Computer

Organization

Proponents:
Ariola, Andrea Maxinne
Bacani, Jenny
Barajan, Fatima
Belardo, Pia Jobelle
Bigso, Jhullie Ann
Billones, Jude Anthony
Cabahug, Earvin Ian
2 ChE B

Submitted To:
Prof. Edang

June 8, 2012

Introduction

Computer Organization refers to the level of abstraction above the digital

logic level, but below the operating system level. At this level, the major
components are functional units or subsystems that correspond to specific pieces of
hardware built from the lower level building blocks.
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

Be aware of the basic organization of the computer system

Know the difference between bit, byte and a word
Give definition to certain computer parts
Give examples of input and output devices

Basic Computer Operations

A computer performs five basic operations to carry out any task and they are
Input, Process, Output, Storing and Controlling.
1. Input: It is the process of capturing or acquiring the information, or it is the
process of accepting data or information, by using input the computer can do
any process.
2. Storing: It is the process of storing or retaining the data or information or
instructions, so that the user can retain and retrieve it whenever required.
3. Process: It is the transformation process to convert the input into output.
4. Output: It is the result, which comes from the transformation process or it is
the outcome of the process.
5. Controlling: It is the process of directing the manner and sequence in which
all the operations are to be performed.

Figure 1: A computer performs basically five major operations and these are: 1) it accepts
data or by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it processes data as required by the user, 4) it
gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls all operations.

Functional Units

In order to carry out the operations mentioned in the previous section the
computer allocates the task between its various functional units. The computer
system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic
logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit.
Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit.
The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic
Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from
storage unit when required. After processing the output is returned back to storage
unit for further processing or getting stored.
Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor
seeing that things are done in proper fashion. The control unit determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. Things like
processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them.
It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers peripheral
equipment as they perform the input and output. Therefore it is the manager of all
operations mentioned in the previous section.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central
processing unit. The CPU processes data transferred to it from one of the various
input devices. It then transfers either an intermediate or final result of the CPU to
one or more output devices. A central control section and work areas are required to
perform calculations or manipulate data. The CPU is the computing center of the
system. It consists of a control section, an arithmetic-logic section, and an internal
storage section (main memory). Each section within the CPU serves a specific
function and has a particular relationship with the other sections within the CPU.

Personal Computer Configuration

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Computer Memory (RAM and ROM)
Computer memory is the internal storage areas in the computer. It
comes in the form of
chips or ICs (Integrated Circuits), verses the computer
storage which exists on tapes or disks.
Moreover, the term memory is usually
used as a shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable

of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which

physical memory onto a hard disk.

expands

ROM - Read-only memory: On ROM, data is prerecorded for read only which cannot be
removed. ROM is nonvolatile and it retains its contents regardless the computer is on or off. Most
personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programs such as the
program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are used in calculators and peripheral
devices such as laser printers, whose fonts are often stored in ROMs. There are a few variations
of ROM such as programmable read-only memory(PROM), which is manufactured as
blank chips

on which data can be written with a special device called a PROM programmer.
RAM - Random access memory: whose contents can be accessed (read, write and

remove) in any order. This is in contrast to sequential memory devices such as magnetic tapes,
discs and drums, in which the mechanical movement of the storage medium forces the computer
to access data in a fixed order. RAM is usually used for primary storage in computers to hold
active information such as data and programs. Common forms of RAM are: SRAM (Static RAM)
and DRAM (Dynamic RAM).

3. Data bus
A data bus is a computer subsystem that allows for the transferring of
data from one
component to another on a motherboard or system board, or
between two computers. This can
include transferring data to and from the
memory, or from the central processing unit (CPU) to
other components. Each
one is designed to handle so many bits of data at a time. The amount of
data a
data bus can handle is called bandwidth.
4. Ports
A port refers to either physical or virtual connection points.
5. Motherboard
and

A motherboard allows all the parts of your computer to receive power

communicate with one another.

