32 1-Nivarana - Piya

SD 32.
1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances
Piya Tan
Nvaraa
Mental Hindrances
Theme: The five barriers to mental focus and how to break through them
An essay by Piya Tan 2006, 2010
1 Suffering and the mind

In this introductory chapter, we will examine the five mental hindrances as a set, beginning with its conjectural historical development in the Pali canon. After preliminary definitions of the hindrances [1], we will examine the evolution of the term and how the hindrances work as a set [2]. We shall also examine some of the many
imageries used in the ancient texts to illustrate the hindrances [3]. We shall then discuss why the hindrances
need to be overcome [4], and how this can be effected [6].
1.1 IGNORANCE AND SUFFERING. Early Buddhism identifies ignorance (avijj) as the root condition for
suffering, and defines it as a lack of understanding true reality, as defined, for example, in the four noble
truths. 1 As such, ignorance forms the first of the 12 links of dependent arising of suffering, where it conditions volitional activities (sakhr), that is, when ignorance is present, it initiates and supports intentional ideations and mental deliberations. In simple terms, we conjure up private realities and meanings,
expressed through our thoughts, speech and actions. 2
The hindrances blinker and skew up our minds so that we unwisely attends (ayoniso manasikaroti)
to our sense-experiences. The Commentary explains unwise attention (ayoniso manasikra) as attention
that is unskillful in means (anupya,manasikra), attention shown the wrong way (uppatha,manasikra),
that is, by way of the four perversions, namely:
what is impermanent
what is painful
what is not self
what is impure
is taken to be permanent
is taken to be pleasurable
is taken to be self
is taken to be pure
(anicce niccan ti);

(dukkhe sukhan ti);
(anattni attan ti); and
(asubhe subhan ti).
(MA 1:64)3
Unwise attention, in other words, is based on ignorance, which starts off the dependent arising of formations, and so on leading to the whole mass of suffering, and the prolonging of the samsaric cycle (vaa)
(MA 1:64 f). In short, unwise attention is the root of samsaric existence; for, it increases ignorance and
craving. The mental hindrances function to keep us within this rut of suffering.
Psychologically, we can say that the hindrances are defilements (kilesa) that limit our vision, so that we do
not see beyond our noses. They distract us from focusing our minds into clear stillness, which in turn, prevents
us from realizing our highest potential as awakened beings. As such, the hindrances are mental impurities (cetaso upakkilesa) that weaken wisdom (paya dubbal,karae),4 thus preventing us from rising above the mere
physicality of our senses. In short, the hindrances simply prevent our minds from directly knowing the true
nature of our being.
Etymologically, nvaraa is cognate with the Sanskrit ni-vraa, which is resolved as nis (low, downward)
+ V (to cover), as in (Skt) voti, to cover, conceal. It is said to be varaa (screen, obstruction),5 onaha
(covering),6 pariyonaha (full covering),7 caga,vara (strainer),8 akusala,rs (a heap of unwholesomeness),9
1
(Paicca,samuppda) Vibhaga S (S 12.2/2.4) = SD 5.15. On ignorance as a latent tendency, see Anusaya =

SD 31.3 (8).
2
On ignorance as the first of the 12 links of dependent arising, see Mine: The Nature of Craving = SD 19.3
(4.2).
3
See Vipallsa S (A 4.49/2:52 = SD 16.11; Vism 22.68/685); Satipahna Ss = SD 13.1 (4.1a);
4
D 12.30/1:246, 25.16/3:49 f; M 39.15/1:276; S 46.37/5:94, 46.38/5:96 (cf Sn 66); A 5.51.3/3:63, 6.57.7/3:386;
Vbh 244 f.
5
D 13.30/1:246; Nm 9, 30; Vbh 362; Dhs 1136.
6
D 13.30/1:246.
7
D 13.30/1:246.
http://dharmafarer.org
SD 32.1
Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances
and paicchanna parissaya (hidden danger).10 It is, in short, a mental hindrance.

1.2 SPIRITUAL SOLITUDE AND LIBERATION. The hindrances not only hinder us from seeing beyond our
noses, but they also induce us to think that all these senses are out there: desirable forms and colours, enticing
sounds, fragrant smells, delicious tastes, and enthralling touches. We are made to think that all these adjectives
relate to what is out there, rather than how we perceive them within our minds. We are deluded into inhabiting a
sense-world of duality. We feel alienated when we think we are deprived of these sense-stimuli.
When we understand the hindrances for what they really are, we are no more caught up by the sensual baits
that they lure us with. We are able to see our sense-experiences for what they aresometimes pleasant, sometimes unpleasant, but always impermanent. We are then able to rise above bodily experiences into the mental
realm where our experiences are formed and acted out.
When we understand how our mind works, we also understand how the hindrances try to delude us into
being dependent on sense-pleasures. These pleasures are not out there, but in here, in the mind. We begin to
experience the joy of solitude, that is, the ability to be joyful for itself, independent of external sense-stimuli.
This in no way devalues or demoralizes external reality, but our awakened minds begin to see the external world
as being existentially neutral.11 We create the world we live in. 12
The truly solitary mind begins to know itself, and knowing itself, it is truly happy. The solitary mind that is
completely free from the hindrances is able to reach such a point of oneness that it can only be described in
terms of the most profound bliss, that is, dhyana.
The Suttas speak of two kinds of solitudethat of the body and of the mindspecifically apply to
the process of attaining the first dhyana, where, in the Smaa,phala Sutta (D 2), for example, we have
this stock passage:
67 PHYSICAL SOLITUDE . Possessing this aggregate of noble moral virtue, this aggregate of
noble sense-restraint, this aggregate of noble mindfulness and full awareness, and this aggregate
of noble contentment, he resorts to a secluded dwelling: a forest, the foot of a tree, a mountain, a
gully [gorge], a hillside cave, a cemetery, a remote forest [jungle grove], the open air, a heap of
straw. 13
Returning from his almsround, after his meal, he sits down, crosses his legs, keeps his body
erect, and establishes mindfulness before him.
68 MENTAL SOLITUDE . (1) Abandoning covetousness with regard to the world, he dwells
with a mind devoid of covetousness. He cleanses his mind of covetousness.
(2) Abandoning ill will and anger,14 he dwells with a mind devoid of ill will, sympathetic
with the welfare of all living beings. He cleanses his mind of ill will and anger.
(3) Abandoning sloth and torpor, he dwells with a mind devoid of sloth and torpor, mindful,
alert, perceiving light. He cleanses his mind of sloth and torpor.
8
M 23.4/1:144 = SD 28.13.
S 47.5/5:145 f.
10
Nm 1:12, 2:360, 467, 486, 492.
11
See Nibbedhika (Pariyya) S (A 6.63.3b/2:411) = SD 6.11 & Kma-c,chanda = SD 32.2 (2.2).
12
See Sakhra = SD 17.6 esp (4 & 8.3). On def of world (loka), see Rohitassa S (S 2.26 = A 4.45) = SD
7.2 Intro (1).
13
So imin ca ariyena sla-k,khandhena samanngato imin ca ariyena indriya,savarena samanngato imin
ca ariyena sati,sampajaena samanngato imya ca ariyya santuhitya samanngato vivitta sensana bhajati, araa rukkha,mla pabbata kandara giri,guha susna vana,pattha abbhoksa palla,puja.
This stock phrase of 9 places conducive to meditation are found at D 1:72. 207, 2:242, 3:49; M 1:181, 269, 274, 346,
440, 441, 2:162, 226, 3:3, 35, 115-117; A 2:210, 3:92, 100, 4:436, 5:207; Nm 1:26, 140, 2:341; Miln 369. A shorter
list of 3 places, probably later, is mentioned in Anpna,sati S (M 118): Here, monks, a monk who has gone to the
forest or to the foot of a tree or to an empty abode, sits down, and having crossed his legs and keeping his body upright, establishes mindfulness before him. (M 118.17/3:82).
14
Bypda,padosa (like dosa) here can be Skt cognate pradoa (fault) or pradvea (hatred). As pradoa at D:
RD 1:82 & M:H 1:227; but as pradvea at M:B 275, Vbh:T 319 & Bodhi, The Discourse on the Fruits of Recluseship, 1989: 40. Comys are silent; but the latter is pref.
9
http ://dharmafarer.org
Piya Tan
SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances
(4) Abandoning restlessness and remorse, he dwells undisturbed, his mind inwardly stilled.
He cleanses his mind of restlessness and remorse.
(5) Abandoning doubt, he dwells having crossed over doubt, with no perplexity with regard
to wholesome mental states. He cleanses his mind of doubt.
(D 2.67-68/1:71 = M 27.18/1:181 = Vbh 508/244 f) = SD 8.10
Thus far, we have taken an overview of the potentiality of the mind to attain the highest bliss and selfliberation. We are limited by our own shortsightedness that is the five mental hindrances. This is recognized by the Buddha in his awakening, and he has formulated in various ways how they manifest themselves, and how we can overcome them.
2 The nature of the mental hindrances

2.1 ABHIJJH,DOMANASSA . Hindrances (nvaraa) to mental cultivation or meditation arise mainly
through the practitioners lack of restraint of the five sense-faculties, so that sense-stimuli from the eye,
the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the body play havoc on the mind. Even when all these senses are well
restrained, such as in one seated in meditation, the mind continues to be lost in its sensual replays and
mental fabrications.
Originally, the word nvaraa seems to have been used metaphorically with reference to the darkness
of ignorance which enshrouds the minds of beings.15 The world, in other words, is covered with ignorance
(avijj nivuto loko, Sn 1033; Nett 11).
One of the oldest canonical terms for mental hindrances is the well known dvandva abhijjh,domanassa, often translated as covetousness and displeasure, desire and discontent, liking and disliking,
or longing and loathing.16 The term famously appears in the Satipahna Sutta (M 10), in its
definition of the four focuses of mindfulness (catu satipahna), thus:
Here, bhikshus,
A. a monk 17 dwells 18exertive, clearly aware, mindful, observing [watching] the body in the
body, removing covetousness and displeasure in the world;
B. a monk dwells exertive, clearly aware, mindful, observing feelings in the feelings, removing covetousness and displeasure in the world;
C. a monk dwells exertive, clearly aware, mindful, observing the mind in the mind, removing covetousness and displeasure in the world;
D. a monk dwells exertive, clearly aware, mindful, observing dharmas in the dharmas, removing covetousness and displeasure in the world.
(M 10.2/1:56) = SD 13.3
The Majjhima Commentary to this passage says that longing and displeasure signify the first two hindrancessensual desire and ill willthe key hindrances to be overcome before we can attain samadhi or
dhyana (MA 1:243 f).19
In fact, since these two key mental hindrances, the parents, as it were, of all other defilements, they
are a synecdoche (or inclusive term) for all the five hindrances. This is confirmed by the Mah Assa,pura Sutta (M 39), which has a passage that elaborates on what is only briefly stated in the Satipahna
15
S 22.94/3:140, 51.11/5:266, 56.33/5:439.

