Artificial Intelligence

This tutorial provides introductory knowledge on Artificial Intelligence. It

would come to a great help if you are about to select Artificial Intelligence
as a course subject. You can briefly know about the areas of AI in which
research is prospering.

Artificial Intelligence - Overview

Since the invention of computers or machines, their capability to perform
various tasks went on growing exponentially. Humans have developed the
power of computer systems in terms of their diverse working domains, their
increasing speed, and reducing size with respect to time.

A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating

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the computers or machines as intelligent as human beings.
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What is Artificial Intelligence?
According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The
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science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially

intelligent computer programs”.
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Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-

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controlled robot, or a software think intelligently, in the similar

manner the intelligent humans think.

AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks, and how humans

learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the
outcomes of this study as a basis of developing intelligent software and
systems.

Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of
human, lead him to wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans
do?”
Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar
intelligence in machines that we find and regard high in humans.

Goals of AI
 To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit intelligent behavior,
learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.

 To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating systems that

understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.

What Contributes to AI?

Artificial intelligence is a science and technology based on disciplines such
as Computer Science, Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and
Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the development of computer

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functions associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, learning,
and problem solving.
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Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas can contribute to build an
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intelligent system.
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Programming Without and With AI

The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming With

AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program

the specific questions it is meant to solve. with AI can answer
the generic questions
it is meant to solve.

Modification in the program leads to change in its AI programs can

structure. absorb new
modifications by
putting highly
independent pieces of
information together.
Hence you can modify
even a minute piece
of information of
program without
affecting its structure.

Modification is not quick and easy. It may lead to affecting Quick and Easy
the program adversely. program modification.

What is AI Technique?

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In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed properties −
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 Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.
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 It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
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 It keeps changing constantly.

AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge efficiently in

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such a way that −

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 It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.

 It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.

 It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or inaccurate.

AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex program it is

equipped with.

Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −

 Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-
toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible positions based
on heuristic knowledge.
  Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with the computer
that understands natural language spoken by humans.

 Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate machine,

software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising. They
provide explanation and advice to the users.

 Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend

visual input on the computer. For example,

o A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out

spatial information or map of the areas.

o Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

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o Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with
the stored portrait made by forensic artist.
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 Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and
comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their meanings while a
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human talks to it. It can handle different accents, slang words, noise in the
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background, change in human‟s noise due to cold, etc.

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 Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition software reads the

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text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can recognize the

shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

 Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human.
They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world such as light,
heat, temperature, movement, sound, bump, and pressure. They have efficient
processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In
addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can adapt to
the new environment.

History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century −
Year Milestone / Innovation

1923 Karel Kapek's play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in
London, first use of the word "robot" in English.

1943 Foundations for neural networks laid.

1945 Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

1950 Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and
published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.

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1956 John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the
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first running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.
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1958 John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.
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1964 Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can

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understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems

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correctly.

1965 Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries
on a dialogue in English.

1969 Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,

equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.

1973 The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the
Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.
1979 The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was built.

1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.

1990 Major advances in all areas of AI −

 Significant demonstrations in machine learning

 Case-based reasoning

 Multi-agent planning

 Scheduling

 Data mining, Web Crawler

 natural language understanding and translation

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 Vision, Virtual Reality

 Games
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1997 The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world chess champion, Garry
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Kasparov.
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2000 Interactive robot pets become commercially available. MIT displays Kismet,
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a robot with a face that expresses emotions. The robot Nomad explores
remote regions of Antarctica and locates meteorites.
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 Artificial Intelligence - Intelligent
Systems
While studying artificially intelligence, you need to know what intelligence
is. This chapter covers Idea of intelligence, types, and components of
intelligence.

What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and
analogies, learn from experience, store and retrieve information from
memory, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas, use natural language
fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt new situations.

Types of Intelligence

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As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist,
the Intelligence comes in multifold −
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Intelligence Description Example
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Linguistic intelligence The ability to speak, Narrators,

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recognize, and use Orators

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mechanisms of phonology
(speech sounds), syntax
(grammar), and semantics
(meaning).

Musical intelligence The ability to create, Musicians,

communicate with, and Singers,
understand meanings Composers
made of sound,
understanding of pitch,
rhythm.

Logical-mathematical intelligence The ability of use and Mathematicians,

understand relationships in Scientists
the absence of action or
 objects. Understanding
complex and abstract
ideas.

Spatial intelligence The ability to perceive Map readers,

visual or spatial Astronauts,
information, change it, and Physicists
re-create visual images
without reference to the
objects, construct 3D
images, and to move and
rotate them.

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence The ability to use complete Players, Dancers

or part of the body to solve

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problems or fashion
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products, control over fine
and coarse motor skills,
and manipulate the
objects.
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Intra-personal intelligence The ability to distinguish Gautam Buddhha

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among one‟s own feelings,

intentions, and
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motivations.

Interpersonal intelligence The ability to recognize Mass

and make distinctions Communicators,
among other people‟s Interviewers
feelings, beliefs, and
intentions.

You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is

equipped with at least one and at most all intelligences in it.

What is Intelligence Composed of?

The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −
  Reasoning

 Learning

 Problem Solving

 Perception

 Linguistic Intelligence

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Let us go through all the components briefly −
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 Reasoning − It is the set of processes that enables us to provide basis for

judgement, making decisions, and prediction. There are broadly two types −
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Inductive Reasoning Deductive

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Reasoning

It conducts specific observations to makes broad general It starts with

statements. a general
statement and
examines the
possibilities to
reach a
specific,
logical
conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive If something

is true of a
reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. class of things
in general, it
is also true for
all members
of that class.

Example − "Nita is a teacher. All teachers are studious. Example −

Therefore, Nita is studious." "All women of
age above 60
years are
grandmothers.
Shalini is 65
years.
Therefore,
Shalini is a
grandmother."

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
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Learning − It is the activity of gaining knowledge or skill by studying,
practising, being taught, or experiencing something. Learning enhances the
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awareness of the subjects of the study.
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The ability of learning is possessed by humans, some animals, and AI-enabled

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systems. Learning is categorized as −

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o Auditory Learning − It is learning by listening and hearing. For

example, students listening to recorded audio lectures.

o Episodic Learning − To learn by remembering sequences of events that

one has witnessed or experienced. This is linear and orderly.

o Motor Learning − It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For

example, picking objects, Writing, etc.

o Observational Learning − To learn by watching and imitating others.

For example, child tries to learn by mimicking her parent.

o Perceptual Learning − It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has

seen before. For example, identifying and classifying objects and
situations.
 o Relational Learning − It involves learning to differentiate among
various stimuli on the basis of relational properties, rather than absolute
properties. For Example, Adding „little less‟ salt at the time of cooking
potatoes that came up salty last time, when cooked with adding say a
tablespoon of salt.

o Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images,

colors, maps, etc. For Example, A person can create roadmap in mind
before actually following the road.

o Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular

behavior when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises
its ear on hearing doorbell.

 Problem Solving − It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive

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at a desired solution from a present situation by taking some path, which is
blocked by known or unknown hurdles.
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Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting
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the best suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired
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goal are available.

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 Perception − It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and

organizing sensory information.
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Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory

organs. In the domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by
the sensors together in a meaningful manner.

