Chapter 2

Discrete-State Process
Control

Introduction
Many industry processes to be controlled in
sequence. The term discrete state expresses that
each event in the sequence can be described by
specifying the condition of all operating units of
the process. For example:

Valve A is open
Valve B is closed
Conveyer C is on
Limit switch S1 is closed

A technique for designing and describing the

sequence of process events, call ladder diagram
which represents the electromechanical relays to
control the sequence in such process. The most
common control system for discrete control is
done by programmable logic controller (PLC).
2

Definition of Discrete
State Process Control

Figure above shows a manufacturing process and the controller for

the process. Input variable (S1, S2, S3) and output variable (C1, C2,
C3) can only be in two value. For example:

Valves are open / closed

Motors are on / off
Temperature is high / low
Limit switches are closed / open

If there are three input variables and three output variables, then the
possible states are 64 because each variable can take on two values.
An event in the system is defined by a particular state of the system
as long as the input variables remain in the same state and the
output variables are left in the assigned sate.
3

Characteristics of The System

Industrial objective: to manufacture some
product from the input raw materials.
The process involve many operations and
steps:
Some steps occur in series.
Some steps occur in parallel.
Some events involve regulation of continuous
variable over the duration of event.

The discrete-state process control system

is the master control system for the entire
plant operation.
4

Frost Free Refrigerator/Freezer

 The discrete-state input variables are

Door open/closed
Cooler temperature high/low
Freezer temperature high/low
Frost eliminator timer time-out/not time-out
Power switch on/off
Frost detector on/off

The discrete-state output variables are

Light on/off
Compressor eliminator timer started/not
started
Frost eliminator timer started/not started
Frost eliminator heater and fan on/off
Cooler baffle open/closed
6

 The event sequence are:

a) If the door is opened, the light is turned on.
b) If the cooler temperature is high and the frost
eliminator is off, the compressor is turned on and the
baffle is opened until the cooler temperature is low.
c) If the freezer temperature is high and the frost
eliminator is off, the compressor is turned on until the
temperature is low.
d) If the frost detector is on, the timer is started, the
compressor is turned off, and the frost eliminator
heater/fan are turned on until the timer times out.

The events of (a) can occur in parallel with any of

the others.
The event of (b) and (c) can occur in parallel.
Event (d) can only be serial with (b) and (c).

Continuous Control

Consider for a moment the problem of liquid level in a tank.

Figure above shows a tank with a valve that controls flow of liquid
into the tank and some unspecified low out of the tank.
A transducer is available to measure the level of liquid in the tank.
The objective is to maintain the level of liquid in the tank at some
preset or setpoint value.
If the outflow increases, the control system will increase the
opening of the input valve to compensate by increasing the input
flow rate. The level is thus regulated.
This is a continuous variable control system because both the
8
level and the valve setting can vary over a range.

Discrete-State Control

Consider the revised problem shown in above; the variables, level and
valve settings, are discrete because they can take on only two values.
The valves can only be open or closed, and the level is either above or
below the specified value.
The objective is to fill the tank to a certain level with no outflow. The
event of sequence:
i)
Close the output valve.
ii)
Open the input valve and let the tank fill to the desired level,
as indicated by a simple switch.
iii) Close the input valve.
iv) Open the output valve.

Composite Discrete/Continuous
Control

10

Process Specifications

Specified into two parts:

Objectives of the process.
Hardware assembled to achieve the objectives.

Process objectives:
Statement of what the process is supposed to accomplish.
Global objective is the end result of the plant. It broken in to many
secondary objectives.
Each sub objective may be independently in the whole operation.
A discrete-state control system then be applied to each independent
part.
11

 Process Hardware:
Design the hardware such as conveyor
system, mixing tank, oven etc so that
these hardware can carry out the
designed process in-order to achieve
the objectives.
Determination type of components such
as sensor, relay, motor etc be used in
the hardware design.
The designer should be very familiar
with the components characteristic.

12

Input devices:

Right box present.

Left box present.
Feed conveyor right travel limit.
Feed conveyor left travel limit.
Hopper low.
Feed conveyor center.

Output devices:
Hopper valve solenoid.
Feed stock conveyor motor
right.
Feed stock conveyor motor left.
Right box conveyor motor.
Left box conveyor motor.