D 3:58, 77, 141, 211, 276 = M 1:56 ff (MA 1:243), 2:11 = S 5:141-143 (SA 3:180) = A 4:300, 457 = Pm 41
(PmA 175) = Vbh 193 f (VbhA 219 f). These stock terms are def at Vbh 194, 196 = 202; Vism 3; DA 363; MA
1:244; SA 1:204; AA 2:42; ItA 1;105; SnA 157; ApA 310. See SD 13.1 (4.2e).
17
Here a monk (bhikkhu) may refer to either an ordained monastic or anyone who is meditating (here, doing
satipatthana) (DA 3:756; MA 1:241; VbhA 216 f; cf SnA 251). See Intro 3.1a.
18
tp sampajno satim, vineyya loke abhijjh,domanassa. Here we find 4 of the 5 spiritual faculties (pacindriya) in action.
19
For a discussion, see Satipahna Ss (D 22; M 10) = SD 13.1(4.2e).
16
SD 32.1
Sutta passage above. Here, the Mah Assa,pura Sutta passage describes the five hindrances and how to
overcome them so that we are able to go on to attain dhyana, thus:
Bhikshus, what more should be done? 20 Here, bhikshus, a monk seeks out a secluded dwelling: a forest, the foot of a tree, a mountain, a glen, a hillside cave, a charnel ground, a jungle
grove, the open air, a heap of straw.
Returning from his almsround, after his meal, he sits down, crosses his legs, holds his body
upright, and establishes mindfulness before him.
(1) Abandoning covetousness with regard to the world, he dwells with a mind devoid of
covetousness. He cleanses his mind of covetousness.
(2) Abandoning ill will and anger, he dwells with a mind free of ill will, caring for the welfare of all living beings. He cleanses his mind of ill will and anger.
(4) Abandoning restlessness and worry, he dwells undisturbed, his mind inwardly stilled. He
cleanses his mind of restlessness and worry.
(5) Abandoning doubt,21 he dwells having crossed over doubt, with no perplexity with regard
to wholesome mental states. He cleanses his mind of doubt. (M 39.12-13b/1:274 f) = SD 10.13
It is clear from this passage that the overcoming of the hindrances is not merely a negative exercise, but
they each entails a positive mental change. The abandoning of ill will, for example, also involves the
compassion for the good of all beings (sabba,pa,bhta,hitnukamp, Pm 1:46).
After the brief definition of the four focusses of mindfulness, both the Mah Satipahna S (D
22.13) and the Satipahna S (M 10.36) then follow up with a description of the breath meditation and
other body-based meditations. All this forms the first satipatthana, that is, the contemplation of the body
(kynupassan). This is followed by the second satipatthana, the contemplation on feelings (vedannupassan).
The third section is the contemplation of mind (cittnupassan), that is, the third of the four satipatthanas, which deals with identifying manifestations of the five hindrances. 22 Then comes the fourth satipatthanathe contemplation of dharmas (phenomena)which against lists the five hindrances, and other
phenomena. As such, the Satipahna Sutta can be said to teach methods especially for overcoming the
mental hindrances.
2.2 ASSDA AND DNAVA. In the Sukhumla Sutta (A 3.38) the Buddha relates how, when he was
still a bodhisattva, he enjoyed sensual pleasures in three luxurious palaces, specially built for comfort
during each of the three northern Indian seasons. 23 After his awakening, the Buddha reviews this experience and declares that worldly pleasures keeps us in the world, and letting go of them we are released
from the world, as recorded in the (Assda) Pubbe Sambodha S (A 3.101):
Bhikshus, before my awakening, when I was still a bodhisattva, this thought occurred to
me Whatever physical and mental joy (sukha,somanassa) there is in the world, that is the
gratification (assda) in the world;
20
This whole section is a well known stock passage (pericope), found at Smaa,phala S (D 2.67-74/1:71-74)
& Yodhjva S 1 (A 5.75.12/3:92 f). The (Nvaraa) Sagrava S (S 46.55/5:121-126) gives a colourful simile to
each of these hindrances. MA gives elaborate details of each of the 5 similes here: see Nyanaponika, The Five Mental Hindrances, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, Wheel 26, 1961:27-34. See SD 10.13 Appendix (comy on the
similes of the 5 hindrances, MA 2:318-321).
21
These are not doubts seeking answers, but persistent doubts regarding the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha,
the threefold training (moral virtue, mental cultivation, wisdom), the past, the future, both past and future, and states
arising through specific conditionality and dependent arising (Vbh 914/365).
22
D 22.1c/2:290 = M 10.3/1:55 = SD 13.
23
A 3.38/1:145 f = SD 63.7.
Piya Tan
that the world is impermanent, suffering and of the nature to change, that is the disadvantage
(dnava) in the worldthe removal and abandoning of desire and lust for the world, that is the
escape from the world.
(A 3.101/1:258) = SD 14.6
We see the close connection here between abhijjh,domanassa and the two negative terms, assda
and dnava. Both these latter terms have the sense of being hindrances to spiritual development. My own
understanding here regarding the naming of the first two mental hindrances as abhijjh,domanassa is to
show that with their elimination, the other hindrances are eliminated, too. This is further confirmed by the
Commentaries:
But here since taking abhijjh [covetousness] includes kma-c,chanda [sense-desire], and
taking domanassa [mental pain] includes vypda [ill will], therefore it should be understood that
the abandoning of the hindrances is spoken of by indicating the pair that is strong among those
items that make up the hindrances.24
(DA 3:759 = MA 1:244 = VbhA 220)
3 The five hindrances in the suttas

3.1 BASIC DEFINITIONS . The list of five mental hindrances often mentioned as a stock set in the
Suttas are as follows [3.2.6]: 25
Mental hindrance
1. Sensual desire
2. Ill will
3. Sloth and torpor
4. Restlessness and remorse
5. Doubt
Effect
pulling
pushing
sinking
floating
circling
Prevention & cure

sense-restraint
lovingkindness
perception of light
letting go or disowning suffering
recollection of death
3.1.1 The first mental hindrance is kma-c,chanda, desire for sense-pleasures, that is, being
powerfully drawn to the objects of the five senses. It is sometimes called abhijjh, covetousness, that
is, a longing for things. It is likely that abhijjh is the older term, first as a part of the dvandva, abhijjh,domanassa [2.1], and then as the first item of an earlier set of the five hindrances. 26
3.1.2 The second hindrance is vypda, ill will, sometimes, vypda,padosa, the fault of ill will.
The Dgha Commentary says that it is synonymous with kodha, anger (DA 1:211). Actually, a closer
synonym of ill will is domanassa, as found in the ancient dvandva, abhijjh,domanassa [2.1]. Vypda,
in other words, is always present, at least in latent form, when kma-c,chanda is present.
3.1.3 The third is thna-m-iddha, which originally meant increase of sleepiness, but at a very early
date came to be taken as a dvandva, thna,middha, sloth and torpor. 27 They may arise as the common
result of being assailed by the first two hindrances, or attending to an unsuitable meditation object.
3.1.4 Cousins thinks that the fourth hindrance, uddhacca,kukkucca, restlessness and remorse,
seems to refer to states of mildly manic-depressive nature.28 While uddhacca is mental restlessness
(arising, for example, from thinking about the future) inducing bodily restlessness, kukkucca is a harping
on the past, on memories or imaginations of wrong deeds of omissions and commissions, that is, guilt and
remorse.
24
Yasm panettha abhijjh,gahaena kma-c,chando domanassa-g,gahaena vypdo sagaha gacchati

