 113; Sans- Polysynthetic languages, 147.
krit and Tamil compared, 155. Pope, Dr., on Saivism, 383, 401.
Otiaikkutlau, a poet, 84, 220. Poyyamozhi Piilavar, a poet, 255.
Prabhtdmga lila, a poem, 225.
PadirruppatUi, a Chera-Tamil Prayoga Viveliam, 153.
work, 342. Pre-academic period of Tamil
Pall an, a low caste, 70, 71. literature, 212.
Pallava, meaning of, 65, 69, 70, Pie-Aryans, the three types of, 61
214; not liked by Tamil kings, Presents to Tamil poets, 260.
105; downfall of their king- Pronouns, relative, 165.
dom, 106. Pronunciation, of a-, 133; of to
Palli, a caste, 70. (Zh), 134,
Pansor Tamil tunes, 188, 332, Prose literature, 228-230; need
Panans, 11, 54, 102, 235. for, 184.
Panchalas, the {see Kammalas) Pugazheiidi, a poet, 220.
Pandya kings, 48 early, 387 ;
; Puranic Hinduism, 288.
genealogy of, 391. Purapporul Vcnbamalai^ a poem,
Panini, a grammarian, 117. 55, 217, 343.
PannJriipadalani, a work, 217.
Panntrupattiyal, 136. Quantity in Tamil letters, 133.
Paranar, a poet, 216, 267, 271.
Paraiyas, etymology of, 78 ;
Racial varieties, data for de-
origin of the people, 77; termination of, 13.
their former greatness, 79-81; Kajaraja Chola's inscriptions, 77,
Dr. Caldwell on the, 81, 101. 83; castes of his time, 66.
Parani, a war song, 221. Rakshasas, the, 9, 378; ancestors
Parts of speech, 162; difference of Paraiyas, Pallas etc., 54;
in Tamil and Sanskrit, 163. Rakshasam, a form of marri-
Particles (Idai-chol), 162. age, 55, 104.
Pattanavan, a fishing caste, 72. Rama, a tvpical Aryan, 53.
Pavanandi, on letters, 113, 128. Ramanuja Chary a, 111, 222.
Pazhamoli, a poem, 219. Ramayana, the, 51.
Per-arayan, a title, 65. Rangacharya, Prof. M., on caste
Periyalvat 320; age of, 321.
, disputes, 101.
Periyavacchan Ptllai, a Vaish- Ravanii, 52 not
; a Dravidian
nava commentator, 322. Tamil, 53.
Pcrnnipaiiarnippadai, 76. Relations, Tamil words to
Perinuievatiar, a Tamil poet, denote, 105.
219; age of, 247, 254. Religion, broke up castes, 73,
Periingimrur Kizhar, 269. 74 ;in the academic period,
Perunkaiisikanar a poet, 217.
, 251 of the Tamils, 382.
;
Philology, principles of, 143. Rhetoric, 166.

Phonetics, Tamil deficient, 134. Rhys Davids, Dr., on the Tamil
Pidaran, caste, ()i>. alphabet, 119.
PillaiPcrnmal Aiyangar, 225. Rice, JMr. L., 102.
Pingala Nigandii, a Tamil Dic- Right-hand faction, 92 ct- scq ;
tionary, 219. castes, 95; army mentioned in
Poigaiyar, a poet, 250. inscription, 106, 107.
Poli or change in letters, 136. Risley,Sir H.H., 12,13, 17, 24,32.
Poll-tax, 107. Roman colony at Madura, 48, 244.
Polluting castes, 65. Rudran Kannaiiar, a poet, 217.
INDEX 425
Sacred hymns, collection of Tamil, the word explained, G;
Tamil, 292. Mr.Kanakasabhai's derivation,
Saints, the Tamil, 218. 7; affinity with Uralo-Altaic
Saiva activity, early, 292-294. languages, 14, 34 an agglu-
;
Saiva mutts, learning in 224. tinative language, 148, 381 ;
Saiva philosophy, not Dravi- changes in, 145 the Divine

;
dian. 192. origin of, 149; not the only

Saiva Siddhantam defined, 384. Dravidian language, 150 its ;
Saivisro, 383. relationship with Sanskrit,

