FORENSIC BALLIST IC

BALLISTICS is the science of the motion of projectile.

ORIGIN OF BALLISTIC The word BALLIST ICS originated from the
Greek word Ballein which means to throw and from the Roman word
Ballista which is machine to hurl a stone.
-From those words the modern term for Forensic Ballistics was
derived to indicate the science of moving projectile.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
a. )
INTERIOR BALLIST ICS traits of the motion of the projectiles
while still in the firearm, namely the studies of combustion of the
powder, pressure developed and velocity.
b. )
EXT ERIOR BALLIST ICS traits of the motion of the projectiles
after leaving the muzzle namely trajector y, velocit y, range penetration,
etc.
c. )
T ERMINAL BALLISTICS traits of the effects of the projectile
on impact on the target.
d. )
FORENSIC BALLISTIC the science of firearms identification by
means of the ammunition fired through them.
DIVISION OF FORENSIC BALLIST ICS:
a. )
FIELD NVEST IGATION refers to the work of an investigation in
the field. It concerns mostly with the collection, marking, preservation,
packing and transmission of firearms evidences. It include the study of
class characteristics of firearms and bullets.
b. )
T ECHNICAL EXAMINATION refers to the examiners who
examine bullets/ or shells, whether fired from also whether or not
cartridges were loaded and ejected made by the suspected firearms
submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and testif y in court
regarding their reports.
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM Firearms or Arms are herein
used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols
and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or
other missile may discharge off by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. The term also includes air rifles except such as being of
small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm
shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof (Sec.
877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290 National Internal
Revenue Code).
T ECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM instrument used for the
propulsion of a projectile by means of expansive force of gases from
burning powder.
AMMUNITION (defined) under the National Internal Revenue Code
the wor d Ammunition shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which bullets, ball shot,
shell or other missile may be ammunition for air rifles.
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLET S)

1.

No t wo barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of

their bores all possesses individual characteristics markings
of their own.

2.

W hen a bullet is fired from rifled barrel, it becomes engraved

by the rifling and this engraving will vary in its minute details
with every individual bore. So it happens that the engraving
on the bullets fired from one barrel will be different from
another bullet fired from another barrel.

3.

Ever y barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprint on ver y

single bullet fired through it just as every breech face leaves
its thumb mark on the base of ever y fired cartridges case.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (SHELLS)

1.

T he breech face and striker of ever y single firearm leave

microscopical individualities of their own.

2.

T he firearm leaves its fingerprints or thumb mark on ever

cartridges case which it fires.

3.

T he whole principles of identification is based on the fact that

since the breech face of every weapon must be individually
distinct, the cartridges cases which it fires are imprinted with
this individualit y. The imprints on all cartridges cases fired
from the same weapon are always the same; those on
cartridges cases fired from different weapons are different.

T YPES OF PROBLEMS: T here

Forensic ballistic, namely:

are

six

(6)

types

of

problems

in

Type 1Given bullets, to determine the caliber and type of firearm

from which it was fired.
Type 2Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the caliber and
type of firearm from which it was fired.
Type 3Given a bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine
whether or not the bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
Type 4Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearms, to
determine whether or not the cartridge case was fired from the
suspected firearm.
Type 5Given t wo or more bullets, to determine whether or not
they wer e fired from only one firearm.
Type 6Given two or more cartridges cases, to determine whether
or not they wer e fired from only one firearm.
CLASS CHARACT ERISTICS Those which are determine prior to the
manufacturer of the firearm and are within control of man. These serve
as basis to identify a certain class or group of firearm.
a
b
c
d

)
)
)
)

Caliber (Bore Diameter)

Number of lands
Number of grooves
W idth of lands

e ) W idth of grooves
f ) Direction of twist
g ) Pitch of rifling
h ) Depth of grooves

INDIVIDUAL CHARACT ERISTICS Those which are determinable only

after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose

existence is beyond the control of man and which have random

distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools
in their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse,
militilations, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous causes.
SMALL ARMS firearms which propel projectiles of less than one inch
in diameter.
T YPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:
a )

Smooth-bore firearm which do not have rifling

Ex: shotguns, muskets

b )

Rifled- bore firearm which contain rifling marks.

Ex: pistols, revolvers, rifles

SMALL ARMS AMMUNITION small arms ammunition consists of

cartridges used in rifles, carbines, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns
and shell used in shotgun.
EQUIVALENT OF CALIBERS IN INCHES AND MILLIMET ERS:
a ) Caliber .22
b ) Caliber
c ) Caliber .32
d ) Caliber .30
e ) Caliber .38
f ) Caliber .45
g ) Caliber .30

About
.25
About
About
About
About
About

5.59 mm.
About 6.35 mm.
7.65 mm.
7.63 mm. (mouser)
9
mm.
11
mm.
7.56 mm. (Luger)

RIFLING consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior

surface of the bore. The rifling in firearms may be divided into the
following types:
a )
Small type four grooves, right hand t wist, grooves and lands of
equal width. (4R G-L)
b )
Smith and W esson type five grooves, right hand t wist, grooves
and lands of equal width (5R G-L)
c )
Browning type six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and
broader grooves (6R G2X)
d )
Colt type six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and
broader grooves (6L G2X)
e )
W ebley type seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and
broader grooves (7R G3X)
f )
Arm y type four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and
broader grooves (4R G3X)
PURPOSE OF RIFLING is to impact a motion of rotation to a bullet
during its passage inside the barrel in order to insure gyroscopic in the
flight, and so that it will travel nose-on towards the target.
PARTS OF CARTRIDGES
a)
Bullet
b ) Shell
T YPES OF CARTRIDGES:

c )
Gunpowder
d ) Primer

a )
Pin- fire the pin extends radically through the need of the
cartridges case into the primer.
b )
Rim- fire the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in
the rim of the head of the cartridges case. The flame produced is in
direct communication wit h the powder charge. Used in the calibers .22,
.25 and .45 Derringer pistols.
c )
Center-fire the primer sup is forced into the middle portion of
the head of the cartridges case and the priming mixture is exploded by
the impact of the firing pin. The flame is communicated to the powder
charge through the vents leading into the powder charge.

T YPES OF CENT ER-FIRE CARTRIDGES:

a )
Rimmed type the rim of the cartridges case is greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal .38 and Cal .22
b )
Semi rimmed type the rim of the cartridge case is slightly
greater than the diameter of the body of the cartridges case. Ex: Cal.
Super .38 auto, Pistol, .32 and .25
c ) Rimmed less type the rim of the cartridges case is equal to the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. Ex: Cal .45 Auto Pistol .30
carbine .223
PROCEDURE AT THE SCENE OF SHOOT ING CASES
W hen an officer arrives upon the scene of a shooting case, he is
usually confronted by a condition of utter confusion. Neighbors
and onlookers are crowded around the place; relatives are
weeping and hysterical. In his career as an officer he will meet
with other situations which require as much as much poises tact
and common sense when he appears upon the scene of
homicide.
His first dut y is to clear the premises of all persons so that an
intelligent investigation is not a matter of five or ten minutes,
but it requires that a definite routine shall be followed, if
mistakes are to be avoided. Things should be done, which may
appear wholly unnecessar y at the time, but only to become
vitally important later. One can never forces the angels that will
develop and it is far better to do a hundred things unnecessarily
than to miss doing one that might mean the solution of the case.
T he victim is dead and will stay dead. The officer may be
important by reporters or other to do things which he is not yet
ready to do to give statement to the press or to draw
conclusion. In spite of all persuasions, he should bear in mind
that there is one purpose and one purpose only, and that is to
carry out an intelligent investigation.
Upon receiving a cell to the sense of a shooting case, the officer
should always take along with him a loose- leaf notebook and
fountain pen to make notes at the time and on the place and not
trust to his memory to reconstruct the situation at his
convenience.

W hen the officer is

should follow a
writing at the
references and
as follows:

summoned on such an errand, his procedure

logical pattern. His observation should be put in
time of his investigation to keep for future
to produce in court if necessary. These steps are

1. Note accurately in wr iting the time he received the call and by

whom it was sent.
2. Note accurately the time he arrive at the scene and the correct
address.
T hese first t wo items seem to be trivial, but it is amazing how
often in court they become of vital importance. It is not
uncommon that the officer is unable to fix the time accurately
within an hour to the satisfaction of a jur y.
3. He should ascertain if the victim is dead, and if not non-medical
aid or remove the body to a hospital, other wise the body should
not be disturbed.
4. Immediately clear the premises of all bystanders and under no
circumstances allow anyone to touch or remove anything in the
vicinit y.
5. Use ever y effort and means to identify the deceased.
6. Does the body lie where the shooting took place? Often, before
the officer arrives the body will be moved by a bystander.
Frequently it will be picked up off the floor and put a bed or
taken from one room to another.
7. Take the names and addresses of all witnesses and take wr itten
notes on the statement of as many persons as practicable.
8. Photograph the body from all angels to show its relationship to
doors, windows, furnitures and other objects in the room.
9. Measure with a tape the exact distance of the body with relation
to the previously mentioned fixtures of the premises.
10.

Note in writing the exact position where he found the body

whether he found it lying on the side, back or abdomen that
objects if any, were in the hands; reports what was the
conditions of the clothing and the amount of bleeding.

11. Examine the ceiling, floor and furniture for bullet holes, blood
stains, fired bullets, fired shell or shotgun wadding.
12.

If there is a firearm at the scene, he should mote in

writing the following observations:
a. Exactly where found.
b. Type of weapon automatic pistol, revolvers, rifle, or shot
gun, caliber or gauge designation.
c. Make and serial numbers and at that time he should mark
his initials on the butt or frame of the weapon for future
identification.
d. Other distinct features.

13.

At the crime scene note down where the empt y shells,

bullets and/ or firearms where found and make a diagram to

illustrates the same, to show their relatives distances from the

body of the victims, Photograph if possible.
14.

Be careful in handling a firearm found at the scene of the

crime for they may have latent fingerprint on the parts of the
firearm. Note down the type, kind, make caliber and serial
number. If there are fingerprints, submit said firearm to a
fingerprint technician but be sure that the firearm should not be
disturbed.
15.
Mark the empty cartridges cases inside or near the mouth
by scratching the initials to the investigation or the initials of the
victims.
16.

Mark the bullets at the give (or nose) by scratching the

investigations initials of the victim but definitely NOT at the
rifling marks (landmarks and groove marks).

17.

Mark the empty shotgun shells with indelible ink at the

body.

18.

T he barrel of the firearms must be marked too.

19.

After marking the empt y shells and bullets, wr ap them

separately and individually with soft tissue paper and note down
on the wrapper where each was found the time and date. The
purpose of wrapping them separately is to avoid being
scratched.

20.

W hen a lead bullet is found at the scene of the crime the

body of the victim, the presumption is that a Revolver was used.

21.

W hen a jacketed bullets is found at the scene of the crime

or in the body of the victim, it can be measured that a presumed
that a Automatic Pistol or Automatic W eapon was used.

22.

W hen an empty shell is found at the scene of the crime,

the presumption is an Automatic Pistol or W eapon was used.

23.

W hen one empty shell is found at the scene of the crime,

the presumption is a Revolver was used.

24.

In the bore of a barrel, the depressed portions are the

grooves, and the raised are the lands.

25.

On a fired bullet, it is the reverse. The landmarks are the

depressed portions, and the groove marks are the raised
portions.

26.

To determine the real direction of the rifling twist in a

rifled barrel, peep thru the barrel, place a land or groove in
inclines to the right, then it has a right t wist and if it inclines to
the left, then the rifling t wist is left.