tasm nvaraa,pariypanna,balava,dhamma,dvaya,dassanena nvaraa-p,pahna vutta hot ti veditabba.
The taking of domanassa includes vypda because all citta rooted in aversion is accompanied by unpleasant
mental feeling. (Gethins n, 2003:50)
25
See eg (Nvara) Sagrava S (S 46.55/5:121-126) = SD 3.12.
26
Eg A 2:14, 67, 210, 3:92, 4:437, 5:168, 207.
27
See Thna,middha = SD 32.6 (1).
28
LS Cousins 1973: 118.
SD 32.1
3.1.5 The fifth and last hindrance, vicikicch, literally means the desire to discern (vi-cikicch),
and is as such usually translated as doubt (Dhs 205). This doubt, more specifically, spiritual doubt, that
is, uncertainty regarding basic truths of true reality and of self-awakening, is also a soteriological hindrance: it is one of the three fetters that prevent us from becoming a streamwinner. 29
3.2 NEGATIVE IMAGERIES OF THE HINDRANCES .
3.2.0 Imageries for the hindrances. Numerous imageries are used in the Suttas to describe the hindrances or show their potency and danger. 30 The Upakkilesa Sutta (A 5.23), for example, compares the
five hindrances to the five kinds of impurities that corrupt gold. 31 And the varaa Sutta (A 5.51) compares the hindrances to five dams built across a swift mountain stream would slow down or even stop its
flow32 [4.1]. The Mah Assa,pura Sutta (M 39) warns that when these five hindrances are not abandoned in us, they respectively become like a debt, a sickness, a prison, slavery, and a journey on a road
through the wilderness.33 [4.3]
3.2.1 Sensual desire: the debtor. The first mental hindrance is the desire for sense-objects (kmac,chanda), sometimes a longing for things (abhijjh) [3.1.1]. It is the most common of the hindrances,
the symptoms of which are troubled by physical discomfort, daydreaming, or being distracted by some
sense-stimulus (especially sounds and thoughts). The (Nvara) Sagrava Sutta (S 46.55) compares
this to like trying to see our reflection on the surface of water that mixed with all sort of thick colours.34
The Majjhima Commentary gives this debtor imagery of sensual desire:
When a man has fallen into debt, he is ruined. When his creditors, pressing him to settle the
debt, speak roughly to him, or harass and beat him, he is unable to retaliate but has to bear it all.
This endurance is simply because of his debt.
In the same way, if a man is filled with lustful desire for someone, filled with craving for that
object of his desire, be would be attached to it. Even if he is roughly spoken to by that person, or
harassed, or beaten, he will bear it all. This endurance is simply because of his lustful desirehe
is like a house-husband35 being beaten up by his wife. In this way, lustful desire is like a debt.
(MA 2:318)
3.2.2 Ill will: the sick man. The second mental hindrance is that of ill will (vypda) [3.1.2], which
is simply the other ugly twin of the first hindrance. As a result of distractions, we find fault with our
practice or teacher, or even becoming upset with others making a noisesuch inner rumbles are really
29
The three fettersself-identity view (sakkya,dihi), attachment to rituals and vows (sla-b,bata paramsa) and spiritual doubt (vicikicch) (D 6.13/1:156, 18.1/2:200; M 11.12/3:81; S 22.109/3:161, 48.2+3/5:193, 55.24+
25/5:377, 378; A 3.85.2/1:231 f, 4.88.2/2:88 f)are the first 3 of the 10 fetters (dasa sayojana), which are: (1)
self-identity view (sakkya,dihi), (2) spiritual doubt (vicikicch), (3) attachment to rituals and vows (sla-b,bata,parmsa), (4) sensual lust (kma,rga), (5) aversion (paigha), (6) greed for form existence (rpa,rga), (7) greed
for formless existence (arpa,rga), (8) conceit (mna), (9) restlessness (or remorse) (uddhacca), (10) ignorance
(avijj) (S 5:61; A 5:13; Vbh 377). In some places, no 5 (kma,rga) is replaced by ill will (vypda). The first 5 are
the lower fetters (orambhgiya), and the rest, the higher fetters (uddhambhgiya). The abandonment of the lower 5
fetters makes one a non-returner (opaptika or angm): see npnasati S (M 118.10 = 7.13). On the streamwinner, see Entering the stream = SD 3.3.
30
A well known set of 5 similes are found in (nanda) Subha S (D 10.2.5-9/1:207) = SD 40a.13; Smaa,phala S (D 2.69-73/1:71 f) = SD 8.10; (Nvaraa) Sagrava S (S 46.55/5:122) = SD 3.12; (Manta) Sagrava S
(A 5.193.4/3:231) = SD 73.3. For positive similes, see Mah Assa,pura S (M 39.14/1:275 f). For comy on the similes of the 5 hindrances (MA 2:318-321), see SD 10.13 App. See also Nyanaponika, The Five Mental Hindrances,
BPS Wheel 26, 1961:27-34.
31
A 5.23/3:16-19 = SD 74.3.
32
A 5.51/3:63 fr = SD 32.3.
33
See M 39.12-13/1:274 f = SD 10.13 & Appendix for comy explanation of the similes of the 5 hindrances
(MA 2:318-321).
34
This simile, and the other four, for the hindrances are found in (Nvaraa) Sagrava S (S 46.55/5:121-126)
= SD 3.12. For comy on the similes of the 5 hindrances (MA 2:318-321), see SD 10.13 Appx.
35
House-husband, ghara,smika, lit house owner.
Piya Tan
excuses for not persevering in our meditation. This is like trying to see our reflection in a bowl of water,
fiercely boiling over a strong fire. 36 Furthermore, the Majjhima Commentary gives this illness imagery of
ill will:
If a man suffering from a bile disorder37 were to receive even honey and sugar, he will not
enjoy its taste because of his bile disorder. He would simply vomit it, complaining, It is bitter! It
is bitter! In the same way, when one with an angry mind is admonished even slightly by his
teacher or preceptor for his benefit, he does not accept their advice. Saying words like You are
harassing me too much! he would leave the order, or would go away and roam about. 38
Just as the person with bile disorder does not enjoy the taste of honey and sugar, even so one
who has the disease of anger will not enjoy the taste of the Buddhas Teaching consisting in the
joy of meditative dhyanas, etc. In this way, ill will is like an illness.
(MA 2:318)
3.2.3 Sloth and torpor: the prisoner. Often such perceptions of lack of progress bring about sloth
and torpor (thna,middha) [3.1.3]the third mental hindrance. The real reason is that ones energy is
heavy and congested as a result of too much thinking and mental chatter. This is like trying to look for our
reflection in water that is overgrown with moss and water plants.39 The Majjhima Commentary gives this
imprisonment imagery of sloth and torpor:
A person who is imprisoned during a festival day is unable to see the beginning or the middle
or the end of the festivities. When released on the following day, he hears people saying,
Oh, how delightful yesterdays festival was! Oh, those dances and songs! he will not reply.
And why not? Because he did not enjoy the festival himself.
In the same way, even if a very eloquent Dharma discourse is being given, one overcome by
sloth and torpor would not know its beginning, middle or end. If after the discourse, he hears it
being praised:
How pleasant it was to listen to the Dharma! How interesting the subject was and how good
the similes! he will not reply. And why not? Because of his sloth and torpor, he did not enjoy the
discourse. In this way, sloth and torpor are like imprisonment.
(MA 2:318 f)
3.2.4 Restless and remorse: the slave. When our minds trail into the past, recalling things done or
undone, we are likely to become remorseful. When our minds wander into the future, wondering what to
do after the meditation, and so on, we are likely to become restless, mentally and physically. Or, we could
be over-excited at our apparent progress, or discouraged at our lack of progress: this is restlessness and
remorse (uddhacca,kukkucca) [3.1.4], the fourth mental hindrance. This is like looking for our reflection
in water that is stirred and tossed about by a strong wind. 40 The Majjhima Commentary compares
restlessness and remorse to slavery, thus:
A slave who wants to enjoy himself at a festival is told by his master, Go quickly to such
and such a place! There is urgent work to be done. If you do not go, I shall have your hands and
36
This simile, and the other four are found in (Nvara) Sagrava S (S 46.55/5:121-126) = SD 3.12. For
comy on the similes of the 5 hindrances (MA 2:318-321), see SD 10.13 App.
37
Bile disorder (pitta,roga), ie a liver disorder. On the traditional Indian medicine, see Svaka S (S 36.21/
4:230 f) in the Sutta Discovery, 2004.
38
In Khaluka S (A 8.14), it is stated, Again, bhikshus, here the monks accuse a monk of an offence. That
monk, being thus accused of an offence by the monks, strongly objecting to the accusation, says thus, Why do you
venerable sirs fuss so much over me? Let me now give up the training and return to the low life! Having given up
the training and return to the lowlife, he says thus, Now, venerable sirs, are you satisfied? (A 8.14.17/4:194 f)
39
40
SD 32.1
feet cut off, or your ears and nose cut off! Hearing that, the slave will quickly go as ordered, and
will not be able to enjoy any part of the festival. This is because of his dependence on others.
In the same way it is with a monk not well versed in the Vinaya, who has gone to the forest
for the sake of solitude. If in any matter, down to the question of permissible meat [such as pork],
thinking that it is not permissible [taking it for bears flesh], 41 he has to disrupt his solitude to
seek a Vinaya master to purify his moral conduct. Thus he will not be able to experience the joy
of solitude due to his being overcome by restlessness and worry. In this way, restlessness and
worry are like slavery.
(MA 3:319)
3.2.5 Doubt: the traveller. Finally, one may feel very discouraged on account of the various difficulties and distractions, that one begins to simply doubt ones ability to meditate or be uncertain about the
true purpose of meditating. This doubt (vicikicch) is the fifth mental hindrance. This is like looking for
our reflection in a bowl of turbid muddy water left in the dark. 42 The Majjhima Commentary compares
doubt to a traveller going through a dangerous territory, thus:
A man journeying on a road through the wilderness where travellers have been plundered or
killed by robbers would, at the mere sound of a twig or of a bird, become anxious and fearful,
thinking, The robbers have come! would say, Go! Stop! Turn back! Thus he would be more
frequently stopping than going ahead. Only with toil and trouble would he reach a safe place, or
he might not even reach it.
In the same way, there would be the eight reasons 43 for doubt to arise in him, such as whether
the Buddha is awakened or not. He is unable to accept such matters out of faith. Being unable to
do so, he does not attain to the paths and fruits.
Thus, like the traveller on a road through the wilderness who is uncertain whether there are
robbers or not, there arise in him persistent doubt and distrust, wavering, mental agitation. Thus
he creates an obstacle for himself from reaching the safe ground of the noble ones. In this way,
doubt is like travelling on a road through the wilderness.
(MA 2:319)
3.2.6 The hindrance diagram. By way of a graphic summary, we can represent the five hindrances
by way of emotional directions. Kma-c,chanda (1), for example, as an appropriating tendency, has a
pulling effect: we try to pull things we see as desirable towards ourselves. Vypda (2) is a rejecting urge:
we tend to push away what we deem as undesirable. When thna,middha (3) overwhelms us, we feel
mentally lethargic and is bogged down with a heavy sinking feeling. Uddhacca,kukkucca (4), on the other
hand, uproots us, as it were, from our comfort zone, thrusting us up into the troubling heights of restlessness and remorse. And vicikicch (5) keeps us circling around an epicenter of self-doubt. These are the
negative prepositions of the hindrances, which is here represented in a diagram:
41
These two examples are from MA.

comy on the similes of the 5 hindrances (MA 2:318-321), see SD 10.13 Appendix.
43
He has doubts regarding the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha, the threefold training (moral virtue, mental
cultivation, wisdom), the past, the future, both past and future, and states arising through specific conditionality and
dependent arising (Vbh 914/365).
42
4 float
Piya Tan
5 circle
2 push
3 sink
1 pull
Diagram 3.2 The five mental hindrances

3.2.7 The causes of the hindrances. Discourses such as the (hra) Kya Sutta (S 46.2) and the
Nvaraa Pahna Vagga (A 1.2) of the Aguttara list the conditions for the arising of the hindrances,
and to quote from the latter:
1 44Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, 45 on account of which unarisen sense-desire 46
arises, and arisen sense-desire comes to grow in abundance, as on account of this, bhikshus,
namely, a beautiful sign. 47
48
Bhikshus, through unwise attention to a beautiful sign, unarisen sense-desire arises, and
arisen sense-desire comes to grow in abundance.
2 Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen ill will 49 arises,
and arisen ill comes to grow in abundance, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely, a repulsive
sign. 50
Bhikshus, through unwise attention to a repulsive sign, unarisen ill will arises, and arisen ill
will comes to grow in abundance.
3 Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen sloth-and-torpor51 arises, and arisen sloth-and-torpor comes to grow in abundance, as on account of this,
44
Nha bhikkhave aa eka,dhammam pi samanupassmi yena anuppanno v kma-c,chando uppajjati uppanno v kma-c,chando bhiyyo bhvya vepullya savattati yatha-y-ida bhikkhave subha,nimitta.
45
See, samanupassmi = sa + anu + passati, lit to see (passati) following (anu) the object in a fixed (sa)
manner; alt tr: he regards. See D 1:69, 73, 2:198; M 1:435 f, 2:205; rpa attato samanupassati, he regards
for m as self (S 3:42).
46
Kma-c,chanda.
47
Subha,nimitta, alt tr a sign of beauty, ie a sensually enticing sense-object, esp one that arouses sexual desire. Such ter ms here do not refer so much to an object as to the way one sees it or how one reacts to it. See Intro (5).
48
Subha,nimitta bhikkhave ayoniso manasikaroto anuppanno ceva kma-c,chando uppajjati uppanno ca
kma-c,chando bhiyyo bhvya vepullya savattat ti.
49
Vypda.
50
Paigha,nimitta. See Intro (5).
51
Thna,middha.
SD 32.1
bhikshus, namely, discontent, apathy, fidgeting, indolence, after-meal drowsiness, and mental
sluggishness. 52
Bhikshus, on account of mental sluggishness, unarisen sloth-and-torpor arise, and arisen
sloth-and-torpor come to grow in abundance.
4 Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen restlessness-andremorse 53 arises, and arisen restlessness-and-remorse comes to grow in abundance, as on account
of this, bhikshus, namely, an unstill mind. 54
Bhikshus, on account of an unstill mind, 55 unarisen restless-and-remorse arises, and risen
restless-and-remorse comes to grow in abundance. [4]
5 Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen doubt56 arises, and
arisen doubt comes to grow in abundance, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely, unwise attention. 57
Bhikshus, on account of unwise attention, unarisen doubt arises, and arisen doubt comes to
grow in abundance.
(A 1.2.1-5/1:3 f) = SD 16.3; see also S 46.2/5:64 f = SD 62.9
3.3 THE FIVE DOMESTIC HINDRANCES . The importance of overcoming the five hindrances in lay
life is pointed out in the Patta Kamma Sutta (A 4.61). In this Sutta, the five hindrances are listed as
follows:
(1) rampant greed
(visama,lobha),
(2) ill will
(vypda),
(3) sloth and torpor
(thna,middha),
(4) restlessness and remorse
(uddhacca,kukkucca), and
(5) doubt
(vicikicch).
(A 4.61.7-8/2:66 f) = SD 37.12
It is noteworthy here that only the first factor is different: here, instead of the more usual kma-c,chanda,
we have visama,lobha (rampant greed), an expression also found in the Cakka,vatti Sha,nda Sutta (D
26). Evidently, these five hindrances apply not so much to meditation as they do to the wholesome progress lay life as a whole.
The Dgha Commentary defines visama,lobha as excessive greed (or neurotic desire) by way of consuming things (paribhoga,yuttesu pi hnesu atibalava,lobho); in short, excessive materialism and consumerism) (DA 3:853). This definition fits very well into the context of the Patta Kamma Sutta in regards
to the lay persons progress. For, it says that should a householder (or lay person) live under the power of
these hindrances, he would do what should not be done and fail to do what should be done. 58 This is a description of moral and economic decline on an individual and domestic level. The Cakka,vatti Sha,nda
Sutta, on the other hand, describes moral and economic decline on a social level.
The Patta Kamma Sutta, furthermore, defines the lay followers success here and hereafter as comprising the attainments of faith, of moral virtue, of generosity, and of wisdom. Here, the lay followers
attainment of wisdom (pa sampad) is defined as the overcoming of these five domestic hindrances.
Having overcome them, the lay person would be doing what should be done, and abstain from what
should not be done.59 As such, we might call the five hindrances mentioned in the Patta Kamma Sutta as
the laymans hindrances to wisdom.
52
Arat,tand,vijambhik bhatta,sammado cetaso ca lna,citta. AA 1:33,27 qu Vbh 352,3.

