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UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION AND CHAIN SURVEYING :
Definition : Principles classification Field

and office work scales

conventional signs survey instruments, there care CE and adjustments Ranging and
chaining Reciprocal ranging setting perpendiculars well conditional triangles
traversing plotting Enlarging and reducing figures
Surveying
Surveying can be defined as an art to determine the relative position of points on
above are beneath the surface of the earth with respect to each other by measurement of
horizontal and vertical distances, angles and directions.
State the principles of Surveying
Surveying is Location of a point by measurement from other points of reference
and Working from whole to part.
steps involved in the survey
Steps to be followed during survey are,
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Reconnaissance.
Marking and fixing survey stations.
Running survey lines.

Engineers scale
If one cm on the plan represents some whole number of meters on the ground,
such as 1cm = 10m. This type of scale is called Engineers scale.
Representative Fraction (R.F).
If, one unit of length on the plan represents some number of same units of length
on the ground, such as 1/1000, etc. This ratio of map distance to the corresponding
ground distance is independent of units of measurement and is called Representative
Fraction

points to be considered while choosing the scale

1. Choose a scale Large enough so that in plotting or in scaling distance from the
finished map, it will be not be necessary to read the scale closer than 0.25mm

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2. Choose as small a scale as a consisted with a clear delineation of the smallest
detail to be plotted.

the types of Scales

Scales used in surveying are
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Plain scale.
Diagonal scale.
Vernier scale.
Scale of chords.

Ranging
The process if marking some intermediate points an a survey line join in two
station in the field, So that the line between the two station is a straight line and the length
between the station can be measured correctly, is called Ranging
Direct Ranging
When intermediate ranging rods are fixed along by direct observation from
either end stations. The process is known as direct ranging.
indirect or Reciprocal Ranging
Indirect ranging:- when end station are not clearly visible any how arbitrary
station in-between A & B are selected so that C & D are visible from end station A & B
station C in align so that it is inline with the along B by station B is align so that it is in
line with the along A & C by successively directing each other. The two stations C & D
go on changing their position until both are exactly inline with AB.
Differentiate Accuracy and Precision
Precision is the degree of perfection used in the instruments, the methods and
observations.
Accuracy is the degree of perfection obtained.
sources of Errors in chain surveying
Instrumental Error
The Error due to, Imperfection in construction and adjustment of the instrument, The
incorrect graduation,. The improper adjustment of the plate level are called Instrumental
Error.
Personal Error.
The Error due to, Lack of perfection in human sight, Lack of perfection in and setting
the instruments are called personal Error..

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Natural Error
The Error due to Variations in Natural phenomena such as Temperature, humidity,
gravity, refraction and magnetic declination are called Natural Error.

Chain Surveying
It is the branch of surveying in which the distances are measured with a chain and
tape and the operation is called chaining.

Main station:
Main station is a point in chain survey where the two sides of a traverse are meet.
These stations command the boundaries of the survey and are designated by capital
letters.

Tie Station (or) Sub Station:It is a station on a survey line jointing two main stations. These are helpful for
locating interior details of the area to be surveyed and are designated by small letters.
Main survey line :
The chain line joining two main survey stations is called main survey line tie line
or Sub line.
A chain line journey two tie station is called sub line. These are provided to locate
the interior details.
Base line:It is longest main survey line on a fairly level ground and passing through the
center of the area. It is the most importing line as the direction of all other survey line of
fixed with respect to this line.
Check line: - Check line (or) Proof line is a line which is provided to check the accuracy
of the field work.
Off set: - It is distance of the object from the survey line. It may be perpendicular (or)
oblique.
Chain age: - It is the distance of a well defined point from the starting point in chain
survey its normally referred to as it the distance of offset from the starting point on the
chain age or chain line.
A, B, C, D, E is main station or boundary station
AD = Check line.
BE = Base line
CP = Distance of offset
BP = Chain aged CP
BD = Chain age at D
A, B, BC = Tie line.

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Cumulative Error:These are errors, which are liable to occur in the same direction and to
accumulate. Therefore the actual length can be found by separating the error from
measure.
These error may be caused an
(i) The length of chain is shorted then the std length.
(ii) Bending of links, knots, links removal of links. During the adjustment of chain etc.
(iii) Not applying slope correction to the length measured in the slopes.
(iv) Not applying temperature correction. When temperature will churning measurement
is different from temperature during calends.
(v) bad range, bad starting and wrong lining.
Compensative Error
These are errors, which are liable to occur in both the direction and tend to
compensate. Compensating errors are proportional to the square route of length of the
line.
These error may be caused due to,
(i)incorrect holding & marking of the arrows
(ii) incorrect plumbing while chaining on slopes.
Instruments used for setting perpendiculars are
(i)

Cross staff
(a) Open cross staff,
(b) French cross staff,
(c) Adjustable cross staff.
Optical square,
Prism square,
Site square.

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Traversing
Traversing is the type of survey, in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help
of an angle measuring instrument and a chain or tape.
closed traverse and open traverse
When the survey lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, is called
Closed Traverse. If the circuit ends elsewhere, it is called open traverse.
Open Traverse.
State the methods of Traversing.

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(i) Chain Traversing,
(ii) Chain and compass traversing(loose needle method)
(iii) Transit Tape Traversing:
(a) By fast needle method.
(b) By measurement of angles between the lines.
(iv) Plane table traversing.
chain Traversing
In this method the whole of the work is done with the chain and tape. No angle
measuring instrument is used and the direction of lines are fixed entirely by linear
measurements.
chain angles
In chain traversing, the angles fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as
chain angles.
Well conditioned and Ill conditioned Triangles.
Well conditioned Triangle:The triangles having internal angles between 30 & 130 are known as well
condition triangle.
ILL conditioned Triangles:The triangles having angles less than 30 and more than 130 are known ill
condition triangle.
Pantagraph.
Pantagraph is an instrument used for reproducing , enlarging and reducing the maps. It
is based on the principle of similar triangles.
classification of survey.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY :
Based on Accuracy desired:
Plane Survey:
Surveying which the mean surface of earth regarded as plain surface and
not curve it really is known as plain surveying.
A following Assumption are made:
(i) A level line is considered a strait line thus the plump line at a point is parallel plump
line at any after point.
(ii) The angles between two such lines that intersect is a plain angle and not a sphere
angle.
(iii) The meridian through any two points parallel.

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(iv) When we deal with only a small portion earths surface the above assumptions can
justify.
(v) The error induced for a length of an 18.5 kms its only 0.0152 ms grater than sub
dented chord 1.52 cm.
Geodetic survey :
Survey is which the shape (curvature) of the earth surface is taken in the account a
higher degree of precision is exercised in linear and angular measurement is tanned as
Geodetic Survey. A line connecting two points is regarded as an arc. Such surveys extend
over large areas.
Based an instrument used:
Chain Survey :
When a plan is to be made for a very small open field. The field may consist of
linear (length) measurement only.
All the measurement are done with a chain and a tape how ever chain survey is
limited in it adaptation because of obstacles to strain like stress and shrubs also it can be
resorted to in densely buildup areas. It is recommended for plaints involving the
development of buildings, roads, water supply and sea way scams.
Traverse Survey :
When the linear measurements are done chain and tape an the direction are angle
are measured with compass are transit this survey is called traversing.
In traversing speed and accuracy of field work is end hand.
For Example:
The boundaries of feet can be accurately by a frame work of lines a/o it forming
an open traverse. On the o/h hand in a den slip populated area. The survey work can be
carried work with a frame work of lines forming a closed traverse.
A traverse survey is very useful in large projects such as reservoirs and dams etc.
Tachometry :This is a method of surveying which both a horizontal & vertical distance are
determine by observing a graduate.
Staffs with transit equipment with special telescope having steady wire and
analytics lenses. It is very useful when the direct measurement of horizontal distance are
in accessible it is surely becomes for making contour planes of building a straits reservoir
etc.

LEVELLING :This is an method of surveying in which the relative vertical heights of the points
are determined by employing by level under graded staff. In planning a construction
project. Inspective office extend that in from as all building to a dam. It is disentail with
known depth for the foundation trenches, filling etc.,
This can be achieving by collecting complete information regarding the relative
heights of the ground by leveling.

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Plane table survey :
It is a graphical method of survey in which field work un plotting arch then
simultaneously.
A Clinometers is used in conjunction with plane table to plot the contours of the area and
for filling in the details.

This method of surveying is advantages as there is no possibility of omitting any

necessary measurements. The field being in view which plotting the details like
boundaries shape line etc., can be plotted exactly to their true shapes the only
disadvantage plan table is that it cant recommended in humitchimit.
Theodolite :
When the areas to be survey is of consider extent triangulation is adopted. The
entire area is divided into a network of triangles any one side of any of the triangles so
from is selected and its measured prescreen such a line called base line all the angles in
the network are measured. They length of the size of all the triangle are then computer
from the measured length of the base line and the observe angles with a help of sine
formula.
Error in chain survey measurements and how it can be rectified.
Errors in measurement :Due to continues usage of chain over rough areas the chain becomes to long or to
short over at period of time. The chain is to long the measure distance will be less and on
the other hand it to short a measured distance will move. Let
L be the true length of the chain
L be the faulting length of the chaining when true line of the line equal

= L1 /L x measured length
true area equal to
Area = ( L1 /L)2 x measured area
True volume : (L1/L)3 x measured volume.
1. The length of line measured with he was found to be 250ms calculate the true
length of line if 1. Length was measured with 30m chain and the chain was 10cm.
to long.
2. Length of chain 30m in the beginning and the 30.1m at the end of the work.
Actual Length (L) = 30mn
F
(L1)= 30.10M
True length
= L1/L x measurement of length
= 30.1 /30 x 250 = 250.83M
Average length of full length = 30.00 + 30.10 /2
= 30.05

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= 30.05/30 x 250 = 250.42M.

