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Error Detection: 2-Dimensional Parity

1) The document discusses several techniques for error detection in digital communications, including parity bits, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). 2) It provides examples of how 2D parity and Internet checksum algorithms work to detect errors in transmitted data. 3) CRCs operate by generating a redundant checksum based on the data and transmitting it along with the data so the receiver can recompute and compare the checksum to detect errors.

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ragunath32527117
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© © All Rights Reserved
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60 views

Error Detection: 2-Dimensional Parity

1) The document discusses several techniques for error detection in digital communications, including parity bits, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). 2) It provides examples of how 2D parity and Internet checksum algorithms work to detect errors in transmitted data. 3) CRCs operate by generating a redundant checksum based on the data and transmitting it along with the data so the receiver can recompute and compare the checksum to detect errors.

Uploaded by

ragunath32527117
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Error Detection

Outline
Parity
Checksum
CRC

Spring 2007

CSE 30264

2-Dimensional Parity
Parity
bits
0101001 1
1101001 0
1011110 1
Data

0001110 1
0110100 1
1011111 0

Parity
byte
Spring 2007

1111011 0
CSE 30264

Internet Checksum Algorithm


View message as a sequence of 16-bit integers; sum using
16-bit ones-complement arithmetic; take ones-complement
of the result.
u_short
cksum(u_short *buf, int count)
{
register u_long sum = 0;
while (count--)
{
sum += *buf++;
if (sum & 0xFFFF0000)
{
/* carry occurred, so wrap around */
sum &= 0xFFFF;
sum++;
}
}
return ~(sum & 0xFFFF);
}
Spring 2007

CSE 30264

Cyclic Redundancy Check


Add k bits of redundant data to an n-bit message
want k << n
e.g., k = 32 and n = 12,000 (1500 bytes)

Represent n-bit message as n-1 degree polynomial


e.g., MSG=10011010 as M(x) = x7 + x4 + x3 + x1

Let k be the degree of some divisor polynomial


e.g., C(x) = x3 + x2 + 1

Spring 2007

CSE 30264

CRC (cont)
Transmit polynomial P(x) that is evenly divisible
by C(x)
shift left k bits, i.e., M(x)xk
subtract remainder of M(x)xk / C(x) from M(x)xk

Receiver polynomial P(x) + E(x)


E(x) = 0 implies no errors

Divide (P(x) + E(x)) by C(x); remainder zero if:


E(x) was zero (no error), or
E(x) is exactly divisible by C(x)
Spring 2007

CSE 30264

Selecting C(x)
All single-bit errors, as long as the xk and x0 terms have
non-zero coefficients.
All double-bit errors, as long as C(x) contains a factor with
at least three terms
Any odd number of errors, as long as C(x) contains the
factor (x + 1)
Any burst error (i.e., sequence of consecutive error bits)
for which the length of the burst is less than k bits.
Most burst errors of larger than k bits can also be detected
See Table 2.5 on page 96 for common C(x)
Spring 2007

CSE 30264

Hardware Implementation
Message
x0

x 1 XOR gate

Spring 2007

x2

CSE 30264

Acknowledgements & Timeouts


Sender

Receiver

Fram

Sender

Receiver

Fram

ACK

ACK

Fram

ACK

(a)

Sender

(c)

Receiver

Fram

Sender

Receiver

Fram

ACK

Fram

Fram

e
ACK

ACK

(b)

Spring 2007

(d)

CSE 30264

Stop-and-Wait
Sender

Receiver

Fram

e0

0
ACK

Fram

e1

1
ACK

Fram

e0

0
ACK

Spring 2007

CSE 30264

Stop-and-Wait
Sender

Receiver

Problem: keeping the pipe full


Example
1.5Mbps link x 45ms RTT = 67.5Kb (8KB)
1KB frames implies 1/8th link utilization
Spring 2007

CSE 30264

10

Sliding Window
Allow multiple outstanding (un-ACKed) frames
Upper bound on un-ACKed frames, called window
Sender

Spring 2007

Receiver

CSE 30264

11

SW: Sender
Assign sequence number to each frame (SeqNum)
Maintain three state variables:
send window size (SWS)
last acknowledgment received (LAR)
last frame sent (LFS)
Maintain invariant: LFS - LAR <= SWS
< SWS

LAR

Advance LAR when ACK arrives


Buffer up to SWS frames

Spring 2007

CSE 30264

LFS

12

SW: Receiver
Maintain three state variables
receive window size (RWS)
largest frame acceptable (LFA)
last frame received (LFR)
Maintain invariant: LFA - LFR <= RWS

<

RWS

Frame SeqNum arrives:

LFR

if LFR < SeqNum < = LFA


accept
if SeqNum < = LFR or SeqNum > LFA

LAF

discarded

Send cumulative ACKs


Spring 2007

CSE 30264

13

Sequence Number Space


SeqNum field is finite; sequence numbers wrap around
Sequence number space must be larger then number of
outstanding frames
SWS <= MaxSeqNum-1 is not sufficient

suppose 3-bit SeqNum field (0..7)


SWS=RWS=7
sender transmit frames 0..6
arrive successfully, but ACKs lost
sender retransmits 0..6
receiver expecting 7, 0..5, but receives second incarnation of 0..5

SWS < (MaxSeqNum+1)/2 is correct rule


Intuitively, SeqNum slides between two halves of
sequence number space
Spring 2007

CSE 30264

14

Concurrent Logical Channels


Multiplex 8 logical channels over a single link
Run stop-and-wait on each logical channel
Maintain three state bits per channel
channel busy
current sequence number out
next sequence number in

Header: 3-bit channel num, 1-bit sequence num


4-bits total
same as sliding window protocol

Separates reliability from order


Spring 2007

CSE 30264

15

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