How these two states devices

relate to the process?
These devices give
information about the process
to the controller.
The state of the device can
determine the step of the
whole operation.
The designer decided to use
the state of device either NO
or NC when design the
operation.
Both NO or NC are valid, all
13
depend on the designer.

Event Sequence Description

A process-control engineer may not have been
involved in the development of the system
hardware construction, but they must study the
hardware carefully and understand the
characteristic of each element. Then, describe how
this hardware will be manipulated to accomplish the
objective.
A sequence of events must he described that will
direct the system through the operations to provide
the desired end result.
Narrative Statements Specification of the sequence
of events starts with narrative descriptions of what
events must occur to achieve the objective.
This specification describes in narrative form what
must happen during the process operation.
In systems that run continuously, there are
typically a startup, or initialization phase and a
running phase.
14

The start-up phase is used to place

the feed conveyor in a known
condition. This initialization might
be accomplished by the following
specification:
I. Initialization Phase
A. All motors off, feed valve
solenoid off.
B. Test for right limit switch
1. If engaged, go to C.
2. If not, set feed motor
for right motion.
3. Start feed-conveyor
motor.
4. Test for right limit
switch.
a. If engaged, go to C.
b. If not, go to 4.
C. Set feed motor for left
motion and start.
D. Test for center switch
1. If engaged, go to E.
2. If not, go to D.
E. Open hopper-feed valve.
F. Test for left limit switch:
1. If engaged, go to G.
2. If not. go to F.
G. All motors off, hopper-feed
valve closed.
15
H. Go to running phase.

16

Completion of this phase means that the feed

conveyor is positioned at the left limit
position and the right half of the conveyor
has been filled from the feed hopper.
II.
Running
A. Start right box conveyor.
B. Test right box present switch:
1. If set, go to C.
2. If not, go to B.
C. Start feed-conveyor motor, right
motion.
D. Test center switch:
1. If engaged, g to E.
2. If not, go to D.
E. Open hopper-feed valve.
F. Test right limit switch:
1. If engaged, go to G.
2. If not, go to F.
G. Close hopper-feed valve, stop feed
conveyor.
H. Start left box conveyor.
I. Test left box present switch:
1. If set, go to J.
2. If not, go to I.
J. Start feed conveyor, left motion.
K. Test center switch:
1. If engaged, go to L.
2. If not, go to K.
L. Open hopper-teed valve.
M. Test left limit switch:
17
1. If engaged, go to A.
2. If not, go to M.

18

Flowcharts of the Event

Sequence
It is often easier to
visualize and
construct the
sequence of events if
a flowchart is used to
pictorially present the
flow of events.
Part of the
initialization phase of
the conveyor system
is expressed in the
flowchart format.
19

Flowchart Symbol

Start/End

Process Operation

Input/Output

Decision
20

Initialization Phase

21

Running Phase

22

Binary State Variable

Descriptions
It used to describe the sequence of events
in terms of the sequence of discrete states
of the system.
Each of the state, including both input and
output variables be specified.
The input variables cause the state of the
system to change because operations
within the system cause a change of one of
the state variables.
The output variables are change in the
system state that are caused by the control
system itself.
23

Example 8.4 (pg. 400)

Construct a state variable description of the process shown in
Figure bellow. The timer output (TU) is initially low when its input
(TM) is low. When TM is taken high the output stays low for five
minutes and then goes high. It resets to low when TM is taken low.
All level sensors become true when the level is reached. The
process sequence is:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Fill the tank to level A (LA) from valve A (VA)

Fill the tank to level B (LB) form valve B (VB)
Start the timer (TM), stir (S) and heater (H)
When five minute are up take stir (S) and heater (H) off
Open output valve (VC) until the tank is empty (LE)
Take the timer low (TM) and go to step 1.