Uddhacca,kukkucca.
54
Cetaso avpasamo. Lit an unstilling of the mind; alt tr, an unsettled mind.
55
Avpasanta,cittassa.
56
Vicikicch.
57
Ayoniso manasikro. See Intro (6).
58
A 4.61.7/2:67 = SD 37.12.
59
A 4.61.8/2:67 = SD 37.12.
53
10
Piya Tan
3.4 PAIRS OF HINDRANCES. The (Nvaraa Bojjhaga) Pariyya Sutta (S 46.52) contains an important teaching on the five hindrances. It treats each of the hindrances as a pair, summarized here based
on its commentary, thus:
Hindrance
(1) sensual desire
(2) ill will
(3) sloth & torpor
(4) restlessness & remorse
(5) doubt
Internal
desire for our own aggregates60
self-hate and related emotions
lack of initiative, sinking mind
agitation (esp towards the future)
regarding our own aggregates 63
External
desire for the aggregates of others61
dislike of others and external conditions
unwieldiness, physical lethargy 62
regret or guilt (esp towards the past)
the great doubt64
(S 46.52.17/5:110) = SD 62.6; SA 3:169
Internal sensual desire is the attachment to our own mind-body existence, especially our physical
being, ranging between self-respect to narcissism, while external sensual desire is covetousness for what
we see desirable in others. These twin sensual desires, occurring in the same person, whether male or female, is clearly illustrated in the Saoga Sutta (A 7.48). 65
Ill will, too, can be dual: towards ourselves and towards others. Ill will towards the self is self-hate,
which, surprisingly, is more common than we think. External ill will is directed towards others and the
things around us, such as an event, the environment and so on. This external ill will can manifest itself as
non-cooperation, disapproving speech, or anger, or escalate into actual violence, even the destruction of
what we dislike. 66
Sloth and torpor are the result of the oppressing effects of the first two hindrances, sensual desire and
its opposite, ill will. While sloth is a mental unreadiness or rigidity (cittassa akalyat), torpor refers to its
bodily counterpart (kyassa akalyat) (Vbh 254). More specifically, sloth arises from the effects of the
first two hindrances. Torpor, as bodily lethargy or inactivity, often arises as a result of overt-eating or
laziness (sleeping or lying down too much).
Restlessness is mostly a mental unease which in due course can lead to bodily unease, such as fidgeting and discomfort. It often arises on account of our thinking about the future or planning what to do next,
so that we reflexively want to spring into action. Remorse arises often as a result of recalling some past
misdeed or unhappiness, real or perceived, so that we are heavy with regret and guilt.
Doubt is of two general kinds: internal and external. Internal doubts are mostly psychological or philosophical, that is, those regarding our own being, especially doubting whether our body, feelings, perception, karmic formations or consciousness, are impermanent, suffering, or not self. External doubts, on
the other hand, are mostly ethical or intellectual, that is, doubt over the nature of the Three Jewels and
spiritual training; speculating about the past, the present and the future; and uncertainty about dependent
arising.
An important point to remember here is that these hindrances do not work alone. If you are assailed
by one hindrance, you are open to being assailed by the others. As such, it is vital to at once detect a
hindrance as soon as it arises, and overcome it. Nip it in the bud. In summary, it can be said that there is
really only one mental hindrance, namely, sensual pleasure. It manifests itself in different forms, and is
divided up into five hindrances, and further into pairs of hindrances, to help us notice its symptoms as
60
The 5 aggregates (paca-k,khandha): physical form, feeling, perception, formations and consciousness. See
SD 17.
61
Incl, of course, inanimate objects.
62
On this pair, see Vism 14.167/469.
63
Whether they are truly impermanent, etc.
64
Doubt about 8 things: the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha, and the training; the past, the present and the
future; and dependent arising.
65
A 7.48/4:57-59 = SD 8.7. For details, see Kma-c,chanda = SD 32.2.
66
For details, see Vypda = SD 32.5.
11
SD 32.1
soon as it arises. Our initial meditation strategy, as such, should be to work on mainly overcoming sensual
desire.
3.5 THE SIX HINDRANCES . The Abhidhamma, in its efforts to compile a comprehensive systematization of everything regarding the Dharma (abhi,dhamma), gives us a list of six hindrances. The Dhamma,saga, for example, is useful for its examination of every state of consciousness (citta) and mental
factor (cetasika) in a more exhaustive manner than in the Suttas. This Dhamma,saga excerpt is a description of the states of mind or its signs in the presence of the hindrances.
SD 32.1(3.5)
Nvaraa Gocchaka
The Group of Mental Hindrances
PTS: Dhs 2.3.2.8 = Dhs 1252-1262/204 f
Dhammasagi 2, Niddesa 3, Nikkhepa Kaa 2, Duka Nikkhepa 8
1152 What are the hindrances?

They are the six hindrances:
(1) the hindrance of sensual desire
kma-c,chanda nvaraa,
(2) the hindrance of ill will
vypda nvaraa,
(3) the hindrance of sloth and torpor
thina,middha nvaraa,
(4) the hindrance of restlessness and remorse uddhacca,kukkucca nvaraa,
(5) the hindrance of doubt
vicikicch nvaraa,
(6) the hindrance of ignorance
avijj nvaraa.
1153 (1) Therein, what is the hindrance of sensual desire (kma-c,chanda nvaraa)?
The desire for sensual pleasures, the lust for sensual pleasures, the delight in sensual pleasures, the
love for sensual pleasures, the fever for sensual pleasures, the infatuation with sensual pleasures, the
grasping of sensual pleasures.
This is called the hindrance of sensual desire.
1154 (2) Therein, what is the hindrance of ill will (vypda nvaraa)?
It is the vexation that arises at the thought, he has done me no good; he is doing me no good; he will
do me no good.
It is the vexation that arises at the thought, he has done no good to someone dear and liked by me; he
is doing no good to someone dear and liked by me; he will do no good to someone dear and liked by me.
It is the vexation that arises at the thought, he has done good to someone unloved and unliked by me;
he is doing good to someone unloved and unliked by me; he will do good to someone unloved and
unliked by me.
Or, even when a vexation arises without any ground, that is, by way of the minds vexation, resentment, aversion, aggression, ire, wrath, fuming, hate, abhorrence, detesting, a malevolent heart, anger,
rage, fury, malice, malevolence, malignity, temper, reactive temper, ferocity, impatience, a disapproving
mind. 67
This is called the hindrance of ill will.
1155 (3) Therein, what is the hindrance of sloth and torpor (thina,middha nvaraa)?
There is sloth and there is torpor.
1156 Therein, what is sloth?
Mental unreadiness, unwieldiness, hesitance, sluggishness, being stuck, sticking, clinging, stiffness,
being unmoving, indifference of the mind. 68
67
Yo eva,rpo cittassa ghto paighto paigha paivirodho kopo pakopo sampakopo doso padoso sampadoso cittassa bypatti manopadoso kodho kujjhan kujjhitatta doso dussan dussitatta bypatti bypajjan bypajjitatta virodho paivirodho caikka asuropo anattamanat cittassa.
68
Y cittassa akallat [vl akalyat] akammaat olyan sallyan lna lyan lyitatta thina thiyan
thiyitatta cittassa. As at Vbh 546/253.
12
Piya Tan
This is called sloth.

1157 Therein, what is torpor? 69
Bodily unreadiness, unwieldiness, clouding, shrouding, blocking up [inner obstruction], a torpor of
sleep, sleepy nodding, sleepiness, dreaming, dreaminess.
This is called torpor.
Thus is this sloth, and this torpor. This is the hindrance of sloth and torpor.
1158 (4) Therein, what is the hindrance of restlessness and remorse (uddhacca,kukkucca nvaraa)?
There is restlessness and there is remorse.
1159 Therein, what is restlessness? 70
Restlessness of the mind, lack of stillness, mental agitation, turmoil of the mind. This is called restlessness. 71
1160 Therein, what is remorse?72
Perceiving the allowable to be unallowable; perceiving the unallowable to be allowable. 73 Perceiving
a fault as not a fault; perceiving what is not a fault as a fault. 74
Such forms of remorse as being guilt-ridden, remorsefulness, regretting in the heart, a perplexed
mind.75
This is called remorse.
Thus this is called restlessness, and this remorse. This is called the hindrance of restlessness and remorse.
1161 (5) Therein, what is the hindrance of doubt (vicikicch nvaraa)? 76
He doubts, is uncertain, about the teacher. He doubts, is uncertain, about the Dharma. He doubts, is
uncertain, about the Sangha. He doubts, is uncertain, about the training. He doubts, is uncertain, about the
past. He doubts, is uncertain, about the future. He doubts, is uncertain, about the past and the future. He
doubts, is uncertain, about the specific conditionality in the nature of the dependent arising.
Such forms of doubt as doubting, doubtfulness, uncertainty, perplexity, dubiety, being stuck as a
crossroads, grasped by lack of single-mindedness, mistrust, fearfulness, lacking depth [having no penetrating knowledge], inflexibility of mind, a perplexed mind. 77
This is called the hindrance of doubt.
1162 (6) Therein, what is the hindrance of ignorance (avijj nvaraa)?
A lack of knowledge of suffering, a lack of knowledge of the arising of suffering, a lack of
knowledge of the ending of suffering, a lack of knowledge of the path leading to the ending of suffering,
a lack of knowledge of the past, a lack of knowledge of the future, a lack of the knowledge of the past and
the future, a lack of knowledge of the specific conditionality in the nature of the dependent arising.
Such forms of lack of knowledge as not seeing, not attaining, not awakening to, not fully awakening
to, not penetrating, not grasping, not plunging into, not comprehensively seeing, not reviewing [not reflecting], not realizing, foolishness, immaturity, lack of full awareness, delusion, deludedness, confusion,
69
For a discussion, see Dhs:R 110 f n, 287 n3.