27.

To determine the direction of the twist of a bullet, look on

the bullets in an elongated position. If the landmarks and groove
marks incline to the right, then it has a right t wist and if it is
inclines to the left, then the rifling twist is right. If the inclination
is left then it is a left twist.

28.

A fired bullet will acquire the class characteristics of the

bore of the barrel from which it was fired. So therefore if a bore
has class characteristics of .45 caliber, .6 lands, .6 grooves,

right twist, groove wider than the land, each characteristics will
be marked on the bullet it fires.
29.

It is the rifling of the bore that marked a fired bullet.

30.

So if a fatal will have the same class characteristics as

the bore of the suspected gun, then it is possible that the bullets
could have been fired from the suspected gun.

31.

To determine definitely if the bullet above was fired or not

from a suspected gun, then the case must be sent to a Forensic
Ballistics Experts who will conduct the proper examinations.

32.

If two bullets do not have the same class characteristics,

definitely and conclusively they were NOT fired from the same
barrels.

33.

If a fatal bullets does not have the same

characteristics as the suspected firearm (barrel),
conclusively the bullets was not fired from said barrel.

class
then

T he following are suggestions for the investigator to observe in

testifying in courts of justice:
1. Be prepared.
2. Be calm and well poised.
3. Tell the truth, nothing but the truth.
4. Be courteous.
5. Be natural and sit straight forward.
6. Do not volunteer.
7. Keep your temper.
8. Listen to the question asked before giving your answer.
9. Speak loud enough to be heard.
10.
Watch your personal appearance and conduct in the
courtroom.
11. Answer only what you are asked, no more.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
1.

PERCUSSION Action when the priming mixture of chemical

compound hit or struck by firing in would ignite.

2.

JUXTAPOSITION Two objects is evidence bullet and test bullet

are examined and compared under the bullet comparison
microscope. Includes also the examination of fired shells.

3.

BALLO or BALLEIN Greek wor ds where Ballistics was derived

from which means to throw.

4.

BALLISTA The early Roman was Machine a gigantic bow or

Catapult.

5.

BALLISTICS Science of the motion of projectiles.

6.

FORUM A Greek word of forensic which means debatable,

argumentation in relation to the court of justice.

7.

FORENSIC BALLIASTICS- The study of firearms identification

by means of ammunition fired from them.

8.

BALLISTICIAN Person whose knowledge in identification is

accepted by the courts and other investigation agencies.

9.

ABRASSION (in the

cleaning materials, or
abrasive material was
and wear ing away of
bullets.

wor ld) Scratches cause by using improper

by firing ammunition with bullets to which
adhering. Normal enlargement of the bore
lands due to the abrasive action of the

10.

BLACK POW DER A mechanical mixture of charcoal, sulfur and

salt paper. Burned wit h considerable white smoke.

11.

CARTRIDGE is a complete unfired unit of bullets, cartridge

case, gunpowder and primer.

12.

AMMUNITION (legal) SEC. 877 of the RAC shall mean

loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers
and pistols which a ball, bullet shot shell or other missile maybe
discharges by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term
includes ammunition for a rifles as mentioned else where in the
code.

Ammunition (technical) refers to a group of cartridge or to a single

unit cartridge, meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of bullets,
cartridge case, gun powder and primer. The term may also refer to a
single round.
13.

BALL BULLET S Bullets have soft lead course inside a jacket.

14.

ROUND one single complete cartridge.

15.

BULLET ENERGY the powder possessed by a moving bullet,

or in other wor ds its abilit y to keep going meets an obstacle of
immense importance, for obviously, the more powder a bullet
has and the harder it is to stop the, more effective it can be as a
weapon.

16.

BULLET RECOVERY BOX consist of a wooden box, 12 x 12 x

96, with the hinged to cover and with one end open. This long
box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into section by
card board partitions.

17.

CALIBER is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that

is measured from land to land.

18.

DUMDUM BULLET Dumdum is an out molded and generally

misused term. It was an unofficial name first applied hallow
point bullets maid at the British arsenal at Dumdum, India.

19.

EROSION the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface

of the gun barrel due to the mechanical abrasion or gliding.

20.

CORROSION the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of

the gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical action of the by
products of combustion after firing.

21.

CANNELURE (bullet) A knurled ring or serrated grooved

around the body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication
in order to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet
inside the bore.

22.

CALIPER an instrument used for making measurement such as

bullet diameter and bore diameter.

23.

CHILLED SHOT shotgun pellets made from lead especially

hardened by the addition of a slight amount of antimony.

24.

CLASS CHARACT ERISTICS are those that are determinable

even before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into
caliber or gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and
grooves, twist of rifling, patch of rifling and depth of grooves.

25.

RANGE the straight distance between muzzle and target.

26.

POINT BLANK RANGE popularity used to indicate the distance

the bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight
adjustment. A shot fired so closed to the target that no sighting
is necessar y for effective aiming.

27.

MAXIMUM RANGE the farthest distance that a projectile can

be propelled form a firearm.

28.

GALLERY RANGE the indoor targets range on properly

constructed indoor ranges, firing maybe conducted with center
fire pistols and revolvers at range of 25 years and 50 years.
Such installation are generally referred to as indoor ranges the
term gallery being applied usually only to short range 22 caliber
installation.

29.

EXT REME RANGE the greatest distance the bullet will travel
the cartridge is fire.

30.

EFFECTIVE RANGE the maximum distance at which a bullet

may reasonable be expected types of live target.

31.

ACCURATE RANGE the distance with in which he shoots has

control of his shots.

32.

FOULING - the accumulation of a deposit wit in the bore of a

firearm caused by solid by products remaining a cartridge is
fired.

33.

GUM COTTON a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerine

which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed
by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or nay other
kind of cellulose.

34.

LANDS the raised portion between the grooves in the interior

surface of the gun barrel.

35.

LAPPING is the smoothening of the inner surface of the barrel.

36.

MACHINE REST a machine used for testing the accuracy of a

firearm.

37.

KNOCKING POW ER power of the bullet which believer of a

ver y paralyzing blow that put the victim down and may then
recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.

38.

STOPPING POW ER power of the bullet which put the victim

out of the action instantly. So it should be understood that
stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing
power. However, stopping power depends very largely on the
location of the shot.

39.

PRIMER the complete assembly of cup, priming composition,

paper discs and anvil.

40.

CARTOUCHE
OF PAPER.

41.

CHARTA Latin word for cartridges which means PAPER.

French wor d of cartridge which means ROOL

ORIGIN OF FIREARM
13 t h Centur y development of firearms followed the invention of
gunpowder in W estern Europe.
Berthold Schwartz a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English
monk are both credited with gunpowder invention.
-Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and
Scientist with the invention of gunpowder in 1248 and Berthold
Schwartz, with application of gunpowder to the propelling of a
missile in the early 1300s. This powder was that we now call
Black Powder.
1245 Gen Batu, The Tartar leader, used artiller y in Liegnits when he
defeated the poles Hungarians, and Russians.
- It is also often stated that the gunpowder was first invented by
Chinese, were of gunpowder and its use as propellant long
before its advantages became recognized in Europe.
- It may also assume the Arabs with their advance knowledge of
chemistr y at that time.
1247 One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in war far was
that of an attack on Seville, Spain.
1346 Cannons used by King Edward II of England at Crecy.
1335

Mohammad II of turkey in his famous conquest of

Constantinople.
-First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not
capable of being carried by an individual soldier; hence, the
development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by
almost 50 years.

Man never satisfies to himself. He is always trying to improve himself

and his surrounding. He created some rule crude or primitive
weapons which wer e subsequently developed into sophisticated
firearms of modern times.
T he following are the stages of development of mans weapon:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Stones
Cubs Knives Spears and Darts
Sling shots to hurl objects
Bows and arrows
Cross bows
Guns
Missiles

1.

Col. Calvin H. Goddard M.D, OS Army Father of Modern

Ballistics.

2.

Horace Smith Founded the great firm Smith and Weapon and
pioneered the making of breech loading regales.

3.

Daniel B. W esson An associate or partner of smith in revel

verb making.

4.

John M. Browning W izard of modern firearms and pandered

breech loading single shot rifle.

5.

John T. Thompson pioneered the making of Thompson subMachine.

6.

David Carbine W illiams maker of first know carbine.

7.

Alexander John Forsythe Father of the percussion system.

8.

Elisha King Root Designed machinery of making colt firearms.

9.

Eliphalet Remington One of the first rifle makers.

10.

John Malon Martin Founder of martin Firearms Company.

11.

James Wolfe Ripley Stimulated the development of the model

1855 riffled musket.

12.

Samuel Colt
revolver.

13.

Henr y Derringer He gave his name to a whole classes of

firearms.

14.

John C. Garand Designed the semi-automatic US Rifle, Cal. 30

15.

Oliver F. W ichester One of the earliest rifles and pistol

makers.

(1814-1862)

Produced

the

first

practical

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 ---Gunpowder as a propellant. Te age of gunpowder began with
outs first use as a propellant for a projective. Such use has been
recorded as early as 1313.
1350 ---Small arms, Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was
in the middle of the 14 t h century that portable hand, F.A was
introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held wire or lighted
match.
1498 ---Riffling, The first reference to rifled barrels appeared.
Although its important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some,
it was many years after before rifling was generally used.
1575 ---Cartridges, Paper cartridges combining both powder and ball
were developed. This greatly speeded loading and reduced the
hazards of carr ying loose powder.
1807 ---Percussion system, the discover y of Forsythe in 1807 the that
certain compounds detonated by a blow would be used to ignite the

charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and
cartridges development.
1835 ---Samuel Colt-patented the first practical revolvers in which the
cylinder was rotated by cooking the hammer.
1836 ---Pin fire. Cartridge. Developed by Le Faucheux in 1836, was
probably the first self really the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 ---Center fire Cartridge. The Morse Cartridge of 1858 marked the
beginning of the rapid development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 ---Automatic Machine Gun. Hiran Maxim built the first fully
Automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and fire the next
charge.
1885 ---Smokeless Powder. In Frnece, Veille, Developed the first
satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked
the smoke characteristics of black powder, but also more powerful.
1845 ---Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Florbert develop a bullet
breech cap which was in really the first rimterfire Cartridge.
I.

II.

TW O GENERAL CLASSES OF FIREARM (ACCORDING TO Gun

Barrel Internal Construction)
A.

Smooth-bore firearms fire arms the have no rifling (land and

grooves) inside their gun barrel.
Ex. Shot guns and muskets

B.

Rifled- the bore Firearms Firearms that have rifling inside their
gun barrel.
Ex. Pistols, Revolvers, Rifles
MAIN TYPES OF .As. (According to Caliber of Projectiles
Propelled)

A. Artillery Those types of firearm that propel projectiles more

than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, Mortars, Bazookas
B. Small Arms Propel Projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter,
Can be operated by one man.
Ex. Machines guns Shoulder arm and hand arms
III.

T YPES OF FIREARMS According to Mechanical Construction

A. Single Shot F.A t ype of firearms designed to fire only one shot
for ever y loading.
Ex. Pistols, Rifles, Shot guns single shots
B. Repeating Arms Fire several shots in one loading
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns
C. Bolt Action Type Reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns, Machine guns
D. Automatic Loading Type After the first shot is fired, automatic
loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns

E. Slide Action Type (Trombone) Loading takes place by back and

forth manipulation of the under forearm of the gun.
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns
F. Lever Type (Break Type) Loading takes place by lever action of
the Firearm.
Ex. Rifles, Shot guns
IV.T YPES OF FIREARMS according to USE
A. Militar y Firearms
Ex.
1. Pistols
2. Revolvers

3. Rifles
4. Machine Guns

B. Pocket and Home Defense F.A

Ex.
1. Pistols
3. Rifles
2. Revolvers
IV.