24

Example 8.4 (pg. 400) Solution

Input

Output

LA

LB

LE

TU

Description

VA

VB

VC

TM

Starting state, open valve A

Reaches level LE, continue with A fill

Reaches Level A, close valve A, open valve B

Reaches Level B, close valve B, start timer, heater,

stir

Time up, stop stir and heater, open valve C to empty

Reaches level B, continue with empty

Reaches level A, continue with empty

Tank empty, turn off timer, go to first state

25

Boolean Equations
It uses Boolean algebra techniques to
represent the process flow.
It is necessary to write a Boolean equation
for each output variable in the system.
This equation will then determine when
that variable is taken to its true state.
The equation may depend not only on the
set of input variables, but on some of the
output variables.

26

Example 8.5 (pg. 402) Solution

Figure bellow shows a pictorial view of an oven, along with the
associated input and output signals. All of the inputs and outputs
are two-state variables, and the relation of the states and the
variable is indicated. Construct Boolean equation that implement
the following events:
1. The heater will be on when the power-switch is activated, the door is closed and
the temperature is below the limit.
2. The fans will be turned on when the heater is on or when the temperature is
above the limit and the door is closed.
3. The light will be turned on if the light switch is on or whenever the door is opened.

27

Relay Controllers and

Ladder Diagrams
The hardware and the sequence of the event can be
combined and represent by a schematic
representation called as ladder diagram.
It is an outgrowth of early controllers that operated
from ac lines and used relays as the primary switching
elements.
The ladder diagram show how the hardware should be
driven so the proper sequence of events can be
accomplished.
An industrial control system typically involves electric
motors, solenoids, heaters or coolers, and other
equipment that is operated from the ac power line.
When a control system wants to turn on an ac motor,
this is done by a switch to energize a relay with
contact ratings that can handle the heavy load.
Relay is the primary control element of discrete-state
28
control systems.

5-Pin Contact Relay

29

Symbol for Input Devices in Physical Ladder Diagram

30

Symbol for Output Devices in Physical Ladder Diagram

The symbol for a motor is a
circle with a designation of M
followed by a number, as
shown in Figure a. The
control system treats this
circle as the actual motor,
although in fact, this may be
a motor start system.
The solenoid symbol is shown
in Figure b. For example, it
may be a solenoid to open a
flow valve, or move material
off a conveyor, or a host of
other possibilities.
The lights symbol is shown in
Figure c, is used to give
operators information about
the state of the system. The
color of the light is indicated
by a capital letter in the
circle; for example, R stands
for red, G for green, A for
amber, and B for blue.
31

Internal Relays

A relay coil is represented by a circle

identified as CR (for control relay) and
an associated identifying number. The
contacts for that relay will be either
normally open (NO) or normally closed
(NC) and can be identified by the same
number.
A NO contact is one that is open when
the relay coil is not energized and
becomes closed when the relay is
energized. Conversely, the NC contact
is closed when the relay coil is not
energized and opens when the relay is
energized.
Time-delay relay as one for which the
contacts do not activate until a
specified time delay has occurred. It
designated of TR to indicate timer
relay.
An on-delay timer relay. When the coil
is energized, the contacts are not
energized until the time delay has
lapsed.
There is also an off-delay timer relay.
The contacts engage when the coil is
energized. When the coil is deenergized, however, there is a time 32
delay before the contacts go to the deenergized state.

 Figure above shows a relay used as a latch where a

green light is on when the relay is not latched and a
red light is on when the relay is latched.
When the normally open (NO) push-button switch PB1
is depressed, control relay RL1 is energize and stays
closed.
To de-energize or unlatch the relay, the normally
closed (NC) push button PB2 is depressed. PB2 opens
the circuit, and the relay is released.
33

PB1

PB2

34

Example 8.6 (pg. 408)

The elevator shown employs a

platform to move objects up and
down.
The global objective is that when
the UP button is pushed, the
platform carries something to the
up position, and when the DOWN
button is pushed, the platform
carries something to the down
position.
Output Elements
M1 = Motor to drive the platform
up
M2 = Motor to drive the platform
down
Input Elements
LSI = NC limit switch to
indicate UP position
LS2 = NC limit switch to
indicate DOWN position
START = NO push button for
START
STOP = NO push button for STOP
UP = NO push button for UP
command
35
DOWN = NO push button for
DOWN command

Narrative Description
1.When the START button is pushed, the
platform is driven to the down position.
2.When the STOP button is pushed, the
platform is halted at whatever position it
occupies at that time.
3.When the UP button is pushed, the
platform, if it is not in downward motion,
is driven to the up position.
4.When the DOWN button is pushed, the
platform, if it is not in upward motion, is
driven to the down position.
36