The area of plane of an old survey platen to a scale of 10m = 1cm now measured as
19.5cm2 as found by plane meter. The plan is found to have shrunk that a line originally
10cm long now measures 9.5cm only. A note on the plane also states that the 20m.
Chain used was 9cm short. Find true area of the survey?
SOLUTION:
Measured Area = 19.5cm2
Actual length of paper -> 10cm.
Measured error length -> 9.5cm.
True Area = (L1/L)2 x measured Area.
= (9.5/10)2 x 19.5
= 17.59 cm2
Scale -> 10cm = 1.cm.
1cm2 = 1 x 1cm.
= 10m x 10m
= 100m2
17.cm2 = 17.59 x 100 m = 1759.8m
Area is field when measured with = 1759.8m
A chain (L) = 20m
Error (L1) = 20 0.9 = 19.91m
True area = (19.91 / 20) x 1759.8
= 1743.9 m
A field was measured using 30 m chain which was 15m too short. The area was
calculated as 320m after applying correction. Later it was found that the chain is 15 cm
too long calculate the true area.
Data :

True area = (true length/ measured length) X measured area

A = 320 m
LE = 30 0.15 = 29.85m
LA = 30.00 m
True area

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320 m = (29.85 /30) x Measured Area (M.A)
M.A = 316.8 m
Correction = 30 +0.15 = 30.15 m
LA = 30.00 m
= ( 30.15 / 30) x 316.8
True area = 319. 99 m

A field was measured using 30 m chain which was 15m too long. The area was calculated
as 320m after applying correction. Later it was found that the chain is 15 cm too short
calculate the true area.
Data :
A = 320 m
LE = 30 + 0.15 = 30.15 m
LA = 30.00 m
True area
320 m = (30.15 /30) x Measured Area (M.A)

M.A = 323.21m
Correct

= 30 -0.15 = 29.85 m
LA = 30.00 m
= (29.85 / 30) x 323.21

True area = 319. 99 m

Tape corrections that can be applied for the measured lengths.

Corrections :Depending on the accuracy requires certain correction are to be made to the
original measurements correction for
Error in chain Length :
Before using tape the axial length is ascertain by comparing with the std tape of
known length. If the axial tape button is not equal to the value. A correction will have to
be applied to the measured length.

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True length = (L1/L) X Measured length
Where L1 is corrected length of chain or tape
L is observed length of chain or tape
Correction for slope :The distance measured along the slope is always grater than the horizontal
distance between the print. .. the distance is measured on the slope it must be
immediately reduced to its corresponding horizontal distance.
Correction for slope CSL = h2/2L
Correction for slope CSL = L D
Cos = D /L
D = L cos
Correction for tension (or) pull :It the pull applied the tape during measurement is more than the std pull at which
the tape was std is length increases take the distance measured becomes less than the
actual. Hence correction for pull.
CP =(P PO / AE) X L
Were
PO is Std pull P = pull applied during measurement
A = Area of Cr s of tap; E = youngs modulus 2.1 x 105 N/m for steel
L is the tape length`
Correction for Temp :The tape length changes due to changes with temperature while take a
measurements. The fare temperature cared.
CT = (Tm To) L
Tm is mean Temp during measurement
To is Temp at which the tape is sodalist
= co-efficient of thermal expansion
= 0.0000032 m/oc for steel
= 0.00000122 m/oc for invar.
Sag Correction :
When the tape is stretch between
two points. It takes be form d
catenae. Assure to a parabola considerately. The measured length is more than the actual
length.
CSC = W L1 / 24P

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W = weight of tap
P = pull apply in new tans spans
L1 = measurement length of tape between spans
Sag correction will be always negative ie it has to be always subtracted from the
measured length.

A line was measured with a steel tape which exactly 30m at a temperature 20c and pull
of 10 Kg. the measure length 1650 m. temperature during measured 30c and pull apply
was 15 Kg. tin the true length of live C.S.A. of tape was 0.025 Cm & = 40c is 3.5 x 10 6
and E is of take 2.1 x 106 Kg/Cm.

Given:-

Lt = 30
To = 20c
Tn =30c
Po = 10kg
Pr = 15Kg
Pm = 1650
= 3.5 x 10-6 M/sec.
E = 2.1 x 106 Kg/Cm2
A = 0.025 Cm.
Ct= (Tm -To ) L
= 3.5x10-6 x (30c -20c )1650
= 0.05775 ms.

CP = P PO /AE x L = 15 10 /(0.025 x 2.1 x106) 1650 x 102

= 15.71 kg/cm = 0.157 kg/cm
True length

= 1650 + 0.057775 + 0.157

= 1650.215m

The down hill end of 30m tape is 90cm too low what is horizontal distance measured.
Lt = 30m
Correction for slope CSL
Cs = h2/2L = (0.9)2 /2 x 30 = 0.0135m
D = L - Cs => 30 0.0135
= 29.99 mm

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The 100m tape is suspended between the ends attached to a load of 200N the weight of
tape is 30N. Find correct distance between the ends.
Given:
WF = 30N
P = 200N
lF = 100
Correction for pull

l = 100M
P = 200N
W = 30N

Csg = W2L1 / 24 P2 = 302 x 100 /24 x 2002

= 0.09375 m
True length = 100 0.9375
= 99.91m

A steel tape is 30 m long between the end graduation 30m long between the at a temp
15c when its horizontal and the ground when sectional area = 0.065cm total weight
15.8N. And the co-efficient expansion being 11.5 x 10-6 c. The tape its stretch on two
support 30M append its also supports in the tape. The three supports being at the same
level. Calculate axial level between the ends it temperature during measurement is 25c
pull a the tape 100N and E=2.11 x 105N /n2

Given:
L = 30M
Correction for temperature :
CT = (Tm -To ) L
= 11.5x10-6 (25c -15c )30
= 0.00034M
CP = (P PO) / AE x L
Sag Correction :
C sag = (7.9)2 x 15 / 24 x (1002)
= 0.0039M

Correction pull :
CP = (P PO) / AE x L
= 100 0 / 0.065 x 271 x 105 x 30
= 0.219m

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True length = 30 0.0039 x 2 + 0.0034 + 0.219
= 29.99 m
The distance P & Q measured along a slope is 250M fink horizontal distance between P.
If (1) angle of slope 10 (2) slope is 14.5 (3) the differential elevation.
If angle of slope 10
D = L cos
= 250 cos 10
D = 246.20M
Slope is 14.5
tan = opp x d / adjust x d
= 1 / 4.5
tan = 0.22
D = 250 cos 12.54 = 244.17m
= tan-1 0.22 = 1224
CSL = h /2L = 35 / 2x 250 = 2.45
D = L 2.45 = 247.55
Offsets:An offset is the lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured from a
survey line. By method of offsets, the point or object is located by measurement of a
distance and angle from a point on the chain line.
Perpendicular offset
When the angle of offset is 90, the it is called Perpendicular offset or simply
offset. In this method, the leader holds the zero end of the tape at the point P to be
located and the follower carries the tape box and swing the tape along the chain. The
length of the offset is the shortest distance from the object to the chain obtained by
swinging the tape about the object as centre. The position of the offset on the chain is
located by the point where the arc is tangential to the chain.
Oblique offset
when the angle is other than 90 then it is called an oblique offset
Method of ties
in this method the distance of the point is measured from two separate points
on the chain line such that the three points form, as nearly as possible an equilateral
triangle.

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II. COMPASS SURVEYING AND PLANE TABLE SURVEYING :

Prismatic compass surveyors compass bearing system of
conversions Local attraction magnetic declination Dip Traversing
Plotting Adjustment of errors plane table instrument and accessories
merits and demerits methods Radiation intersection Resection
Traversing.
Compass Surveying .
The branch of surveying in which direction of survey line are
determine by a compass and their length by a chain or tape is called compass
surveying. This type of survey can be used to measure large areas with
reasonable speed and accuracy.

prismatic compass
Prismatic compass is a instrument used to measure the bearing of
a line. It consists of a magnetic needle pivoted at the center and is free to
rotate. The area below the magnetic needle is graduated between 0 to 360
degrees. The instrument cover consists of a sighting vane and vertical hair to
align the compass along the instrument station and the staff station.

Traverse
A series of connected straight lines each joining two points

is

called traverse. Traverse may be either a closed traverse (or) open traverse.
Traversing using compass is done by observing magnetic bearings of
surrounding points from a point and shifting the point of observation along the
traverse direction.
Fore and Back bearing
A line may be expressed by two bearings observed from the either end
of the line. Both the bearings expressed in whole circle bearing deter each
other by 180. The bearing of the line in the direction of progress of survey is
called fore or Forward bearing while the bearing opposite to the direction of
the progress of survey is known as reverse of Back bearing.