Y cittassa akallat [vl akalyat] akammaat olyan sallyan lna lyan lyitatta thina thiyan
thiyitatta cittassa. As at Vbh 546/253 f. For a discussion, see Dhs:R 110 f n.
71
Ya cittassa uddhacca avpasamo cetaso vikkhepo bhantatta cittassa.
72
For a discussion, see Dhs:R 289 f n3.
73
Akappiye kappiya,sait, kappiye akappiya,sait.
74
Avajje vajja,sait, vajje avajja,sait.
75
Ya eva,rpa kukkucca kukkuccyan kukkuccyitatta cetaso vippaisro mano,vilekho.
76
Cf Dhs 425/85 f. For a discussion, see Dhs:R 106 f n1.
77
Y evarp kakh kakhyan kakhyitatta vimati vicikicch dvehaka dvedh,patho sasayo anekasa-g,gho sappan parisappan apariyoghan thambhitatta cittassa mano,vilekho.
70
13
SD 32.1
ignorance, the flood that is ignorance, the latent tendency that is ignorance, the transgression that is ignorance, the barrier that is ignorance, the unwholesome root that is ignorance. 78
This is called the hindrance of ignorance.
eva
The Dhamma,saga adds a sixth hindrancethat of ignoranceprobably in an attempt to give a
more comprehensive list. (No such list is found in the Canon itself.) If we take ignorance (avijj) and
craving (tah) as the twin roots of suffering, 79 we can then say that while the first hindrance is that of
craving, the other four are all rooted in both craving and ignorance. While in the Canon, ignorance is implicitly latent in all the hindrances, the Abhidhamma lists it for the sake of comprehensiveness. 80
3.6 THE FIVE MENTAL SHACKLES . The Ceto,khila Sutta (M 16) and the Sagti Sutta (D 33) list
the five mental shackles (cetaso vinibandha), an alternative set of five hindrances.
What, bhikshus, are the mental shackles that a monk has not broken?
(1) Here,...a monk is not free from the lust, the desire, the love, the thirst, the fever, the craving for sensual pleasures... (idha...bhikkhu kme avta,rgo hoti avigata,chando avigata,pemo avigata,pipso avigata,pariho avigata,taho...)
(2) Again,...a monk is not free from the lust, the desire, the love, the thirst, the fever, the
craving for the body (that is, his own body)... (puna ca para...bhikkhu kye avtargo
hoti avigata,chando avigata,pemo avigata,pipso avigata,pariho avigata,taho...)
(3) Again,...a monk is not free from the lust, the desire, the love, the thirst, the fever, the
craving for forms (that is, the bodies of others)... (puna ca para...bhikkhu rpe avta,rgo hoti avigata,chando avigata,pemo avigata,pipso avigata,pariho avigata,taho...)
(4) Again,..., a monk eats as much as he likes so as to fill his belly full, and dwells devoted to
the pleasures of the bed, of lying down, of sleeping 81... (puna ca para...bhikkhu yvadattha udarvadehaka bhujitv seyya,sukha passa,sukha middha,sukha anuyutto viharati...)
(5) Again,..., a monk lives the holy life aspiring to some host of devas, thus, By this moral
virtue or observance or asceticism or holy life, I shall become a deva or some devas 82...
(puna ca para...bhikkhu aatara deva,nikaya paidhya brahma,cariya carati,
iminha slena v vatena v tapena v brahma,cariyena v devo v bhavissmi devaataro v ti...)
(M 16.8-12/1:101 f = SD 321.14; D 33.2.1(20)/3:238)
On account of each of these shackles, his mind does not incline to effort so that these mental shackles are
not broken.
These five mental shackles are actually external hindrances to mental cultivation and spiritual
growth. The first three shackles are ramifications of the first mental hindrance, kma-c,chanda. The
fourth shackle is clearly alludes to the third hindrance, middha. The fifth shackle expresses the monks
78
Ya eva,rpa aa adassana anabhisamayo ananubodho asambodho appaivedho asaghan

apariyoghan asamapekkhan apaccavekkha apaccakkhakamma dummejjha blya asampajaa moho
pamoho sammoho avijj avijjogho avijj,yogo avijjnusayo avijj,pariyuhna avijj,lag moho akusala,mla.
79
Take eg the famous statement found in every sutta of Anamatagga Sayutta (S 15), Bhikshus, this samsara [cyclic life and death] is without beginning nor ending. A beginning point of beings roaming and wandering on,
fettered by ignorance, fettered by craving, cannot be discerned. (S 15.1-20/2:178-193): see SD 56.2-7.
80
For other lists of hindrances, see Ency Bsm 7:186.
81
Comy glosses middha as nidd (sleep) (MA 2:69): see further Thna,middha = SD 32.6 (2.2).
82
Comy explains that deva means a mighty deva (mahsakkha,deva) (including arch-devas, deva lords, and
brahmas) and devaatara as a deva of lesser might (appsakkha,deva) (ie one of a heavenly host) (MA 2:69).
14
Piya Tan
lack of faith in the teaching, and as such is an expression of the fifth hindrance, vicikicch. Understandably, such a monk would not be meditating nor be able to do so, as his mind is shackled by such wrong
views and conduct. It can be invariably said that one who regularly shows symptoms of the five mental
hindrances would also be bound by the five mental shackles. 83
3.7 THE HINDRANCES AS DEFILEMENTS . The various doctrinal sets and models, especially those of
the mental hindrances are closely related to one another. It is useful to bear this in mind so that we are
able to see the Buddhas teaching as a cohesive whole. Let us now compare the different categories of
defilements related to the nvaraa.
Nvarana
1
Akusala,mla
Anusaya
Sayojana
abhijjh
kama-c,chanda
kma,rga
lobha
kma,rga
bhava,rga
kma,rga
rpa,rga
arpa,rga
vypda
dosa
patigha
vypda
thna
middh
uddhacca
kukkucca
vicikicch
Kilesa
lobha
dos
thna
lobha & dosa
moha
vicikicch
Table 3.7
uddhacca
uddhacca
vicikicch
vicikicch
[Cf Ency Bsm 7:186]
The hindrances (nvaraa) are a teaching model for meditation. It is clear that the first two hindrances
abhijjh and vypdaare found in some form in all the categories of defilements. The last hindrance
(vicikicch), too, is found in all the categories listed.
The simplest category is that of akusala,mla (the unwholesome roots), which is a model for explaining how unwholesome conduct through the three doorsbody, speech and mindarise. 84 Abhijjh and
its various forms fall under lobha, while vypda is clearly a form of dosa, and vicikicch is rooted in
moha. Thna,middha and uddhacca,kukkucca may be rooted in lobha or dosa, or both. These two twin
hindrances are listed under akusala, as they are unwholesome whether as a mental factor or bodily state.
The latent tendencies (anusaya) model deals with our unconscious habits that overwhelm us if we
lack mindfulness and wisdom.85 Understandably, neither is listed under anusaya, as the two are not latent
tendencies, but their manifestations.The anusaya category also omits uddhacca,kukkucca for the same
reason.
Only six of the ten fetters (sayojana) are collated with the five hindrances. As the fetters are mental
defilements (that bind us to the various planes of samsara), kma,c-chanda is taken as kma,rga (which
keeps us in the sense-world), rpa,rga (which keeps us to the form world), and arpa,rga (which keeps
us to the formless world). The remaining factors are identical, except for the omission of the more physical of the hindrances (middha and kukkuca).
The defilements (kilesa) are mental imperfections in general. Of the twin hindrance, thna,middha,
only thna is listed as a kilesa because it is a mental factor, whereas middha relates more to the body.
83
For other lists of hindrances, see Ency Bs m 7:186.

See The Three Roots Inc = SD 31.12.
85
On the latent tendencies, see Anusaya = SD 31.3.
84
15
SD 32.1
Uddhacca appears alone under sayojana and kilesa, without kukkucca, because uddhacca has a broader
sense which includes kukkuca, and is abandoned only by the arhat. 86
3.8 THE UNCONSCIOUS AND THE PRECONSCIOUS . For the sake of convenience and expedience, I
have used English technical terminology where they are available and suitable, but it is important to stress
that although their senses may overlap in some ways, they are not necessarily synonymous. It is easier to
flow with Buddhist usages of such terms by first forgetting about their secular definitions (which are
themselves re-definitions of older words, of turning them into technical terms), and secondly keeping in
the mind the Buddhist contexts where they are used. In almost every case, there is a Pali term or terms for
these western technical ones that I have employed. 87
We can, for example, use some contemporary terms to explain the psychology of mental hindrances.
Their roots lie deep in the unconscious,88 which comprises the latent tendencies (anusaya)that is, lust
(rga), aversion (paigha) and ignorance (avijj)89which on the pre-conscious level function as the
three unwholesome roots (akusala,mla), namely, greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). 90
When these work on our minds, preventing us from focussing itself, we call them mental hindrances
(nvaraa).
The word preconscious [3.8] is a psychoanalytic term referring to knowledge, emotions, images,
etc, that are not momentarily consciousness but which are easily accessible. 91 In the Buddhist context,
pre-conscious refers to that level of private of thinking, planning and deliberating that is basically
known only to ourselves. This level of the mental process is represented by such verbs as vitakketi (he
thinks),92 maati (he conceives), and mental investigation (mano,pavicra). 93 Mental conceiving
(maa),94 closely related to mental proliferation (papaca),95 refers to thoughts and ideas arising from
the three roots of conceiving or mental proliferation: craving (tah), view (dihi) and conceit (mna).96
These defilements turn into greed (lobha), hate (dosa) or delusion (moha) when they motivate unwholesome actions, especially the breaking of the precepts. 97 Here, vypda is synonymous with dosa,98
and its opposite is lovingkindness (Pm 1:163). It is also one of the three unwholesome mental actions. 99
4 Overcoming the mental hindrances

4.1 THE HINDRANCES AND ITS ANTIDOTES. The Upakkilesa Sutta (A 5.23) compares the five hindrances to the five kinds of impurities that corrupt gold. Just as when gold is freed of such impurities
could be made into all kinds of ornaments, the mind that is freed from the hindrances is able to attain
dhyana, and all kinds of spiritual powers, even liberation itself. 100
86
On uddhacca, see Uddhacca,kukkucca = SD 32.7 (2.1).