Example 8.6 (pg. 408) Solution

37

38

39

Complete Ladder Diagram

40

41

42

43

44

Simplified Ladder Diagram

45

Programmable Logic
Controller Design
The modern solution for the problem of how to provide
discrete-state control is to use a computer-based device
called a programmable controller (PC) or programmable
logic controller (PLC).
The move from relay logic controllers to computer-based
controllers was an obvious one because:
i)
The input and output variables of discrete-state control
systems are binary in nature, just as with a computer,
ii) Many of the ""control relays" of the ladder diagram can
be replaced by software, which means less hardware
failure.
iii) It is easy to make changes in a programmed sequence
of events when it is only a change in software.
iv) Special functions, such as time-delay actions and
counters, are easy to produce in software.
v) The semiconductor industry developed solid-state
devices that can control high-power ac/dc in response
to low-level commands from a computer, including
46
SCRs and TRlACs.

FP0 PLC

47

48

Basic Element of PLC

49

Processor
It is used to execute a program to perform the
operations specified in a ladder diagram or a set of
Boolean equations. The processor performs arithmetic
and logic operations on input variable data and
determines the proper state of the output variables.
It can only perform one operation at a time. That is,
like most computers, it is a serial machine. Thus, it
must sequentially sample each of the inputs, evaluate
the ladder diagram program, provide each output,
and then repeat the whole process.
The heart of a PLC is a microprocessor such as AMD
2901 and 2903, because much of the data in PLC
operation is processed bit by bit. With the great
increases in processor speed, it is now possible to
employ a desktop personal computer with data I/O
boards running PLC software to emulate PLC
operation.

50

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It containing one or more
microprocessors to handle ladder
diagram programming.
It executes the operating system,
manages memory, monitors inputs,
evaluates the user logic, and turns
on the appropriate outputs.
It can handle noise environment.
51

Memory
Read Only Memory (ROM)
Stalled the operating system which handle the conversion of
ladder diagram to the computer language, control the data
flows and the operation of the entire PLC.
It is nonvolatile memory.

User Memory
It is the array for the I/O relays, internal relays, special relays,
counter, timer.
Each I/O, timer and counter has it own corresponding bit in
the memory.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Stalled the users program, timer/counter values, I/O status.

It is volatile memory.
The memory can be sustained by the use of lithium battery.
CMOS-RAM which is the low power consumption devices.
52

PLC Operation
Operation of the programmable controller can be
considered in two modes, the I/O scan mode and the
execution mode.
I/O Scan Mode
During the I/O scan mode, the processor updates all
outputs and inputs the state of all inputs one channel at a
time.
The time required for this depends on the speed of the
processor.

Execution Mode
During this mode, the processor evaluates each rung of the
ladder diagram program that is being executed
sequentially.
As a rung is evaluated, the last known state of each switch
and relay contact in the rung is considered, and if any TRUE
path to the output device is detected, then that output is
indicated to be energized - that is, set to ON.
At the end of the ladder diagram, the I/O mode is entered
again, and all output devices are provided with the ON or
OFF state determined from execution of the ladder diagram
program. All inputs are sampled, and the execution mode 53
starts again.

 Scan Time
Is time required for one complete cycle of I/O
scan and execution. This depends on how
many input and output channels are involved
and on the length of the ladder diagram
program and also depends on the clock
frequency of the processor.
The higher the clock frequency, the greater the
speed, and the faster the scan/execution time.
The length of time for one scan consists of
three parts i) input time, ii) execution time,
and iii) output time. Most of the scan time
comes from the execution phase.
54

PLC Programming Devices

Handheld Programmers
It can be plugged into the PLC to monitor the status of inputs,
outputs, variables, counters, timers.
It can turn the inputs and outputs on or off.

Computer
It can be used for offline programming and storage of
programs.
Document the PLC program.
Notes for technician, I/O devices.
The document is for understanding and troubleshooting ladder
diagrams.