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closing error
When a close traverse is plotted from the field measurements the ends
stations of a traverse generally doesnt coincide exactly in the starting station.
This is due to the error in field observations such an error of traverse is
known as closing error or error of closer.
local attraction in determining bearing of a line
Bearing of a line is determined using a magnetic needle. In
certain locations presence of high voltage cables, railway tracks, etc alters the
orientation of the magnetic needle towards the north, there by erroneous
readings are observed. This can be minimized by taking back bearings to the
same line or by taking observations from intermediate points in between the
stations.
Dip
When a magnetic needle is suspended freely it always points
north. Due to certain factors magnetic needle may not point true north, it
points at a direction away from north called magnetic north. The included
angle between magnetic north and true north is called dip or declination.
Plane table surveying
The principle of plane tabling in based on the fact that the lines jointing
the points in the plane table are made to line parallel to the corresponding
lines joining the points while working at each station. In this method
observations and plotting are done simultaneously minimizing error and time.
Name the methods employed in Plane table surveying.

This surveying may be carried by one of the following method:(i)

Radiation

(ii)

Traversing

(iii)

Intersection

(iv)

Resection method

Plane table traversing

Method of traversing by a plane table is similar to that of compass
traverse. In plane table traverse a table is set at each successive station a
fore site is taken to the next station and its location is plotted by measuring

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the distance directly between the two stations. Sometimes a resection may
be drawn from the location between the two stations to minimize the error.

true and magnetic meridian.

True meridian is the angle between the observed line and
actual north. This is the bearing observed in the absence of local attraction or
magnetic declination.
Magnetic meridian is the angle between the observed line
and magnetic north. Magnetic north may deviate from true north due to local
attraction or magnetic declination.
True Meridian = Magnetic Meridian ~ Dip
Compass Surveying:The branch of surveying in which direction of survey line are determine
by a compass and their length by a chain or tape is called compass surveying.
The method of chain surveying is used for small areas of survey. If the
area to be surveyed is comparatively large with undulations compass survey
is adopted, before recommending the compass survey for any area, it must be
ascertained the area is not magnetically declined.
Traverse:A series of connected straight lines each joining two points

is called

traverse. Traverse may be either a closed traverse (or) open traverse.

Traversing using compass is done by observing magnetic bearings of
surrounding points from a point and shifting the point of observation along the
traverse direction.
Designation of bearings:Bearings of survey lines are design as
(i)

Whole circle bearing

(ii)

Quadrental bearing

Whole Circle Bearing (WCB)

In this method bearings of lines are observed from magnetic north and
are observed directly from the prismatic compass.

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Quadrental Bearing (QB )
These are bearings of lines from north or south towards east or west.
These values are usually reduced from observed whole circle bearing for the
ease of calculation of included angles and plotting.
Convert the following whole circle bearing to quadrental bearing.
(i) 12 45

(i)

(ii) 160 10 (iii) 285 15

12 45

Quadrental bearing of 12 45 is N12 45E

(ii)

160 10

Quadrental bearing of 160 10 is S19.50E

(iii) 285 15
Quadrental bearing of 285 15 is N 74 45 W
Convert the follow quadrental bearing to whole circle bearing
(i) N 30 30E

(ii) S 70 42 E

(iii) N 85 10 W

(i) N 30 30E
Whole circle bearing of N 30 30E is 30 30
(ii) S 70 42 E
Whole circle bearing of S 70 42 E is = 180 - 70 42
= 109 18
(iii) N 85 10 W
Whole circle bearing of N 85 10 W is = 360 - 85 10
= 274 50

Fore and Back bearing:A line may be expressed by two bearings observed from the either end
of the line. The bearing of the line expressed along the line of traverse is
called fore bearing and bearing observed opposite to the line of traverse is

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called back bearing. Both the bearings expressed in whole circle bearing
deter each other by 180. The bearing of the line in the direction of progress
of survey is called fore or forward bearing while the bearing opposite to the
direction of the progress of survey is known as reverse of Back bearing
By observation of fore bearing and back bearing of a line two
observations are made to a line minimizing error and improving the
accuracy.This also helps in identifying local attraction, if the difference
between the fore and back bearing expressed in whole circle bearing is not
exactly 180, then one or both of

the observation points suffers local

attraction.
The fore bearing of travels site are as follows:
AB = 85 10

CD = 265 51

BC = 155 30

DE = 355 30

Find their Back Bearings?

Back bearing of
AB = 180 + 85 10
= 265 10
Back bearing of BC = 180 + 155 30
= 335

Back bearing of CD = 360

= 265 5 180
= 85 5
Back bearing of DE = 355 30 180
= 175 30
precautions to be taken during compass surveying for maximum
accuracy of the observations.
Precautions to be taken in compass survey.
The instrumental and observation error can be minimized by taking the
following precisions.
(i) Setup & level the compass carefully.
(ii) Stop the vibration of the needle by gently pressing the break pin so that it
may come to rest soon.

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(iii) Always lift along the needle and not across to avoid parallax.
(iv) When the instrument is not in use its magnetic needle should be kept
above the pivot. If, not the pivot is subjected to unnecessary wear which may
cause sluggishness of the magnetic needle. Before taking a reading the
compass box should be gently tapped to ensure the magnetic needle is freely
swinging and has not come to rest due to friction of the pivot
(v) Stations should be selected such that they are away from sources of local
attraction.
(vi) Fore & Back bearing of each line should be taken to guard against the
local attraction, if the compass cannot be set at the end of line, the bearings
may be taken from any intermediate point along the line.
(vii) Avoid taking a reading in the wrong direction.
(viii) If the glass cover has been dusted with hand kerchief. The glass cover
may be charged with electro static current and needle adheres to the glass
cover. This may be avoided by applying moist finger to the glass.
(ix) Objective and the eye piece must be straight before making observations.
Compute magnetic declination for the following observations.
S.No.

Station

F.B

B.B

1.

AB

80 45

2.

BC

130 30

311 35

3.

CD

240 15

60 15

4.

DA

290 30

110 10

AB => 260 - 80 45

260

= 179 15

BC => 130 30 ~ 311 35 = 181 5

DA => 290 30 ~ 110 10 = 180 20
Magnetic error 1 30 w
Compute the included angles.

S.No.

Station

Fore bearing

Back bearing Inc Angle

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7
79 15

1.

AB

2.

BC

129

3.

CD

238 45

4.

DA

289

258 30
310 5
58 45
108 40

29 25
129 30
71 20
129 45

A = 108 40 - 79 15 = 29 25
B = 258 30 - 129

=129 30

C = 310 5 - 238 45

= 71 20

D = ( 360 +58 45) - 289 = 129 45

Sum of included angles = 360

closing error.
Adjustment of closing errors:When a close traverse is plotted from the field measurements the ends
stations of a traverse generally doesnt coincide exactly in the starting station.
This is due to the error in field observations such an error of traverse is
known as closing error or error of closer. When the angular and linear
measurement is of equal proportion graphical adjustment of the traverse may
be made. Correction is applied to the length as well as bearing of the lines in
proportion to their links. Graphical method is also known as proportionate
method of adjustment.
When the closing error is to be adjusted with angles alone equal
distribution of error is done to all the observed angles. Total error is
calculated, from which total correction is arrived. The correction is equally
divided to all the stations eliminating closing error.
plane table surveying the methods employed in plane table surveying.
Plane table surveying:The principle of plane tabling in based on the fact that they lines
jointing the points in the plane tube are made to line parallel to the

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8
corresponding lines jointing the around points while working at each station.
Instrument used in plane table surveying

(i). Plane table with stand

(ii) Alidade of straight rule.
(iii) Sprite level
(iv) Magnetic compass
(v) Plumping fork
(vi) Drawing paper
Methods of plane table surveying:This surveying may be carried a by one of the following method:(v)

Radiation

(vi)

Traversing

(vii)

Intersection

(viii)

Resection method

Radiation method:In method the plane table is set up at any convenient station, details of
points are plotted on the paper by orienting line drawn from the location of the
instrument station to the ground station. After reducing their respected ground
distance on the desired scale of survey the distance between the ground
stations are determined. This method is suitable for survey of small areas
which can be commanded from a single station.
PROCEDURE :The following steps are to be followed to locate the points from the
instrument station.
(i) Set up the plane table at the station centre and level it accurately.
(ii) Choose location of point A on the drawing paper at a convinent
location.

(iii) Consider the lay out of the area on the plane table and draw the
magnetic north will be of magnetic compass .

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9
(iv) Pivot the alidate about A, the location of instrument station and
site the points B, C, D . Etc., and draw lines along the fiducial edge
of the alidate.
(v) Measure the ground distance by direct chaining and plot them on
the respective line. If the ground is slopping. Slope

correction is

applied and corresponding horizontal distances are plotted.

Method of intersection:In this method either the coordinates of at least two stations and
inter visible points must be known or the distance between them should be
measured directly in the field. These points are plotted on the required
convenient scale. The locations of other points are determine by drawing rays
from each end station after proper orientation of the table. The inter section of
rays gives the location of other points. It is thus evident that it is very essential
to have al least two points ie, two locations are plotted before the survey may
be started.

The line joining the location of given station is known as base line. In
this method no other linear measurement is required except that of the base
line.
The point of inter section of the rays drawn from the ends of the base
line forms the vertex of the triangle and two rays represent the remaining two
sides. The position of the vertex in determined by completing the triangle
graphically. This method is also known as graphical triangulation.
Traversing method:-

Method of traversing by a plane table is similar to that of compass

traverse. In plane table traverse a table is set at each successive station a
fore site is taken to the next station and its location is plotted by measuring
the distance directly between the two stations. Sometimes a resection may be
drawn from the location between the two stations to minimize the error.