UNUSUAL OR MISCELLENEOUS TYPE

--Those types of fire arm that is unique in mechanism and
construction
1.
2.
3.
4.

Paltik Pistols
Paltik Revolvers
PaltikRifles
Paltik Shot Guns
THE THREE MAIN PARTS

REVOLVERS Cal .38

PISTOL Cal .45

1. Barrel assembly
2. Cylinder Assembly
3. Frame or Receiver

1. Barrel Assembly
2. Slide Assembly
3. Frame or Receiver

RIFLE Cal .30

12

SHOT GUN Gauge

1. Barrel Assembly
2. Magazine Assembly
Assembly
3. Stock Group

1. Barrel Assembly
2.
Magazine
3. Stock Group
DETAILED PARTS

REVOLVER .38
1. Barrel Assembly
a. Breech end
b. Muzzle end
c. Bore
d. Rifling (lands and grooves)

AUTOMATIC PISTOL .45

1. Barrel Assembly
a. Breech end
b. Muzzle end
c. Bore
d. Rifling (land grooves)
e. Chamber
f. Interlocking ribs
g. Barrel lug
h. Barrel link
i. Barrel link pin
j. Barrel lead (lead)

2. Cylinder Assembly
a. Chambers
b. Extractor
c. Extractor rod
d. Racket
e. Cylinder groove
f. Yoke
g. Cylinder locking Notches

3. Frame or Receiver
a. Top strap
b. Rear sight
c. Breech Face
d. Hammer
e. Spur
f. Thumb latch
g. Side plate
h. Back
i. Firing pin
j. Butt
k. Front strap
l. Trigger guard
m. Trigger
n. Cylinder lock
o. Right side stock
p. Left side stock
q. Trade mark (monogram)
r. Serial number

2. Slide Assembly
a. Front sight
b. Top strap
c. Ejection port
d. Rear sight
e. Breech block
f. Breech Face
g. Extractor
h. Firing pin
i. Firing pin top
j. Serrations
k. Trade mark
l. Model
m. Interlocking lugs
3. Frame or Receiver
a. Ejector
b. Hammer
c. Spur
d. Grip safety
e. Thumb safety
f. Disconnector
g. Back strap
h. Butt
i. Lanyard loop
j. Front strap
k. Magazine well
l. Right side stock
m. Left side stock
n. Trigger
o. Trigger guard
p. Model
q. Plunger
r. Serial number

T he automatic Pistol- Caliber .45 besides having the main parts

and detailed it has also the so called auxiliar y parts (accessories)
which must all be removed before disassembly of the weapon can be
accomplished.
1. Recoil Plug
2. Barrel Bushing
3. Slide stop pin

4. Recoil Spring
5. Recoil Spring
ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER

1.

It is an old standard weapon, ever y one is used to it, and almost

ever y one knows something about to handle it.

2.

T he revolver is safer for inexperienced people to handle and

carry then an automatic pistol.

3.

T he mechanism of a revolver allows the trigger pull to be better

then that of the average automatic weapon.

4.

A misfire does not put revolvers out of action.

5.

It will handle satisfactorily old or new or partly deteriorated

ammunition which gives a reduced velocit y that would jam an
average automatic pistols.

DISADVANTAGES OF A REVOLVER
1.

It is more bulky to carry than that of an automatic pistol.

2.

Its grip on handle is generally not as good as that of pistol.

3.

It is hard to clean after firing.

4.

It is slower to load.

5.

It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts, it is factory job.

6.

W orn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy

due to improper up of cylinder.
ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1.

It as a better grip fits the hand points naturally.

2.

It is more compact for the same fire power.

3.

It is easier to load than a revolver.

4.

In case of worn or corroded barrel a new one can be put in at

little expense wit hout sending the gun to the factory.

5.

It gives a greater number of shots than revolvers.

6.

It is easier to clean than revolvers.

7.

It gives greater fire power and greater ease of firing.

8.

T here is no gas leakage in its operation.

DISADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC PISTOL

1.

Ammunition must be prefect. Old and deteriorated ammunition

will cause a jam.

2.

A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.

3.

W hen the gun is kept loaded for a long period of time, the
magazine spring is under tension and may deteriorate and cause
trouble.

4.

T he automatic pistol can not use blank or reduced loads.

5.

It has a poor trigger pull than the revolver.

6.

T he magazines require a jacketed bullet which is not as good for

practical use as that of lead bullet.

7.

T he automatic pistol is more dangerous to handle and fire

especially for inexperienced people due to the fact that after one
shot it is always cooked and loaded.

8.

It is not adapted to reloading. It throws away empt y shell at

each shot.

9.

Its mechanical action ejects empty shell towards the face at

each shot.

10.

Its throws out empty shells on the ground to remain as evidence.

11.

It can not be fired from the pocket without jamming.

EVERY POLICE OFFICER should frequently check his revolvers for:

1.

Obstruction in the barrel.

2.

Bulging or swollen barrel.

3.

Firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in

rearward position.

4.

On older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate

in relation to the firing pin hole (to insure blow in center of the
primer).

5.

Evidence of spitting lead around breech

complaints of fellow shooters in the firing line.

6.

Tightness of all side plate screws.

7.

Tightness of ejector if the weapon is a Smith and W esson

revolvers.

8.

Cleanliness and projective film of oil to prevent rust.

of

barrel

for

NOMENCLATURE AND FUNCT ION

BARREL initiates the path of the bullet.
FRAME Houses the internal parts.
YOKE Connecting pivot between the frame and cylinder.
EXT RACTOR

Pulls
the
empty
shells
from
the
cylinder
simultaneously.
EXT RACTOR ROAD Activates the extractor and is a locking device.
CENT ER PIN Serves as a looking device for the cylinder.
CENT ER PIN SRPING Holes the center pin in a locked position.
SIDE PLATES Provides access to the internal parts.
SIDE PLATE SCREW Hold the side plate and yoke in place.
HAMMER BLOCK Safety device that prevents hammer blow to
primer.
DOUBLE ACTION SEAR Built into the weapon to allow double action
fire.
HAMMER Strikes the blow that initiates or ignites primer.
BOLT Disengage center prim to allow opening of cylinder and blocks
hammer.
T HUMBLATCH Actuates bolt to release the cylinder.
HAND (pawl) Rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked.

CYLINDER STOP Stops and holds the cylinder alignment for firing.
T RIGGER Actuates the parts necessary to fire the weapon.
T RIGGER GUARD Guards the trigger from unnecessar y action to
avoid accidental firing.
REBOUND SLIDE Returns trigger, actuates hammer block and locks
hammer.
T RIGGER SPRING Provides energy for return movement or rebound
slide.
T RIGGER LEVEL Contacts rebound slide to return trigger for ward.
MAIN SPRING Provides energy to the hammer to activate firing
mechanism.
STRAIN SCREW Controls tension of the mainspring.
T RIGGER STOP Prevents
hammer the release.

excessive

rearward

movement

after

RACKET Helps in the wit hdrawal of the Cartridges or shells from the
chambers of the cylinder.
CYLINDER NOTCH It helps hold the cylinder in place and aligned
ready for firing.
NOMENCLATURE OF CARTRIDGE
1.

Bullet A projectile propelled from a firearm by means of

explosive force of gases coming from burning powder.

2.

Cartridge Case A tubular metallic container for the gunpowder

sometimes called shell.

3.

Gun Powder Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer

flash is converted to gas under high pressure and propels the
bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on the target.

4.

Primer The metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming

mixture of chemical compound which when hit or struck by the
firing pin would ignite, such action is called PERCUSSION.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A.

According to the type of firearms asked

1.
2.
3.
4.

B.

Revolver cartridges
Pistol cartridges
Rifles cartridges
Shot Cartridges

Used in revolver
Used automatic pistol
Used in rifles
Used in shot gun

According to location of primer

1. Pin fire cartridges no longer used (absolute)
2. Rim fire the primer is located at the rim or the base
portion
-- Use in cal .22, pistol, revolvers and rifles

3. Canter fire Priming powder is located at the center

-- Economical can be repealed
a. Rimmed type Used in revolvers cal .38 and .35
b. Semi- Rimmed Used in super .38
c. Rimless Used in 45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun,
submachine gun
A.

T YPICAL RIMMED FIRE CARTRIDGES

B.

A Case
B Priming mixture
C Propellant powder/ gun powder
D Bullet
E Sensitive Area
According to Caliber
1. cal .22 used in revolvers, pistols and rifles
2. cal .25 used in pistols and rifles
3. cal .30 used in carbine and other rifles
4. cal .32 used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. cal .380 used in pistols
6. cal .38 used in revolvers
7. cal .357 used in .357 revolvers (magnum)
8. cal .44 used in magnum revolvers
9. cal .44 used in automatic pistols
10.
cal .50 used in cal .50 machine gun (not use in
crimes)

Cal .30 bullet is replaceable by the bullet of cal .44

Shot gun Shell
Single unit of ammo. for shot gun
It is usually larger used in smooth bores capable withstanding for
less pressure.
Paper Tube
Metal base
Base rod
Battery cap
Priming cap
Anvil
Priming Powder
Propellant
Over powder wad
Filler wad
Shot
Closing wad
45-70 Cartridge
Contains 70 grains of gunpowder
Cartridge Life a well made cartridges have a life of 10 years some
have only 5 -6 years.
45 years or more depend upon the surrounding of the cartridge and
climate, damp, warn, condition.
Bullet / slugs
Is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from
a firearm by means of expansive gases coming from burning gun
powder.

Slugs laymens term use in court during proceedings

Projectiles propelled from a shot gun are termed shots or
pellets.
Iced Bullet Super cooled water made as a projectile of solidified
bullets have a life of 3 minutes maximum
Histor y Bullet derive from a French word Boulette which means small
ball
In Government parlance a cartridges containing bullet is called
Ball- Bullet
Ball Comes from terminology of bullet
-- The core of the slugs is an alloy of lead, antimony and
sometimes tin.
Armor piercing bullet a core of tungsten chrome steel with continues to
penetrate armor cars after the jackets and the filler have been striped
away by contract with the resistance surface.
CLASSIFICATION
A.
According to mechanical construction
1. Lead Bullet Those which are made of lead alloys of this mental
lead, tin, antonymwhich is slightly harder than pure lead.
2. Jacketed Bullets Those which core of lead covered by jacket of
harder metal
-- The primary function of the jacket in a bullet is to prevent
adherent of metal (lead) to the inside of the gun barrel.
B.