55

Programming
Although the programmable controller can
be programmed directly in ladder diagram
symbols through the programming unit,
there are some special considerations.
These considerations include the
availability of special functions and the
relation between external I/O devices and
their programmed representations.
The programmable controller has no "real"
relays or relay contacts. The relay used in
the ladder diagram programming is just
the software symbols.
56

Addressing
The programmable controller uses a similar
method of identifying devices, but if is referred to
as the device address or channel. The addresses
are used to identify both the physical and
software devices according to the following
categories:
i) Physical input devices - ON or OFF
ii) Physical output devices - energized (ON) or
de-energized (OFF)
iii) Programmed control relay coils and contacts
iv) Programmed time-delay relay coils and
contacts
v) Programmed counters and contacts
vi) Special functions
57

Programmed Diagram
Interpretation
There is an important difference between the interpretation
of a physical ladder diagram and a programmed ladder
diagram. This difference arises from the fact that the
programmed diagram bases the state of a rung on a logical
interpretation of the symbol rather than its physical state.
In a physical diagram, the symbol for a NO contact
indicates a normally open contact through which current
cannot flow unless the contact has been closed. For the NC
contact, the idea is that current will flow until the contact
has been opened.
In a programmed diagram, the symbol for a NO contact
indicates that the device should be interpreted as FALSE if
the contact is tested and found to be open, and TRUE if it is
found to be closed. Consider the programmed NC symbol.
This means if it is tested and found to be closed, then it is
FALSE, and if tested and found open, it is ON.
A software Control Relay is denoted by a circle with an
identification number. It can have any number of NO or NC
contacts, which are identified by the same number as the
relay.
58

FPWin Pro/Trilogi/LogixPro

59

Input Modules

The input modules examine the state of physical switches and

other input devices and put their state into a form suitable for the
processor. The PLC is able to accommodate a number of inputs,
called channels.
The input state systems are often designed to 230 Vac/24 Vdc to
the input module. This type of connection assumes that switches,
for example, are wired to the PLC, as shown in Figure above. If
the switch is closed, the input will be 230 Vac/24 Vdc and it open;
the input will be 0 Vdc. The input module converts this into the 1
or 0 state needed by the processor.
The input modules have a certain number of channels per module.
Each channel is often equipped with an indicator light to show if 60
the particular input is ON or OFF.

Optical Isolation
PLC must be protected from the outside world
but be able to receive input data from the input
module.
Optical isolation means no electrical connection
exists between the input module and the CPU;
they are separated optically.
The input module supplies a signal that turns on
a light in the input card, the light shines on a
receiver and the receiver turns on.
It use for both input and output modules.
LED is used to transmit the data.
Input module also provide circuits that debounce
the input signal.
61

62

Output Modules

The output modules supply ac/dc power to external devices. If the

required power is greater, an external relay may be used, as
shown in Figure above.
Internally, the output module accepts a 1 or 0 input from the
processor and uses this to turn ON or OFF the control device such
as a TRIAC. In this sense, the output module is a solid-state relay.
Programmable controllers also are designed with output modules
to provide other outputs, such as variable-rate pulse outputs
(such as would be required by a stepping motor).
An output module can have one or several channels per unit. Each
63
channel is usually provided with an indicator light to show
whether the particular channel is being driven ON or OFF.

64

Type and Function of Relays

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

The Operation of the Internal Relay Contact

with Different External Input Devices
Type of
External
Input
Devices

NO

Symbol
of the
External
Input
Devices

Type of
Internal
Relay
Contact

Symbol
of the
Internal
Relay
Contact

The
Status of
the
Internal
Relay
Contact
Before
the
External
Input
Devices
be
Pushed

The
Status of
the
Internal
Relay
Contact
After the
External
Input
Devices
be
Pushed

NO
NC

NC

NO
NC

76

The Operation of the Relay with Different Connection

OFF

ON

77

The Operation of the Relay with Different Connection

ON

OFF

78

The Operation of the Relay with Different Connection

ON

OFF

79

The Operation of the Relay with Different Connection

OFF

ON

80

 Figure above shows a relay used as a latch where a

green light is on when the relay is not latched and a
red light is on when the relay is latched.
When the normally open (NO) push-button switch PB1
is depressed, control relay RL1 is energize and stays
closed.
To de-energize or unlatch the relay, the normally
closed (NC) push button PB2 is depressed. PB2 opens
the circuit, and the relay is released.
81