 Linguistic Intelligence − It is one‟s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and

write the verbal and written language. It is important in interpersonal
communication.

Difference between Human and Machine

Intelligence
 Humans perceive by patterns whereas the machines perceive by set of rules and
data.
  Humans store and recall information by patterns, machines do it by searching
algorithms. For example, the number 40404040 is easy to remember, store,
and recall as its pattern is simple.

 Humans can figure out the complete object even if some part of it is missing or
distorted; whereas the machines cannot do it correctly.

Artificial Intelligence - Research Areas

The domain of artificial intelligence is huge in breadth and width. While
proceeding, we consider the broadly common and prospering research
areas in the domain of AI −

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Speech and Voice Recognition

These both terms are common in robotics, expert systems and natural
language processing. Though these terms are used interchangeably, their
objectives are different.

Speech Recognition Voice Recognition

The speech recognition aims at The objective of voice recognition is

understanding and
comprehendingWHAT was spoken. to recognize WHO is speaking.

It is used in hand-free computing, map, or It is used to identify a person by

menu navigation. analysing its tone, voice pitch, and
accent, etc.

Machine does not need training for Speech This recognition system needs
Recognition as it is not speaker dependent. training as it is person oriented.

Speaker independent Speech Recognition Speaker dependent Speech

systems are difficult to develop. Recognition systems are
comparatively easy to develop.

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Working of Speech and Voice Recognition Systems
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The user input spoken at a microphone goes to sound card of the system.
The converter turns the analog signal into equivalent digital signal for the
speech processing. The database is used to compare the sound patterns to
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recognize the words. Finally, a reverse feedback is given to the database.
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This source-language text becomes input to the Translation Engine, which

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converts it to the target language text. They are supported with interactive
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GUI, large database of vocabulary, etc.

Real Life Applications of AI Research Areas

There is a large array of applications where AI is serving common people in
their day-to-day lives −

Sr.No. Research Areas Example

1 Expert Systems

Examples − Flight-tracking systems,

Clinical systems.
2 Natural Language Processing

Examples: Google Now feature, speech

recognition, Automatic voice output.

3 Neural Networks

Examples − Pattern recognition systems

such as face recognition, character
recognition, handwriting recognition.

4 Robotics

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Examples − Industrial robots for moving,
spraying, painting, precision
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checking,
drilling, cleaning, coating, carving, etc.
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5 Fuzzy Logic Systems

Examples − Consumer electronics,

automobiles, etc.

Task Classification of AI
The domain of AI is classified into Formal tasks, Mundane
tasks, and Expert tasks.
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Task Domains of Artificial Intelligence

Mundane (Ordinary) Formal Tasks Expert Tasks

Tasks

Perception  Mathematics  Engineering

 Geometry  Fault Finding

 Computer Vision
 Logic  Manufacturing
 Speech, Voice
 Integration and  Monitoring
Differentiation

Natural Language Games Scientific Analysis

Processing
 Go

 Understanding  Chess (Deep Blue)

 Language  Ckeckers
Generation

 Language
Translation

Common Sense Verification Financial Analysis

Reasoning Theorem Proving Medical Diagnosis

Planing Creativity

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Robotics
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 Locomotive
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Humans learn mundane (ordinary) tasks since their birth. They learn by
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perception, speaking, using language, and locomotives. They learn Formal

Tasks and Expert Tasks later, in that order.
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For humans, the mundane tasks are easiest to learn. The same was
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considered true before trying to implement mundane tasks in machines.

Earlier, all work of AI was concentrated in the mundane task domain.

Later, it turned out that the machine requires more knowledge, complex
knowledge representation, and complicated algorithms for handling
mundane tasks. This is the reason why AI work is more prospering in
the Expert Tasks domain now, as the expert task domain needs expert
knowledge without common sense, which can be easier to represent and
handle.
 AI - Agents & Environments
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The agents act
in their environment. The environment may contain other agents.

What are Agent and Environment?

An agent is anything that can perceive
its environment through sensors and acts upon that environment
through effectors.

 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for
effectors.

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 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors,
and various motors and actuators for effectors.
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 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.
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Agent Terminology
 Performance Measure of Agent − It is the criteria, which determines how
successful an agent is.

 Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent performs after any given
sequence of percepts.
  Percept − It is agent‟s perceptual inputs at a given instance.

 Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an agent has perceived till
date.

 Agent Function − It is a map from the precept sequence to an action.

Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being reasonable, sensible, and having
good sense of judgment.

Rationality is concerned with expected actions and results depending upon

what the agent has perceived. Performing actions with the aim of obtaining
useful information is an important part of rationality.

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What is Ideal Rational Agent? Va
An ideal rational agent is the one, which is capable of doing expected
actions to maximize its performance measure, on the basis of −
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 Its percept sequence

 Its built-in knowledge base

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Rationality of an agent depends on the following four factors −

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 The performance measures, which determine the degree of success.

 Agent‟s Percept Sequence till now.

 The agent‟s prior knowledge about the environment.

 The actions that the agent can carry out.

A rational agent always performs right action, where the right action means
the action that causes the agent to be most successful in the given percept
sequence. The problem the agent solves is characterized by Performance
Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors (PEAS).
The Structure of Intelligent Agents
Agent‟s structure can be viewed as −

 Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

 Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.

 Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function.

Simple Reflex Agents

 They choose actions only based on the current percept.

 They are rational only if a correct decision is made only on the basis of current
precept.

 Their environment is completely observable.

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Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state (condition) to an
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Model Based Reflex Agents

They use a model of the world to choose their actions. They maintain an
internal state.
Model − The knowledge about how the things happen in the world.

Internal State − It is a representation of unobserved aspects of current

state depending on percept history.

Updating the state requires the information about −

 How the world evolves.

 How the agent‟s actions affect the world.

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Goal Based Agents

They choose their actions in order to achieve goals. Goal-based approach is
more flexible than reflex agent since the knowledge supporting a decision is
explicitly modeled, thereby allowing for modifications.

Goal − It is the description of desirable situations.

Utility Based Agents

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They choose actions based on a preference (utility) for each state. Goals
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are inadequate when −
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 There are conflicting goals, out of which only few can be achieved.
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 Goals have some uncertainty of being achieved and you need to weigh likelihood
of success against the importance of a goal.
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Nature of Environments
Some programs operate in the entirely artificial environment confined to
keyboard input, database, computer file systems and character output on a
screen.

In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in

rich, unlimited softbots domains. The simulator has a very detailed,
complex environment. The software agent needs to choose from a long
array of actions in real time. A softbot designed to scan the online
preferences of the customer and show interesting items to the customer
works in the real as well as anartificial environment.

The most famous artificial environment is the Turing Test environment,

in which one real and other artificial agents are tested on equal ground.

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This is a very challenging environment as it is highly difficult for a software
agent to perform as well as a human.
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Turing Test
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The success of an intelligent behavior of a system can be measured with
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Turing Test.
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Two persons and a machine to be evaluated participate in the test. Out of

the two persons, one plays the role of the tester. Each of them sits in
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different rooms. The tester is unaware of who is machine and who is a

human. He interrogates the questions by typing and sending them to both
intelligences, to which he receives typed responses.