Sakkai, a caste, 66. 152, 153; and Sanskrit com-
Sakti workship, 96. pared, 163, 166; affiliation of,
Sambandam or marriage, 103. 169, 172; history of early, 173;
Sandhi or coalescence, 160. mediaeval, 17 7; modern, 180;
Sangam, references to, 231, 392; peculiarities of early, 267-280;
meaning of, 23; origin of, 234; Nambudris" attitude to, 368.
age of the second, 241, 243 ;
Tamils, the three racial types
Buddhistic origin, 2.52. among the, 10, 56; a warlike
Sankaracharya, 2. race, 41, 185, 261 ; their cul-
Sanskrit compounds, 159; poets ture, 42; their foreign trade,
and Tamil Sangams, 238 ;
47-50; in Sanskrit epics, 51;
and Tolkapyam, 128. probable date of their migra-
Saitanar, 2l6, 389 a Buddhist; tion, 47; their acquaintance
poet, 251, 258. with the Romans, 48; and the
Sekkilar, age of, 220, 293. Assyrians, 121 ; their com-
Selva Kamhi, a Brahman, 320. merce with the Egyptians,
Sembadavan, caste, 72. 121; rehgion of the, 215, 382.
Semman, leather-workers, 8.5. Tamil-akam, boundaries of, 8.
Sen-Tamil, where spoken, 141. Tamil alphabet, history of, 114;
Sewell, Mr. R., on South Indian when introduced, 115; before
people, 20 on the Tamil
; Agastva, 122; Mr. R.Sewell on
alphabet, 124. the, 124; defective, 124, 134;
Shanan, a caste, 71. origin of, 136.
Ship, Tamil words for the, 48. Tamil castes, 67.
Siddhar school 226. Tamil civilisation, 240; Mr.
Sil appadikaram an early Che-
, Kanakasabhai on, 192; Dr.
ra Tamil work, 342. R. Caldwell on early, 19.3;
Siva giianatpu 111, on letters, 133; due to Agastya, 237.
on usage, 144 on the origin
; Tamil Dictionary, copiousness
of Tamil. 149. of. 261.
Sivavakkfyar and Tirumalisai Tamil kings, and the Mahabha-
Alvar, 306. rata war, 44; are Kshatri\-as,
Smith, Mr. Vincent, 39, 49, 265. 61 ; of Malabar, 357; none
Social life in Kerala, 274. in Rama's time, 54.
Soligas, a forest tribe, 56. Tamil learning,how encouraged,
Sourashtras, a weaver caste, 60. 255, 253.
Srivaramangalam, 331. Tamil ]etters,origin of, 136, 382.
Sutidaraiiiiirti Nayanar, 407, Tamil literature, extent of, 191;
Suryanarayana Sastri, 200. division of. 187; posterior to
Swaminatha Desika, on Tamil Aryan contact, 195 Mr. ;
and Sanskrit, 152; on Tamil Damodaram Pillai's division

letters, 156. of, 198-200; Mr. Suryanara-
426 INDEX
yaiia's,200,201;Dr. Caldwell's Tondaradifpodi Alvar, 307.
201— 20i; Dr. Hunter's, 204 Topinard, Dr.. 18.
M. Juhen Vinson's, 207-210 Toti,meaning of, SO.
proposed 211-213
division, Trade with Babylon, iT f.ii, 43.
periods of, 386, 399 ; pre- Traditions, 16; value ot, 3S7.
academic period, 212 ; Translations, Tamil, 219.
academic period, 213; hymnal Travancore, a Kodum-Tamil
period, 217; exegetical period, country, 344.
222-224 ; modern period, 224, Turkic and Tamil, 165.
226; and by Namhudri's, 372. Trignana Sambanda fJayanar
Tamil research, the new School a Saiva samt, 396, 207.
of, 46, 51.
Tamil Scholars, self-sufficiency Udayanakavyam, a poem, 219.
of, 195. Ugra Peruvaludi, a king, 249;
Tamil words inSanskrit, 154, 161. age of, 252.
Tamil works, approved by the Ula, a kind of poem, 221, 222.
Sangam, 216. Umapati Sivacharya, a Saivite
Tayamanaswami, 65. divine, 222.
Tembavatii, a poem, 225. Umaru Pulavar, a poet, 225.
Temple building begun, 290. Unnayi Variyar, a Malayalam
Tengu or cocoanut, 415. poet, 361.
Ten Tamil Idvlls, The, 88. Uralo-Altaic languages and
Ten Tens, the, 264. Tamil, 14; group and the
Ter-Chelian, age of, king, 253. Dravidian family, 170.
Tevan, a title, 415. Usimuri, a work on Tamil pro-
Third Sangam, described, 245 ;
sody, 217.
dissolution 248, 251.
of,
Thomas, Mr. E., on the Indian Vaidya, an extinct caste, 64.
alphabets, ll9. Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra, 87.
Tiruchengunrur, a Brahman Vajra Nandi, a Jain teacher, 251.
centre in Kcala, 347. Valaiyapaii, a Jaina work, 219.
Tirumalisal Alvar, 302-307. Vali and Sugriva, 56.
Tirumangai Alvar, 29, 311 ;
Valluvas, Paraya priests, 99.
age of, 317. Vanamamalai Mutt, 331.
Tiriimurais, a collection of Saiva Vanniyan, a caste, 69.
religious hymns, 220. Vanaras, the, 51, 56, 377.
Tirunakkurasar, same as Appar. Vannans, a caste, 77.
Tiriippaii alvar, 307. Varagunamangai, 330.
Tinittakka Deva, 255. Variyan, a Malabar caste, 66.
Tiriittonda-Togai, a list of Saiva Vatteluttu, 114 history of, 116
; ;
Saints, 406. introduced, 119; Dr. Burnell