According to shape
Flat Base

Boat Tailed

Square Base

Hollow Base

C. According to type/ common bullet type

Solid Lead

Solid Hollow point Solid Paper Metal Case point

Patched

Soft
slug

Metal

Metal point Rifled

Bullet

case

Hollow point Metal point rifled

Gaypely
Bullet

Quadraximun Slug

KEY HOLE SHOT The tumbling of a bullet in its flight and hitting the
target sideways as a results of spinning on its axis. (due to destroyed
barrel or loose barrel)
In generally .0002 sec. explosion of a bullet by means of a tremendous
explosion of burning gases.
RESISTANCE of a .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 m/pound
CONTACT W OUND 4,8 inches distance of the fire with gunpowder
without the burning of the tissue means firer is more than 24 inches
Copper nickel ----- 60%
----- 40%
Gliding metal ------ 90%

----- 10%
8-4 inches

1-3 inches

Gun powder

Gun

Powder
Tattooing
Ta

Priming powder
powder

PURPOSE OF BULLET S
.38 Bullet --- disability purpose used by police officers to get
confession
.45 Bullet --- knocking subdue purpose
M16 --- Fatal effect
Garand and Carbine --- penetration, long range shooting
.45 Bullet --- Knowing Subdue Purposes
Rifled Bullets (5 Principal Parts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Ball Bullets
Armored Piercing
Tracer Bullet
Incendiar y
Explosive (fragmentation)

B.
All Bullets --- have soft lead cores inside a jacket and are used
against personnel only.
Armored Piercing --- have hardened steel cores and are a fired against
vehicle and other armored target is general.
Tracer Bullets --- contains a compound at the base usually similar
barium nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is projected.
--- The flash of the smoke from the burning permits the light of
the bullet to be seen
In Cendiar y --- contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other
materials that can be set on fire by impact.
---T hey are used against target tat will readily burn such as air
crafts or gasoline depot.
Explosive (Fragmentary) --- contains a high changed explosive,
because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work
reliably in small size ammunition.
For the reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20
mm. and above.
Pointed Bullet --- is more effective ballistically than the round ball of
the same weight
Soft Point or Mushroom Bullet --- will expand on striking an object and
there for produce much more serious check, and have corresponding
greater stopping power.
Hollow Point Bullet --- a bullet wit h a cavit y in the nose design to
increase the expansion when it hits the forget.
Metal Cased Bullet --- colonially use to indicate either a metal patched
or full patched bullet.

Metal patched --- any metal patched bullet

Bullet having soft steal jacket often clog or plated wit h gilding
metal to prevent rusting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
CARTRIDGES CASES/ SHELL
-- Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container which old together the
bullet, gunpowder and primer.
-- The cartridge case is the portion of the cartridges that is
automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this
remains at the scene of the crime. This is a firearm evidence than can
help trace particular firearms use.
FUNCTION:
1. It serves as a means whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer
are assembled into a unit.
2. It serves as a waster proof contained for gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls
of the cartridges cases are forced against the walls of the
chamber by the pressure. It serves as the gas seal at the
breech end of the barrel.
PARTS
1. RIM Serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of the
cartridges into their chambers and this also limit the clearance.
If any between the heads and the supporting surface of the bolt
or breech block.
2. PRIMER POCKET Performs tipple function:
a. Holding primer securely in control position
b. Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the
rear of the cartridges.
c. Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which
the latter could not be fired.
3. VENT S OR FLASH HOLE Is the hole in the web or bottom of
the primer pocket thought which the primer flash impart
ignition to the primer charges.
T he opening or canal that connects the priming mixture with
the gunpowder.
4. T HE HEAD THE BODY constitute the cork that plugs the
breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK That part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the
bullet.
6. CANNELURES are the separate grooves that are sometimes
found rolled into the neck and bodies of the cases at the
location of the bullets bases to prevent the bullet from being
pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP Is that part of the mouth of the cases tat is turned in
upon the bullet.
a. if aid in holding the bullet in place
b. if after resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the
neck which effects the burning of the powder.
8. BASE The portion of case which contains:
a. T he primer which contains the priming mixture

b. T he shell head which contains the head stamp caliber and

the year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER That portion which support the neck.
10.

EXT RACTION GROOVE The circular grooves near the

base of the case of shell designed for automatic withdrawal of
the case after each firing.

mouth
neck
shoulder
shell cannelure
body
gun powder
vent
extracting grooves
rim
primer
shell head
CLASSIFICATION
SHAPES)

ACCORDING

TO

CASE

SHAPE

(3

GEN.

A.

--- straight
--- all rim fire shell and most center fire
revolver cartridges that are new manufactured
have straight cases.

B.

--- Tampered
--- is very rare but presently being used in the
so called magnum jet cartridges cal .22

C.

--- Bottle neck

--- most modern center fire rifle cartridges
case are of bottle neck types. Since this case
form provided the greatest powder capacit y
commensurate with over all case length.
STANDARD CARTRIDGES HEAD FORMS ARE:

A. RIMMED designed to use in revolvers, the diameter of the

base of the cartridges is ver y much bigger than the diameter of
the body of the cartridges.
-- straight type cartridges
-- found in cal .30 (carbine) .32, .38 and .35
B. SEMI- RIMMED designed to be used in automatic weapons like
pistols and sub-inactive gums such as super .38 uz1, 9mm.
-- normally found at the crime scene because they
are automatically ejected for easy firing of the
firearm.
C. RIMLESS case within the diameter of the body of the
cartridges is the same as the diameter of the cartridges case.
-- Use in automatic pistols such as cal .45 thompson Submachine gun and cal .45 grease gun.
-- Automatically ejected like semi-rimmed t ype.
PRIMERS

-- Is that portions of the cartridge which consist of the brass

gilding metal-cup containing a highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound, which when struck by the firing pin would detonate or
ignite. Such action is called Percussion.
-- Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on
the primer cup compresses the priming mixture and this causes the
composition to detonate on explodes. This detonating on explosion
produces flame which passes through the event on flash hole in
the cartridges case and this ignites the gunpowder.
ORIGIN
-- 1807 Alexander John Forsyth
-- First one to conceive the idea of using detonating compounds
for igniting powder charges in small arms by percussion.
-- A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist and hunter.
-- A well known authorit y on firearms
-- First successful priming mixture was one composed of
Potassium chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.
PARTS:

In a typical center fire cartridges have four parts

1. PRIMER CUP container of the priming mixture made up of

brass, gliding metal or copper.
2. PRIMING MIXT URE highly
contained in the primer cups.

sensitive

chemical

mixture

3. ANVIL that portion of the primer against which the priming

mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin. To provide the
resistance necessar y to fire the priming mixture.
4. DISC piece of small paper on disc of the pin, foil which is
pressed over the priming mixture.
Two fold purposes
a. to help hold the priming mixture in place
b. to exclude moisture
1. primer cup

2. priming mixture 3. anvil

4. disc

PRIMING COMPOUNDS: Classes

1.

Corrosive primers e.g Potassium chlorate if ignited produce

potassium chloride, draws moisture from the air and this
moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrel.
Advances in chemistry produce new composition which
potassium chlorate has been eliminated.

2.

Non- corrosive ever y manufacture has his own formula mixture

of the mercuric primers of 25 years ago.
Ingredients:
-

Potassium chlorate (initiator and fuel 45%)

Antimony Sulfide (elements and fuel 23%)
Fulminate way came the standard mixture by Frankford
Arsenal known as FH-24 had the following composition:

- sulfur
- 21.97%
- Potassium chlorate
- 47.20%
- Antimony Sulfide - 30.33%

German have their own composition barium nitrate in the

place of Potassium chlorate together wit h some Picric Acid
to strengthen mixture.
T his formula:
Fulmirate of mercur y
- 39%
Barrium nitrate
- 41%
Antimony Sulfide
- 9%
Picric Acid
- 5%
Ground glass
- 6%
Swiss Army has been using non-corrosive primer since
about 1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss
inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss formula.
Fulmirate of mercur y
Barrium nitrate
Antimony sulfide
Barrium carbonate
Ground glass

-40%
-25%
-25%
- 8%
- 4%

GUN POW DER

Is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is
converted to gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or
shot changes through the barrel and on the target.
Class or Composition:
1. BLACK Powder although if features loss important still
manufactured by the Europeans. In recent time has completely
superseded by smokeless powder.
Ingredients:
Potassium nitrate -75%
Sulfur
-10%
Charcoal
-15%
Produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the
barrel.
Burns with reasonable great rapidit y when ignited.
Block Powder relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities
which are typical of all explosives
FIRST when ignited it will burn by it self without aid from the
outside air.
SECOND in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
T HIRD a considerable amount of heat is evolved.
2. SMOKELESS POW DER terms smokeless powder is misnomer
for the are neither powder nor they are smokeless. The letters
terms term being applied to them only because they do not give off
huge cloud of whit e smoke like the black powder.
Two main Classes of smokeless powder
1. SINGLE BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE
-- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatoriged with
nitrocellulose
2. DOUBLE BASE PROPELLANT
-- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as
their major ingredients according by one more ingredients
such as:
a. Centralize

b. Vaseline Phthalate esters

c. Inorganic salt
Purpose of minor ingredients
a: Insure stability
b. Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
Double base Propellant are gray green color and the grains are
similar in size and shape to the single base propellants.
Almost all smokeless powder grains have perfectly definite shape
such as
a. small squares
b. disc
c. flakes

d. strips
e. pellets
f. perforated cylindrical grains

T he powder is made in different shapes to obtain certain types of

burning.
SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT S GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS
IDENT IFICATION
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope
A piece of optical equipment frequently employed by firearms
identification expert is the bullet comparison microscope, with
camera attachment.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope
No camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for
court tampered serial number.
3. Shadowgraph
A series of microscopic lenses of different magnification use to
determine class characteristics of fired bullets and shells.
Also for orientation purposes.
It can take phomigrograph of the observations and comparisons
made in the circulation ground glass.
4. CD- 6 Comparison Projector
Ver y much similar with the bullet comparison microscope
No eyestrain because the magnified image appears on the large
screen. W hat can be seen in the screen can be photographed by
any kind of camera.
5. Bullet Recovery Box
Long box (12 x 12 x 96) filled with ordinar y cotton and
separated into sections by and board partitions.
6. Helixometer
Used in measuring pitch of rifling. Distance traveled by the
bullet in one complete rotation.
7. Micrometer
Similar in use as caliper
8. Caliper
Use for making measurements such as bullet diameter barrel
length.
9. Analyt ical or torsion balance
Use to determine weights of bullets and pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber and make from which fired.

10.

On scope
Small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal
surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside
the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp the terminal portion
and is inserted inside the bore for internal examinations.

11. Taper Gauge

Use primarily for determining bore diameter.
12.

Electrical Gun Maker

Used in the laboratory for making fired bullets fired shells and
firearms submitted for examination.
T ECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

PHYSICAL: Evidence bullets, cartridges cases and suspected firearms

once submitted by the requesting part y will be physically examined to
determine its markings or initials will be physically examined to
determine its markings or initials made by the investigators for
identification purposes.
T EST FIRING:
T he firearms is test fired from a bullet recovery box
in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridges cases for comparison
with evidence bullets and cartridge cases, but before firing the
cartridge will be marked at the side of the case on the nose portion of
the bullet with letter T (test) followed (eg T-77-1 to T-77-3) in their
order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from 2 and 3. After the
recover y of the test bullets and test cartridges cases, they will be
compared with the evidenced bullet and evidence cartridges cases,
under the bullet comparison microscope to determine whether or not
they have the congruency of striations or the same individual
characteristics.
Under the bullet comparison microscope, the two fired bullets or fired
shells are examine in a JUXTAPOSITION - That is, the t wo objectevidence and the test bullet are examined and compared:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

at
at
at
at
at

the
the
the
the
the

same
same
same
same
same

time
place or level
direction
magnification
image

For conclusiveness of findings, there shall be at least 3 test bullets

that should be compared
First 1 for Comparison/ preliminary
Second 1 for confirmation
T hird 1 for conclusion
PERIPHERY
T hese are the sides of the bullet are in contact with the inner
surface of the barrel.
STRIATIONS
A individual characteristics of the cartridges found at the base
portion and of the side of the bullet come in contact with the inner
surface of the barrel.
T EST BULLET S
Are those recovered from bullet recover y box for a comparison
with the evidenced bullets under the bullet comparison microscope.