This test aims at fooling the tester. If the tester fails to determine
machine‟s response from the human response, then the machine is said to
be intelligent.

Properties of Environment
The environment has multifold properties −

 Discrete / Continuous − If there are a limited number of distinct, clearly

defined, states of the environment, the environment is discrete (For example,
chess); otherwise it is continuous (For example, driving).
 Observable / Partially Observable − If it is possible to determine the
complete state of the environment at each time point from the percepts it is
observable; otherwise it is only partially observable.

 Static / Dynamic − If the environment does not change while an agent is

acting, then it is static; otherwise it is dynamic.

 Single agent / Multiple agents − The environment may contain other agents
which may be of the same or different kind as that of the agent.

 Accessible / Inaccessible − If the agent‟s sensory apparatus can have access

to the complete state of the environment, then the environment is accessible to
that agent.

 Deterministic / Non-deterministic − If the next state of the environment is

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completely determined by the current state and the actions of the agent, then
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the environment is deterministic; otherwise it is non-deterministic.

 Episodic / Non-episodic − In an episodic environment, each episode consists

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of the agent perceiving and then acting. The quality of its action depends just
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on the episode itself. Subsequent episodes do not depend on the actions in the
previous episodes. Episodic environments are much simpler because the agent
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does not need to think ahead.

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 AI - Popular Search Algorithms
Searching is the universal technique of problem solving in AI. There are
some single-player games such as tile games, Sudoku, crossword, etc. The
search algorithms help you to search for a particular position in such
games.

Single Agent Pathfinding Problems

The games such as 3X3 eight-tile, 4X4 fifteen-tile, and 5X5 twenty four tile
puzzles are single-agent-path-finding challenges. They consist of a matrix of
tiles with a blank tile. The player is required to arrange the tiles by sliding a
tile either vertically or horizontally into a blank space with the aim of
accomplishing some objective.

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The other examples of single agent pathfinding problems are Travelling
Salesman Problem, Rubik‟s Cube, and Theorem Proving.
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Search Terminology
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 Problem Space − It is the environment in which the search takes place. (A set
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of states and set of operators to change those states)

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 Problem Instance − It is Initial state + Goal state.

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 Problem Space Graph − It represents problem state. States are shown by

nodes and operators are shown by edges.

 Depth of a problem − Length of a shortest path or shortest sequence of

operators from Initial State to goal state.

 Space Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are stored in

memory.

 Time Complexity − The maximum number of nodes that are created.

 Admissibility − A property of an algorithm to always find an optimal solution.

 Branching Factor − The average number of child nodes in the problem space
graph.
  Depth − Length of the shortest path from initial state to goal state.

Brute-Force Search Strategies

They are most simple, as they do not need any domain-specific knowledge.
They work fine with small number of possible states.

Requirements −

 State description

 A set of valid operators

 Initial state

 Goal state description

Breadth-First Search

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It starts from the root node, explores the neighboring nodes first and
moves towards the next level neighbors. It generates one tree at a time
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until the solution is found. It can be implemented using FIFO queue data
structure. This method provides shortest path to the solution.
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If branching factor (average number of child nodes for a given node) = b

and depth = d, then number of nodes at level d = b d.
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The total no of nodes created in worst case is b + b 2 + b3 + … + bd.

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Disadvantage − Since each level of nodes is saved for creating next one,
it consumes a lot of memory space. Space requirement to store nodes is
exponential.

Its complexity depends on the number of nodes. It can check duplicate

nodes.
Depth-First Search
It is implemented in recursion with LIFO stack data structure. It creates the
same set of nodes as Breadth-First method, only in the different order.

As the nodes on the single path are stored in each iteration from root to leaf

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node, the space requirement to store nodes is linear. With branching
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factor band depth as m, the storage space is bm.

Disadvantage − This algorithm may not terminate and go on infinitely on

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one path. The solution to this issue is to choose a cut-off depth. If the ideal
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cut-off isd, and if chosen cut-off is lesser than d, then this algorithm may
fail. If chosen cut-off is more than d, then execution time increases.
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Its complexity depends on the number of paths. It cannot check duplicate

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nodes.
Bidirectional Search
It searches forward from initial state and backward from goal state till both
meet to identify a common state.

The path from initial state is concatenated with the inverse path from the
goal state. Each search is done only up to half of the total path.

Uniform Cost Search

Sorting is done in increasing cost of the path to a node. It always expands
the least cost node. It is identical to Breadth First search if each transition
has the same cost.

It explores paths in the increasing order of cost.

Disadvantage − There can be multiple long paths with the cost ≤ C*.

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Uniform Cost search must explore them all.

Iterative Deepening Depth-First Search

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It performs depth-first search to level 1, starts over, executes a complete
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depth-first search to level 2, and continues in such way till the solution is
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found.
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It never creates a node until all lower nodes are generated. It only saves a
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stack of nodes. The algorithm ends when it finds a solution at depth d. The
number of nodes created at depth d is bd and at depth d-1 is bd-1.
Comparison of Various Algorithms Complexities
Let us see the performance of algorithms based on various criteria −

Criterion Breadth Depth Bidirectional Uniform Interactive

First First Cost Deepening

Time bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Space bd bm bd/2 bd bd

Optimality Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Completeness Yes No Yes Yes Yes

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Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies
To solve large problems with large number of possible states, problem-
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specific knowledge needs to be added to increase the efficiency of search

algorithms.
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Heuristic Evaluation Functions

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They calculate the cost of optimal path between two states. A heuristic
function for sliding-tiles games is computed by counting number of moves
that each tile makes from its goal state and adding these number of moves
for all tiles.

Pure Heuristic Search

It expands nodes in the order of their heuristic values. It creates two lists, a
closed list for the already expanded nodes and an open list for the created
but unexpanded nodes.

In each iteration, a node with a minimum heuristic value is expanded, all its
child nodes are created and placed in the closed list. Then, the heuristic
function is applied to the child nodes and they are placed in the open list
according to their heuristic value. The shorter paths are saved and the
longer ones are disposed.

A * Search
It is best-known form of Best First search. It avoids expanding paths that
are already expensive, but expands most promising paths first.

f(n) = g(n) + h(n), where

 g(n) the cost (so far) to reach the node

 h(n) estimated cost to get from the node to the goal

 f(n) estimated total cost of path through n to goal. It is implemented using

priority queue by increasing f(n).

Greedy Best First Search

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It expands the node that is estimated to be closest to goal. It expands
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nodes based on f(n) = h(n). It is implemented using priority queue.

Disadvantage − It can get stuck in loops. It is not optimal.

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Local Search Algorithms

They start from a prospective solution and then move to a neighboring
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solution. They can return a valid solution even if it is interrupted at any

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time before they end.

Hill-Climbing Search
It is an iterative algorithm that starts with an arbitrary solution to a
problem and attempts to find a better solution by changing a single element
of the solution incrementally. If the change produces a better solution, an
incremental change is taken as a new solution. This process is repeated
until there are no further improvements.

function Hill-Climbing (problem), returns a state that is a local maximum.

inputs: problem, a problem

local variables: current, a node
neighbor, a node
current <-Make_Node(Initial-State[problem])
loop
do neighbor <- a highest_valued successor of current
if Value[neighbor] ≤ Value[current] then
return State[current]
current <- neighbor

end

Disadvantage − This algorithm is neither complete, nor optimal.