Cf the Buddhas remark in Dgha,nakha S (M 71): Aggi,vessana, a monk whose mind is liberated thus,
sides with no one and disputes with no one. He uses speech that is spoken and current in the world without being
attached to it. (M 71.13/1:500) & SD 16.1 Intro (4), the the Buddhas use of language.
88
See The Unconscious = SD 17.8b.
89
On the latent tendencies, see Anusaya = SD 31.3.
90
On the 3 unwholesome roots, see (Akusala,mla) Aa,titthiy S (A 3.68/1:199-201) = SD 16.4.
91
AS Reber, The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology, 1985.
92
On vitakka, see Vitakka,vicra = SD 33.4. On the context of the arising of vitakka, see Madhu,piika S (M
18.16/1:112 f) = SD 6.14. On how when thinking stops, desires do not arise, see Sakka,paha S (D 21.2.2/2:277).
93
On the 18 investigations, see Dhtu Vibhaga S (M 140.10/3:239) = SD 4.17.
94
For an interesting n on mannati, see M:B 1162:n6.
95
On papaca, see Madhu,piika S (M 18) = SD 6.14 Intro.
96
Nm 280; Vbh 393; Nett 37 f.
97
See (Akusala,mla) Aa,titthiy S (A 3.68/1:199-201) = SD 16.4.
98
Dhs 1154/204; Vbh 542/252.
99
Sevitabbsevitabba S (M 114.8/3:50) = SD 39.8; (Kusala Kamma,patha) Cunda S (A 10.176.5/5:265) =
SD 59.10. See also Self & Selves = SD 26.9 (2.5.3).
100
A 5.23/3:16-19 = SD 74.3.
87
16
Piya Tan
The varaa Sutta (A 5.51) compares the hindrances to how five dams across a swift mountain
stream would slow down or even stop its flow. Similarly, the hindrances check mental development and
weaken wisdom. But when the dams are broken, the waters flow swift and freely down into the ocean. 101
The Nvaraa Pahna Vagga (A 1.2) of the Aguttara lists the conditions for the abandoning of the
hindrances as follows:
(1) 102Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen sense-desire
does not arise, and arisen sense-desire is abandoned, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely, a
foul sign.103
Bhikshus, through wise attention to a foul sign, unarisen sense-desire does not arise, and
arisen sense-desire is abandoned.104
(2) Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen ill will does not
arise, and arisen ill will is abandoned, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely, the liberation of
mind through lovingkindness.105
Bhikshus, through the liberation of mind through lovingkindness, unarisen ill does not arise,
and arisen ill will is abandoned.
(3) Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen sloth-and-torpor
does not arise, and arisen sloth-and-torpor is abandoned, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely,
the rousing element, the persistent element, the exertive element. 106
Bhikshus, through the rousing of effort [initiative],107 unarisen sloth-and-torpor does not
arise, and arisen sloth-and-torpor is abandoned.
(4) Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen restlessness-andremorse does not arise, and arisen restlessness-and-remorse is abandoned, as on account of this,
bhikshus, namely, the stilling of the mind.108
Bhikshus, on account of a still mind, 109 unarisen restlessness-and-remorse does not arise, and
risen restlessness-and-remorse is abandoned.
(5) Bhikshus, no other single thing do I see, on account of which unarisen doubt does not
arise, and arisen doubt is abandoned, as on account of this, bhikshus, namely, wise attention. 110
Bhikshus, through wise attention, unarisen doubt does not arise, and arisen doubt is abandoned.
(A 1.2.6-10/1:4 f) = SD 16.3 111
The Sayutta Commentary gives a similar list of five ways of overcoming of the hindrances, thus:
(1) Sensual lust is suppressed by the first dhyana based on foulness and cut off by the path of arhathood (kma-c,chanda here includes desire for any object, not only for sensual pleasures).
101
A 5.51/3:63 f = SD 32.3.
Nha bhikkhave aa eka,dhammam pi samanupassmi yena anuppanno v kma-c,chando nuppajjati
uppanno v kma-c,chando pahyati yatha-y-ida bhikkhave asubha,nimitta.
103
Asubha,nimitta, lit non-beauty sign. See SD 16.3 Intro (5).
104
Asubha,nimitta bhikkhave ayoniso manasikaroto anuppanno ceva kma-c,chando nuppajjati uppanno ca
kma-c,chando pahyat ti.
105
Mett ceto,vimutti.
106
rambha,dhtu nikkama,dhtu parakkama,dhtu. These 3 are the stages in the cultivation of effort. The initiative element (rambha,dhtu) is the first rousing of energy; the persistent element or endeavour (nikkama,htu) is
the intermediate, where the energy has overcome laziness; and the exertive element (parakkama,dhtu), the most
advanced stage, where the energy is unbreakable. These 3 stages are mentioned in Atta,kri S (A 1.2.8/3:4 = SD
7.6) as the way of overcoming sloth-and-torpor (thna,middha). See VbhA 272. See esp SD 7.6 Intro (2.1).
107
raddha,viriyassa.
108
Cetaso vpasamo. Alt tr: a settling of the mind.
109
Vpasanta,cittassa.
110
Yoniso manasikro. See SD 16.3 Intro (6).
111
See also Pahama Samaya Sutta (A 6.27/3:317-319) = SD 73.2.
102
17
SD 32.1
(2) Ill will is suppressed by the first dhyana based on lovingkindness and cut off by the path of nonreturn.
(3) Sloth and torpor are suppressed by the perception of light and cut off by the path of arhathood;
(4) Restlessness and remorse are suppressed by meditative calm; remorse is cut off by the path of
non-return and restlessness by the path of arhathood.
(5) Doubt is suppressed by the defining of physical and mental states 112 and cut off by the path of
streamwinning.
(SA 3:174)
The Commentaries give the following sets of strategies for the overcoming or preventing of the mental
hindrances:
Hindrances
Factors the overcome or prevent them
1 kama-c,chanda
mindfulness of the bodys unattractive aspects (Vism 6)

meditating on them
sense-restraint
moderation in food 113
spiritual friends & conducive conversation
2 vypda
acquaintance with lovingkindness

cultivating lovingkindness
reflecting on karmic consequences of our deeds
constant wise attention
3 thna,middh
not over-eating (knowing when to stop eating)114

changing meditation postures
mental clarity & perception of light
staying outdoors
4 uddhacca,kukkucca
a good knowledge of the discourses

clarification of t he discourses through questioning
being well versed in the nature of the Vinaya
approaching experienced elders
5 vicikicch
a good knowledge of the discourses

clarification of the discourses through questioning
being well versed in the Vinaya
strong commitment (great resolution)
Table 4. Commentarial list of factors for overcoming or preventing the hindrances. 115
112
Dhamma,vavatthna, Vism 18.3-8/587-587.

Def as stopping to eat while there is still room for 4-5 morsels and drinking water.
114
See prec n.
115
MA 1:281-286 = SA 3:165-167 = AA 1:44-51 = ItA 2:176-182; VbhA 270-274. See also DA 3:777-782; cf
DA 216.
113
18
Piya Tan
4.2 BALANCING THE PRACTICE . For meditation to progress effectively, it must be balanced and harmonious. The Iddhi,pda Vibhaga Sutta (S 51.20) describes how sloth and torpor prevent the effective
working of the four bases of power (iddhi,pda), that is, enthusiasm (chanda), energy (viriya), mind
(citta) and investigation (vmas), by narrowing them internally (ajjhatta sakhitta). 116 The same
Sutta also teaches us how to overcome such a narrowing of the mind. The general idea is to balance the
meditation practice, making sure enthusiasm, energy, mind and investigation, each of them will be neither too slack nor too tense, and it will neither be narrowed internally [due to sloth and torpor] nor be
distracted externally [due to sensual desire]. 117
Once we are able to cultivate the four bases of power, we may go on to work with the five spiritual
faculties (pacindriya), that is, faith (saddh), effort [energy] (viriya), mindfulness (sati), concentration
(samdhi) and wisdom (pa). A significant point regarding the faculties, not mentioned in the suttas
but discussed in the Commentaries, concerns their mutual and complementary pairing.
Faith is paired with wisdom, balancing the emotional and the intellectual sides of the spiritual life.
Effort is paired with concentration, balancing the activating and the restraining aspects of mental
cultivation.
Mindfulness sits in the middle, as it were, moderating between the each end of the two pairs of
faculties, holding them together in a harmonious interaction. 118
When the faculties are fully balanced, the mind becomes focussed and the resultant mental harmony
of calm and clarity dispels the hindrances.
The four bases of power and the five spiritual faculties are not stages in meditation but serve as sets of
closely-related strategies for harmonizing and directing our meditation so that they overcome all the mental hindrances. When the hindrances are removed permanently, the spiritual faculties mature into the
spiritual powers (bala), that is, our faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration and wisdom are stable and
natural: we have become saints.119
4.3 FREEING UP THE MIND . The initial task of meditation, especially sitting meditation, is that of
balancing the practice [4.2] to overcome the hindrances, so that the mind is free of the body. Freed of the
hindrances, the mind can then fully focus on itself. Using a modern driving imagery, we might say that
overcoming the five mental hindrances is like repairing a stalled car. Once the engine is good and running, and the four wheels are all in good order, we are ready to drive in our car.
Meditation is like driving, but is very much safer. Like driving, we cannot really progress, much less
master, it merely using a manual, even the best one. We need an experienced instructor, especially at the
beginning. Yet, even with an instructor, we may at first be trying too hard, compulsively trying to get
focus, or the nimitta, or dhyana itself. This is the working of sense-desire (kma-c,chanda)the first
mental hindrancethat draws our attention to the object of desire, and thus away from the breath.
Or, we could be finding various faults with our meditation or the experience of breathing, and the dissatisfaction pushes the attention away from the breath. This is the effect of ill will (vypda), the second
mental hindrance, which is the opposite of sense-desire. Contentment is the middle way between and
away from the two extremes of emotional reactivity. When we stay on this middle course with the breath,
joy and happiness will arise in due course.
Then there is the matter of effort. At the level just before the beautiful breath, 120 our effort should be
directed only as knowing the breath, and totally keeping away from the doing (mental chatter or thoughts
of accomplishing or controlling this or that). When our effort is channelled in this way, trying to control
everything, then we are energized into restlessness (kukucca).
116
Cf Thna,middha = SD 32.6 (2.1).