PLC

PB1

PB2

+
-

24 Vdc

Input 1

Output 1

Input 2

Output 2

Input 3

Output 3

Input 4

Output 4

Com

Green
Red

24 Vdc

+
-

Com

82

Programmed Ladder Diagram

Input Devices Output Devices
PB1 (NO) X0 L1 (Green) Y0
PB2 (NC) X1 L2 (Red) Y1

Physical Ladder Diagram

83

Example 8.6 (pg. 408)

The elevator shown employs a

platform to move objects up and
down.
The global objective is that when
the UP button is pushed, the
platform carries something to the
up position, and when the DOWN
button is pushed, the platform
carries something to the down
position.
Output Elements
M1 = Motor to drive the platform
up
M2 = Motor to drive the platform
down
Input Elements
LSI = NC limit switch to
indicate UP position
LS2 = NC limit switch to
indicate DOWN position
START = NO push button for
START
STOP = NO push button for STOP
UP = NO push button for UP
command
84
DOWN = NO push button for
DOWN command

Programmed Ladder Diagram

Input Devices

Output Devices

Start Button (NO)

X0

Motor 1 (Up Motion)

Y0

Stop Button (NO)

X1

Motor 2 (Down Motion)

Y1

Up Button (NO)

X2

Down Button (NO)

X3

Up Limit Sensor (NC)

X5

Down Limit Sensor

(NC)

X6

Initialization Phase

85

Up Motion

Down Motion

86

Combined Together

87

Simplify Design

88

Error
During the initialization phase, up motion still can be
executed when X2 (up motion button) is pushed. A NO R1
contact can be located between R2 and X2 contact in rung 4
to overcome the error.
Emergency stop cant be executed during the initialization
phase. A NC R2 contact can be located on the 1st rung to
overcome the error.
During the up motion, X4 (down limit switch) will return to
NC condition after the stop away from it. This cause R1
energized. NC R1 contact will has connection. If the user
push X0; this will cause down motion immediately after end
of the up motion. If the user push X3; this will cause the up
motion stop immediately. A parallel NO R1 contact and a
series NC R5 contact can be located in rung 3 to overcome
this error.
89

Example 8.7 (Pg 412)

I.

II.

Initialization (prefill of tank)

A.
Conveyor stopped, output valve closed
B.
Start the level-control system by operate a sufficient time to reach the setpoint
C.
Go to the running phase
Runing
A.
Start the bottle conveyor
B.
When a bottle is in the position (BP true)
1.
Stop the conveyor (M1 off)
2.
Open the output valve
C.
When the bottle is full (BF true)
1.
Close the output valve
90
D.
Go to step II.A and repeat

Example 8.7 (Pg 412) Solution

91

Input Devices

Output Devices

Start Button (NO)

X0

Motor

Y0

Stop Button (NO)

X1

Valve

Y1

BP Sensor (NO)

X2

Level Controller

Y2

BF Sensor (NO)

X3

92

Example 8.9 (Pg 424)

The objective of the system is as follow:

1. If PB1 alone is pushed, the red light turns on.
2. If PB2 alone is pushed, the green light turns on.
3. If both buttons are pushed at once, neither light turns on.

Show the wiring connection to the PC and the ladder

program that will accomplish this task. Channels 01 and 02
93
are inputs, and 08 and 09 are outputs.

Example 8.9 (Pg 424) Solution

94

Timer

The timer will have an address and the preset number of

ticks to count. The timer only counts while it has a true
input. If the input becomes False and then True again, the
timer will reset to zero and start to count again.
Figure b shows an accumulating timer, which retain a tick
count when its input goes false. When the input goes true
again, the tick count will pick up where the previous one
left off. It is necessary to have a reset input to this timer so
that, when desired, the timer can be reset back to zero. 95

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Counter

A counter is a programmed function that counts (increments)

every time the input changes from False to True. This means
that, if in one scan the input is False and in the next scan the
input is True, the counter increments. No further counts will
occur until the input goes False again and then True.
Counters are often drawn as a rectangle in programmed ladder
diagrams, like that shown in Figure above. There are two input
lines, one for the count input and another to reset the counter.
The counter has an address and a preset number of counts.
When the preset number of counts have been accumulated,
the counter becomes True and can activate some other part 100
of
the ladder diagram.