Local Beam Search

In this algorithm, it holds k number of states at any given time. At the
start, these states are generated randomly. The successors of these k
states are computed with the help of objective function. If any of these

ts
successors is the maximum value of the objective function, then the
algorithm stops. Va
Otherwise the (initial k states and k number of successors of the states =
p
2k) states are placed in a pool. The pool is then sorted numerically. The
ee

highest k states are selected as new initial states. This process continues
until a maximum value is reached.
rd

function BeamSearch( problem, k), returns a solution state.

Pa

start with k randomly generated states

loop
generate all successors of all k states
if any of the states = solution, then return the state
else select the k best successors
end

Simulated Annealing
Annealing is the process of heating and cooling a metal to change its
internal structure for modifying its physical properties. When the metal
cools, its new structure is seized, and the metal retains its newly obtained
properties. In simulated annealing process, the temperature is kept
variable.
We initially set the temperature high and then allow it to „cool' slowly as the
algorithm proceeds. When the temperature is high, the algorithm is allowed
to accept worse solutions with high frequency.

Start

 Initialize k = 0; L = integer number of variables;

 From i → j, search the performance difference ∆.

 If ∆ <= 0 then accept else if exp(-/T(k)) > random(0,1) then accept;

 Repeat steps 1 and 2 for L(k) steps.

 k = k + 1;

Repeat steps 1 through 4 till the criteria is met.

End

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Travelling Salesman Problem Va
In this algorithm, the objective is to find a low-cost tour that starts from a
city, visits all cities en-route exactly once and ends at the same starting
p

city.
ee
rd

Start
Find out all (n -1)! Possible solutions, where n is the total number of cities.
Pa

Determine the minimum cost by finding out the cost of each of these (n -1)! solutions.
Finally, keep the one with the minimum cost.
end
 ts
Artificial Intelligence - Fuzzy Logic
Va
Systems
p
Fuzzy Logic Systems (FLS) produce acceptable but definite output in
ee

response to incomplete, ambiguous, distorted, or inaccurate (fuzzy) input.

rd

What is Fuzzy Logic?

Pa

Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning.

The approach of FL imitates the way of decision making in humans that
involves all intermediate possibilities between digital values YES and NO.

The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise
input and produces a definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent
to human‟s YES or NO.

The inventor of fuzzy logic, Lotfi Zadeh, observed that unlike computers,
the human decision making includes a range of possibilities between YES
and NO, such as −

CERTAINLY YES
 POSSIBLY YES

CANNOT SAY

POSSIBLY NO

CERTAINLY NO

The fuzzy logic works on the levels of possibilities of input to achieve the
definite output.

Implementation
 It can be implemented in systems with various sizes and capabilities ranging
from small micro-controllers to large, networked, workstation-based control
systems.

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 It can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both.
Va
Why Fuzzy Logic?
Fuzzy logic is useful for commercial and practical purposes.
p
ee

 It can control machines and consumer products.

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 It may not give accurate reasoning, but acceptable reasoning.

 Fuzzy logic helps to deal with the uncertainty in engineering.

Pa

Fuzzy Logic Systems Architecture

It has four main parts as shown −

 Fuzzification Module − It transforms the system inputs, which are crisp

numbers, into fuzzy sets. It splits the input signal into five steps such as −

LP x is Large Positive

MP x is Medium Positive

S x is Small
MN x is Medium Negative

LN x is Large Negative

 Knowledge Base − It stores IF-THEN rules provided by experts.

 Inference Engine − It simulates the human reasoning process by making

fuzzy inference on the inputs and IF-THEN rules.

 Defuzzification Module − It transforms the fuzzy set obtained by the

inference engine into a crisp value.

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Va
p
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The membership functions work on fuzzy sets of variables.

Membership Function
Membership functions allow you to quantify linguistic term and represent a
fuzzy set graphically. A membership function for a fuzzy set A on the
universe of discourse X is defined as µA:X → [0,1].

Here, each element of X is mapped to a value between 0 and 1. It is

calledmembership value or degree of membership. It quantifies the
degree of membership of the element in X to the fuzzy set A.

 x axis represents the universe of discourse.

 y axis represents the degrees of membership in the [0, 1] interval.

There can be multiple membership functions applicable to fuzzify a

numerical value. Simple membership functions are used as use of complex
functions does not add more precision in the output.

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Va
All membership functions for LP, MP, S, MN, and LN are shown as below −
p
ee
rd
Pa

The triangular membership function shapes are most common among

various other membership function shapes such as trapezoidal, singleton,
and Gaussian.

Here, the input to 5-level fuzzifier varies from -10 volts to +10 volts. Hence
the corresponding output also changes.
Example of a Fuzzy Logic System
Let us consider an air conditioning system with 5-lvel fuzzy logic system.
This system adjusts the temperature of air conditioner by comparing the
room temperature and the target temperature value.

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p
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Algorithm

 Define linguistic variables and terms.

 Construct membership functions for them.

 Construct knowledge base of rules.

  Convert crisp data into fuzzy data sets using membership functions.
(fuzzification)

 Evaluate rules in the rule base. (interface engine)

 Combine results from each rule. (interface engine)

 Convert output data into non-fuzzy values. (defuzzification)

Logic Development
Step 1: Define linguistic variables and terms

Linguistic variables are input and output variables in the form of simple
words or sentences. For room temperature, cold, warm, hot, etc., are
linguistic terms.

Temperature (t) = {very-cold, cold, warm, very-warm, hot}

ts
Every member of this set is a linguistic term and it can cover some portion
of overall temperature values.
Va
Step 2: Construct membership functions for them
p
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The membership functions of temperature variable are as shown −

rd
Pa

Step3: Construct knowledge base rules

Create a matrix of room temperature values versus target temperature
values that an air conditioning system is expected to provide.

RoomTemp. Very_Cold Cold Warm Hot Very_Hot

/Target

Very_Cold No_Change Heat Heat Heat Heat

Cold Cool No_Change Heat Heat Heat

Warm Cool Cool No_Change Heat Heat

Hot Cool Cool Cool No_Change Heat

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Very_Hot Cool Cool
Va
Cool Cool No_Change
p
Build a set of rules into the knowledge base in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE
ee

structures.
rd

Sr. No. Condition Action

Pa

1 IF temperature=(Cold OR Very_Cold) AND target=Warm Heat

THEN

2 IF temperature=(Hot OR Very_Hot) AND target=Warm Cool

THEN

3 IF (temperature=Warm) AND (target=Warm) THEN No_Change

Step 4: Obtain fuzzy value

Fuzzy set operations perform evaluation of rules. The operations used for
OR and AND are Max and Min respectively. Combine all results of evaluation
to form a final result. This result is a fuzzy value.

Step 5: Perform defuzzification

Defuzzification is then performed according to membership function for

output variable.