6. Hard disk
A hard disk stores changing digital information in a relatively
permanent form. They give computers the ability to remember things when the
power goes out.
7. Output Devices

Any device that outputs information from a computer is called, not

surprisingly, an
output device. Since most information from a computer is output
in either a visual or auditory
format, the most common output devices are the
monitor and speakers. These two devices
provide instant feedback to the user's
input, such as displaying characters as they are typed or playing a song selected
from a playlist.
8. Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There
are dozens of
possible input devices, but the two most common ones are a
keyboard and mouse. Every key
you press on the keyboard and every
movement or click you make with the mouse sends a
specific input signal to
the computer. These commands allow you to open programs, type
messages,
drag objects, and perform many other functions on your computer.

Memory System in a Computer

There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary.
Primary memory is accessible directly by the processing unit. RAM is an example of
primary memory. As soon as the
computer is switched off the contents of the
primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster with primary
memory compared to secondary memory. Secondary memory
such
as
floppy
disks, magnetic disk, etc., is located outside the computer. Primary memory is
more expensive than secondary memory. Because of this the size of primary
memory is less
than that of secondary memory. We will discuss about secondary
memory later on.
Computer memory is used to store two things: i) instructions to
execute a program and ii) data. When the computer is doing any job, the data
that have to be processed are stored in
the primary memory. This data may
come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary storage device like a
floppy disk.
As program or the set of instructions is kept in primary memory, the
computer is able to
follow instantly the set of instructions. For example, when
you book ticket from railway
reservation counter, the computer has to follow the
same steps: take the request, check the
availability of seats, calculate fare,
wait for money to be paid, store the reservation and get the
ticket printed out.
The programme containing these steps is kept in memory of the computer
and is
followed for each request.
But inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from
what we see on the
monitor or screen. In computers memory both programs
and data are stored in the binary
form. You have already been introduced with
decimal number system, that is the numbers 1 to 9 and 0. The binary system has

only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits. As human beings we all understand
decimal system but the computer can only understand binary system. It is
because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer can be
considered as
switches, which can be made ON, or OFF. If a switch is ON it is
considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0.
A number of switches in different states will
give you a message like this: 110101....10. So the computer takes input in the
form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0 and 1 only. Is it not
absurd if the
computer gives outputs as 0s & 1s only? But you do not have to worry about.
Every number in binary system can be converted to decimal system and vice
versa; for example,
1010 meaning decimal 10. Therefore it is the computer
that takes information or data in decimal
form from you, convert it in to binary
form, process it producing output in binary form and again
convert the output
to decimal form.
The primary memory as you know in the computer is in the form of ICs
(Integrated Circuits). These circuits are called Random Access Memory (RAM). Each
of RAMs locations stores one byte of information. (One byte is equal to 8 bits). A
bit is an acronym for binary digit,
which stands for one binary piece of
information. This can be either 0 or 1. You will know more about RAM later. The
Primary or internal storage section is made up of several small storage locations
(ICs) called cells. Each of these cells can store a fixed number of bits called word
length.
Each cell has a unique number assigned to it called the address of the
cell and it is used to identify the cells. The address starts at 0 and goes up to (N1). You should know that the
memory is like a large cabinet containing as many
drawers as there are addresses on memory. Each drawer contains a word and the
address is written on outside of the drawer.

Capacity of Primary Memory

You know that each cell of memory contains one character or 1 byte of data.
So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory
is capable of storing 64 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes). A
memory size ranges from few kilobytes in small systems to several thousand
kilobytes in large mainframe and super computer. In your personal computer you
will find memory capacity in the range of 64 KB, 4 MB, 8 MB and even 16 MB (MB =
Million bytes).
The following terms related to memory of a computer are discussed below:
1. Random Access Memory (RAM): The primary storage is referred to as
random access memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and
use any location of the memory directly store and retrieve data. It takes same
time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also called
read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary

storage is temporary. It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the

computer is switched off. The memories, which loose their content on failure
of power supply, are known as volatile memories .So now we can say that
RAM is volatile memory.
2. Read Only Memory (ROM): There is another memory in computer, which is
called Read Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form
the ROM. The storage of program and data in the ROM is permanent. The
ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by the
manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read
by the CPU but it cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is
stored in the ROM that examines and initializes various equipment attached
to the PC when the switch is made ON. The memories, which do not loose
their content on failure of power supply, are known as nonvolatile memories. ROM is non-volatile memory.
3. PROM There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to
modify or erase programs stored in ROM, but it is possible for you to store
your program in PROM chip. Once the programmes are written it cannot be
changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore programs
or instructions written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.
4. EPROM: This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which
over come the problem of PROM & ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed
time and again by erasing the information stored earlier in it. Information
stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it
erases chip is reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the
EPROM is in use information can only be read.
5. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access
time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU decreases due to
the slow speed of main memory. To decrease the mismatch in operating
speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main memory
whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called
CACHE memory. CACHE memories are accessed much faster than
conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being
executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So each memory
makes main memory to be faster and larger than it really is. It is also very
expensive to have bigger size of cache memory and its size is normally kept
small.
6. Registers: The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed, there is
also movement of data between various units of computer. It is necessary to
transfer the processed data with high speed. So the computer uses a number
of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the main
memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit.

Secondary Storage
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory
should be as fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed
storage devices are very expensive and hence the cost per bit of storage is also
very high. Again the storage capacity of the main memory is also very limited. Often
it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process.
Therefore additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory
is called auxiliary memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating
speed is slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored
here on permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when
required. Most widely used
secondary
storage
devices are magnetic
tapes and magnetic disk.
1. Magnetic Tape: Historically, magnetic tape was the first kind of secondary
memory. Magnetic tapes are used for large computers like mainframe
computers where large volume of data is stored for a longer time. In PC also
you can use tapes in the form of cassettes. The cost of storing data in tapes
is inexpensive. Tapes consist of magnetic materials that store data
permanently. It can be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500
meter to 1200 meter long which is coated with magnetic material. The deck
is connected to the central processor and information is fed into or read from
the tape through the processor. It similar to cassette tape recorder.
Advantages of Magnetic Tape:

Compact: A 10-inch diameter reel of tape is 2400 feet long and is able to
hold 800, 1600 or 6250 characters in each inch of its length. The maximum
capacity of such tape is 180 million characters. Thus data are stored much
more compactly on tape.

Economical: The cost of storing characters is very less as compared to other

storage devices.

Fast: Copying of data is easier and fast.

Long term Storage and Re-usability: Magnetic tapes can be used for long
term storage and a tape can be used repeatedly with out loss of data.

2. Magnetic Disk: You might have seen the gramophone record, which is
circular like a disk and coated with magnetic material. Magnetic disks used in
computer are made on the same principle. It rotates with very high speed
inside the computer drive. Data is stored on both the surface of the disk.
Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage device. Each disk
consists of a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks. Information
is recorded on tracks of a disk surface in the form of tiny magnetic spots. The
presence of a magnetic spot represents one bit and its absence represents