A fired or evidenced bullets or cartridges cases are those recovered

from the crime scene.
Interconnected or intermarriages 8 or more striations can be accepted
by the court.
3 Points of basic positive identification the markings must be:
1. Prominent
2. Significant; and are
3. Consistent
Means of test firing, other than the recover y box.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Water tank
Saw dust wit h oil
Sand
Waste threads

5. Darak
6. Banana trunk
7. Rubber trips

PRINCIPLES IN FIREARMS IDENT IFICATION

Two things mark by one and same tool will bear the same markings,
likewise t wo or more things mark by different tools will have the same
markings.
DEFINITIONS
PISTOL a hand firearm usually applied to simple sot and automatic
loading.
REVOLVER a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively
-- places cartridges into position for firing.
SHOTGUN a smooth-bore weapon designed to shoot a number of
lead pellets in one charge.
RIFLE a type of weapon designed to be fired from the shoulder.
CARTRIDGE term used to describe a complete unfired unit
consisting of the bullets, primer cartridges case and powder charge.
BULLET is a projectile propelled from a charge.
AUTOMATIC a weapon is automatic when its mechanism is so
arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed.
DOUBLE ACT ION weapon in which pressure upon the trigger both
cocks and release the hammer.
SINGLE ACTION weapon in which pressure upon the trigger release
the hammer that must be manually cocked.
CALIBER term used to indicate the bore diameter which is measured
bet ween two opposite lands.
GAUGE or GAGE as applied to shotguns, it indicates that the bore
diameter is equal to the diameter of a lead ball whose weight in
pounds is equal to the reciprocal gauge index.
Ex. bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of a pound.

BORE the cylindrical passage of the barrel through which the

projectile travels.
PITCH OF RIFLING the distance that the rifling advances to make
one complete turn.
EXPERT as used in, court includes all witnesses whose opinions are
admitted on grounds of specialized knowledge, training and
experience.
BREECHBLOCK the steel block which closes the rear of the bore
against the force of charge or that part in the breech mechanism that
locks the action against the firing of the cartridges; the face of this
block is known as the breech face.
CHAMBER that part of the weapon in which the cartridge is placed
into position for firing.
EJECTOR that mechanism in a firearm which causes the empt y shell
or ammunition to be thrown out from the gun.
EXT RACTOR that mechanism in a firearm by which the empty shell
or ammunition is withdrawn from the chamber.
GROOVES the depressed channels cut in the interior of a rifled gun
barrel.
LANDS that raised portion bet ween the grooves inside a rifled gun
barrel.
VELOCITY is the for ward speed at which the bullet travels measured
in feet per second.
PRESSURE the out ward thrust of the burning powder gases against
the breechblock, chamber and bore normally measured one inch from
the breech and recorded in pounds per square inch.
Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for caliber .45 automatic
pistol.
RANGE the straight distance bet ween the muzzle of the gun and the
target.
PENET RATION the depth to which a projectile sinks in the tar get.
Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.
T RAJECTORY in the actual pattern or curved path of the bullets in
flight.
FIRING PIN that part of that firearm which strikes the primer causing
the firing of the cartridge.
HAMMER that part of the firearm controlled by the trigger which
causes the firing pin to strike the primer striking the gun.
CORROSION the chemical eating away of the bore of an arm due to
rusting or the action of salts deposited from they cap or powder.
EROSION mechanical wear and tear of the bore of an arm due to
sliding friction when the bullet passes through it.
BERDAN PRIMER a primer with t wo flash holes or vents.

BOXER PRIMER a primer with only one flash hole or vents.

RIM the projection edge of the base or head of a certain cartridge.
OGIVE is the technical name of the cylindrical head critic of the
bullets.
BREECH end the rear end of the bore of an arm where the cartridges
is inserted.

PANGASINAN COLLEGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OFCRIMINOLOGY
Urdaneta Cit y
NOTES IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
BRIEF HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING
In tracing the origin of the fingerprint science we must draw a
distinction bet ween the realization that the tips of the finger bear
diversified ridged and the application of the knowledge to the problem
of personal identification.
Unquestionable, mens consciousness of the patterned ridges on his
fingers and palms predates the Christian era by many centuries and
has been evidenced in var ying degrees by successive civilizations. On
the face of a cliff in Nova Scotia , for instance, has been found
prehistoric India picture writing of a hand wit h ridge patterns crudely
marked. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets
recording transaction in Ancient Babylon and to clay seals of Ancient
Chinese origin bearing thumb prints. Apostles Paul concludes one of
his epistles with the words. The Salvation a Paul wit h mine own hand
which is the token in ver y epistle; so I wr ite. Some have inferred from
these words that Paul used his finger impression as a distinctive
signature . Chinese documents identified with the eight century (A.D)
T and Dynasty refers to fingerprints being increased upon business
contracts, and the Chinese Monarchs termed fingerprint as Hua Chi
It is conjectural to what extent these earlier instance of fingerprints
were intended for actual identification of the persons impressing the
prints. Certainly in some cases the object was simple to add more or
less superstitious solemnity to business contracts trough the personal
contact of the contracting parties fingerprints wit h the written record.
T heir evidence, however that fact of the individualit y of fingerprints
though not put to practical use drowned recurrently through the ages.
In fourteenth centur y in Persia , various official government papers
were reportedly impressed either fingerprints, and the observation was
made by a government official who was also a physician that no
fingerprints of two persons were exactly alike.
In 1684, Dr. Nehemiah Grew , a fellow of the Royal College of
Physicians, in the course of a lecture commented upon the ridge
patterns appearing on the fingers. But if any of these early adventures
in fingerprints observation had any direct influence on the men who
are the fathers of the modern science of fingerprints identification, the
known record does not reflect it.
A scientific approach to fingerprint was essential before it could be put
practical use on any extensive scale. The outline which follows begin
with what are believed to be the first scientific observations which may
reasonably be supposed to have contributed to the inception of
modern fingerprint identification. These observations wer e in:
1686 by Marcello Malpighi , Professor of Anatomy at the Universit y
of Bologna, Malpigi, making use of a newly discovered, microscope,
noted and discussed in his treaties certain elevated ridges
describing diverse figures on the palm surfaces.
He perceived them to be drawn into 1686 and spiral at the end of the
fingers.

Apparently the significance of his observation escaped him, however,

for he purposed them to further. More than a century elapsed, and it
was not until, 1823 that John Evangelist Purkinje , Professor of
Anatom y at the University of Breslau, published a thesis in which he
commented upon the diversit y of ridged patterns especially on the
last phalange of each finger and evolved a vague differentiation of
these patterns into nine varieties. Purkinjes paper was intended only
as a scholarly treaties and had no practical application to the problem
of personal identification, but thirty years later, in 1858 Sir William
Herschel, the British Chief Administrative officer for the Hooghly
district, Bengal, India, began the first known official used of
fingerprints on large scale. He required natives to affix their
fingerprints as well as their signature to contracts.
Apparently he had no idea originally that the marks were individual but
adopted the practice with the thought that this ver y personal type of
contract with official papers would be impressed to the native mind
and would discourage, dishonest y and default.
A familiarit y with finger impressions grew; however, their individual
must have become evidence to him, for in 1877 Herschel introduced
the use of fingerprints in general departments at Hall and also
submitted report asking permission to extend the practice as a means
of identification of prisoners as well as parties to civil contracts. The
permission was not forthcoming but Herschel, wit hin his own province,
applied the system extensively. He did not, however, evolve a method
of classification suitable for general use.
At about this same time, Dr. Henry Faulds , of Tsukiji Hospital in
Tokyo, Japan, began his observation of fingerprints. The English
scientific journal, Nature in 1880 published an article by Dr. Faulds,
discussing his studies and making suggestions as to the future
possibilities of the fingerprints sciences. His ideas are remarkable for
their anticipation of present day practice. He recommended the use of
a thin film of printer s ink as transfer medium just as it generally used
today. He discussed quite fully the potentialities of identification of
criminals by their fingerprints left at the scene of crimes, just as in the
modem science of latent fingerprint identification. As a matter of facts,
Faulds, himself, demonstrated the practical application of his theor y
establishing through greasy fingerprint marks the identity of a person
who had been drinking some spirits from the laboratory supply- -certainly one of the earliest latent fingerprint identification of modem
times.
1882 is the year in which appears the first authenticated record of
officials use of fingerprints in the United States. Mr. Gilbert Thompson
of the United States Geological Survey, while in change of a field in
New Mexico, used his own fingerprint on commissary orders to prevent
their forger y.
An interesting sidelight, which had possible effect on the introduction
of fingerprint identification into the United States, occurred in 1883
with the publication of Mark Twian Life in the Mississippi. An episode
in this book relates to the identification of a murdered by his thumb
print. Mark Twian further developed his theme ten years later in 1893
with the publication of Puddn head W ilson, novel plotted around a
dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated during a court trial and
including a striking exposition of the infallibility of fingerprint
identification, the more remarkable because of the dates its
publication.

It was also in the 1880s that Sir Francis Galton, a noted British
Anthropologist
and a cousin of scientist, Charles Dar win, began
observations which led to the publication, 1892, of is book, Finger
Prints. Galtons studies established the individualit y and permanence
of fingerprints and he made another important contribution by devising
the first scientific method of classifying fingerprint patterns.
1891 marked the first installation of fingerprint files as an official
means of criminal identification . Juan Vucetich , an Argentinean
police official, based his system on the patterns typed by Bertillon
system of identification by body measurements, which it gradually
replaced. The Vucetich system is the basis of those systems presently
used in most Spanish speaking countries and a number of the
countries as well Vucetich also claimed the first official criminal
identification by means of fingerprints left at the scene of a crime.
1892 At La Plata, Argentina, a woman named Rojas, who murdered
her t wo sons and cut her own throat, through not fatally, blamed the
attacks on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprint on a door post were
identified by Vucetich as those of the woman herself and led to her
confession.
1901 marked the official introduction of fingerprint for criminal
identification in England and Wales , the system employed was also
developed from Galtons observation and was devised by Sir Edward
Richard Henry , the inspector General of police in Bengal. Henry
simplified fingerprint classification and made it applicable to police
identification, and later on Sir Edward Richard Henr y was credited as
the father of fingerprint science.
1902 is the year in which the first known systematic use of fingerprints
in the United States was begun with the establishment of the practice
of fingerprints by the New York Civil Commission to Prevent applicants
from having better qualified persons takes their tests for them. Dr.
Henry P. De Forest, an American pioneer in the fingerprint science,
installed the system in December 1902.
1903 is claimed by the New York State prison system as the date of
the first practical, systematic use of fingerprints in the United State for
the identification of criminals.
As early as March of this year, fingerprints of prisoners were taken
and classified and on June 5, the fingerprint system was officially
adopted.
1904 found acceptance of the fingerprints system accelerated when
the United States Penitentiar y at Leavenworth, Kansas, and the St.
Louise Missouri Police Department both established fingerprint
bureaus. The St. Louise bureau was inaugurated wit h the assistance of
a Sergeant of Londons Scotland Yard who was on duty at the St.
Louise Exposition guarding a British exhibit. The Leavenworth bureau
become the first to offer facilities on more than a local basis when it
gradually expanded the scope of its operation to include a free
fingerprint exchange service among a growing list of contribution
peace officers.
During the first quarter of the 20 t h Century more and more local police
identification bureaus established fingerprint systems and many sent
copies of their fingerprint records to the National Bureau of Criminal
Identification
established
by
the
International
Identification,
Association of chief of Police. The obvious need and demand by police
officials led to an Act of Congress establishing on July.