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Application Areas of Fuzzy Logic

Pa

The key application areas of fuzzy logic are as given −

Automotive Systems

 Automatic Gearboxes

 Four-Wheel Steering

 Vehicle environment control

Consumer Electronic Goods

 Hi-Fi Systems

 Photocopiers

 Still and Video Cameras

  Television

Domestic Goods

 Microwave Ovens

 Refrigerators

 Toasters

 Vacuum Cleaners

 Washing Machines

Environment Control

 Air Conditioners/Dryers/Heaters

 Humidifiers

Advantages of FLSs

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
Va
Mathematical concepts within fuzzy reasoning are very simple.

 You can modify a FLS by just adding or deleting rules due to flexibility of fuzzy
p
logic.
ee

 Fuzzy logic Systems can take imprecise, distorted, noisy input information.
rd

 FLSs are easy to construct and understand.

 Fuzzy logic is a solution to complex problems in all fields of life, including

Pa

medicine, as it resembles human reasoning and decision making.

Disadvantages of FLSs
 There is no systematic approach to fuzzy system designing.

 They are understandable only when simple.

 They are suitable for the problems which do not need high accuracy.
 AI - Natural Language Processing
Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating
with an intelligent systems using a natural language such as English.

Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent

system like robot to perform as per your instructions, when you want to
hear decision from a dialogue based clinical expert system, etc.

The field of NLP involves making computers to perform useful tasks with the
natural languages humans use. The input and output of an NLP system can
be −

 Speech

 Written Text

ts
Components of NLP Va
There are two components of NLP as given −
p
Natural Language Understanding (NLU)
ee

Understanding involves the following tasks −

rd

 Mapping the given input in natural language into useful representations.

Pa

 Analyzing different aspects of the language.

Natural Language Generation (NLG)

It is the process of producing meaningful phrases and sentences in the form
of natural language from some internal representation.

It involves −

 Text planning − It includes retrieving the relevant content from knowledge

base.

 Sentence planning − It includes choosing required words, forming meaningful

phrases, setting tone of the sentence.

 Text Realization − It is mapping sentence plan into sentence structure.

The NLU is harder than NLG.

Difficulties in NLU
NL has an extremely rich form and structure.

It is very ambiguous. There can be different levels of ambiguity −

 Lexical ambiguity − It is at very primitive level such as word-level.

 For example, treating the word “board” as noun or verb?

 Syntax Level ambiguity − A sentence can be parsed in different ways.

 For example, “He lifted the beetle with red cap.” − Did he use cap to lift the
beetle or he lifted a beetle that had red cap?

ts
 Referential ambiguity − Referring to something using pronouns. For example,
Va
Rima went to Gauri. She said, “I am tired.” − Exactly who is tired?

 One input can mean different meanings.

p
ee

 Many inputs can mean the same thing.

NLP Terminology
rd
Pa

 Phonology − It is study of organizing sound systematically.

 Morphology − It is a study of construction of words from primitive meaningful

units.

 Morpheme − It is primitive unit of meaning in a language.

 Syntax − It refers to arranging words to make a sentence. It also involves

determining the structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.

 Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine

words into meaningful phrases and sentences.

 Pragmatics − It deals with using and understanding sentences in different

situations and how the interpretation of the sentence is affected.
  Discourse − It deals with how the immediately preceding sentence can affect
the interpretation of the next sentence.

 World Knowledge − It includes the general knowledge about the world.

Steps in NLP
There are general five steps −

 Lexical Analysis − It involves identifying and analyzing the structure of words.

Lexicon of a language means the collection of words and phrases in a language.
Lexical analysis is dividing the whole chunk of txt into paragraphs, sentences,
and words.

 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) − It involves analysis of words in the sentence

for grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the relationship

ts
among the words. The sentence such as “The school goes to boy” is rejected by
English syntactic analyzer.
Va
p
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Pa
 ts
Va
p
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 Semantic Analysis − It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary meaning

from the text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is done by mapping
syntactic structures and objects in the task domain. The semantic analyzer
disregards sentence such as “hot ice-cream”.

 Discourse Integration − The meaning of any sentence depends upon the

meaning of the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings about the
meaning of immediately succeeding sentence.

 Pragmatic Analysis − During this, what was said is re-interpreted on what it

actually meant. It involves deriving those aspects of language which require real
world knowledge.
Implementation Aspects of Syntactic Analysis
There are a number of algorithms researchers have developed for syntactic
analysis, but we consider only the following simple methods −

 Context-Free Grammar

 Top-Down Parser

Let us see them in detail −

Context-Free Grammar
It is the grammar that consists rules with a single symbol on the left-hand
side of the rewrite rules. Let us create grammar to parse a sentence − “The
bird pecks the grains”

Articles (DET) − a | an | the

ts
Nouns − bird | birds | grain | grains
Va
Noun Phrase (NP) − Article + Noun | Article + Adjective + Noun
p
ee

= DET N | DET ADJ N

Verbs − pecks | pecking | pecked

rd
Pa

Verb Phrase (VP) − NP V | V NP

Adjectives (ADJ) − beautiful | small | chirping

The parse tree breaks down the sentence into structured parts so that the
computer can easily understand and process it. In order for the parsing
algorithm to construct this parse tree, a set of rewrite rules, which describe
what tree structures are legal, need to be constructed.

These rules say that a certain symbol may be expanded in the tree by a
sequence of other symbols. According to first order logic rule, ff there are
two strings Noun Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP), then the string
combined by NP followed by VP is a sentence. The rewrite rules for the
sentence are as follows −
S → NP VP

NP → DET N | DET ADJ N

VP → V NP

Lexocon −

DET → a | the

ADJ → beautiful | perching

N → bird | birds | grain | grains

V → peck | pecks | pecking

The parse tree can be created as shown −

ts
Va
p
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Pa
 ts
Va
p
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Now consider the above rewrite rules. Since V can be replaced by both,
"peck" or "pecks", sentences such as "The bird peck the grains" with wrong
subject-verb agreement are also permitted.

Merit − The simplest style of grammar, therefore widely used one.

Demerits

 They are not highly precise. For example, “The grains peck the bird”, is a
syntactically correct according to parser, but even if it makes no sense, parser
takes it as a correct sentence.
  To bring out high precision, multiple sets of grammar need to be prepared. It
may require a completely different sets of rules for parsing singular and plural
variations, passive sentences, etc., which can lead to creation of huge set of
rules that are unmanageable.

Top-Down Parser
Here, the parser starts with the S symbol and attempts to rewrite it into a
sequence of terminal symbols that matches the classes of the words in the
input sentence until it consists entirely of terminal symbols.

These are then checked with the input sentence to see if it matched. If not,
the process is started over again with a different set of rules. This is
repeated until a specific rule is found which describes the structure of the
sentence.

ts
Merit − It is simple to implement.
Va
Demerits
p
 It is inefficient, as the search process has to be repeated if an error occurs.
ee

 Slow speed of working.

rd
Pa
 Artificial Intelligence - Expert Systems
Expert systems (ES) are one of the prominent research domains of AI. It is
introduced by the researchers at Stanford University, Computer Science
Department.

What are Expert Systems?