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Resection method :The process of determining the location of the station by the plane
table by means of drawing rays from stations whose location have been
already plotted on the sheet is called resection. This method which is also
generally known as interpolation method or fixing method consist of drawing
rays from known points whose locations already exist on the sheet. The
intersection of these rays will be the instrument station point, if the orientation
of the table was correct before the rays are drawn.

(i)

Back ray method

In this method a plane table is oriented by laying alidate along the line
drawn from the previous station. The location of the unknown instrument
station is determine by drawing a ray from another station or point whose
location is already plotted on the sheet. This method can be suitably
employed for the plane table survey when a prominent point such as temple
spire, church etc., is available in the center of the area. After setting a plane
table successive stations and their locations can be obtained from drawing
rays from their corresponding points on the paper. This method is also used
for large scale surveys where long rays are drawn. Their accuracy of the
survey depends upon the accuracy with which initial setting of the table was
done.
points to be noted while using plane table.
The following points are to be taken care of to minimize errors in
plane table surveying.
1. The actual plotted location of the station on the sheet must be exact
over the ground station mark. A error of 30 cm in centering incase of a std ray
of 20m includes an error of one degree in orientation. The error is
accumulative.
2. The forward station must be carefully selected and marked by a
wooden peg before a forward ray is drawn. The back station must also be
similarly mark with a wooden peg. Its position vertically below the plotted
point is transferred before leaving the station.

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3. A forward ray should be marked using the full length of alidate so
that error is minimized while back orienting in the next station.
4. The same side of the alidate should be used for drawing rays.

three point method of resection.

Three point method of Resection :It is used to locate a station by using plane table on a plan by means of
sighting three well define points whose locations are previously plotted on the
sheet.
Procedure :In this method the plane table is setup with the help of three known
points without visiting them. Let a, b, c represent the location of A, B, C three
ground stations and P represent the instrument position the location of which
is to be determined on the plan. The table is set to be oriented when rays
drawn from three points A, B, C intersect at a point and the drawn rays form a
triangle. The point of intersection of three rays is the required location of the
instrument station on the plan.

Two point method:This method is used in location of station occupied by the table by
means of sighting two well defined points whose location have previously
been plotted on the sheet.
Let the two points A & B whose location have been plotted as points a,
b on the sheet. Let c be the instrument position whose location its required
choose the auxiliary point D such that CD is approximately parallel & roughly
equal to AB by eye judgment. Orient the table over point C such that location
ab like parallel to ground position AB this can be done by eye judgment.
Clamp the table pivoting the alidade about ab draw rays to intersect at C. The
degree of accuracy of the location C thus obtains depends upon the
approximation that has been due on the orientation. Transfer the point c as
the ground point C with a plumbing fork.
Pivot the alidate about C site the station D and draw again shift the
table to the station D and orient accurately with the back ray method.
Ensuring that ray CD passes through a point vertically about ground mark D.

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Pivot the altitude about ab draw resector which will intersecting on the line
drawn from C,If orientation was correct, if not pivoting the altitude about the
point of intersection of the rays drawn from C and obtaind from A site the
station B drawn ray to cut cb at b align the alidate along the line b and fix point
E in the line of sight at an greater distance, align the alidate along ab and
rotate the table until point E is in line of site and clamp the table.

Pivoting alidate about ab draw resectors to intersect at d pivoting

alidate about d draw a ray towards C.
Shift the table to capital C oriented with back ray method pivoting the
alidate about ab draw rays. The rays intersect the line drawn from D. To give
the correct location of the station C.
Orientation by compass alone:Select the base line AB as in case of intersection method measured it
accurately and plot it ab on the sheet in a convenient position set up table at
station A. centre the location a over the ground mark A.
Place the alidate along ab orient the table by turning in until the station
B is sited. Place the magnetic compass on the table and rotate the compass
when the magnetic needle rest in North-south direction draw a line along the
longest side of the compass. Shift the table to the next instrument station C
and level. Place the compass in the north position and rotate the table till the
magnetic needle rest in north south direction. Clamp the table.Pivoting the
alidate point a and b , the re-sectors to intersect at C which is required
instrument station. This method is suitable only in areas without magnetic
declination and when the accuracy required is low. The magnetic compass
should be handled with care to get reasonable accuracy.

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UNIT III
LEVELLING AND APPLICATIONS :
Level line Horizontal line Levels and staves Spirit Level Sensitiveness
Bench marks Temporary and permanent adjustments Fly and check leveling
Booking Reduction Curvature and refraction Reciprocal leveling Longitudinal
and cross sections Plotting Calculation of areas and volumes cantering
methods characteristics

and uses of contours plotting. Earth work volume

capacity of reservoirs
leveling
Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is :
(1) to find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum,
(2) to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to
a given or assumed datum.
Level Line A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to
the plumb line at all points.
Horizontal Line It is straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also
perpendicular to the line defined by a plumb line.
principles of levelling
The principle of level lies in furnishing a horizontal line of sight and find the
vertical distance of the points above or below the line of site. A line of sight is
provided with a level, and a graduated leveling staff provides the vertical height of
a station with reference to the level line.
Instrument height.
The elevation of line of site with respect to assumed datum is known as height of
instrument or instrument height. It does not mean the height of telescope above the
ground level were the level is setup.
temporary adjustments of a level.
Temporary adjustments are done before the beginning of the survey and after
each shifting of the instrument.

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(i) Centering of bubble to align the line of sight horizontal using foot screws.
This should be checked often since slight disturbance of the instrument affects the line
of sight to a large extent.
(ii) Focusing of telescope to a distant object
(iii) Adjustment of eye piece to have a clear view of the cross hairs
change point
The point at which both a fore sight and back sight are taken during the
operation of levelling is called a change point. Sights are taken from two different
instrument station a fore sight ascertains the elevation of point to establish the height
of instrument at the new instrument station. The change point is always selected on a
relatively permanent point.
reciprocal leveling

When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river, ravine or any Obstacle

requiring a long sight between two points sosituated that no place for the level can be
found from which the lengths of foresight and back sight will be even approximately
equal, special method that is reciprocal
levelling must be used

Let A and B be the points and observations be made with a level, the line of
sight of which is inclined upwards when the Bubble is in centre of its run.

The level is set at a point near A and staff reading are taken on A and B with
the bubble in the centre of its run.

Since B.M. A is very near to instrument, error due tocurvature, refraction and
collimation will be introduced in the staff readings at A.But there will be an
error e in the staff reading on B.

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The level is then shifted to the other bank, on a point very near B.M. B, and
the readings are taken on staff held at B and A.

Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in reading
the staff, but the staff reading on A will have an error e.

Let ha and hb be the corresponding staff readings on A and B for the first set
of the level and ha and hb be the readings for the second set.

A light house is just visible from 50 kms in sea. Find the height of the light house.
Distance

d = 50Km

Height of light house

We know,

=h
h = 0.0673 x d = 168.25m

Name the sources of errors in leveling.

Errors in leveling may be categorized into
(i)

Personal error

(ii)

Errors due to natural factors and

(iii)

Instrumental error

Instruments Used For Levelling

The instrument commonly used in direct levelling are:
(1) A level
(2) A levelling staff.
1. LEVEL
A Level consists of the following four parts:
1

A telescope to provide line of sight

1. A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal

2. A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring the
3. Bubble in its centre of run
4. A tripod to support the instrument.
Types of levels
1.Dumpy level 2. Wye level 3.Reversible level 4.Tilting level
Dumpy level
1. The dumpy level consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in two collars
fixed by screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle.

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2. The modern form of dumpy level has the telescope tube and the vertical
spindle cast in one piece and a long bubble tube is attached to the top of the
telescope. This form is known as solid dumpy.

Following are the parts of the dumpy level:

1. TELESCOPE 2. EYE-PIECE 3. RAY SHADE 4. OBJECTIVE END
5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 6. FOOT SCREWS 7. UPPER PARALLEL PLATE
8. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING
SCREWS 11. TRANSVERSE BUBBLE TUBE

In some of the instruments, a clamp Screw is provided to control the

movement of the spindle about the vertical axis.

For small or precise movement, a slow motion screw (or tangent screw) is also
provided.

The levelling head generally con of two parallel plates with either three-foot
screws.

The upper plate is known as tri branch and the lower plate is known as trivet
which can be screwed on to a tripod.

The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are:
(i) Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.
(ii) Fewer adjustments to be made.
(iii) Longer Life of the adjustments
Wye Level

The essential difference between the dumpy level and the Wye level is that in, the
former case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the Wye level; the
telescope is carried in two vertical Wye supports

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The Wye support consists of curved clips. If the clips ate raised the telescope can
be rotated in the Wyes, or removed and turned end for end. When the clips are
fastened, the telescope is held from turning about its axis by a lug on one of the
clips.

The bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope or to the stage carrying
the wyes

In the former case, the bubble tube must be of reversible type. Fig. shows the
essential features of Y-level. The levelling head may be similar to that of a dumpy
level.

In some cases, the instrument is fitted with a clamp and fine motion tangent for
controlled movement in the horizontal plane.

The Wye level has an advantage over the dumpy the fact that the adjustments can
be tested with greater rap and ease.

Reversible Level

A reversible level combines the features of both the dumpy level and the Wye
level.