Na ca atilno bhavissati, na ca atipaggahto bhavissati, na ca ajjhatta sakhitto bhavissati, na ca bahiddh
vikkhito bhavissati (S 51.20.3/5:277) = SD 28.14.
118
Ka,giri S (M 70.13/1:477) = SD 11.1; also paa S (S 48.50/5:225 f) esp SD 10.4 Intro (2), see diag 2.1.
119
See Paca Bala = SD 10.5.
120
This is Brahmavamsos term for a mental and joyful experience of the breath when pti (zest) has arisen: see
npna,sati S (M 118.19/3:83) = SD 7.13 nn.
117
19
SD 32.1
Or, some past thought could arise as we approach inner stillness, and we feel remorse (uddhacca)
over things done or undone, and this discursive thoughts cloud up our minds so that we lose sight of the
breath. Restlessness and remorse together form the third mental hindrance to mental concentration. But
when we remove the effort from the doing, restlessness and remorse begin to disappear.
When the knowing lacks energy, sloth and torpor (thna,middha), the fourth hindrance, arise. Sometimes the action function of the mind takes away all our mental energy, so that the passive function of
knowing is totally weakened. But when we direct enough energy into the knowing, then sloth and torpor
turns into bright and energized knowing, which in due course will lead to joy and happiness.
4.4 STILLING THE MIND. The purpose of joy and happiness is to still the mind. Stillness is the absence of movement. But what is it that causes the mind to move? It is the will, that is, the doer. When the
wind is blowing around a tree, even if you hold a leaf tightly, it will still tremble. Only when the wind
stops that the leaf will be still. In other words, you cannot will the mind to be still. Stillness arises through
the joy and happiness arising from letting go.
Mental stillness enriches the joy and happiness (pti,sukha) of meditation. The deepening of joy and
happiness, in turn, allows less opportunity for effort to interfere, and so stillness grows stronger. When
this process continues unbroken, it leads to dhyana, where the joy and happiness is profound.
A common problem faced by self-taught meditators is that they panic when they begin to notice their
breath disappearing, or they are not sure what to do next. This is the fifth mental hindrance, that of doubt
(vicikicch). Indeed, when the breath disappears before the arising of the beautiful breath, it is a case of
sloth and torpor [6.1], or weak attention. We should take a step back, as it were, to strengthen the silent
present moment awareness [4.2], so that we put more energy into the awareness.
When the beautiful breath [4.4] has arisen, it feels so blissful and effortless to be mindful of the
breath for long durations. As the mind grows more still, the perception of the breath becomes more subtle.
There comes a point where there is no more perception of the beginning, middle or end of the breath. It
becomes a single experience of subtle breathing that remains unchanged as it were from moment to
moment. What has happened is that we have transcended the external or physical features of the breath,
and are seeing the heart of the breath experience.
As our mental stillness grows, meditative joy and happiness (pti,sukha) too will intensify. When the
bliss is strong enough, the breath disappears. This is the stage of the beautiful breath, when the breath
disappears, leaving only the beauty. We are a step closer to dhyana. 121 This kind of liberation from the
hindrances, however, is said to be temporary, lasting only as long as the meditative effects last. But this
may be enough for us to attain total samadhi and dhyana. Let us further examine how dhyana arises. 122
5 The hindrances and dhyana

5.1 HINDRANCES TO MENTAL FOCUS. The five hindrances are our resident spin doctors. They dangle
the carrots of pleasures before us and blinker us from seeing the true nature of things. Not only do the
hindrances sugar-coat our sense-experiences, but they also dominate our consciousness with what is socially acceptable, pleasing conduct but which is unthinking and unchallenging.
The hindrances work behind the scene, in our unconscious, so that we are generally unaware of their
handiwork. This is what is called ignorance. They make us experience what we perceive as pleasurable,
so that we see what we want to see. This is delusion. As such, when the hindrances are operating, and
they usually do, we can never be sure that what we see is what we get. The hindrances make use that our
sense-experiences are hyped up so that we are addicted to them.
Only when all the hindrances have been removed, and even then, for some effective duration, that we
will really see things as they really are. The most effective way to remove the hindrances is to anchor the
mind to a suitable meditation object, such as the breath. When the breath is comfortably focussed and
121
122
See also Brahmavamso 2003:27-29; 2006:20 f, 30-33; 62 f, 89 f, 110 f.

See Brahmavamso 2006:47-51, 176-184.
20
Piya Tan
stilled, the mind begins to be clear of the clouds of ignorance and delusion. It is then that we go on to taste
the bliss of dhyana.123
5.2 PREPARING FOR DHYANA. In the early texts, we are often told that the Buddha, when he teaches,
would first ensure that the mind of the listener or the audience is well prepared by the gradual teaching
(nupubb,kath). In other words, the Buddha prepares the listening mind of the disciple before going on
higher truths. The well known stock passage found in the early texts runs as follows:
Then the Blessed One gave him a gradual instructionthat is to say, he spoke on
giving (dna), on moral virtue (sla) and on the heavens (sagga); he explained the danger,
worthlessness, and impurity of sensual pleasures (kmdnava); and the advantages of
renunciation (nekkhammnisasa). When the Blessed One perceived that the listeners
mind was prepared, pliant, free from hindrances, elevated and lucid, then he explained to
him the teaching peculiar to the Buddhas, that is to say: suffering, its arising, its ending,
and the path. 124
Only when the listeners mind is prepared, pliant, free from hindrances, elevated and lucid (kalla,citta mudu,citta vinvaraa,citta udagga,citta pasanna,citta), does the Buddha teach the four
noble truths and deeper teachings. The Commentaries explain the key terms as follows:
prepared mind (kalla,citta)
pliant mind (mudu,citta)
a healthy mind (aroga,citta) (DA 3:92);

a mind free of stiffness, rid of ill will by way of lovingkindness (vypda,vigamena mett,vasena akathina,citta) (UA
283);
free from hindrances
an unobstructed mind due to non-agitation by the ridding of
(vinvaraa,citta)
restlessness and remorse (udhacca,kukkucca,vigamena avikkhipanato na pihita,citta) (UA 283; PmA 1:232);
elevated mind (udagga,citta) not faint-hearted, supported by the ridding of sloth and torpor
(thna,middha,vigamena sampaggaha,vasena alna,citta) (UA
283);
lucid mind (pasanna,citta) the mind that is focused on right practice by the ridding of
doubt (vicikicch.vigamena samm,paipattiy adhimutta,citta) (UA 283); a mind brightened by faith by way of karmic
fruit, by way of faith in the three jewels (ratana-t,taya,saddhya kamma,phala,saddhya ca pasanna,mnasa) (ItA 1:73).
Basically, we see here that the Buddha, first of all, clears away any immediate issues troubling the
listener, so that his mind is healthy (aroga), and other negative states, including the temporary suppression of unwholesome sense-desires (kma-c,chanda) that is the basis for ill will (vypda) and the other
four mental hindrances (sloth and torpor, restless and remorse, and doubt). Such a clear and light mind is,
in fact ready for dhyanic meditation, too.
123
On mental hindrances and dhyana, see further Bhvan = SD 15.1 (8).

Atha kho bhagav nupubbkatha kathesi seyyathda. Dna.katha sla,katha sagga,katha kmna dnava okra sakilesa nekkhamme ca nisasa paksesi. Yad bhagav asikalla,citta mudu,citta vinvaraa,citta udagga,citta pasanna,citta, atha y buddhna smukkasik dhamma,desan, ta
paksesi: dukkha samudaya nirodha magga. (The VRI read nupubbkatha as either anupubbi katha or
as nupubbi katha.) See Vinaya (V 1:15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 37, 181, 225, 237, 242, 243, 248; 2:156, 181, 182
x2); Ambaha S (D 1:110); Ka,danta S (D 1:148); Mahpadn S (D 2:41, 43, 44); Upli S (M 1:379);
Brahmyu S (M 2:145); Sha S (A 4:186); Ugga S 1 (A 4:209); Ugga S 2 (A 4:213); Suppabuddha Kuhi S (U
49). See also Udy S (A 3:184).
124
21
SD 32.1
For those who are unable to attain dhyana, a very effective way of abandoning the hindrances is by
the contemplation of impermanence. When properly done, it leads on to the fading away of lust, the cessation of suffering, and the letting go of defilements, and we are truly able to look on at sense-objects with
true equanimity.
5.3 DHYANA. The Commentaries take the overcoming of the five hindrances as being the first stage
of concentration (samdhi), which it calls access concentration (upacra samdhi). Although the term
dhyana (jhna) is sometimes used here, it is usually reserved for full concentration (appan samdhi). 125 The concept of upacra samdhi is unknown in the Pali Canon, although it seems to be implied in
the Kath,vatthu (the latest of the canonical Abhidhamma works), which affirms that there is a break in
between the progress from one dhyana to the next (Kvu 18.7/569-572). The earliest occurrence of the
term upacra in this sense seems to be in Upatissas Vimutti,magga. 126
The Pali word jhna (Skt dhyna) and its Pali verb, jhyati, are derived from the roots that mean: (1)
to think, meditate; (2) to search; (3) to burn. 127 Thus the dhyanas are so called because they closely attend
to the mental object, and because they burn up those states not conducive to mental concentration. 128
These adverse states are the five hindrances. In the Commentaries and later works, each of the five
dhyana factors are presented as suppressing a specific hindrance, as represented in this table:
Dhyana-factor
(jhnaga)
Mental hindrance
(nvaraa)
(1) Sloth and torpor
(2) Sustained application
(2) Doubt
(3) Zest
(4) Happiness
(5) One-pointedness of mind
suppresses
(1) Initial application
(3) Ill will

(4) Restlessness and remorse
(5) Sensual desire
Table 6 Dhyana-factors and mental hindrances