1924 the identification Division of the FBI. The fingerprint records of

both the National Bureau of Criminal Identification and of Leavenworth
Penitentiar y, totaling 810, 188 were consolidated to form the nuclear
of the FBI files. The national repositor y of criminal investigation date
quickly proved its worth to law enforcement officials faced with
problems of criminals moving rapidly from cit y to cit y and state to
state. Additional services were added in the FBI identification Division
as the need became apparent, on March 1, 1932. The International
Exchange of fingerprints date was initiated with a number of other
nations, on Februar y 15, 1932.
1933 A Latent fingerprint Section for making technical examination of
latent prints or of inked prints on an individual basis, was instituted.
On November 10 of the same year the Civil Identification Section was
established. A steadily increasing rate of receipts brought the number
of fingerprints cards in FBI files to 10 million. In 1939, but it was the
exigencies of wor ld II tat brought about the phenomena period of the
identification Divisions growth.
Drawing the years just before and during the war, the number of civil
fingerprints, including of aliens, militar y personnel and civilian
employees in defense industries, far outstripped the number of arrest
prints. Both types together added to the swelling total until January
31.
1946 the 100 millionth fingerprint card use was received in the
Identification Division of the FBI, the wor lds largest repository of
fingerprint records. Although new methods of personal identification
are constantly being suggested even today, it is hard to conceive of a
system being devised, which can improve upon the combination of
facilit y, practically, and infallibilit y, which is characteristic of the
fingerprint system. As of January 1,1959. The total had grown to over
152,000,000 records as of May 11,1959.
3 BRANCHES OF DACTYLOSCOPY
1. Chiroscopy It is an allied science of dactyloscopy which deals
with the scientific examination of the palm of the hand
2. Podoscopy- A branch of science of dact yloscopy which focused
on the scientific examination of the sole of the foot.
3. Poroscopy- Allied branch of dactyloscopy which deals with the
study of the sweat pores found in the friction skin.
Three (3) fundamentals facts that have made Fingerprint a
superlative method of the individualization of person. (Doctrines
of fingerprint identification)
1. Perenniality- An individual fingerprint ridges are formed during
the fetal life 100- 120 days (3-4 mos) inside the wom b of the
mother and remain unchanged for the remainder of person
lifetime.(Gods given)
2. Infalliabilit y- It
has
been
shown
empirically
(based
on
experienced and observation) with theoretical support, that
fingerprint are unique (one of its kind) no two person possess
the same ridge characteristics.

3. Immutabilit y it has been proven that the fingerprint of a person

are unchangeable, you cannot change the fingerprint of Any
individual.

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF DACTYLOSCOPY

1. It is the only infalliable system of identification
2. it is the most convincing proofs to mans individualit y
3. it enable to unmask the real identit y of the law breaker
Fingerprint as a science - it is an identification of a person through
the used of ridges appearing in the finger of the palm of the hand
and sole of the foot
Fingerprint as an impression - It is the reproduction of some
surface of the pattern formed by the ridges on the first joint of the
finger.
Two (2) types of fingerprint impression
1. Rolled impression- Rolling the fingers
2. Plane impression- No need to roll the finger you just dent the finger

including the thumb.

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE
POSSIBLE DELTAS.
1. T he delta may not be located at a bifurcation, which does open
toward the core.
2. W hen there is a choice bet ween a bifurcation and another type
of delta, the bifurcation is selected/ chooses.
3. W hen there are two or more possible deltas, which conform to
the definition the one nearest the core, is chosen.
4. T he delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running
bet ween the type line toward the core, but at the nearer end
only.
RULES IN THE SELECTION OF CORE OF A LOOP:
1. T he core in placed or within the innermost sufficient re-curves.
2. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve does not contain any
ending ridge or rod, the core is placed on the shoulder of a loop
further from the delta.
3. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve contains odd number of
rod, the core is placed upon the tip of the outer rod.
4. W hen the innermost sufficient re-curve contains even number of
rod, the core is placed upon the end of one of the t wo center
rods further from the delta.

INTERPRETATIO N OF FINGERPRINTS:
T hree basic types of pattern are as follows:

Percentage of appearance
1. Arch
2. Loops
3. W horls

5%
60%
35%

T he three basic types of pattern are further subdivided into the

following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Plain arch
Tented arch
Radial loop
Ulnar loop

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Plain W horl
Central pocket loop
Lateral pocket loop
Double loop/twin loop
Accidental Pattern

RIDGE COUNTING:
T he number of ridges interviewing the delta and the core is
known as the ridge count. Every ridge that crossed or touched by the
imaginar y line between the core and the delta, neither the delta/ core
is counted red line upon the ridicule of the fingerprint glass is used to
insure absolute accuracy. In the event there is bifurcation of a ridge
exactly at the point where the imaginar y line would be drawn, two
ridges are counted. Fragments and dots are counted as ridges if they
appear to be thin and heavy as the ridges in the immediate pattern.
Variations inking and pressure must of course be considered.
TYPES OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
1. PLAIN ARCH
A type of fingerprint pattern where the majority of the ridges came
from one side then flow to the other side with the slight rise at the
center. It has no delta and core.

2. THE TENTED ARCH

In the tented arch, most of the ridges enters in one side of the
impression then flow or tend out upon the other side wit h a rise at the
center giving 90 degrees more or less and wit h a present of up thrust.
It has no delta and core.

T hree types of tented arches:

1. T he type in which ridges at the center form a definite angel: i.e.

90 or less
2. T he type in which one or more ridges at the center form an up
thrust is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient
degree from the horizontal plain, 450 degree or more.
3. T he type approaching the loop type possessing t wo of the basic
or essential characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third.
T he arches and some of the loop are often confused. It should be
remembered that the mere converging of two ridges does not form a
re-curve, without which there can be no loop. In the other hand, there
are many patterns which at first sight resemble tented arches but
which on abuse inspection are found to be loop, as when one looping
ridge will be found in an almost vertical position within the pattern are
entirely free from and passing in front of the delta.
ULNAR LOOP

A Type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses a delta, core, and one or more
ridge forming a sufficient recurve within the pattern area. The slope or
downward flow of the innermost sufficient recurve is towards the little finger or
to the ulna bone of the hand of origin.

RADIAL LOOP
A type of fingerprint pattern, which possesses one delta and one core, and
one or more ridges within the pattern area, formed a sufficient recurve. The
flow of the innermost ridges is towards the thumb or to the radius bone of the
hand of origin.
T HE PLAIN W ORL
T he plain has t wo deltas and one core and at least one ridge
making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval, circular or any
variant of a circle. And when an imaginar y line drawn between the two
deltas it must touch or cross at least one of the re-curving ridges
within forming a complete circuit within the pattern area. A re-curving,
however, which an appendage connected with it in the line of flow
cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected to the
points is considered to spin the re-curve on that side.

CENT RAL POCKET LOOP

T he central pocket loop type of whorl has t wo deltas and least
one ridge making a complete circuit, which may be spiral, oval,
circular, or any variant of a circle. An imaginary line drawn bet ween
the t wo deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving ridges
within the inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an
appendage connected wit hin the line of flow and on the delta side,

cannot be constructed as a circuit. An appendage connected at that

point is considered to spoil the re-curve on that side.
On lieu of re-curve in front of the delta is the inner pattern area;
an obstruction at the right angle to the line of flow will suffice.
It is necessar y that the inner line of flow be fixed artificially. The
inner line of flow is determined by drawing a line between the inner
delta and center of the innermost re-curve or looping ridge.

DOUBLE LOOP
T he double loop consists of two separate loop formation with
t wo separate and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas.
T he world separate as used here, does not mean unconnected.
T he t wo loop may be connected by an appending ridge provided aid. It
does not turn about at the right angle between the shoulders of the
loop formation. The appendage rule for the loop applies also to the
double loop.
T he fact that there must be two separate loop formation
eliminates from consideration as a double loop the S t ype core, the
interlocking type core, and the formations with one loop inside
another.
It is essential that both sides of a loop be equal length, nor that
the t wo loops be of the same size. Neither is it materials from which
side the loop enters.

LATERAL POCKET LOOP

A type of fingerprint pattern in which the core ridges of the two loops makes
their access or exit on the same side of the fingerprint impression.

ACCIDENTAL W HORL
T he accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of
t wo different types of pattern with the exception of plain arch, wit h t wo
or more deltas; or a pattern, which possesses some of the
requirements for two or more different types; or a pattern, which
conforms to none of the definitions. It may be a combination of loop
and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and whorl, loop and central

pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop or other combination.
T he plain arch is excluded,

FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATI ON SYSTEM (Henry system w ith FBI

modification and extension)
Sir, Edwar d Richard Henr y Simplified the use of finger print and
made it applicable into police works
Mr. A.J Renoe- Superintendent of the U.S dept of justice fingerprint
bureau (1920), the Bureau was located in the Penitentiar y
Leavenworth, Kansas. He devised what was known as the A.J Renoe
Extensions and modification.
W illiam Burns- Head of U.S secret service (1924) he made division
and accumulation of fingerprint record cards into sufficiently small
groups.
J. Edgar Hoover- Devised further extension, which in turn have been
revised from time to time until present. He made an adequate file
containing many million of fingerprint.
Note: The entire plan or further revision is based on the Henr y System
of classification.
Division of Classification the classification formula is divided into
six possible divisions under
the extension system:
a) Primar y classification
b) Secondar y classification
b.1 Capital letter groups
b.2 small letter groups
c) Sub- secondary classification
d) Major classification
e) Key classification
f) Final classification
Classification- The method of attaining a formula in a set of fingerprint
placed in the fingerprint record cards
Classification Formula - The numerical description in a set of
fingerprints which is composed of letters and figures written above and
below the classification line.
Classification line- Refers to a long line which is usually placed on the
right upper corner of the fingerprint card or chart where classification
formula is wr itten.
T he positions in the classification line for these divisions when
complete applied are as illustrated.
K.C

M.C

P.C

S.C

18

29

rW 2u

S.S.C

F.C

MO I

Xt

OIO

a. The Primary classification the primary classification is the

numerical value of the whorls in a set print. The arbitrar y value
assigned to the fingers for this purpose is as follows:
W hy do we have a pre-established fraction of 1/1?
a. T o give the numbered value group a place in the file
b. Zero over zero might be mistaken as outer over outer in
filing
Blocking- Is the process of writing below each finger print pattern the
corresponding symbol of its name.