The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be
introduced from either end and then fixed in position by a screw.

The sockets are rigidly connected to the spindle through a stage.

Once the telescope is pushed into the sockets and the screw is tightened, the level
acts as a dumpy level.

For testing and making the adjustments, the screw is slackened and the telescope
can be taken out and reversed end for end. The telescope can also be turned within
the socket about the longitudinal axis.

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Tilting Level

In the case of a dumpy level and a Wye level, the line of sight is perpendicular

to the vertical axis.

Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal and the

vertical axis becomes truly vertical, provided the instrument is in adjustment.

Following are the parts of the tilting level:

1. Telescope 2. Eye-Piece 3. Ray Shade 4. Objective End 5. Level Tube 6. Focusing
Screws 7. Foot Screws 8. Tribranch 9. Diaphragm Adjusting Screws
10. Bubble Tube Fixing Screws 11. Tiltiing Screws
12. Spring Loaded Plunger 13. Trivet Stage

In the case of tilting level, however, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without
tilting the vertical axis.

Thus, the line of sight and the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular to
each other.

The instrument is levelled roughly by the three-foot screws with respect either to
the bubble tube or to a small circular bubble.

While taking the sight to a staff, the line of sight is made exactly horizontal by
centering the bubble by means of a fine pitched tilting screw which tilts the
telescope with respect to the vertical axis.

It is, however, essential that the observer should have the view of the bubble tube
while sighting the staff. Fig shows the essential features of a tilting level.

LEVELLING STAFF

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A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the
staff representing zero reading.

The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of sight.

The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the station
is above or below the line of sight.

Levelling staves may be divided into two classes

(1) Self-reading staff (2) Target staff.

SELF-READING STAFF
There are usually three forms of self-reading staff:
(a) Solid staff
(b) Folding staff
(c) Telescopic staff (Sop with pattern).

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Fig (a) and (b) show the patterns of a solid staff in English units while (c) and (d )
show that in metric unit.

In must common forms, the smallest division is of 0.01 ft. or

The above fig. shows a sopwith pattern staff arranged in three telescopic lengths.

When fully extended, it is usually of 1.4 ft (or 5 m) length. The 14 ft. staff has
solid top length of 4 6 sliding into the central box of 4 6 length.

The central box, in turn, slides into lower box of 5 length. In the 5 m staff, the
three corresponding lengths are usually 1.5m, 1.5 m and 2 m.

The above fig shows a folding staff usually 10 ft long having a hinge at the

middle of its length. When not in use, the rod can be folded about the hinge so that
it becomes convenient to carry it from one place to the other.

The hundredths of feet are indicated by alternate white and black spaces, the

top of a black space indicating odd hundredths and top of a white space indicating
even hundredths.

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Target Staff

Fig.shows a target staff having a sliding target equipped with vernier. The rod
consists of two sliding lengths, the lower one of approx. 7 ft and the upper one of
6 ft.

The rod is graduated in feet, tenths and hundredths, and the vernier of the target
enables the readings to be taken up to a thousandth part of a foot.

For readings below 7 ft the target is slided to the lower part while for readings
above that, the target is fixed to the 7 ft mark of the upper length.

For taking the reading, the level man directs the staff man to raise or lower the
target till it is bisected by the line of sight.

The staff holder then clamps the target and takes the reading & the Upper part of
the staff is graduated from the top downwards.

temporary adjustments of a level

Each surveying instrument needs two types of adjustments
(1) temporary adjustments, and (2) permanent adjustments.
The temporary adjustments for a level consist the following:
(1) Setting up the level (2) Levelling up (3) Elimination of parallax.
Setting Up the Level.
The operation includes
(a) fixing the instrument on the stand,
(b) levelling the instrument approximately by leg adjustment.

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To fix the level the tripod, the clamp is released, instrument is held in the right-hand
and is fixed on the tripod by turning round the lower part with the left hand.
The tripod legs are so adjusted that the instrument is at the convenient height and the
tribrach is approximately horizontal.
Levelling Up

After having levelled the instrument approximately, accurate levelling is done

with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of
levelling

is to make the vertical axis truly vertical.

The manner of levelling the instrument by the plate levels depends upon whether
there are three levelling screws or four levelling screws.

Levelling screws or four levelling screws.

Three Screw Head

1.

Loose the clamp. Turn the instrument until the longitudinal axis of the

plate level is roughly parallel to a line joining any two (such as A and B) of the
levelling screws
2.

Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of each

hand and turn them uniformly that the thumbs move either towards each other or
away from other.

Turn the upper plate through 90 ,i.e, until the axis on the level passes over the
position of the third levelling screw (Fig.b)

Turn this levelling screw until the bubble is central.

Return the upper part through 90 to its original position Fig. and repeat step (2)
till the bubble is central.

Turn back again through 90 and repeat step (4).

Repeat steps (2) and (4) till the bubble 5 central in both the

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positions.

Now rotate the instrument through 180 degree. The bubble should remain in the
centre of its run, provided it is in correct adjustment.

Four Screw Head

Turn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the P ate level is roughly parallel
to the line joining two diagonally Opposite Screws such as D and B Fig.(a)

Bring the bubble central exactly in the same manner as described in step (2) above

Turn the upper part through 90 until the spirit level axis is parallel to the other
two diagonally opposite screws such as A and C as in fig (b) Centre the bubble as
before.Repeat the above steps till the bubble is central in both the positions.

Turn through 180 to check the permanent adjustment as for three screw
instrument.

process of levelling
(i) INSTRUMENT STATION:A point where instrument is set up for observations is called instrument station.
(ii) HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT (Hi)
The elevation of line of site with respect to assumed datum is known as height of
instrument.
It does not mean the height of telescope above the ground level were the level is
setup.
BACK SITE:- (BS)
A first site taken on a level staff held at position of known elevation is called
back site. It ascertains the amount by which the line of sight is above or below the
elevation of the point. Back site enable the surveyor to obtain the height of
instrument.

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FORE SITE:The site on a level staff held at a point of unknown elevation to ascertain by
what extent the point is above or below the line of site is called fore site. Fore site
enables surveyor to obtain the elevation of the point.

CHANGE POINT:The point at which both a fore sight and back sight are taken during the
operation of levelling is called a change point. Sights are taken from two different
instrument station a fore sight ascertains the elevation of point to establish the height
of instrument at the new instrument station. The change point is always selected on a
relatively permanent point.
INTERMEDIATE SIGHT:The F.S taken on a level staff held at points between two turning points
to determine the elevation of points is known as intermediate sight. It may be noted
that for one setting of the level there will be only a back sight and fore sight but there
can be a number of intermediate sights.

A following readings are taken with the level with a 4m leveling staff on a
continuously slope ground at 30m interval.
0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.855
3.380, 1.055, 1.860, 2.265, 3.540
0.835, 0.945, 1.530 & 2.250

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The R.L of starting point was 80.750m rule out a page of level book an enter above
readings carry out reduction of height by collimation method and apply arithmetic
checks. Determine gradient of the line joining 1st and last point.
Station
B.S
A
0.680
B
C
D
E
F
1.055
G
H
I
0.835
J
K
L
SUM
2.570
Arithmetic check

I.S

F.S

1.455
1.855
2.330
2.855
3.380
1.860
2.265
3.540
0.945
1.530
2.250
9.170

H.C
81.430
81.430
81.430
81.430
81.430
81.430
79.105
79.105
79.105
76.400
76.400
76.400

R.L
80.750
79.975
79.575
79.100
78.575
78.050
77.245
76.840
75.565
75.455
74.870
74.150

BS - FS = RL of last point RL of first point

2.570 9.170 = 74.150 80.750 = - 6.600
Gradient is 6.600m in 360m
slope

= 1 in 54.54

reciprocal leveling & its procedure

Reciprocal Levelling:A method of differential leveling is based on the fact the instrument kept
equidistant from the back and forward station, The difference in elevation of two
stations is equal to the difference of the staff readings.
By setting the level midway the error due to the curvature and refraction and
also the collimation error is eliminated. When it is not possible

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to set up the level midway between two points as in the case of leveling across large
water bodies the reciprocal leveling is employed to carry forward a levels on the other
side of the obstruction.
PROCEDURE:(b1 a1) + (b2 a2)
h = ----------------------------- m
2
H = Differents in elevation.
Let A & B be two points on opposite banks of the lake the differents of level
of A & B may be determine as follows:
(i)

Set up the level very near to A Keeping the bubble of the level tube
centre ,take reading on the staff held at A & B.

(ii)

Let the staff readings are A & B be a1 and b1.Readings as A is usually

taken through the objective as a field of view is very small. A pencil
may be pointed on the staff till it is see through the telescope a connect
reading is noted.

(iii)

Transfer instrument to B and set it very near to B when the bubble is

centered observe the readings at A & B as a2 and b2.

A true difference in elevation between A & B is equal to the mean of the two
apparent differences of levels.
Difference in elevation between A and B is
(b1 a1) + (b2 + a2)
h = ----------------------------2
curvature correction
CURVATURE CORRECTION: - CC = 0.0785d

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A line of sight is the straight line Assumed to be free from effect of curvature
a level live is a curve line having its concave surface towards the earth. Due to
curvature of the earth reading taken on a leveling staff held vertically is always more
than what these would have been if the earth has a plan surface.