It should be remembered, however, that the dhyana-factors do not function singly, but work in tandem with one another. As such, they do not actually eliminate specific mental hindrances, but even at the
first dhyana, all the hindrances are at least temporarily suppressed. One may be distracted by one particular hindrance, but once the first dhyana is attained, it is overcome. This correlation is an excellent academic exercise, and a useful model for a theoretical discussion of the hindrances and meditation. Then
125
See Bhvan = SD 15.1 (9), on the signs and the stages of zest.
Vimm:ESK 1961:79 f. The ter m appan however appears at Pek 168,5. See Cousins 1973: 118.
127
The Skt cognate of jhna is dhyna, of which there are 3 roots:
dh, to think
Skt dhyyati, P jhyati (1a), to meditate, contemplate, think upon, brood over (with acc)
(D 2:237; S 1:25, 57; A 5:323 f (+ pa~, ni~, ava~); Sn 165, 221, 425, 709, 818 (= Nm
149 pa~, ni~, ava~); Dh 27, 371, 395; J 1:67, 410; Vv 50.12; Pv 4.16.6.
dhy, to think
Skt dhyyati, P jhyati (1b), to search for, hunt after.
ka(y) & k, to burn Skt kyati; P jhyati (2), to burn, to be on fire; fig to be consumed, to waste away, to
dry up (D 1:50 (= jleti DA 1:151)); caus jhpeti (VvA 38 = jhyati 1a: to destroy by
means of jhna).
See Whitneys Roots: http://www.language.brown.edu/Sanskrit/whitney/; Silananda, Pali Roots in the Saddaniti,
2001; Gunaratana 1985:7 f & also Dhyana = SD 8.4(3).
128
See DhsA 410; DhsA:PR 519.
126
22
Piya Tan
there is a need to rise above academic models and babble for a direct experience of inner clarity and stillness.
5.4 OVERCOMING THE HINDRANCES PERMANENTLY. The mental hindrances can only be properly
observed on after we have abandoned them. Mindfulness (sati) includes memory, and can take as its object an experience that has already passed. Mindfulness, as such, can take up a previous example of sensual desire and watch it long enough to penetrate into its true nature. What our mindfulness will notice is
that each of these five hindrances are only momentary events, mere instances of still images that appear to
move on a screen so that they are nor mine nor have anything to do with me. 129
An important discourse, called the Kakheyya Sutta (S 54.12), says that only the learners (sekha),
that is, the saints of the path (short of arhats), have really overcome the mental hindrances in some signifcant way: this is called the trainees abode (sekha vihra), that is, the saints life-style. Even then, only
the arhats have fully abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm-tree stump, done
away with them so that they are not subject to further growth: this is called the Tathagatas abode
(tathgata vihra), that is, the Buddhas life-style. 130 In other words, the trainees (streamwinners, oncereturners, non-returners, and arhat-to-be) have no problem being mindful, or understanding the nature of
impermanence, but they still have to abandon various lesser defilements that still prevent their full awakening. 131
The Commentaries generally term the abandoning of the hindrances of the trainees as that of abandoning by suppression (vikkhambhana pahna). The arhats uprooting of the hindrances for good is
known as abandoning by eradication (samuccheda pahna) (ThaA 1:14 f). 132
5.5 THE LIBERATED MIND . The overcoming of the hindrances are explained with similes in well
known discourses such as the Smaa,phala Sutta (D 2) and the Mah Assa,pura Sutta (M 39).133
The Smaa,phala Sutta, for example, says:
68 OVERCOMING THE HINDRANCES . (1) Abandoning covetousness134 with regard to the
world, he dwells with a mind devoid of covetousness. He cleanses his mind of covetousness.
(2) Abandoning ill will and anger, he dwells with a mind devoid of ill will and anger,
compassionate in the welfare of all living beings. He cleanses his mind of ill will and anger.
(4) Abandoning restlessness and remorse, he dwells undisturbed, his mind inwardly stilled.
He cleanses his mind of restlessness and remorse.
(5) Abandoning doubt, he dwells having crossed over doubt, with no perplexity with regard
to wholesome mental states. He cleanses his mind of doubt.
69 SIMILES FOR THE HINDRANCES.135 (1) Suppose, maharajah, that a man, taking a loan,
invests it in his businesses. His businesses succeed. He repays his old debts and there is a surplus
for maintaining his wife. The thought would occur to him,
129
Brahmavamso 2002:35-38. See Gethin 2001:36-44.

S 54.12/5:327 f = SD 74.5.
131
On the different types of saints, see Kgiri S (M 70) = SD 11.1 Intro (5).
132
See further Sla Samdhi Pa = SD 21.6 (5).
133
See M 39.12-13/1:274 f = SD 10.13 & App for comy explanation of the similes of the 5 hindrances (MA
2:318-321).
134
Abhijjh, here is synonymous with sense-desire (kma-c,chanda), which is the usual term in the set of 5
mental hindrances. Kma-c,chanda is almost identical with a lustful mind (sa,rga citta) (M 10.12(1a)/. Both
refer to sensual desire in general, and arises from wrong reflection on a sensually attractive sense-object. The exercise in 12 is simply that of noting the presence of such a state of mind. Here, one goes on to investigate how it arises, how it can be removed, etc (through right effort). See eg Satipahna S (M 10.36(1)/1:60) = SD 13.3 Intro
(5D.2).
135
This well known set of positive similesembedded in the peyylafor one who has overcome the mental
hindrances is also found in Smaa,phala S (D 2.69-73/171-73), (nanda) Subha S (D 10.2.6/1:207) = SD 40a.130
23
SD 32.1
Before, taking a loan, I invested it in my businesses. Now my businesses have succeeded. I

have repaid my old debts and there is a surplus for maintaining my wife. Because of that he
would experience joy and happiness.
70 (2) Suppose, maharajah, suppose that a man falls sick, in pain and seriously ill. He does
not enjoy his meals, and there is no strength in his body. As time passes, he recovers from that
sickness. He enjoys his meals and there is strength in his body. The thought would occur to him,
Before, I was sick. Now, I have recovered from that sickness. I enjoy my meals and there is
strength in my body. Because of that he would experience joy and happiness.
71 (3) Suppose, maharajah, suppose that a man is bound in prison. As time passes, he eventually is released from that bondage, safe and sound, with no loss of property. The thought would
occur to him,
Before, I was bound in prison. Now, I am released from that bondage, safe and sound, with
no loss of my property. Because of that he would experience joy and happiness.
72 (4) Suppose, maharajah, that a man is a slave, subject to others, not subject to himself,
unable to go where he likes. As time passes, he eventually is released from that slavery, subject to
himself, not subject to others, free, able to go where he likes. The thought would occur to him,
Before, I was a slave... Now I am released from that slavery, subject to myself, not subject to
others, freed, able to go where I like. [73] Because of that he would experience joy and happiness.
73 (5) Suppose, maharajah, that a man, carrying money and goods, is journeying on a road
through the wilderness. As time passes, he eventually emerges from the wilderness, safe and
sound, with no loss of property. The thought would occur to him,
Before, carrying money and goods, I was journeying on a road through the wilderness. Now
I have emerged from the wilderness, safe and sound, with no loss of my property. Because of
that he would experience joy and happiness.
74 In the same way, maharajah, when these five hindrances are not abandoned in himself,
the monk regards it as a debt, a sickness, a prison, slavery, a journey on a road through the wilderness. 136
75 When he is aware that these five hindrances are abandoned in him, he regards it as solvency, good health, release from prison, emancipation, a place of security.137
(D 13.69-74/1:72 f) = SD 8.10
Let us recap on the five hindrances. Desire makes us see only what we want to see, it bends the truth
to fit our preferences. Ill will blinds us to whatever is disturbing or disconcerting to our views and it distorts the truth with denial. Spiritual doubt stubbornly refuses to accept universal truths, such as karma and
rebirth, that are plainly valid but which fall outside of our existential comfort zone.
Clear experience occurs when our measuring instruments, our senses, are steady, clear and bright.
This happens when the hindrances of sloth-and-torpor and restlessness-and-remorse are all overcome.
Objective experience is that which is free from all bias. The three types of bias are desire, ill will and
doubt.
5.6 TREAT THE HINDRANCES WITH LOVINGKINDNESS . Our mental hindrances are our past trying to
shape what we are now, and so preventing us from becoming what we can become, that is, to realize our
spiritual potential. Whenever we are faced with a mental hindrance, we should regard it with great lovingkindness. The enemies within are now seen, and by befriending them, we release them, freeing ourselves
of them.
13, Mah Assa,pura S (M 39.14/1:275 f), and Kandaraka S (M 51.19/1:346 f). MA 2:318-321 gives a detailed
account of each of the 5 similes. See Nyanaponika, The Five Mental Hindrances, BPS Wheel 26, 1961:27-34. See
also Nvaraa = SD 32.1.
136
MA 2:318-321 explains this section in some detail: see App to Mah Assa,pura S (M 39) = SD 10.13.
137
naya yath rogya yath bandhan mokkha yath bhujissa yath khemanta,bhmi.
24
Piya Tan
The point is that the mental hindrances can only be dealt with when they have arisen. As Sumedho
notes, It is only in the moment when a hindrance actually arises that we can really penetrate it and have
insight (1992:57). Hence, the practical value of meditation, the most spiritually nurturing way of selftraining.
Our six senses, where the hindrances lurk, are like six wild animals, as detailed in the Cha P
Sutta (S 35.247). We need to hold on tightly to the leashes that hold these ferocious beasts. Their ferocity
is only the manifestation of our own ignorance of them. As we begin to know them with the leash of
mindfulness, they become tamed, so that in due course they lie peacefully near the solid sunken post of
samadhi. 138
Only after we truly know the hindrances do we effectively overcome them. And having overcome
them, only then can we really trust the data arriving at our senses so that we directly see things as they
really are, arising and passing away. And in due course, we will be imbued with the bliss of dhyana.
5.7 VIJITA,SENA THERA,GTH. Let us close this study of the mental hindrances with some inspiration from the arhat Vijita,sena, who came from a family of elephant trainers and mahouts:
355 Olaggessmi te citta
idvreva hatthina
na ta ppe niyojessa
kma,jla sarraja.
I shall tie you, mind,

like an elephant to a small gate.
I shall not prod you on to evil,
you net of sense-desires born of the body.
356 Tva olaggo na gacchasi

dvra,vivara gajova alabhanto
na ca citta,kali punappuna
pasaha139 pparato carissasi.
When tied down, you will not go,

like a elephant not finding an open gate.
Faulty mind, you will not wander over and again,
with force, delighting in evil.
357 Yath kujara adanta

Nava-g,gaham akusa-g,gaho
balav vatteti akma
eva vattayissa ta.
Just as an untamed elephant,

newly captured by a mahout [elephant-driver],
strong, is made to turn against its will,
so shall I make you turn around.
(Tha 355-359; ThaA 2:149)

070723; 100105; 100506; 100713; 101116
138
139
S 35.247/4:198-201 = SD 19.15.
So Ee Ce Se; Be WT pasakka.
25

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SD 32.

1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

1 Suffering and the mind

(anicce niccan ti);

(Paicca,samuppda) Vibhaga S (S 12.2/2.4) = SD 5.15. On ignorance as a latent tendency, see Anusaya =

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

and paicchanna parissaya (hidden danger).10 It is, in short, a mental hindrance.

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

2 The nature of the mental hindrances

S 22.94/3:140, 51.11/5:266, 56.33/5:439.

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

3 The five hindrances in the suttas

Prevention & cure

Yasm panettha abhijjh,gahaena kma-c,chando domanassa-g,gahaena vypdo sagaha gacchati

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

These two examples are from MA.

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Diagram 3.2 The five mental hindrances

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Arat,tand,vijambhik bhatta,sammado cetaso ca lna,citta. AA 1:33,27 qu Vbh 352,3.

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

1152 What are the hindrances?

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

This is called sloth.

For a discussion, see Dhs:R 110 f n, 287 n3.

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Ya eva,rpa aa adassana anabhisamayo ananubodho asambodho appaivedho asaghan

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

lobha & dosa

For other lists of hindrances, see Ency Bs m 7:186.

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

4 Overcoming the mental hindrances

On uddhacca, see Uddhacca,kukkucca = SD 32.7 (2.1).

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Factors the overcome or prevent them

mindfulness of the bodys unattractive aspects (Vism 6)

acquaintance with lovingkindness

not over-eating (knowing when to stop eating)114

a good knowledge of the discourses

a good knowledge of the discourses

Dhamma,vavatthna, Vism 18.3-8/587-587.

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

Cf Thna,middha = SD 32.6 (2.1).

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

5 The hindrances and dhyana

See also Brahmavamso 2003:27-29; 2006:20 f, 30-33; 62 f, 89 f, 110 f.

SD 32.1 Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

a healthy mind (aroga,citta) (DA 3:92);

On mental hindrances and dhyana, see further Bhvan = SD 15.1 (8).

Nvaraa, Mental Hindrances

(2) Sustained application

(1) Initial application

(3) Ill will

Table 6 Dhyana-factors and mental hindrances