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve
complex problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary
human intelligence and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems

 High performance

ts
 Understandable

 Reliable
Va
 Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems

p
ee

The expert systems are capable of −

rd

 Advising
Pa

 Instructing and assisting human in decision making

 Demonstrating

 Deriving a solution

 Diagnosing

 Explaining

 Interpreting input

 Predicting results

 Justifying the conclusion

 Suggesting alternative options to a problem

They are incapable of −

 Substituting human decision makers

  Possessing human capabilities

 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base

 Refining their own knowledge

Components of Expert Systems

The components of ES include −

 Knowledge Base

 Interface Engine

 User Interface

Let us see them one by one briefly −

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Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is
required to exhibit intelligence. The success of any ES majorly depends
upon the collection of highly accurate and precise knowledge.

What is Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and
facts about the task domain. Data, information, and past
experience combined together are termed as knowledge.

Components of Knowledge Base

The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic
knowledge.

ts
 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge
Va
Engineers and scholars in the task domain.

 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one‟s ability

p
of evaluation, and guessing.
ee

Knowledge representation
rd

It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the

knowledge base. It is in the form of IT-THEN-ELSE rules.
Pa

Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality,
completeness, and accuracy of the information stored in the knowledge
base.

The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars,

and the Knowledge Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with
the qualities of empathy, quick learning, and case analyzing skills.

He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and

observing him at work, etc. He then categorizes and organizes the
information in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to be
used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the
development of the ES.

Interface Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Interface Engine is essential in
deducting a correct, flawless solution.

In case of knowledge-based ES, the Interface Engine acquires and

manipulates the knowledge from the knowledge base to arrive at a
particular solution.

In case of rule based ES, it −

 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule

ts
application.

 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.

Va
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.

To recommend a solution, the interface engine uses the following strategies

p

−
ee

 Forward Chaining
rd

 Backward Chaining
Pa

Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can
happen next?”

Here, the interface engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations
and finally deduces the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and
sorts them before concluding to a solution.

This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For

example, prediction of share market status as an effect of changes in
interest rates.
Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the
question,“Why this happened?”

ts
On the basis of what has already happened, the interface engine tries to
find out which conditions could have happened in the past for this result.
Va
This strategy is followed for finding out cause or reason. For example,
diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.
p
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User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself.
It is generally Natural Language Processing so as to be used by the user
who is well-versed in the task domain. The user of the ES need not be
necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The
explanation may appear in the following forms −

 Natural language displayed on screen.

 Verbal narrations in natural language.

 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen.

The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deductions.

Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface

 It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way.

 It should be designed to work for user‟s existing or desired work practices.

 Its technology should be adaptable to user‟s requirements; not the other way

ts
round.

 It should make efficient use of user input.

Va
Expert Systems Limitations
p
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are
ee

costly, require significant development time, and computer resources. ESs

have their limitations which include −
rd

 Limitations of the technology

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 Difficult knowledge acquisition

 ES are difficult to maintain

 High development costs

Applications of Expert System

The following table shows where ES can be applied.

Application Description

Design Domain Camera lens design, automobile design.

Medical Domain Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from
observed data, conduction medical operations on
humans.

Monitoring Systems Comparing data continuously with observed system or

with prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in
long petroleum pipeline.

Process Control Systems Controlling a physical process based on monitoring.

Knowledge Domain Finding out faults in vehicles, computers.

Finance/Commerce Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions,

ts
stock market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo
scheduling. Va
Expert System Technology
p
ee

There are several levels of ES technologies available. Expert systems

technologies include −
rd

 Expert System Development Environment − The ES development

Pa

environment includes hardware and tools. They are −

o Workstations, minicomputers, mainframes.

o High level Symbolic Programming Languages such as LIStProgramming

(LISP) and PROgrammation en LOGique (PROLOG).

o Large databases.

 Tools − They reduce the effort and cost involved in developing an expert
system to large extent.

o Powerful editors and debugging tools with multi-windows.

o They provide rapid prototyping

 o Have Inbuilt definitions of model, knowledge representation, and inference
design.

 Shells − A shell is nothing but an expert system without knowledge base. A

shell provides the developers with knowledge acquisition, inference engine, user
interface, and explanation facility. For example, few shells are given below −

o Java Expert System Shell (JESS) that provides fully developed Java API
for creating an expert system.

o Vidwan, a shell developed at the National Centre for Software

Technology, Mumbai in 1993. It enables knowledge encoding in the form
of IF-THEN rules.

Development of Expert Systems: General Steps

ts
The process of ES development is iterative. Steps in developing the ES
include − Va
Identify Problem Domain
p
ee

 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.

 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.

rd

 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.

Pa

Design the System

 Identify the ES Technology

 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and
databases.

 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.

Develop the Prototype

From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to −

 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.

 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.

Test and Refine the Prototype

 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any
deficiencies in performance.

 End users test the prototypes of the ES.

Develop and Complete the ES

 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment,
including end users, databases, and other information systems.

 Document the ES project well.

 Train the user to use ES.

Maintain the ES

ts
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.

 Va
Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems
evolve.

Benefits of Expert Systems

p
ee

 Availability − They are easily available due to mass production of software.

rd

 Less Production Cost − Production cost is reasonable. This makes them

affordable.
Pa

 Speed − They offer great speed. They reduce the amount of work an individual
puts in.

 Less Error Rate − Error rate is low as compared to human errors.

 Reducing Risk − They can work in the environment dangerous to humans.

 Steady response − They work steadily without getting motional, tensed or

fatigued.
 Artificial Intelligence - Robotics
Robotics is a domain in artificial intelligence that deals with the study of
creating intelligent and efficient robots.

What are Robots?

Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.

Objective
Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking,
moving, modifying the physical properties of object, destroying it, or to
have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing repetitive functions
without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.

What is Robotics?

ts
Va
Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science for designing, construction,
and application of robots.
p
ee

Aspects of Robotics
 The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to
rd

accomplish a particular task.

Pa

 They have electrical components which power and control the machinery.

 They contain some level of computer program that determines what, when
and how a robot does something.

Difference in Robot System and Other AI

Program
Here is the difference between the two −

AI Programs Robots
They usually operate in computer- They operate in real physical world
stimulated worlds.

The input to an AI program is in Inputs to robots is analog signal in the form

symbols and rules. of speech waveform or images

They need general purpose They need special hardware with sensors and
computers to operate on. effectors.

Robot Locomotion
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its
environment. There are various types of locomotions −

ts
 Legged

 Wheeled
Va
 Combination of Legged and Wheeled Locomotion
p
 Tracked slip/skid
ee

Legged Locomotion
rd

 This type of locomotion consumes more power while demonstrating walk, jump,
trot, hop, climb up or down, etc.
Pa

 It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is suited for

rough as well as smooth terrain where irregular or too smooth surface makes it
consume more power for a wheeled locomotion. It is little difficult to implement
because of stability issues.

 It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot has multiple
legs then leg coordination is necessary for locomotion.

The total number of possible gaits (a periodic sequence of lift and release
events for each of the total legs) a robot can travel depends upon the
number of its legs.

If a robot has k legs, then the number of possible events N = (2k-1)!.

In case of a two-legged robot (k=2), the number of possible events is N =
(2k-1)! = (2*2-1)! = 3! = 6.

Hence there are six possible different events −

 Lifting the Left leg

 Releasing the Left leg

 Lifting the Right leg

 Releasing the Right leg

 Lifting both the legs together

 Releasing both the legs together

In case of k=6 legs, there are 39916800 possible events. Hence the
complexity of robots is directly proportional to the number of legs.