CURVATURE
BC is the departure from the level line. Actually the staff reading should have
been taken at B where the level line cuts the staff, but since the level provides only the
horizontal line of sight (in the absence of refraction), the staff reading is taken at the
point C.
Thus, the apparent staff reading is more and, therefore, the object appears to
be lower than it really is the correction for curvature is, therefore, negative as applied
to the staff reading & numerical value being equal to the amount BC.
To find BC the value BC, we have
d
CC = ---- R = 6370 km
2R
=
343
-----------------2 x 6370000
= 0.00923 m
CC = 0.785 x d
refraction correction
REFRACTION
The effect of refraction is the same as if the line of sight was curved
downward, or concave ,towards earth s surface and hence the rod reading is
decreased. Therefore, the effect of refraction is to make the objects appear high than
they really are.
The correction; as applied to staff readings is positive.

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The refraction curve is irregular because of varying atmospheric conditions,
but for average conditions it is assumed to have a diameter about seven times that of
the earth.
The correction of refraction

distance of visible horizon is calculated.

DISTANCE OF THE VISIBLE HORIZON:Let C be the staff station and B,C be the staff readings d be the distance
between the instrument station and staff station. Assume the horizon meets the earth
surface at the station A.
h = 0.0673 d
d = h / 0.067 m
d is horizon distance
Two observation where made from a instrument station A To a staff reading at
B at a distance of 250m from A and to C distance of 485m from A. The staff
readings at B & C are 3.525M & 1.715m respectively. Find different in elevation
between B & C applying corrections.

Observation to c :Distance AC = d1 = 485m

d
CR = ------ = 0.0112 d
14R
= 0.0112 x 0.485 = 0.0026 m

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cc = 0.0785 x 0.485 = 0.0185m
True staff value = observed value CC + CR
= 1.715 0.0185 + 0.0026
= 1.7m
d = 0.250 km
CR = 0.0112 d = 0.0007
CC = 0.0785 d = 0.0049m
True staff real = 3.525 0.0049 + 0.0007
= 3.52 m
Different elevation real
= 3.520 1.700
= 1.82 m
point c is at a higher elevation of 1.82 from B.
longitudinal sectioning &cross section level can be plotted.
LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING
PROCEDURE
1. Profile levelling, like differential levelling, requires the establishment of turning
points on which both back and foresights are taken.
2. In addition, any number of intermediate sights may be obtained on points along
the line from each set up of the instrument
3. It is generally best to set up the level to one side of the profile line to avoid too
short sights on the points near the instrument.
4. For each set up, intermediate sights should be taken after the foresight on the next
turning station has been taken.
5. The level is then set up in an advanced position and a back sight is taken on that
turning point.
6. The position of the intermediate points on the profile are simultaneously located
by chaining a along the profile and noting their distances from the point of
commencement.
7. when the vertical profile of the ground is regular or gradually curving, levels are
taken on points at equal-distances apart and generally at intervals of a chain
length.

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PLOTTING OF CROSS SECTION:CROSS SECTIONING

1. Cross sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal profile and o either side of
it for the purpose of lateral outline of the ground Surface.
2. They provide the data for estimating quantities of earth work and for other
purposes.
3. The cross-sections are numbered consecutively from the commencement of the
centre line and are set out at right angles to the main line of section with the chain
and tape, the cross-staff or the optical square and the distances are measured left
and right from the centre peg. Cross-section be taken at each chain.
4. The length of cross-section depends the nature of work.
Plotting the profile

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the errors that could creep in leveling and ways to minimize it.
ERRORS IN LEVELLING :Errors in leveling may be categorized into
1. Personal error
2. Errors due to natural factors
3. Instrumental error
PERSONAL ERROR:Personal error include the following
(i)

Error in sighting:

This is caused when it is difficult to see the exact coincide of the crosshairs and the
staff graduation. This may be either due to long sights or due to poor focusing of the
crosshair. Some times atmospheric air, atmospheric condition also cause on error in
sighting. This error is accidental and may be classified as compensative.
(ii)

Error in manipulation:This is due to careless setting up of the level neither the telescope nor

the tripod should be disturbed while taking readings. The instrument should be set up
on a firm ground and carefully leveled.
Take care that the bubble is centre when the readings are observed. If
the bubble is not centered a Horizontal axis telescope gets inclined affecting the staff
readings. The error is more for long sights & less for short sights. To avoid the error
the observer should develop the habit of checking the bubble before and after taking
reading.
(iii)

Non Vertically of staff :

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If the staff is not held vertical during observation of the staff reading the
observed value will be higher than the actual value. The staff should be held vertical
using a plumb bob.
Error is reading the staff :
These error generally committed are
(i)

reading the staff up side down.

(ii)

Reading top or bottom hair instead of center hair.

(iii)

concentrating the attention on decimal part of reading and entering the

whole value wrongly.

(iv)

reading the inverted staff as a vertically held staff.

Error is recording & computation :Common errors is recording are

(i) Entering the reading in the wrong column that is B.S reading in the I.S or F.S
column.
(ii) recording the reading with digits inter change.
(iii) Omitting on entry.
(iv) Adding the F.S reading instead of subtracting with and subtracting a B.S reading
instead of adding.
Errors due to natural causes :(i)

Errors due to curvature :The curvature of the earth surface lowers the elevation of the station

and it is directly proportional to the square of the horizontal distance between the
staff position and the point of observation. The correction of the curvature has to be
subtracted from the observe staff reading to get correct reading. In case of ordinary
leveling error due to curvature in negligible that is only 0.003m for a sight of 300 m
length.

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(ii)

Error due to refraction :The effect of refraction on the observe readings is opposite to that of

the curvature. Refraction rise the elevation of the station on the error is also
professional to the square of the horizontal distance of the station from the level. This
is negligible for short sites and its generally ignored in ordinary leveling.
(iii)

Error due to wind & sun :Due to strong winds it is always difficult to hold the staff vertical due

to non verticality of the staff the observed reading are higher.The wind is also
responsible for small disturbance in the instrument level. In strong winds its always
advisable to suspend the work.
The sun causes a considerable trouble. Its recommended to protect the
objective by an umbrella. The effect of sun in also causes elongation of the staff due
to increased temperature but in ordinary leveling the changing in length is negligible.
Instrumental error :(i) Imperfect adjustment of level:- In a perfected adjusted level a line of
collimation remains horizontal when the bubble of the level tube occupies the central
position. When adjustment is not perfect the line of collimation is either inclined
upwards or downwards and observed reading are either more a less. Such errors gets
compensative. If the B.S & F.S distance are kept equal as in the case of the leveling.
But in the case of inter mediate site the distance reading are thrown into error by a
different amount. Incase of leveling an steep slopes.
(ii) Defecting level tube :- If the bubble of level tube is sluggish. It will
remain centre even if the bubble axis is not horizontal or on the other hand if its two
sensitive a reasonable time is spent to bring a bubble centre. Irregularly of curvature
of the tube is also a series defect.
The effect of deflective level tube also gets neutralized if the sights are of
equal length.
Shaky tri pod :A shaky tri pod consumes a lot of time to center the bubble and alters the
instrument setting often causing the line of sight to veer from horizontal.
Incorrect graduation of staff :
If graduation of staff are not perfect there will be a error during observation
but in ordinary leveling the error may be negligible because the readings are generally

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graduated in 0.005m incase of precise leveling the graduation should be compared
against a invar tape.
The following consequent readings where taken in a level and a 4m leveling staff
on a continuously sloping ground at common interval of 30m the readings are
0.855, 1.545, 2.335, 3.115, 3.825, 0.455, 1.380, 2.055, 2.855, 3.455, 0.585, 1.015,
1.850, 2.755, 3.845. R.L of A is 380.500 m the last reading taken point is B. Find
the gradient between A and B.
Station
A

B.S
0.855

I.S

F.S

H.C
381.355

3.825

377.985

3.455

375.115

1.545
2.335
3.115
0.455
1.380
2.055
2.855
0.585
1.015
1.850
2.755
1.895

3.845
11.125

R/L
380.500
379.810
379.020
378.240
377.530
376.605
375.930
375.130
374.530
374.100
373.265
372.360
372.360

Arithmetic Check
BS - FS = RL of 1st point - RL of last point
1.895 11.125 = 380.500 371.270
9.23 m = 9.23 m
gradient is 9.23 in 360
slope is 1 in 39 m
sensitivity of bubble tube
Sensitivity of level tube:The ability of level tube to express small deviation from the horizontal axis is
termed as sensitivity of level tube. Sensitiveness of a level tube is either expressed in
terms of minimum angle required by the bubble to move the smallest division on the
angled scale. The sensitivity of the level tube depends on
(i) The radius of curvature of the internal surface that is higher the radius
greater the sensitivity of the tube.

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(ii) The diameter of the level tube that is larger the diameter greater is the
sensitivity of the level tube.
(iii) The length of the vapor bubble that is greater the length of the bubble
more is the sensitivity of the tube.
(iv) The viscosity and the surface tension of the bubble also affects
sensitiveness of the level tube.
(v) Smoothness of the internal surface of the tube
Contouring & Characteristics of contours
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal elevation.
It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level surface.
Characteristics of contours
1. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. Contour lines of
different elevation intersect only in case of overhanging cliff or a cave.
2. Contour lines of different elevations can unite to form one line only in the case of
a vertical cliff.
3. Contour lines close together indicate steep slope. They indicate a gentle slope if
they are far apart.
4. A contour passing through any point is perpendicular to the line of steepest slope
at that point.
5. To contour lines having the same elevation cannot unite and continue as one line.
Similarly, a single contour cannot split into two lines. This is evident because the
single line would, otherwise, indicate a knife-edge ridge or depression which does
not occur in nature. However, two different contours of the same elevation may
approach very near to each other.