zero bit. The information stored in a disk can be read many times without
affecting the stored data. So the reading operation is non-destructive. But if
you want to write a new data, then the existing data is erased from the disk
and new data is recorded.
3. Floppy Disk: It is similar to magnetic disk discussed above. They are 5.25
inch or 3.5 inch in diameter. They come in single or double density and
recorded on one or both surface of the diskette. The capacity of a 5.25-inch
floppy is 1.2 mega bytes whereas for 3.5 inch floppy it is 1.44 mega bytes. It
is cheaper than any other storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low
cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system.
4. Optical Disk:
With every new application and software there is greater demand for memory
capacity. It is the necessity to store large volume of data that has led to the
development of optical disk storage
medium. Optical disks can be divided into
the following categories:
1. Compact Disk/ Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of
reflective metals. CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by
high power laser beam. Here the storage density is very high, storage cost is
very low and access time is relatively fast. Each disk is approximately 4 1/2
inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can
be read only we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.
2. Write Once, Read Many (WORM): The inconvenience that we can not write
any thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A WORM allows the user to
write data permanently on to the disk. Once the data is written it can never
be erased without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded
from keyboard, video scanner, OCR equipment and other devices. The
advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data amounting to
gigabytes (109 bytes). Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast,
say less than 30 seconds.
3. Erasable Optical Disk: These are optical disks where data can be written,
erased and re-written. This also applies a laser beam to write and re-write the
data. These disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks. Erasable
optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To
write a data bit on to the erasable optical disk the MO drive's laser beam
heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk's surface and magnetizes it.

Input / Output Devices

A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external
environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and instructions
through some devices to the computer. These devices are called Input devices.
Similarly computer after processing gives output through other devices called
output devices.

For a particular application one form of device is more desirable compared to

others. We will discuss various types of I/O devices that are used for different types
of applications. They are also known as peripheral devices because they surround
the CPU and make a communication between computer and the outer world.
1. Input Devices
Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data in to a form which
can be understood by the computer. A good input device should provide timely,
accurate and useful data to the main memory of the computer for processing
followings are the most useful input devices.
1. Keyboard: - This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The
layout of keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It
also contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total
of 101 to 104 keys. A typical keyboard used in a computer is shown in Fig.
2.6. You have to press correct combination of keys to input data. The
computer can recognise the electrical signals corresponding to the correct
key combination and processing is done accordingly.
2. Mouse: - Mouse is an input device shown in Fig. 2.7 that is used with your
personal computer. It rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the
top. When you roll the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the
mouse in the direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with
mouse giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and
faster to move through a mouse.
3. Scanner: The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we
want to input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. Scanner is an optical
device that can input any graphical matter and display it back. The common
optical scanner devices are Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR),
Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Optical Character Reader (OCR).
o

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): - This is widely used

by banks to process large volumes of cheques and drafts. Cheques are
put inside the MICR. As they enter the reading unit the cheques pass
through the magnetic field which causes the read head to recognise
the character of the cheques.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR): This technique is used when students

have appeared in objective type tests and they had to mark their
answer by darkening a square or circular space by pencil. These
answer sheets are directly fed to a computer for grading where OMR is
used.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR): - This technique unites the

direct reading of any printed character. Suppose you have a set of
hand written characters on a piece of paper. You put it inside the
scanner of the computer. This pattern is compared with a site of

patterns stored inside the computer. Whichever pattern is matched is

called a character read. Patterns that cannot be identified are rejected.
OCRs are expensive though better the MICR.
2. Output Devices
1. Visual Display Unit: The most popular input/output device is the Visual
Display Unit (VDU). It is also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input
data and Monitor is used to display the input data and to receive messages
from the computer. A monitor has its own box which is separated from the
main computer system and is connected to the computer by cable. In some
systems it is compact with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.
2. Terminals: It is a very popular interactive input-output unit. It can be divided
into two types: hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard
copy terminal provides a printout on paper whereas soft copy terminals
provide visual copy on monitor. A terminal when connected to a CPU sends
instructions directly to the computer. Terminals are also classified as dumb
terminals or intelligent terminals depending upon the work situation.
3. Printer: It is an important output device which can be used to get a printed
copy of the processed text or result on paper. There are different types of
printers that are designed for different types of applications. Depending on
their
speed
and
approach
of
printing, printers
are
classified
as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers use the familiar typewriter
approach of hammering a typeface against the paper and inked ribbon. Dotmatrix printers are of this type. Non-impact printers do not hit or impact a
ribbon to print. They use electro-static chemicals and ink-jet
technologies. Laser printers and Ink-jet printers are of this type. This type of
printers can produce color printing and elaborate graphics.