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Wheeled Locomotion
It requires fewer number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is little
easy to implement as there are less stability issues in case of more number
of wheels. It is power efficient as compared to legged locomotion.

 Standard wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and around the contact

 Castor wheel − Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset steering joint.

 Swedish 45° and Swedish 90° wheels − Omni-wheel, rotates around the
contact point, around the wheel axle, and around the rollers.
  Ball or spherical wheel − Omnidirectional wheel, technically difficult to
implement.

Slip/Skid Locomotion
In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank. The robot is steered by

ts
moving the tracks with different speeds in the same or opposite direction. It
Va
offers stability because of large contact area of track and ground.
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Components of a Robot
Robots are constructed with the following −

 Power Supply − The robots are powered by batteries, solar power, hydraulic,
or pneumatic power sources.

 Actuators − They convert energy into movement.

 Electric motors (AC/DC) − They are required for rotational movement.

  Pneumatic Air Muscles − They contract almost 40% when air is sucked in
them.

 Muscle Wires − They contract by 5% when electric current is passed through

them.

 Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors − Best for industrial robots.

 Sensors − They provide knowledge of real time information on the task

environment. Robots are equipped with vision sensors to be to compute the
depth in the environment. A tactile sensor imitates the mechanical properties of
touch receptors of human fingertips.

Computer Vision
This is a technology of AI with which the robots can see. The computer

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vision plays vital role in the domains of safety, security, health, access, and
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entertainment.

Computer vision automatically extracts, analyzes, and comprehends useful

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information from a single image or an array of images. This process
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involves development of algorithms to accomplish automatic visual

comprehension.
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Hardware of Computer Vision System

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This involves −

 Image acquisition device such as camera

 a processor

 a software

 A display device for monitoring the system

 Accessories such as camera stands, cables, and connectors

Tasks of Computer Vision

 OCR − In the domain of computers, Optical Character Reader, a software to
convert scanned documents into editable text, which accompanies a scanner.
  Face Detection − Many state-of-the-art cameras come with this feature, which
enables to read the face and take the picture of that perfect expression. It is
used to let a user access the software on correct match.

 Object Recognition − They are installed in supermarkets, cameras, high-end

cars such as BMW, GM, and Volvo.

 Estimating Position − It is estimating position of an object with respect to

camera as in position of tumor in human‟s body.

Application Domains of Computer Vision

 Agriculture

 Autonomous vehicles

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 Forensics, security, and surveillance
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 Face recognition

 Gesture analysis
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 Geoscience
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 Medical imagery

 Pollution monitoring

 Process control

 Remote sensing

 Robotics

 Transport

Applications of Robotics
The robotics has been instrumental in the various domains such as −

 Industries − Robots are used for handling material, cutting, welding, color
coating, drilling, polishing, etc.
 Military − Autonomous robots can reach inaccessible and hazardous zones
during war. A robot named Daksh, developed by Defense Research and
Development Organization (DRDO), is in function to destroy life-threatening
objects safely.

 Medicine − The robots are capable of carrying out hundreds of clinical tests
simultaneously, rehabilitating permanently disabled people, and performing
complex surgeries such as brain tumors.

 Exploration − The robot rock climbers used for space exploration, underwater
drones used for ocean exploration are to name a few.

 Entertainment − Disney‟s engineers have created hundreds of robots for

movie making.

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 Artificial Intelligence - Neural Networks

Yet another research area in AI, neural networks, is inspired from the
natural neural network of human nervous system.

What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)?

The inventor of the first neurocomputer, Dr. Robert Hecht-Nielsen, defines a
neural network as −

"...a computing system made up of a number of simple, highly interconnected

processing elements, which process information by their dynamic state response to
external inputs.”

Basic Structure of ANNs

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The idea of ANNs is based on the belief that working of human brain by
making the right connections, can be imitated using silicon and wires as
living neuronsand dendrites.
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The human brain is composed of 100 billion nerve cells

called neurons. They are connected to other thousand cells
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by Axons. Stimuli from external environment or inputs from sensory

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organs are accepted by dendrites. These inputs create electric impulses,

which quickly travel through the neural network. A neuron can then send
the message to other neuron to handle the issue or does not send it
forward.
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ANNs are composed of multiple nodes, which imitate biological neurons of

human brain. The neurons are connected by links and they interact with
each other. The nodes can take input data and perform simple operations
on the data. The result of these operations is passed to other neurons. The
output at each node is called its activation or node value.

Each link is associated with weight. ANNs are capable of learning, which
takes place by altering weight values. The following illustration shows a
simple ANN −
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Types of Artificial Neural Networks

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There are two Artificial Neural Network topologies

− FreeForward andFeedback.

FeedForward ANN
The information flow is unidirectional. A unit sends information to other unit
from which it does not receive any information. There are no feedback
loops. They are used in pattern generation/recognition/classification. They
have fixed inputs and outputs.
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FeedBack ANN
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Here, feedback loops are allowed. They are used in content addressable
memories.
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Working of ANNs
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In the topology diagrams shown, each arrow represents a connection

between two neurons and indicates the pathway for the flow of information.
Each connection has a weight, an integer number that controls the signal
between the two neurons.

If the network generates a “good or desired” output, there is no need to

adjust the weights. However, if the network generates a “poor or
undesired” output or an error, then the system alters the weights in order
to improve subsequent results.

Machine Learning in ANNs

ANNs are capable of learning and they need to be trained. There are several
learning strategies −
  Supervised Learning − It involves a teacher that is scholar than the ANN
itself. For example, the teacher feeds some example data about which the
teacher already knows the answers.

For example, pattern recognizing. The ANN comes up with guesses while
recognizing. Then the teacher provides the ANN with the answers. The network
then compares it guesses with the teacher‟s “correct” answers and makes
adjustments according to errors.

 Unsupervised Learning − It is required when there is no example data set

with known answers. For example, searching for a hidden pattern. In this case,
clustering i.e. dividing a set of elements into groups according to some
unknown pattern is carried out based on the existing data sets present.

 Reinforcement Learning − This strategy built on observation. The ANN makes

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a decision by observing its environment. If the observation is negative, the
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network adjusts its weights to be able to make a different required decision the
next time.
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Back Propagation Algorithm
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It is the training or learning algorithm. It learns by example. If you submit

to the algorithm the example of what you want the network to do, it
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changes the network‟s weights so that it can produce desired output for a
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particular input on finishing the training.

Back Propagation networks are ideal for simple Pattern Recognition and
Mapping Tasks.

Bayesian Networks (BN)

These are the graphical structures used to represent the probabilistic
relationship among a set of random variables. Bayesian networks are also
called Belief Networks or Bayes Nets. BNs reason about uncertain
domain.

In these networks, each node represents a random variable with specific

propositions. For example, in a medical diagnosis domain, the node Cancer
represents the proposition that a patient has cancer.
The edges connecting the nodes represent probabilistic dependencies
among those random variables. If out of two nodes, one is affecting the
other then they must be directly connected in the directions of the effect.
The strength of the relationship between variables is quantified by the
probability associated with each node.