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7. A contour line must close upon itself, though not necessarily within the limits of the
map.
8. Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line at right angles. They form curves of
V-shape round it with the concave side of the curve towards the higher ground
9. Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form sharp curves of V-shape
across it with convex side of the curve towards the higher ground If there is a stream,
the contour on either side, turning upstream, may disappear in coincidence with the
edge of the stream and cross underneath the water surface.
10. The same contour appears on either sides of a ridge or valley, for the highest
horizontal plane that intersects the ridge must cut it on both sides. The same is true of
the lower horizontal plane that cuts a valley.

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methods of contouring
Methods of contouring
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
Direct method:
The field work is of two-fold
Vertical control
Horizontal control
Vertical control

The points on the contours are traced either with the help of a level and staff or
with a help of a hand level.

The staff is kept on the B.M. and the height of the instrument is determined.

Calculate the staff reading For example if height of the instrument is 101.8m

means the staff reading will be 1.80m

Taking one contour at a time the staff man is directed to keep the staff on the point
on contour so that readings of 1.80m are obtained every time.

Horizontal control

After having located the points on various contours, they are to be surveyed with a
survey control system.

For small area chain survey may be used and points may be located by offsets.

In a work of a larger nature a traverse may be used.

Indirect method
The following are some of the indirect methods:
By square
By cross-section
By tacheometric method
By square

The method is used when the area to be surveyed is small and the ground is not
very much undulating.

The area is divided into a number of squares.

The size of the square may vary from 5 to 20 m depending upon the nature of the
contour and contour interval.

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The elevations of the corners of the square are then determined by means of a
level and a staff.

The contour lines may then be drawn by interpolation. It is not necessary that the
squares may be of, the same size.

Sometimes, rectangles are also used in place of squares. When there are
appreciable breaks in the surface between corners, guide points in addition to
those at corners may also be used.

The squares should be as long as practicable, yet small enough to conform to the
inequalities of the ground and to the accuracy required. The method is also known
as spot leveillng.

By Cross Section

In this method, cross-sections are run transverse to the centre line of a road,
railway or canal etc.

The method is most suitable for railway route surveys.

The cross-sections should be more closely spaced where the contours curve
abruptly, as in ravines or on spurs.

The cross-section and the points can then be plotted and the elevation of each
point is marked.

The contour lines are interpolated on the assumption that there is uniform slope
between two points on two adjacent contours.

Thus, the points marked with dots are the points actually surveyed in the field
while the points marked with x on the first cross-section are the points interpolated
on contours.

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By tacheometric method

In the case of hilly terrain the tacheometric method may be used with advantage.

A tacheometer is a theodolite fitted with stadia diaphragm so that staff readings

against all the three hairs may be taken.

The staff intercept s is then obtained by taking the difference between the readings
against the top and bottom wires.

The line of sight can make any inclination with the horizontal the range of
instrument observations.

The horizontal distances need not be measured since the tacheometer provides
both horizontal as well as vertical control. Thus if it is the inclination of the line of
sight with horizontal the horizontal distance (D) between the instrument axis and
the point in which the line of sight against the central wire intersects the staff are
given by:
D = K1s cos2 + K2 cos2
V = D tan
K1 & K2 are instrumental constants.

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IV. THEODOLITE SURVEYING :

Theodolite vernier and micro tic Description and uses Temporary
and permanent adjustment of vernier transite Horizontal angles Vertical angle
height of distance Traversing closing error and distribution cales table
orient measurement.

TACHOMETRY SURVEY :Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which A horizontal &

vertical distance is of points are obtain by optical means as suppose to ordinary
slow process of measure by tape chain. This methods is very rapid & convenient.
All though the accuracy of tachometry is low it is best adopted in obstructed such
as steep & broken ground stretches of water etc which make drawn age difficult.
They primary object of tachometry is the preparation of contour maps are plans
required

with

both horizontal &

vertical measurements also

accuracy

improvement it provides at check an distance measure with tape.

At the instruments a normally transit theodalite pitted with stadia
diaphragm is generally used for tachometry survey. A stadia diaphragm

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essentially consist of one stadia hair above on the other an equal distance below

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the horizontal cross hair. Telescope is used in stadia surveying are of 3 types :(i)

Simple external focusing telescope

(ii)

External focusing analytic

(iii)

Internal focusing telescope

Different system of Tachometry measurements :(i)

Fixed hair method (or) stadia method

(ii)

Movable hair method (or) substance

Fixed hair method :In method observation are made with stadia diaphragm having stadia
wires at fixed (a) constant distance occur. They reading an the staff
corresponding to all three wires are taken. The staff intercept that is the differents
of reading corresponding to top & bottom stadia wires will depend on the
distance of the staff from the instrument when the staff intercept is more than the
length of the staff only interne of real. For inclined said reading may be taken
by keeping the staff either vertical a normal to the line of site.
Subtense method :This method is similar to fixed hair method except the stadia internal is
varying table arrangement is may to --- distance between the stadia hair so as to
said them against the two targets on the staff kept at a point and observation this
in this case the staff intercept that is the distance between the two forgets is kept
fixed while the stadia interval that is the distance between the stadia hair is
carrying as is the case of fixed hair method inclined site they out show be taken
the tangential method. They stadia being taken against the horizontal hair as
against any two point on the staff on their corresponding vertical angles are
measured. This measurement of vertical angles tube for one single observation.
Staff in theodalite normal mean by perpendicular. Least count of staff 0.005m.

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Held staff vertical :Horizontal D = MS cos + cos

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Vertical V = MS sin / 2 + C sin

H = height of instruct
R = observe staff reading
S = staff intercept
This is top bottom hair radia
O = angle made by line of site with horizontal
Reduced level of = R.L of p + h-v-r
RL of p + h + v r = RL of O
Staff normal to lined site :
Find the elevation & horizontal distance of point Q view from A is than
angle of 30 above horizontal with staff intercept with staff held vertically occur
3.855 m & C.H reading 1.930 m elevation of point A is 10m above m.s.l take
multiplying as 100 assume h to be 1 m
RL of A = 10.000 m
RL of Q = RL of A + height of instrument + v r
V = MS sin / 2 + c sin
= 100 x 3.855 sin30 / 2
= 48.19m
reduce level of Q = 10.000 + 1.000 + 48.190 1.930
= 57.260m
Horizontal distance :
D = MS cos + cos
= 100 x 3.855 cos30 / 2
reduce level Q= 57.260m

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2. Find vertical & horizontal distance between point A & B. If the instrument

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located 0.8m above A clip of 22 to a staff held normal to the line of site at B. The
staff read 1.650, 2.150, 2.650
Assume m = 100
RL of = RL of A + h v- r cos
S = 1m
R = 2.150

r cos = 1.993

V = (ms + c) sin
= (100 x 1) sin 22 = 37.461m
RL of = 0 + 0.8 37.461 1.993
= 38.654m
horizontal distance D
D = (ms + c) cos + r sin
= (100) cos 22 + 0.805
D = 93.51m
3. To determine distance between two points with base of one point is axiable
and instrument station in the same vertical plane as the elevated object.
d tan
D = ------------------tan1 tan 2
h = D tan1
Instrument with two different Axis :(d + s cot 2 ) tan2
D = --------------------------tan1 tan 2
(d + s cot 2 ) sin1 sin2
h = ----------------------------------sin (1 2 )
h2 = h1 + s

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use positive sign with s cot 2 when instrument a axis a Q is lower & negative
sign when its height the instrument axis at P.

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1. An instrument was setup at station P and the angle of elevated to an objective

was 930 the same object was focus from a point 4m away the first one angle
was 11 150 the staff reading s from a B.M having elevation 2650.38m are
1.310m and 1.815m respectively. Find the RL of Q = 1 = 930 2 = 1115
(d - s cot 2 ) tan2
D = --------------------------tan1 tan 2
( 4 0.535 ( d 930) tan 930
0.164
= ----------------------------------------- = ---------tan 1115 tan 930
0.0315
D = 5.21m

= -204.13m

(4 0.505 x 5.98) sin 1115 sin 930

h2 = --------------------------------------------------sin (1115 930 )
= 39.68m
- 49 h2 = h1 + s = 39.68 + 0.505
= 39.175
RL of stadia = R.L of D + S
= 2650.38 + 1.310 39.175
= 2612.52m
2. An instrument was setup a P and the angle of elevation to a volume 4m above
the focus of the staff held at Q was 930. A horizontal distance Pl was know
2000m determine the RL of staff station Q given RL of instrument axis was
2650.38m
0.0673 d
0.0673 x 2000
Ccr = 0.673 x 2

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= 0.27m
V = D tan

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= 2000 x tan 930 = 334.69m

RL of Q = RL of instrument axis + Ccr + V h
= 2650.38 + 0.27 + 334.69 4
= 2981.34m
3. A instrument was setup a P and angle of depression to a plane 2m above the
fast of the staff held at Q was 5 36 H. d between P & Q was 3000m determine
RL of staff station Q given the staff readings as a B.M of elevation 436.050m
was 2.865m
Cn = 0.0673 x 3 = 0.6057
V = 3000 x tan 536 = 294.15m
RL of Q = BM + cn V n + instrument
= 436.050 + 2.865 0.6057 294.15
= 142.16m
Measurement of horizontal angles :(i)

Direct method

(ii)

Method of Repetition

(iii)

Method of Reiteration

Precaution to be taken theodalite observation :(i)

Turn the theodalite by the standards and not by using telescope

ensuring slow & smooth movement.