Patterns as to numerical value

a. Pattern with numerical value all whorl
b. Pattern without numerical value- arches and loops
Four stages to obtain primary classification
1. Pairing- 10 fingers are divided in 5 pairs
Finger
Finger
Finger
Finger
Finger

# 1 and # 2 --------------- 16
# 3 and # 4 --------------- 8
#5 and # 6 --------------- 4
#7 and #8----------------- 2
#9 and #10 -------------- 1

2. Assigning numerical value

3. Knowing the numerator and denominator- The first pattern of every
pairs are the denominator (odd fingers; 1,3,5,7,9) while the second
pattern of every pair is the numerator (even fingers 2,4,6,8,10)
4. Summing the numerical value or values assigned to whorl plus the
pre-established fraction of 1/1
T he sum of numerical value of whorls if any, in fingers 1,3,5,7 and
9 with one added is the denominator of the primar y classification. The
sum of the numerical value of the whorls, it any in, 2, 4, 8 and 10, with
one added, is the numerator of the primar y classified where no whorl
appears in a set of impressions, the primar y, therefore, would be 1/1/.
It is noted that 10/24 possible primaries may be obtained 1/1 to 32/32,
which is the primar y when whor ls appear in every finger.
b. Secondar y Classification - The secondary classification is based
on the types of patterns appearing on the index fingers. Each finger is
represented by capital and small lettered symbols
Secondar y classification by capital lettered group- This is done
by exhibiting the capital; letter symbol of the individual type of
patterns from the t wo index finger after the primar y
classification.
Right index finger Numerator
Left index finger Denominator

A symbol of the following symbol may come out

A Plain arch
T Tented arch
R Radial loop
U Ulnar loop
W Plain whor l
C central pocket loop
D Double loop
X Accidental Pattern
Secondar y classification by small lettered groups- the secondar y
classification by small lettered refers to the 3 t ypes of
fingerprint patterns that can be exhibited by small lettered
groups.
- It can be applied to all fingers with a said patterns except
the two index fingers
Radial loop r
Plain arch - a
Tented arch- t
c. Sub-secondary classification - it is based upon the ridge count or
ridge tracing in the index, middle and ring fingers
Ridge counting refers to loops pattern while ridge tracing refer
to whorl patterns .
Ridge count refers to the total number of ridges intervening
bet ween the delta and the core (delta and core are not included in the
counting)
Tables for symbols of loops as a result of ridge count
1. A ridge count of 1-9 inclusive of the two index finger is
deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner, while 10 or
more O for outer.
2. A ridge count of 1-10 inclusive of inclusive of t wo index
fingers is deducted into symbol capital letter I for inner
while 11 or more O for outer.
3. A ridge count of 1-13 inclusive of two ring fingers is
deducted into capital symbol I for inner and O for outer.
Ridge tracing- It is the method of tracking or trailing the ridge
commencing from the left delta, with the number of ridges intervening
bet ween the right delta are accounted for and compared the table for
corresponding symbol, capital letter I-M-O.
@ Tables for symbols of whorl as a result of ridge tracing
1. W hen the ridge being traced (from the left to the right delta)
goes inside or in front of the right delta, and there are 3 or more
intervening ridges, the tracing is known as inner and
represented by capital letter symbol I.
2. W hen the ridge being traced goes either or inside to the right
delta and there are 2 or less ridges intervening the tracing is
known as meeting and represented by the capital letter symbol
M.
3. W hen the ridge being traced goes outside to the right delta and
there are 3 or more intervening ridges the tracing is known as
outer and represented by the capital letter symbol O.
Note: Arches are represented by a minus sign (-)

d.The Major classification - are created by counting and by tracing

ridges of the left and right thumb respectively. These divisions are to
be used for the purpose of subdividing large collections of prints.
In a large collection of prints where both thumbs are loop they are
divided into nine major divisions by counting the ridges of the thumb.
T he ridge counts of the left thumb are represented in the denominator
by the symbol S, M, and L, which are arrived at as follows:
Major division of loops
1. Ridge counts 1 to 11; inclusive are S (small), 12 to 16 inclusive, by
M (med), and 17 or over, L (large).
2.The ridge counts of the right thumb are represented in the numerator
by the same symbols, M and L. The count in this instance for the
small, medium and large is the same as just explained for the
denominator when an S or M appears as denominator.
3.W hen there are 17 ridges or more making a Large (L) in
denominator the combinations changes in the numerator thus, the
combinations changes in the numerator, thus: 1 to 17 inclusive S, 18
to 22 inclusive M, and 23 or more L.
Left Thumb Denominator

Right Thumb Numerator

1 to 11 inclusive S (small)

1 to 11 inclusive S (small)
12 to 16 inclusive M (medium)
17 or more ridges L (large)

12-16 Inclusive M (medium)

1-11 inclusive S (small)

12-16 Inclusive M (medium)
17 or more ridges L (large)

17 or more ridges L (large)

1-17 inclusive S (small)

18 to 22 inclusive M (medium)
23 or more ridges L (large)

T he following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine

combinations in this division.

S M L
------------S S S

M L
------------M M M

M L
------------L L L

Major division of w horls

In a large collection of prints when both thumbs are whorls they are
divided into nine major divisions by the result of ridges tracing inner
(1), Meet (M) and Outer (O) of both thumbs. The left thumb represents
the denominator and the right thumbs the numerator.
T he following symbols are used to illustrate the sequences of the nine
combinations in this division.
I M O
------------I I I

T M D
------------M M M

I M O
-----------O O O

e. Key Classification - is the ridge count of the first loop is a set of

prints beginning with the right thumb, but not including either of the
little fingers.
-

If there is no such loop, the key is the result of the ridge

count of the first whorl being treated as an ulnar loop.

W hen arches appear in all fingers, the symbol of the key

classification is just a minus sign (-)

T he result of the ridge count of the key classification be

exhibited or placed at the extreme left of the classification
formula in line with the numerator

f. Final classification - this is the ridge count of the loop in the little
finger of the right hand, placed in the numerator line
-

If there is no loop in the right little finger, then the ridge

count of the one appearing in the left little finger/s used,
in which case it is placed in the denominator line.

If no loop appear in either little finger, the result of the

ridge count the whorl is being treated for the final
classification

W hen arches appear in both little finger the absence of a

loop or whorl or either in the right and left little finger the
last loop is being used as a final classification, except the
loop that is being used in the key classification.

Arches are represented

classification line.

by

minus

sign

(-)

in

the

Classification of scarred patterns (amputated, missing at birth

fingers)
a. Always indicate the amputated or missing at b birth fingers to the
fingerprint record cards.
b. If one is absent carry the symbol or counting by the counterpart, or
opposite fingers, which is present.
C. If two amputated fingers are opposite each other, both are given
classification of whorls with M for meeting.
d. if all fingers were missing or amputated the classification will be;
N=
D=

M
M

32
32

W
W

MMM
MMM

e. If both hands are amputated or missing at birth the classification

will be.
Suspect fingerprint sample and data base making
Method/ essential of the fingerprint sampling
Points of he fingerprint sampling are as follows;
1. Washing the hands before fingerprint sampling
2. Relax

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Position
Area to be covered on the fingerprint collection
Rolling direction of the rolling method
Spreading of ink
T hickness of the ink
Speed in rolling the fingers
Check up after fingerprint recording

Search, preservation and collection of fingerprint evidence

Fingerprints are very fragile and may be destroyed by
contamination or improper handling
T he methods of searching, preservation and collection usually
affects both the qualit y and quantity of latent fingerprints.
T he primar y concerns are preventing the addition of fingerprints
to the evidence and preventing the destruction of ones that are
already present.
So the first step to be undertaken in a case involving that
evidence is to exclude those unauthorized person and to protect
the scene.
SEARCHING- The search should begin wit h the area surrounding
the actual scene. The next logical places to search area points of
possible exit and entry.
PRESERVATION- when a latent print is located, the first thing to do
is to photograph the actual crime scene. A data card should be
prepared and it should contain the case number, date, location,
name of officer who discovered the print and the name of the
photographer. Next is to sketch the objects on which the latent
prints was found and indicate the exact location of the print.
LATENT IMPRESSIONS
Each ridge of the finger, palms and soles bears a row of sweat
ports, which in the average person constantly exude perspiration. Also
the ridge of the fingers and palms are in intermittent contact with other
parts of the body, such as the hair and face, and with various objects,
which may leave a film of grease or moisture on the ridges. In
touching an object, the film of moisture and/ or grease may be
transferred to the objects, thus leaving an outline of the ridge of the
fingers or palm there on. This print is called a latent impression the
word latent meaning hidden, that is, the print many times is not
readily visible.
Latent impressions, regardless of the area of the ridges present,
are of the greatest importance to the criminal investigator as
identification of them may solve the crime and result in successful
prosecution of the subject. Consequently, ever y effort should be made
to preserve and identif y them.
Visible prints in mediums such as blood, grease, dirt, or dust are
equally important to the investigator but strictly speaking, are not
latent impressions.
A search of the crime scene should be conducted in a logical
manner. Points of entry and exit should be examined, along wit surface
or objects disturbed or likely touched during the commission of the

crime. The examiner should wear a pair of light cloth gloves and
handle an object only in so far as is necessar y and then only by edges
or surface, which are not receptive to latent impressions. A record of
the exact location of a print on an objects and of the objects itself
should be made, since these facts may be of the utmost importance in
any trial resulting from the investigation. NO one should handle and
objects other than the examiner him self.
Portable articles removed should be labeled or marked so that
they may readily identify thereafter.
T he beam of a flashlight played over the surface of an objects
will frequently show the location of latent impression, although this is
not an infallible test their presence.
Evidence should be examined as soon as possible after its
discover y. Following the location of any latent prints scene of a crime,
the prints of all persons whose presence at the place under inspection
has been for legitimate purposes must be excluded from further
attention. It is advisable, therefore, during the initial stages of an
investigation where latent prints are found, to secure the inked prints
of all members of the household, the employees, and any police or
other official who have touched the objects on which the latent
impressions were found. Inked prints taken for this purpose are
referred to as elimination prints.
Due to the fragment nature of most latent prints it is not possible
to derive a classification which makes a file search practicable, a
latent impression may be identified, however by comparison with the
prints of a particular suspects.
Inked fingerprints taken for comparison with the latent
impressions should be illegibly and as complete as possible including
the areas not essential to classification, since identification are often
made with these areas. Inked palm prints taken should likewise be
complete and clear and should include impressions of the finger joints.
Persons not experienced in latent comparisons should not attempt to
evaluate latent fragment, since the area necessar y for identification
may be extremely compared to tat of an average inked fingerprint.
Articles are which are to be transported by mail or express
should be so packed that the surface bearing latent impressions are
not in contact with other surfaces. This may be accomplished by
mounting the articles on a piece of a fiberboard or plywood. The board
should then be secured in a box so that the objects will not touch or
be taken against the side in transit. The package should be plainly
marked Evidence, to prevent inadvertent handling on opining. Cotton
or cloth surface never be placed in direct contact with any surface
bearing latent prints.
Any number of paper or cardboard specimens may be placed in
a single protective wr apper, since contact with other surface does not
harm latent on such objects. Lifts, negatives and photographs are
readily enclosed with letters.
An explanator y letter should accompany all evidence. If it is
necessar y to pack the evidence separately, a copy of the letter should
be placed in every package so tat the recipient will know immediately
the import of the contents. All items of evidence should be marked and
describe exactly in the accompanying letter so that will not be
confused with packing material of a similar nature, and to provide a
check on what the package should contain.