Tiruialluvar, an ethical poet, on, 120; Drs. Buhler and
216, 285; malai, 247-249. Caldwell on, 120 and other
;
Tiyans, a Malabar caste, 103, alphabets compared, 123 ;

411. and Izhavans, oo5, 417. independant origin of, 121;
Todas, 13, 38, 379. borrowed from Semites, 124;
Tolkapyar, age of, 116, 400; des- Tolkapyar's description of,
cribes only Vatteluttu, 122, 126 ; not borrowed from
126; Mr. A. H. Keane on, 138; Brahmi, 128, 131.
on final letters, 139. Vedan, a hunting caste, 29, 101.
Tomb stones, 40. Vedas, unwritten, 234.
INDEX 427
Vedanta Desika, 222, 385. Vowel-consonantal signs, 129-

Velaikkarar (infanfrj'), 106. 131.
Vellallas, the, 38, 61; etymology Vulgar Tamil and Malavalam,
of tiie name, 42; their posi- 367.
tion in the caste system, 61 ;
account of, 63-65; in Mala- Wars with the Cheras, 372.

bar, 353. West-coast towns in Tamil
Velirs (Vellalas), 61, 62. literature, 3-16.
Veiibainahn, a Chera-Tamil Whitney, Prof. W. D., on the
work. (See Piirapporul.) growth of lanjjuage, 145-147.
Venkayva, Mr. V., on the Tamil Word-formation in Tamil and
alphabet, 125. Sanskrit, 157.
VillifiUtiirar, a poet, 225. Words, rules for Tamil, 137-140 ;
Vira Fukka Raya, 112. coining not allowed, 262.
Virakkals or tombstones, 40.
Vinson. M. Julien, 207-210. Yakshas or Rakshasas, 54.
Virasoiiyavi, 65 f. n.; 161, 220. Yanadis, a forest tribe, 88.
Vishnuism, earlv history of, 288; Yavanas, 59/. ;/., 244, 265.
Dr. Pope on, 385, Yazh, described, IciS.
Vishnu temples, ancient, 289. Yesodarakavyani a poem, 219
,
Vishnuvardhana, 4 king, 336,

Vocabulary, Tamil, 153; Malaya-
lam, 369-371. Zh (iP), 30, 134.
The End.
The Guardian Press, Madras.

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
Los Angeles )SAK.
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.

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MAP OF Ind|/\ W *|/ a u<-7 '^'^Ti

ESSAYS ON THE HISTORY OF THE TAMIL

M. SRINIVASA AIYANGAR, M.A.

WITH MAP AND PLATE

J[All rights reserved"}

THE GUARDIAN PRESS, MADRAS

SIR HAROLD STUART, k.cy.o., C.s.i., i.c.s,

/Aerober of Qouncil, /AadraS

3s by Hind pern))SSion roost reSpectfutty

(Cs a bu")bte tribute of gratitude

past researches, so as to present before the

tions in the light of further discoveries and

investigations. Any criticism calculated to

ENGLISH WORKS CONSULTED

Macleane, Dr. Manual of Administration.

Stuart, SirH. A.— Madras Census Report, 1891.

compliance with the wish of the author, written this

vitality and undecaying vigour of the Tamil people,

which the great Tamil classics, together with their

mention their mighty and majestic God-aspiring

found to be absolutely faultless and acceptable to all.

It is invariably the fate of opinions, relating to the

elements of what may be called constructive history,

data as well as to adjust the scantily available evidence

has led me to feel that their author has earnestly end-

and has calmly and courageously exercised his

gathered his varied materials and endeavoured to

Introduction ... ... ... xi

Essay I. The Tamil People. — Introduction — the

plained — the Tamil country — ancient limits its

Essay II.The Tamil People — The (continued).

Essay III.The Tamil People — (5)The (continued).

Essay IV. The Tamil Castes. —

Essay V. The Tamil — 'continued). — The

Essay VI. The Tamil Alphabet. —

Essay VII. The Place of Tamil in Philology.

Essay VIII. Periods of Tamil Literature

rable from religion —

Essay IX. The Tamil Academies. — Introduction

Essay X. TheTenTens. — Description of the work

Essay XI The Vaishnava Saints Introduction

Essay XII. The Origin of Malayalam. — Introduc-