(ii)

Done force the foot screws & tangent screws to heart.

(iii)

Clamp vertical axis tightly while observing the horizontal angles.

Sources of errors in theodalite :(i)

Instrumental Error

(ii)

Personal Error

(iii)

National Error

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A horizontal angle was measured by repetitionwww.rejinpaul.com

with transit 8 times at initial
readings 00000 utter first observation reading was 302520 & final
measurement was 2432210 find the angle measured angle 2432210
Station
A

Station
A

Ver

Va

05 000

05

30

180

00

40

05

20

50

55

00

55

20

230

55

40

55

20

120

34

20

34

20

300

34

00

34

40

210

24

40

24

40

30

24

20

24

00

Ver

Ver

mean ver aenrol mea Angle

05

20

05 30

5 25

180

05

40

05 20

530

50

55

00

55 20 55 10

230

55

40

55 20 55 30

120

34

20

34

20

3420

300

34

00

34

40

3420

210

24

40

24

40

2440

30

24

20

24

00 24 10

360

05

05

30 525

R 180

00

40

05 20

0527.5

504952.5

505520

1203420 6939

2102425 89505

360527.5 494125

A
530
360 00

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Station
A

Ver

Ver B

mean ver

0 01 0

1 20

1 10

180 0120

140

0130

202120

2120

2120

2002140

2120

2130

1014730

4720

4720

2814640

4620

4630

8600100

00120

0110

1800120

010140

0130

aenrol mea Angle

0 0120

20205

202125

812530

1014655 2584225

3600120

360 00

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V. ENGINEERING SURVEYING :
Reconnaissance preliminary and location surveying for engineering
projects lay out setting out work, Route survey for highways railway and water
way curve ranging Horizontal and vertical curves syrups curves setting with
chain and tapes, tangential and by theodolite, double theodolite compound and
curves Transition curves Function and requirements setting outs by offsets
and angles vertical curves sight distance mine surveying instruments
Tunnels correct of under ground and surface surveys shorts Adits.

RECONISSONCE SURVEY:Preliminary survey:(i)

Work minimize

(ii)

Error minimize

TYPES OF INSTRUMENTING:-

Tachometry

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Barometers (Using leveling height take )

sextants

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(approximate height level)

This is using vertical angle

CURVES:Curves are generally used on highways and railways way there is
necessary to change direction of motion. It curve classified as
(1) simple curve
(2) compound curve
(3) reverse curve
Uniform radiations curvature is called simple curve.
Two variable radius curvatures are called the compound curve.
Two curves in upside and downside curve is called reverse curve.
OTHER TYPES:Vertical and horizontal curves
BACK TANGENT:The tangent AT1 previous to the curve is called Back tangent or first
tangent.
FORWARD TANGENT:The tangent T2B following the curve is called second tangent.
POINT OF INTERSECTION:If the two tangent AT2 and BT2 are produced they two meet in a point v
called the point of intersection.
POINT OF CURVE:It is the beginning of curve where the alignment changes from tangent to
curve.

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POINT OF TANGENCY:-

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It is the end of the curve when the alignment changes from curve too
tangent.
INTERSECTION ANGLE:The angle between tangent AB, BB is intersection angle at external
deflection angle.
DEFLECTION ANGLE TO ANY POINT:The deflection angle to any point on the curve the angle BC between the
back tangent or they move from BC to the point on the curve.
TANGENT DISTANCE:It is the distance between PC to PI then be equal to PI & PT
EXTERNAL DISTANCE:It is the distance from the mid point of the curve 2PI.

LENGTH OF CURVE: L
It is the total length of curve from PC to (P.T)
LONG CHORD:It is a chord joining from PC to PT.
MID ORDINATE:It is the ordinate from midpoint of the long chord to the midpoint of the
curve.
NORMAL CHORD:-

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A chord between two successive regular stations on a curve is called

normal chord.

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SUB CHORD:Sub chord is any chord shorter than normal chord.

RIGHT HAND CURVE:If the curve is deflective to the right of the direction of progress of survey is
called right hand curve.
LEFT HAND CURVE:If the curve is deflective to the left of the direction of progress of survey is
called left hand curve.
DESIGNATION OF THE CURVE:The sharpness of the curve is designated either by radius at by its degree
of curvature. The degree of curvature is defined as the central angle of the curve
then it subtended by curve 100 ft length. According to the chord definition the
degree of curvature is defined as the central angle of the curve that is subtended
by a chord of 100 feet length.
SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE CURVES:(i) LINEAR METHOD:In linear method only a chain or tape is used. These used when the
degree of accuracy required is low are when the curve is short.
(ii) ANGULAR METHOD:In angular method instrument such as theodolite are used along which
chain or tape. It is hardly accumulated and can be used for longer curves.
Before a curve is set out it is a tangent point of intersection. Point of curve
and point of tangent.

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LOCATION OF TANGENT:-

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Before setting out the curve the surveyer is always sub lying with the
working plane upon which the general alignment of tangent is known in relation
of the transverse controlling the survey of the area.
Know in objects to certain points on both a tangents the tangents can be
marked in the ground by tape measure the tangents may be the set out by
theodolite by trivalent error sudden the pass through the mark as really as
possible. The total deflection angle () and then it is measured by setting
theodolite on P.I

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS OF SETTING AT CURVES:(i)

By ordinates or offset by chart.

(ii)

By successive bisection of areas.

(iii)

By offset from the tangents.

(iv)

By offset from the chords.

ANGULAR METHODS:(i)

Rankines method of tangential angle (or) deflection angles.

(ii)

Two thedolite method

Rankines method:= 1718.9 C/R minute

(i)

Thedolite setting on p.c view in P.I or U in setting o. calculate (c)

value.

(ii)

Turn in 5 to view using ranging rod coordinate point taken.

(iii)

Same form by P.T distance

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PROCEDURE:-

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Set the thedolite point curve T1 with both clamp to zero.

Direct the thedolite to by sec the point of inter section (v)

The line of site is tube in the direction of the rear tangent.

release the vernear plate and set angle D an the veneer

The line of site is direct alloy T10

with the zero an end of the tape potted T1 and an arrow held at a distance
T1A = C

Suring the tape around T1 the arrow is by section by the cross hair thus
the first point a is fixed set the second defection angle 2 : 21 on the
vernear so that the line of site is directed along T1B

With the zero end of tape pinot at A and an arrow held at an distance AB =
C sue the tape arrow A till the arrow is by sected by the cross hairs thus
fixing they point B

Repeat the last two steps till the point T2 is reached.

The last point show located must coin side with the point of tangent T2 if
the deviation is small last tube may be adjusted. If its more the whole
curve should be resected.

Incase of left hand curve each of calculated values of defection angle D
should be subtracted them 360 the show obtained are to be set on they
vernear of the theodalite
Procedure :(i) set up one theodalite at T1 with a zero reading facing the point V (P.i)
similarly setup another theodalite at T2 (P.T) with zero reading facing T1
(P.C) set the reading of each of transit to the defection angle S1 for the first
point A. The line of site of both the theodalites are thus directed towards A
along T1A & T2A respectively.

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(ii) move a ranging rod in such a way that it by sects symantiously the

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cross hairs of both instrument thus point A is fixed. To fix the second point B
set readings S2 cm both instruments an by sects the ranging rod repeat the
last two steps for location of remaining points.
The method is expansion since two instruments & two surveyor are
required. How ever the methods is more accrue since each point is fixed
independently of the other.
Lenear method of setting out curves:
(i)

By ordinate from long chord

L = length of long chord
R = Radius of curvature of the curve

To set out the curve a long chord is divided into even number of equal
points offsets are calamite from formula & then set out a each of these points.
(ii)

By successive by section of arcs or chords:CD = R (1 cos /2)

EF = R ( 1- cos /4)
GH = R (1 cos /8)

Joint the tangent T1, T2 & by sect the long chord D, erected DC &
make in equal to R (1 cos /2)

Joint T1C & T2C by sect them a F & F1 at F1 and F2 set out offsets
equal to R (1 cos /4) to get the point EE1 on the curve by
successive by section of these chords more points can be obtain
offset from tangents.

Setting out compound curve :-

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This curve may be by the method of defection angles. This 1st branch is

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set out by setting theodalite T1 and second branch is setout by set the at the
point D.
(i) For the first curve calculate the tangent angles for set out curve by
rankines method.
Set the theodalite at T1 & set out the first branch of curve calculating the
chord length C.
Calculate the tangent angles for second branch and set out curve by
placing instrument at D mark the curve T2 is reach.
(ii) Set the observation by measure angle T1 D1 T2 with should be equal
to
T1 DT2 = 180 (1 + 2 /2 )

Transverse Curve :
Transitional curve : Starting point -> radius of curve.
General requirement of T.C :
(i) A T.C is easement curve is the curve of varing radius introduce
between a straight line under circular curve are between two branches of the
compound or reverse curve.
In case of high way in orded to whole the vehicle in the entry of the la. The
drive is required to move his steering almost insentaniously to the position of

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