There is an only constraint on the arcs in a BN that you cannot return to a

node simply by following directed arcs. Hence the BNs are called Directed
Acyclic Graphs (DAGs).

BNs are capable of handling multivalued variables simultaneously. The BN

variables are composed of two dimensions −

 Range of prepositions

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 Probability assigned to each of the prepositions.

Consider a finite set X = {X1, X2, …,Xn} of discrete random variables,

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where each variable Xi may take values from a finite set, denoted
by Val(Xi). If there is a directed link from variable Xi to variable, Xj, then
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variable Xi will be a parent of variable Xj showing direct dependencies
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between the variables.

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The structure of BN is ideal for combining prior knowledge and observed

data. BN can be used to learn the causal relationships and understand
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various problem domains and to predict future events, even in case of

missing data.

Building a Bayesian Network

A knowledge engineer can build a Bayesian network. There are a number of
steps the knowledge engineer needs to take while building it.

Example problem − Lung cancer. A patient has been suffering from

breathlessness. He visits the doctor, suspecting he has lung cancer. The
doctor knows that barring lung cancer, there are various other possible
diseases the patient might have such as tuberculosis and bronchitis.

Gather Relevant Information of Problem

  Is the patient a smoker? If yes, then high chances of cancer and bronchitis.

 Is the patient exposed to air pollution? If yes, what sort of air pollution?

 Take an X-Ray positive X-ray would indicate either TB or lung cancer.

Identify Interesting Variables

The knowledge engineer tries to answer the questions −

 Which nodes to represent?

 What values can they take? In which state can they be?

For now let us consider nodes, with only discrete values. The variable must
take on exactly one of these values at a time.

Common types of discrete nodes are −

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 Boolean nodes − They represent propositions, taking binary values TRUE (T)
and FALSE (F).
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medium, high} describing degree of a patient‟s exposure to pollution.
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 Integral values − A node called Age might represent patient‟s age with
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possible values from 1 to 120. Even at this early stage, modeling choices are
being made.
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Possible nodes and values for the lung cancer example −

Node Type Value Nodes Creation

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Poluti Binar {LOW,

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Smok Boole {TRUE,

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Lung- Boole {TRUE,

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X-Ray Binar {Positiv

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Create Arcs between Nodes

Topology of the network should capture qualitative relationships between

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For example, what causes a patient to have lung cancer? - Pollution and
smoking. Then add arcs from node Pollution and node Smoker to
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node Lung-Cancer.
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Similarly if patient has lung cancer, then X-ray result will be positive. Then
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add arcs from node Lung-Cancer to node X-Ray.

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Specify Topology

Conventionally, BNs are laid out so that the arcs point from top to bottom.
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The set of parent nodes of a node X is given by Parents(X).

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The Lung-Cancer node has two parents (reasons or

causes): Pollution andSmoker, while node Smoker is an ancestor of
node X-Ray. Similarly, X-Ray is a child (consequence or effects) of
node Lung-Cancer and successor of nodesSmoker and Pollution.

Conditional Probabilities

Now quantify the relationships between connected nodes: this is done by

specifying a conditional probability distribution for each node. As only
discrete variables are considered here, this takes the form of a Conditional
Probability Table (CPT).

First, for each node we need to look at all the possible combinations of
values of those parent nodes. Each such combination is called
an instantiation of the parent set. For each distinct instantiation of parent
node values, we need to specify the probability that the child will take.

For example, the Lung-Cancer node‟s parents

are Pollution and Smoking. They take the possible values = { (H,T), ( H,F),
(L,T), (L,F)}. The CPT specifies the probability of cancer for each of these
cases as <0.05, 0.02, 0.03, 0.001> respectively.

Each node will have conditional probability associated as follows −

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Applications of Neural Networks

They can perform tasks that are easy for a human but difficult for a
machine −

 Aerospace − Autopilot aircrafts, aircraft fault detection.

 Automotive − Automobile guidance systems.

 Military − Weapon orientation and steering, target tracking, object

discrimination, facial recognition, signal/image identification.

 Electronics − Code sequence prediction, IC chip layout, chip failure analysis,

machine vision, voice synthesis.

 Financial − Real estate appraisal, loan advisor, mortgage screening, corporate

bond rating, portfolio trading program, corporate financial analysis, currency
value prediction, document readers, credit application evaluators.

 Industrial − Manufacturing process control, product design and analysis,

quality inspection systems, welding quality analysis, paper quality prediction,
chemical product design analysis, dynamic modeling of chemical process

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 Medical − Cancer cell analysis, EEG and ECG analysis, prosthetic design,
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 Speech − Speech recognition, speech classification, text to speech conversion.

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 Telecommunications − Image and data compression, automated information

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services, real-time spoken language translation.

 Transportation − Truck Brake system diagnosis, vehicle scheduling, routing

systems.

 Software − Pattern Recognition in facial recognition, optical character

recognition, etc.

 Time Series Prediction − ANNs are used to make predictions on stocks and
natural calamities.

 Signal Processing − Neural networks can be trained to process an audio signal

and filter it appropriately in the hearing aids.

 Control − ANNs are often used to make steering decisions of physical vehicles.
  Anomaly Detection − As ANNs are expert at recognizing patterns, they can
also be trained to generate an output when something unusual occurs that
misfits the pattern.

Artificial Intelligence - Issues

AI is developing with such an incredible speed, sometimes it seems magical.
There is an opinion among researchers and developers that AI could grow
so immensely strong that it would be difficult for humans to control.

Humans developed AI systems by introducing into them every possible

intelligence they could, for which the humans themselves now seem
threatened.

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An AI program that recognizes speech and understands natural language is
theoretically capable of understanding each conversation on e-mails and
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Threat to Human Dignity

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industries. It should not replace people in the sectors where they are
holding dignified positions which are pertaining to ethics such as nursing,
surgeon, judge, police officer, etc.

Threat to Safety
The self-improving AI systems can become so mighty than humans that
could be very difficult to stop from achieving their goals, which may lead to
unintended consequences.
 Artificial Intelligence - Terminology
Here is the list of frequently used terms in the domain of AI:

Term Meaning

Agent Agents are systems or software programs capable of

autonomous, purposeful and reasoning directed towards
one or more goals. They are also called assistants,
brokers, bots, droids, intelligent agents, and software
agents.

Autonomous Robot Robot free from external control or influence and able to
control itself independently.

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Backward Chaining Strategy of working backward for Reason/Cause of a
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Blackboard It is the memory inside computer, which is used for
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Environment It is the part of real or computational world inhabited by

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the agent.
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Forward Chaining Strategy of working forward for conclusion/solution of a

problem.

Heuristics It is the knowledge based on Trial-and-error,

evaluations, and experimentation.

Knowledge Engineering Acquiring knowledge from human experts and other

resources.

Percepts It is the format in which the agent obtains information

about the environment.
Pruning Overriding unnecessary and irrelevant considerations in
AI systems.

Rule It is a format of representing knowledge base in Expert

System. It is in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE.

Shell A shell is a software that helps in designing inference

engine, knowledge base, and user interface of an expert
system.

Task It is the goal the agent is tries to accomplish.

Turing Test A test developed by Allan Turing to test the intelligence

of a machine as compared to human intelligence.

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