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Example 8.10 (Pg 426)

A counter is to be used to count objects in the
conveyor delivery system.
Show how a counter can be set up to count 200
objects and then turn off the conveyor motor.
What is the maximum conveyor speed to assure
that no objects will be missed in the count if the
objects are 1 cm apart? Assume the scan time
is 30 ms for 1 cm.

104

Example 8.10 (Pg 426) Solution

105

Example 8.11 (Pg 429)

Show how a timer can be used to
turn a red light on for 2500 ms when
a NO start push button is pushed.
The PLC timer tick is 10 ms. A NC
stop button resets the system.

106

Example 8.11 (Pg 429) Solution

107

Example 8.12 (Pg 429)

A chemical vat in which a mixture must be cooked at a

temperature greater than 100 C for 10 minutes. Due to
external influences, the temperature might fall below 100
C periodically, and this should not be counted in the
cooking time. After the vat is filled, a Start push button
(NC) starts the cooking. It is terminated by a NC Stop push
button. A thermal switch goes high when the temperature
is above 100 C. When the mixture has been cooked for 10
minutes at 100 C, the heater is turned off and a drain
valve is opened. The PLC tick time is 10 ms.

108

Example 8.12 (Pg 429) Solution

109

Example 8.13 (Pg 431)

Prepare the physical and programmed ladder diagram for the control
problem shown in Figure 24. The global objective is to heat a liquid to a
specified temperature and keep it there for 30 min.
The hardware has the following characteristics:
i)
START push button is NO. STOP is NC.
ii)
NO and NC are available for the limit switches.
The event sequence is
i)
Fill the tank.
ii)
Heat and stir the liquid for 30 min.
iii)
Empty the tank.
iv)
Repeat from step i)
110

Example 8.13 (Pg 431) Solution

111

Problem 8.7 (Pg 434)

Develop the programmable ladder
diagram for a motor with the
following: NO start button, NC stop
button, thermal overload limit switch
opens on high temperature, green
light when running, red light for
thermal overload

112

Problem 8.7 (Pg 434) Solution

113

Problem 8.7 (Pg 434) Solution

114

Problem 8.8 (Pg 434)

When turn ON, the tank system alternately fills to level L and then
empties to level E. The level switch are activated on a rising level.
Both NO and NC connections are available for the level switches
and the ON/OFF push buttons. Prepare a physical ladder diagram
for this system.
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Problem 8.8 (Pg 434) Solution

116

Problem 8.8 (Pg 434) Solution

117

Problem 8.10 (Pg 435)

Prepare a ladder diagram for the system bellow. Assume a logic
off-delay 5 minute timer (i.e., goes true when enabled and stays
true for 5 min). Assume a NO start push button and an NC stop
push button.

The Process Sequence:

1.Fill the tank to level A (LA) from valve A (VA)
2.Fill the tank to level B (LB) form valve B (VB)
3.Start the timer (TM), stir (S) and heater (H)
4.When five minute are up take stir (S) and heater (H) off
5.Open output valve (VC) until the tank is empty (LE)
6.Take the timer low (TM) and go to step 1.

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Problem 8.10 (Pg 435) Solution

119

Problem 8.14 (Pg 436)

Prepare a PLC ladder program for the
system of Problem 8.8 with the
following added requirements:
a) the system should cycle 100 times and
then quit.
b) during each cycle, there should be a
1.5 minute delay after filling before the
empty phase starts. The PLC tick time
is 10 ms.
120

Problem 8.14 (Pg 436) Solution

121

Problem 8.11 (Pg 436)

The system has the following functions:

Move a work piece into position, clamp it, start the drill, move
it down to drill a hole in the work piece (as long as a thermal
overload does not occur), back the drill out, turn the drill off,
and then repeat for a new work piece. Assume master NO
start and NC stop buttons and that limit switches have both
NO and NC contracts. The system stops if a thermal overload
occurs and turns on a red light (not shown). Develop the
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programmable ladder diagram.

Problem 8.11 (Pg 436) Solution

123