In addition, the letter should include for the record purposes

brief outline of the crime, i.e., date and place of occurrence, and
names of victims and subjects. If suspects are named for comparison,
sufficient descriptive data should be set out to permit location of their
fingerprint records. This information, in preferential order, comprises
individuals complete name, aliases FBI number, date or prior arrest or
fingerprinting, fingerprint identification, date and place of birth, and
physical description.
Evidence is preferable forwarded by registered mail of railway
express, as these means provide records of dispatch and receipt.
Elimination or suspect fingerprints are best enclosed with evidence
itself, wit h notation as to the type of prints for warded.
POW DERING ANF LIFTING LATENT IMPRESSION
T he sole purpose in developing a latent impression is to make it
visible so that it may be preserved and compared various powders and
chemicals are used for this purpose. W hen a latent prints is plainly
visible, it should be photographed before any effort is made to develop
it.
No attempt should be made to brush or apply powder to prints in
just, obviously greasy or bloody prints, as this will almost surely
destroy them. Objects, which have been wet or immersed in water,
may still bear identifiable latent impressions. Before any examination
is attempted however, the objects must be dried.
Powder brushed lightly over a latent-bearing surface will cling to
grease or moisture in the ridges of a latent prints, making it visible
against the background. Obviously, a powder should be used which
will contrast with the color of the surface. Photographic contrasts
should also be considered.
A gray powder and black powder are adequate for latent print
works. Many fingerprint powders of various colors and compositions
are available from fingerprint supply houses but none are superior to
the gray and black.
A ver y small amount of powder is placed on the brush for
application to the surface. Once the contour of a print is visible, the
brush strokes should conform to the direction of the ridges. All excess
powder should be brushed from bet ween the ridges. Too much powder
and too little brushing are the chief faults of beginners.
Gray powder is used on dark-colored surfaces. It is also used on
mirrors and metal surface which have been published to mirror like
finish, sense these surfaces will photograph wit h the fingerprint
camera. Black powder should be applied to whit e or light-colored
surfaces.
Aluminum powder affords the same contrast as the gray. Gold
and red bronze powders, although of a glittering appearance, will
photograph dark and should consequently be used on light- colored
surfaces. Dragons blood powder is a photographically neutral powder
and may be dusted on either a light or dark surface.
On clear transparent glass, either gray or black powder may be
used, it being necessar y only to use a contrasting black or white
background when photographing.

Prints should be lifted after photographing both rubber and transparent

tapes are available for this purpose. Rubber lifting tape id procurable
in black or white 4 x 9 sheets with the adhesive surface protects with
a celluloid cover. A black powder print should obviously be lifted on
white tape and gray powder print on black tape.
Gold bronze and red bronze powders should be lifted on whit e
tape, aluminum on block. Dragons blood is lifted on either black or
white.
After cutting a piece of tape sufficiently large to cover the entire
latent print, the celluloid covering is removed and the adhesive side
supplied to the latent. The tape should be pressed evenly and firmly to
the surface, taking care not to sift is position. It is then peeled gently
from the surface and the piece of celluloid placed over the print to
protect it. The operator should handle the lift in such a manner that he
will leave no prints to his own on the adhesive surface. A small paper
identification tag bearing the initials of the operator, date an objects
from lifted should be placed under one corner of the celluloid, or this
information may be wr itten on the black of the lift itself if it can belong
in a permanent legible manner.
If an excessive amount of powder adheres to the latent print,
more legible print may sometimes be obtained by lifting a second time
(on a new piece of tape, of course).
It should be noted that a print lifted on rubber tape is in a
reverse position. Consequently, in preparing a photograph of a print of
such a lift, it will be necessary to print the negative from the reverse
side in order for the print to appear in its correct position for
comparison. Preparation of such photographs should not be attempted
be persons of inadequate knowledge an experience.
Transparent tape with a durable adhesive surface is available in
1 to 2 widths for fingerprint work. The common variety of transparent
tape is not suitable due to the deterioration (drying) of the adhesive
surface. The print on a piece of transparent tape is in correct position.
Transparent lifts should be affixed to a smooth gain less, opaque
background of a black or white color contrasting with the powder used.
Ever y effort should be made to avoid air bubbles under such
lifts. In no instance should a transparent lift ever be folded on itself or
struck. To another piece of such tape as a backing. Since it is
generally not possible to determine the correct position of such a print.
Groups of latent impressions, such as those of adjacent fingers
and palms which appear to have been made simultaneously, shroud be
lifted as units, that is, on single piece of tape, as this may facilitate
the task of making comparisons.
PREPARATI ON OF FINGERTPRINTS CHARTS FOR COURT
TESTIMONY
In testif ying to fingerprint identification, the expert often
prepares charts to visually aid the court and jury in understanding the
nature of his testimony. Many times it is undoubtedly difficult the
layman to perceive, from a vocal explanation alone, the full import of
an experts testimony, due to its technical nature; consequently, some
graphic representation of the facts presented is amply justified and
rewarded. The preparation of the charts is ultimately the sole
responsibility of the expert using them. As a matter of interest to law
enforcement personnel engaged in fingerprint work, a brief explanation

of such charts follows, along with suggestions and remarks based on

long experience in these matters.
To do the work conveniently, it will be necessar y to have
available, in addition to the ordinary photographic developing and
printing materials, a projection enlarger which will enlarge preferably
to at least ten diameters. In the projection method of enlargement, the
image is printed directly from the original negative, and the
preparation of an enlarged negative is unnecessary.
Aside from the photographic equipment, the needed materials
are:
A roll of scotch photographic tape 1 inch wide to
areas of the fingerprints on the negative to be used;
cardboard approximately 1/32 inch thick on which to
prepared charts a tube of rubber cement and a bottle of
ink, other than black or white.

outline the
some stiff
mount the
translucent

A light-box on which to view the negative whole blocking, and a

lettering set to draw the lines and numbers uniformly on the charts,
while not absolutely essential, are helpful conveniences. A light-box is
basically a frosted pane of glass wit a light beneath it to produce soft,
even, none glaring illum ination. If no light-box is available, a clear
window may be utilized in blocking the negatives.
If the experts find it necessary to have an outside source
prepare is photographs, he should retain personal custody of the
evidence during the operation.
T he original latent print and inked print with which it is identical
can be photographed 25 times the actual size. This procedure
eliminates guesswork in enlarging both the same degree. W hatever
areas of the t wo prints are deemed requisite to illustrate the method of
identification are then outlined (blocked) on negative wit h the masking
tape, so the only those areas will show in the subsequent
enlargements. Generally, if the legible area of the latent print is small,
it is well to show the complete print. If the area is large, however, as
in a palm print, an area which will not make the cart too bulky or
unwieldy may be selected.
On blocking, the negative is affixed to the window pane or lightbox by means of strips of photographic tape across the corners, wit
the side to be blocked up. The prevent constant shifting of the
negative while it is being prepared. The latent print should be blocked
first. Corners of the blocked areas should be square. Cares should be
exercised to have as nearly as possible the same ridge formation
shown and the ridge formation in the same upright or horizontal
positions. This may be facilitated by fixing a negative, bearing ruled
squares bet ween the negative being blocked and the glass to which it
is attached.
If the latent print was developed or photographed as a light print
on a dark background, a reverse-color negative should be prepared
and blocked in order that both prints may appear as black ridges on
light. This is done by placing the original negative adjacent to a new
sheet of film and exposing it. The resultant negative contains the same
image as the original except tat the color of the image has been
reversed.
If the negative is a photograph of an upper lift, the print appears
reverse position; tat is, as a mirror image, and the negative will

accordingly have to be blocked from the dull or emulsion side in order

for it to appear in a position comparable to that of the inked prints.
Failure to present the prints in question in the same color and
position may confuse the observer and nullify the purpose for which
the chart is made.
T he degree of enlargement is not important in itself, so long as
the ridges of the latent print are readily distinguishable by the eye.
Ten diameters have been found adequate, although any enlargement
from 5 to 30 will serve. It should be remembered however, that small
enlargements are difficult to see a few feet away and tat background.
A white border of at least 1/1/2 inches or a widt h equal to one-third the
enlarged area should be left from carting purposes.
Any chart prepared must be technically correct; tat is, the
corresponding ridge characteristics in the t wo prints must be similarly
numbered and indicated.
Several ways of pointing out the similar ridge formations have
been observed but the one which appears soundest is also simplest
and consists or merely marking the characteristics wit h lines and
numbers.
All the ridge characteristics in the prints need not be charted.
Twelve have the ridge characteristics are ample to illustrate for
identification, but it is neither claimed nor implied that this number is
required.
All fingerprint identifications are made by observing that two
impressions have the ridge characteristics of similar shapes which
occupy the same relative positions in the patterns.
Method involving superimposition of the prints are not
recommended because such a procedure is possible only in a ver y few
instances, due to the distortion of ridges in most prints through
pressure and twisting. Such a procedure is not necessarily a test of
identif y.
Likewise,
presenting
charts
wit h
the
shapes
of
the
characteristics drawn in the margin is not recommended. Individual
ridge characteristics may vary slightly in actual shape or physical
position due to twisting, pressure, incomplete inking condition of latent
print when developed, powder adhering to background, etc.
Identifications are based on a number of characteristics viewed in a
unit relationship and not on the microscopic- appearance of single
characteristic.
Since the enlarged- photograph appear in black and white, an ink
other than black or white should be used to line the chart. Such an ink
should be preferably translucent so that it will be possible to see the
ridges which it reverses. A translucent carmine drawing ink serves
well. In placing the lines the chart should be arranged so that they do
not cross or touch.
T he chart will present a clearer, hearer and more pleasing
appearance if it is numbered clockwise and the numbers are evenly
spaced. It is necessary however, to place the numbers evenly around
the photograph.
Ordinarily, the numbers are placed on three sides and the type
of print (latent or ink) noted at the bottom. In any case, the manner of
numbering should be subservient to an explanation of the

characteristics in an orderly sequence; and, if the situation warrants it,

all of the points may be illustrated on a single side of the photograph.
A single line should be drawn from each characteristic to a
numbered point on the march. Care should be taken to draw the line
exactly to the characteristics point, not short of it, beyond it or
obscuring it. Erasures should be avoided. If the ink runs or blots, it is
sometimes possible to remove it with a cloth in denatured alcohol,
without damaging the photograph.
If the enlargement is great, that is 25 or 30 diameters, it might
be well to draw a small circle around each characteristic and then
draw the line from a circle to the number, since the ridge will be much
thicker than the illustrating line. All line and numbers should be
checked for absolute accuracy. The expert should also study the
enlargements for apparent discrepancies in the prints, which he might
be called upon to explain.
T he chartered enlargements are readily mounted on stiff
cardboard with rubber cement, which maybe purchased in small tubes.
After cementing the photograph to the cardboard, it should be placed
under a heavy flat object which will cover the entire surface to prevent
warping and wrinkling. After drying, trim the two enlargements to the
same square size wit h heavy scissor, a pen knife or scalped, and
fasten them together, book fashion. Of course, if charts are large, 0 to
36 inches square, mounting is unnecessary and they will have to be
supported in the courtroom with thumbtacks or metal rings.
Some courts do not permit numbering or lining of the
photographs and the enlargements alone in these cases will have to
suffice. If there is some question about admissibilit y of the charted
enlargements, it is well to prepare an extra-uncharted set.

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Bifurcation is the dividing of ridge into two or more
branches.
2. Enclosure, Eye or eyelet is the splitting of a ridge into
t wo but meet at a certain point to continue as a single
ridge.
3. Divergence is the spreading apart of t wo ridges which
have been parallel or nearly parallel.
4. Ending ridge is a ridge that terminates.
5. Dot ridge is a ridge that resemble a period.
6. Type lines t wo innermost ridges which start parallel or
nearly parallel diverge, and surround the pattern area.

7. Pattern Area is that part of a loop and whorl in which

appears the cores, deltas and ridges.
8. Delta is that point on a ridge or in front of the near the
centers of the divergence of the type lines. It may be a
bifurcation, an abrupt ending ridge, a dot, a short ridge, a
meeting of two ridges or a point on the first recurring ridge
located nearest the center and in front of the divergence
of the type lines.
9. Core is the approximate center of the patterns area.
10 Ridges- Little lines found at the finger/palm of the hand
and sole of the foot.
11. Focal point- it is within the pattern area of a loop and
whor l, which are enclosed and called delta and core.
12. Friction skin- the epidermal hairless skin found on the
lower portion of the hands and feet covered wit h minute
ridges and wit hout pigment or coloring matter.
13. Furrows- The canal or depression in between ridges.